Other Ways of Learning - rimforsaSweden.2001.Proceedings

First published in 2001 by
European Institute for Outdoor Adventure Education and Experiential Learning
Proof-Correction: Steve Bowles, Peter Higgins, Barbara Humberstone

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© 2001 by EOE
INHALTSVERZEICHNIS
Introduction......................................................................................................................................3
Peter Becker
Being Faithful to the Past in the Future...........................................................................................5
Juha Suoranta
From the Humanism to the Bioparadigm in (Adventure) Education...............................................9
Anders Szczepanski
What is Outdoor Education ?.........................................................................................................17
Johan Öhman
The Meaning of “Friluftsliv”.........................................................................................................25
Urban Bergsten & Jan Seger
Outdoor Education in Relation to Leadership and Group Processes.............................................29
Klas Sandell
The Ambivalent Sense of Place in Outdoor, Environmental and Adventure Education...............31
Erik Mygind & Mike Boyes
Outdoor Activity Patterns in Physical Education Students in New Zealand and Denmark..........33
Barabara Humberstone
Hegemonic Struggles in Outdoor Adventure Education?..............................................................35
Kirsti Pedersen
Tacit Knowledge and Cultural Reproduction of Gender in Norwegian Outdoor Life..................43
Eric Maddern
The Crunch....................................................................................................................................49
Hermann Rademacker
Unemployment and Education.......................................................................................................57
Susanne Kaiser
Outdoor, Adventure and Experiential Learning in projects for Unemployed Male
and Female Youngsters..................................................................................................................61
David Le Breton
Violences et activité de pleine nature............................................................................................67
Steve Bowles
Critical Pedagogics and the Work of Outdoor Adventure Education............................................75
Kaye Richards & Linda Allin
Food for Thought...........................................................................................................................83
Steve Lenartowicz
Working with Disaffection and Risk Behaviours..........................................................................91
François Chobeaux
Educational and Therapeutic Uses of High-Risk Outdoor Activities............................................95
Peter Higgins
Learning Outdoors: Encounters with Complexity.........................................................................99
List of Participants.......................................................................................................................107
INTRODUCTION
th
From 9. till 13. September 2000 the 4 Eurocongress of As long as school is organized the way it is now, other
the European Institute for Outdoor Adventure Educa- organisations like youth work should feel responsible
tion and Experiential Learning took place in Rimforsa for the neglected dimensions. In cooperation with
in Sweden. 90 participants from 14 countries were schools they can take care, that children and youth will
given the opportunity to discuss 5 days “Other Ways of find good conditions to unfold their potentials both the
Learning. Outdoor Adventure Education and Experien- cognitive and the sensual ones.
tial Learning in School and Youth Work“.
2. School processes are organized due to the principles
By choosing the title of the conference “Other Ways of of selection and achievement orientation. They award
Learning” we intended to focus attention on two devel- and honour primarily efforts, which were produced in-
opmental tendencies of the educational system, which dependently. Because of this organisation there is al-
can be found in nearly every modern society. ways a group of children and youth, who will not come
up to the standards of the classes, they simply fail. One
1. The development of modern societies is closely con- consequence can be unemployment. Quite often and
nected to the principles of a cognitive-instrumental ra- nowadays more often this failure is compensated by
tionality, which urges the individuals to controll natural agression, violence and drugs. Obviously scholary
processes as well as their own behavior. By rationally powerlessness can be transformed into power either
balancing aims and means, both nature and individuals actively by aggression or passively by using drugs.
are forced under the logic of a rationality, which makes
the world and its inhabitants calculable and disciplined. Also in this context youth work can try to break these
fatal connections in a kind of recovering socialisation.
In this context school takes over the function to prepare
With the help of the integral approaches of outdoor
the pupils to take over the idea and methods of the
education and experiential learning one can try to
above mentioned rationality and to build up an intrinsic
correct the deficiencies which school has provoked.
motivation in order to follow its principles, when
However we should not overlook that this possible help
having left school. Classes, methods of teaching,
is only a kind of compensation and not a change of the
subjects of instruction and the whole organisation are
ill-making structures of schooling and school life.
so much coined by instrumental rationality, that all
other world approaches are pushed to the margin of These were our reflections before we invited outdoor
school life. educators, school teachers, youth workers, lecturers
and university teachers to Rimforsa at the beautiful
What we blame in this context is not this kind of ratio-
lake Åsunden and at the river Strågån not only to
nality, which is very helpful to solve problems of com-
discuss and debate the benefits of the outdoors, the
plex societies as ours‘ and which is necessary for their
adventure and experiential learning, but also to go
survival, we blame however the nearly total neglection
crayfishing, to watch carefully Ture‘s bee-hive, to find
of other approaches to the world, as for example the
the yellow kantarell and the brownish Karl Johan,
one, which considers more bodily and sensual
which are the mushrooms of the season, to ship along
dimensions. Psychoanalysis and developmental
the Kinda canal to watch the ducks and the birds of
psychology have shown that besides the development
passage and to see the mighty elk, which one group
of the cognitive-operative dimension, the
actually did.
development of sensuality, cor- poreality and emotions
is in the same way important for a succeeding life. So the board wants to thank again Anne-Charlotte
“Other Ways of Learning” includes ideas, substances Nilsson and Anders Szczepanski and especially Ture
and methods of a world contact, which emphasizes Göransson for the wonderful days they have arranged
aesthetic-sensual perception, “knowledge” and for the 90 participants. Also we want to thank the City
experiences and furthermore follows the Pestalozzi- of Linköping, Linköping University and the
formula of the three Hs: the head, the heart and the Community of Kinda for their financial support, which
hand. In this context the swedish colleagues took the made it possible to organize the conference in
chance to show us in various workshops and ex- Rimforsa.
cursions their idea and concept of “Reading the Land-
On behalf of the Board
scape“.
Peter Becker
PETER BECKER
BEING FAITHFUL TO THE PAST IN THE FUTURE
The Adventure as a Medium to Regain a Lost
Approach to the World
The true paradises are of the two cultures – the humanities one side, the
the lost paradises natural sciences on the other. The title of the Congress
M. PROUST “Other ways of Learning. Outdoor Adventure
Education and Experiential Learning in School and
Youthernwork“,. as well as the workshops which our
Do not trust any thought, which was not born in free Swedish colleagues have prepared for Monday reflect
nature. This advice the philosopher Friedrich NIETZ- this critical tradition. Even bringing together school
SCHE who despised any sedentary work, gave to the and youth work is in part a hidden critique of the
readers of his Ecce Homo. Do sit down as little as misery of the contemporary bodiless, unemotional and
possible he invites them, because every prejudice is unsensational schools. This conjecture I would like to
born within the guts – so was the believe of the master confirm with some examples.
thinker of German Philosophy in the late 19 th century. The title of the Congress “Other Ways of learning” im-
Sitting he carried on is the real sin against the Holy plies on the one hand that there are several ways of an
spirit (NIETZSCHE 1936, 530) other learning besides the one, which is dominant and
Long before NIETZSCHE in 1621 the English theolo- on the other hand it implies, that the dominant kind is
gian Robert BURTON – himself a very stay-at home worth to be critizised. Otherwise the other ways would
and bookworm – had already expressed a suspicion not be mentioned. And so a short view on school-
against the learned profession. Reading and learning classes reveals a sort of learning that systematically
while always sitting leads to prostration, gout, rheuma- tames the lively bodies of the young children and
tism, indigestion, farting and consumption. While transforms them into the prototype of the sitting
craned over the books the stomach and liver are unpro- bourgeois. By the way, the massproduction of stools
vided. As a consequence thick and black blood is and chairs for the members of every social class and
generated which then causes unhealthy complexion the broad expansion of schools happened nearly at the
th
and mel- ancholy – the well known open sore of all same historical time – which was the early 19 century.
bookmen and poets. At least 6 times 45 minutes per day sitting on a shank-
A touch of this misery of sitting scholarship also lies high level without moving, at least 6 times 45 minutes
upon libraries. The huge amount of books, which en- per day attentively listening to a subject matter which
close the written wisdom of all cultures are stored in also follows the same 45 minutes division of time and
endless book shelves which are placed in rooms which not its own inner logic, nothing to say about the
are lighted up by artificial light. The books are covered children’s needs and interests. Young bodies which
with dust and spider-webs. They smell mouldy, their step by step have forgotten their emotions and senses
pages are yellowish, damp-stained and read to pieces. together with the exact division of time guarantee for
The air in libraries is close and you can feel the weari- an easy learning process, which can be forced if
ness which spreads when you breathe this air for a lon- necessary.
ger time. Books make short-sighted, they paralyse and In the same measure and time as the school assimilates
they substitute something which can’t be substituted. the pupils to the type of Homo sedens, who is able to
So the stuffy air, the gloomy light, the short- regulate and control his emotions and needs on his
sightedness and the resignation to a supplement all own, the book has started its victorious campaign
taken together create a bookworld of monstrosity. through the classrooms. Even before the world has
been seen, smelled, tasted, heard or touched the
I believe that this sort of critique which is directed
schoolbooks present the general order and the
against experiences, which are drawn from books only,
universal laws and rules, which the scholarly
also makes up the philosophical background of our
philistines believe to be behind the forgotten sensuous
Congress here Rimforsa. Partly it belongs to the
and bodily reality. The schoolbooks transport a
concept
knowledge, that is no longer attached to the sensuous
experiences, which the individuals have gathered in
contact with the concrete world. Their printed
5
PETER BECKER
knowledge is free of subjective elements, it doesn’t ment of the earth although the movements the child can
care about contexts and it can be used according to the see at the sky say something different.
necessities of a technical-instrumental rationality.
This koperican switch has a correspondence in the psy-
Under this premise the twirling, gurgling, trickling, chology of learning. It is supported by PIAGET’s
murmuring, oozing, rushing, the luke-warm, the ice- theory of the development of cognitive structures. On
cold, the seething hot, the refreshing or the reflecting their steady way to mastering the world with logical-
water, the water whether as rain, snow, tears or hail is operative concepts and objective intelligence the
subsumed under the chemical formula of H2O. Or the children run through different phases of development.
typical feelings of the heat of a summernoon, of the se- The function of these phases is to bring the children
vere cold of a winter’s day, the feeling of the cool every time nearer to the final stage: which is the
hours of the night, of the genial air of springtime, the application of the operative intelligence. To describe
feeling of the mild autumn sun or of the sultry air right this function of the 3 prephases the pedagogue Horst
before a thunderstorm breaks loose – all these feelings RUMPF (1991) has used the words of a supporting
are transformed into the abstract volume of a lead- rocket which becomes useless when a certain aim or
pile, the changes of which can be registered on a scale. altitude of flight has been reached and the next phase
The intensively threatening feeling of a breathless takes over. As RUMPF has shown, PIAGET conceives
silence becomes not more than a noise-level of 3o development as a process, in which the formal
decibel. And a last example. The impressive starry operations of intelligence, which are used more and
constellation of the Pleiades – the beautiful daughters more to analyse the world out of an objective distance
of Atlas and the sea-maid Pleione, who were placed at are seperated systematically from the sensuous, non-
the sky by Zeus in order to protect them from the conceptional, concrete, experiential approach to
pursuit of the inflamed hunter Orion, who – as we all understand the world.
can see at the nightly wintersky has not given up his
If we follow psychoanalysis, then something rather im-
successless pursuit – these Plaiades are nothing else
portant is separated or even lost during this process.
than an open cluster of stars, which was catalogued by
Due to the psychoanalyst LORENZER (1981, 1986)
MERCIER as M45 in a distance of 420 light years.
th the experiences which arise from the visible, audible,
Mother Pleione is merely a gasball of the 5
tangible, smellable and tastable perceptions and
magnitude, which changes its light permanently and
impressions constitute the solid bedrock of
which flings away rings of gas in irregular intervals.
subjectivity, on which identity and autonomy are build
In these losses of the sensuous and bodily parts of sub- upon. Even later when the child has learned to handle
jectivity we can find again the steady process of the language, this sensuous layer remains the basis for
civilisation, which characterises all modern societies. a conscious life-practice. LORENZER even believes,
The more the society needs technical-instrumental that the underdevelopment of the sensuous-symbolic
rationality in order to master natural processes and to area and the overemphasising of the other area quite
solve problems of high complexity, the more it must often leads to an unrestrained aggressiveness.
take under severe control the resistant, disturbing, In front of this background the attempts of the school
slow, sensual, conative to compensate the loss of sensuous experiences by
– in short the bodily, vital and prerational parts of the reimporting instructional materials like coloured films
individuals. These parts are only than accepted when or pictured textbooks are more than helpless. Talking
they are of any help improving the capacity of rational about nature and being in nature are two different
problem solving. things. To talk about the water, the wood and its trees,
about the trouts in a brook, the lily in the valley or
While growing up the individuals must repeat this “un- about the daffodils, to look at a film about a
derground history” (HORKHEIMER/ADORNO 1969) meandering rivu- let and its ecological zones or the
of regimenting their bodies, emotions and senses – dur- demonstration of a stuffed fox cannot compensate the
ing the process of their own socialisation. practical and sensuous approaches to nature and its
phenomena.
We allow the children to be followers of Ptolemäus but
when they enter school at the latest we want them to By sure most of the activities which we subsume under
dis- trust their obvious perceptions and become the title of ‘Other Ways of Learning’ and which we are
followers of Kopernikus. For the pre-school child the going to learn and discuss here are suitable to help chil-
sun is allowed to rise every morning. During the day he dren to use their five senses to get into contact with na-
moves along the sky and at the evening he is allowed ture and world. By means of adventurous activities for
to go down in the west. The child at school must give example the Homo sedens can be changed into an
up this perception and he/she must learn that the Homo viator, who is on his way, to discover the world
change of night and day is caused not by the sun, but with his five senses. Let’s take the example of
by the rotating move- canoeing down a river with changing currents and a lot
of rocks for sev-
6
BEING FAITHFUL TO THE PAST IN THE FUTURE
eral days. Within this time a huge amount of situations that besides the instrumental rationalistic way to
will come up, where the sensuous elemental qualities explain the world, there is another way to get into
of water can be experienced. There will be a kind of touch with the world. The adventure for example as
water, which flows very quick and nearly without any part of this approach always reminds us, not to forget
resistance. It spends the joy and pleasant sensation of it. Going into the woods, into the mountains, onto the
gliding along the brook without efforts, there will be a stormy sea and onto white water and mastering the
kind of water, which suddenly presents a big stopper or upcoming problems and resistances with body and
a deep fall, which swallow the bow of the boat, which senses seems to be premodern. But it is also a visible
takes the breath away and causes problems of control bodily exhibition of a world approach, which has been
and the need of quick reaction, there will be a kind of pushed aside by the process of civilisation in favour of
water between the rocks, which allows dancing down rationalistic patterns of thinking and acting. With this
the river between them and which presents the canoeist demonstration the adventure is a hidden critique of
with a lot of thrills, there will be a kind of water, which that, what modern societies have done to the body
was calm and smooth, but which after a long cloud- and his five senses. It faith- fully takes the part of that,
burst suddenly changes into an enemy who has to be what has been lost. In doing so, it practises historical
fought with all means and senses, there will be a kind recollection or – if you don’t mind – it writes a sort of
of water, which is nearly standing, reflecting the bodily historical anthropology. It’s existence reminds
canoeist and his boat narcistically while rocking it us that none of the moments of our ontogenetic or
smoothly and spending re- lease after a tense action, phylogenetic past is lost forever, if only the present
there will be a kind of water to prepare the evening takes it up.
soup and the morning tea and which is used afterwards
to clean the dishes and there will be a kind of water, This knowledge however is not free from a kind of sad-
which spends refreshment and a feeling of being new ness. If the adventure brings forth an approach to the
born after a day’s hard canoeing. These different world, which was accepted in former times it shows at
qualities of water - they all result from different the same moment that this approach will not be
contexts and from different sensuous needs. The ad- accepted as a real relevant life -practice within a
venturous action breaks off the above mentioned sub- measurable time. For the school it remains to be a
sumption of all kind of waters under the chemical for- garnish to loosen the classes, for society it remains to
mula of H2O. In a certain way it gives back to the water be a helpful regression to compensate unreasonable
the richness of its different qualities. demands.
Or take the wind that blusters, whispers, whistles, If schools because of their aims and organisation are
howls, sweeps, the wind that freshens up and the one, not able to give room enough to develop bodily
which tears the foam out of the waves, making it nearly sensuous faculties and if we are convinced that these
impossible to keep the sea-kajak on course, the wind faculties are important for the growing up of children,
that lends a soft voice to the fir trees, a rustling voice to than other institutions should take over the business,
the oaks and a fluttering voice to the birches, the wind which is required. In the country I come from schools
that nurses the campfire, the one that sends us the begin to open. They have started to look out for
shrieks of the grey geese, before we realise their forma- cooperations with organisations existing in the
tions at the sky, the wind, that brings the smell of the surrounding community. As long as school structures
lime-trees into our tent or the wind that makes music will not change fundamentally I think it would be a
with the branches and twigs of a tree like an Aeolian good compromise if schools cooperate with youth
harp, sometimes woeful sometimes homely – all these work.
winds are different from the movement of the air,
which is registered with an anemometer and which is Youth work seems to be suitable in particular because
explained as a levelling up of pressures, which takes it has different ideas about the growing up of children
place between a region of high atmospheric pressure than school has. In its work childhood and youth are no
and a region of low atmospheric pressure. phases the kids must get through quickly only to be-
come adults. Instead they are independent life spans
I do not give these examples in order to start a with their own patterns of needs and interests. Youth
reenchantment of our rationalistic world. And I do not work does not follow the typical time division, which
even try to find a sort of salvation and better life while underlies the school classes. Time doesn’t run out. This
being in nature nor do I want to use nature to criticise makes it possible to apply slower and resistant ways of
the logical-operative rationality. I am far away from learning, digressions are welcome and projects are
that. It would be too foolish to criticise this kind of usual. Out of the totality of its approach follows, that
rationality considering the huge amount of knowledge not only cognitive aspects but also emotional, sensuous
and techniques it has developed to master the and practical aspects are taken into consideration,
problems of our daily lives. With these examples I seriously. Head, heart and hand are demanded
want to remember likewise. This could be the reason why adventure
activities are one of the favourite activities of youth
7
work.
PETER BECKER
8
PETER BECKER
If school and youth work cooperate than the contribu-

tion of youth work should not only be the garnish. Both LITERATURE
institutions must plan the classes together. From such a
HORKHEIMER, M./ADORNO, T.W.: Dialektik der
concerted planning a social room of learning could
Aufklärung, Frankfurt 1969
arise, which for a short time at least could reconcile
both approaches to the world – the instrumental – LORENZER, A.: Das Konzil der Buchhalter,
rationalistic one and the bodily sensuous one. Frankfurt 1981
We now have 4 days to discuss these other ways of LORENZER, A.: Tiefenhermeneutische
learning and the necessity of the cooperation between Kulturanalyse, in: H.D. König u.a.: Kul-
school and youth work. This opportunity would not ex- tur-Analysen, Frankfurt 1986, S. 11-98
ist, if not 3 persons would have taken over the difficult NIETZSCHE, F.: Ecce Homo, in: Werke III,
business of arranging this congress. Two years ago it Schlechta, K. (Hg.), Frankfurt 1976, S. 509-605
were Ann Charlotte Nilsson and Anders Szczepanski,
RUMPF, H.: Erlebnis und Begriff. Verschiedene
who have agreed to shoulder the troubles of organising
Weltzugänge im Umkreis von Piaget, Freud und
this meeting. On half the way Ture Göransson joined
Wagenschein, in: Zs. Päd. 37 (1991) 329-346
them. All who ever have organised a congress know
what a hell of a lot of work they have done. With great
skill Anne-Charlotte, Anders and Ture have arranged
the conditions for our 4 days meeting. In view of their
great commitment the board would like to express it’s
thanks to them and to all who assisted them.
We also want to thank our institutional hosts. The uni-
versity of Linköping, especially the Centre for Outdoor
and Environmental Education have supported this con-
gress financially and materially. But also the financial
supports of the City of Linköping and last but not least
of the community of Kinda have made it possible, that
this congress can take place. Many thanks to all of
them for their help.
I have talked about two ways to get in to touch with the
world – the instrumental-rational one and the bodily
sensuous one. It would be nice if the theoretical and
practical activities of the next days will succeed to rec-
oncile them – at least for the short time of our
congress.
8
JUHA SUORANTA
FROM THE HUMANISM TO THE BIOPARADIGM
IN
(ADVENTURE) EDUCATION
The humanistic project of ing to a second nature which is cultural and technologi-
the Enlightenment is alive cal; second, as defining human freedom in a new way,
that is, human beings and their existence, apparently
free from the chains of nature and culture.
Let me start by quoting one of my favourite thinkers
Michel Foucault. In his meditation on Kant’s text ti- From this perspective the message of the Enlighten-
tled “What is Enlightenment?“, Foucault writes as ment has reached a point in which the human’s role in
follows: nature and culture – being a creature that creates na-
ture and culture – must be re-evaluated. Based on the
Kant seems to me to have founded the two great
Enlightenment, this second transformation in the his-
critical traditions which divide modern philoso-
torical narrative of civilization can be called a transi-
phy. Let us say that in his great critical work,
tion from the humanistic definition of the human and
Kant posited and founded this tradition of phi-
humanity towards the bioparadigm. The bioparadigm
losophy that asks the question of the conditions
is a biotechnological definition of the present era.
under which true knowledge is possible and we
There begins to be more and more impressive empiri-
can therefore say that a whole side of modern
th cal examples of a bioparadigm in front of us and
philosophy since the 19 century has been de-
among us. I am sure I do not need to remind us here
fined and developed as the analytic of truth. But
that both definitions of culture whether humanism- or
there exist in modern and contemporary philos-
bioparadigm-based are human-made cultural con-
ophy another type of question, another kind of
structs trying to capture the essence of the time and
critical questioning: it is precisely the one we
being.
see being born in the question of Aufklärung or
in the text on the Revolution. This other critical What is actually meant by the bioparadigm, is the un-
tradition poses the question: What is our actu- foreseen revolution of the world order caused by
ality? What is the present field of possible expe- human actions. The bioparadigm refers to the historical
rience? It is not an issue of analysing the truth, phase of defining the human and humanity in which it
it will be a question rather of what we could call is more and more problematic to draw a theoretical or a
an ontology of ourselves, an ontology of the practical distinction between biological and artificial
present. life and to discriminate between so-called natural and
It is in this spirit of an ontology of ourselves and the so-called artificial objects and action. In the literal
present that I will try to speak and pose my questions. meaning of the word, the bioparadigm describes a
My starting point is the notion that, as it seems to me, situation in which, and I emphasize this, all life is made
the essential trend of 21st century is to go beyond the subject to variabil- ity, design, and calculation (see also
1
humanistic world-view of the Enlightenment. The big Heiskala 1996). The current forms of simulation
question, almost a larger than life question, is just how culture, digital technology, lead the way: they
is this going to happen. challenge the relation between human-made cultural
nature and the so-called first nature that, by
In general terms, the Enlightenment can be defined as
definition, is independent of human being. The issue
two events: first, as a withdrawal from nature and mov-
here is an event in which human actions result in both
separating and bringing together human and na-
1 The word ‘bio’ could be replaced with the word ‘cyber’; ‘paradigm’ could be replaced with ‘culture,’ ‘perspective,’ or ‘matrix.’ The reason for
using just the word ‘bioparadigm’ is that it is more general than all the other possible compounds (e.g., ‘bioculture’ or ‘cyberparadigm’) in
that it depicts the on-going and partly ended revolution in the shared seeing of reality. In this sense, our concept resembles the other of
Kuhn’s (1970, 175) two implications for using the concept of paradigm: “it stands for the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques,
and so on shared by the members of a given community.“ In the context of this text, the bioparadigm is defined by a community of media
9
PETER BECKER
artists and researchers, bio- technicians, philosophers of the mind, educators etc.
1
JUHA SUORANTA
ture, the natural and the artificial, and in a new way waiting to transfrom you…… Hair implants are
2
forming hybrids and cyborgs. only the beginning; tummy tucks, biceps
It is good to remember that human beings have always enhancement and pectoral implants will surely
built their relation to reality on certain technique(s) and attract the mate of your dreams.“
media, and in this sense it might be argued, that the ❑ GENETIC CONTROL: Genetic technology:
bioparadigm does not differ from other history. How- genetically modified food, genetic manipulation
ever, a fundamental change has taken place in this rela- of animals and humans, genetic therapy, gene
tion. In his analysis of human’s relation to the world, sales and cloning. Some researchers and moral
Hans Jonas (1997) discusses the fundamental change in philosophers, like the Archiatre of Finland, Risto
the importance of yesterday’s technique as compared Pelkonen, have suggested that in the future there
with the present ones. Earlier, the mediated relation of will be “genetic paradises,” and places where
human to the world referred to the necessity of international regulations on using genetic
survival, and the attainment of certain immediate goals technology can be circumvented, genes of “the bold
that did not defy the order of nature which was and the beautiful” sold, and illegal cloning
considered eternal. Today, in the form of modern possible. To give an innocent everyday example.
technologies, tekhne has become a tool for human Newspapers in the US are nowadays loa- ded with
being’s unlimited ad- vancement and progress that is advertisements which seek egg donors with
constantly going beyond the earlier limits of bare preferred criteria such as height 5’6" or taller,
necessities. cauca- sian, S.A.T scores around 1300, academic
exammi- nation and an age under 30. Is this not a
The most significant – if also the strangest and most new form of racism? The extensions of the
threatening – step beyond bare necessities is applying bioparadigm have raised debates in the press. In
tekhne on human beings, that is, adding human beings the fall of 1999, Die Zeit, for example, has been a
to the list of technological objects . According to Jonas, forum for heated discussion on the meanings of
human beings have always made their lifes by genetic technology. The catalyst of the discussion
subduing the conditions. Except for birth and death we has been Peter Sloterdijk, a philosopher, who
have never been helpless. Now even the questions of claims that fetal diagnosis and genetic technology
life and death have become negotiable cultural issues, are just extensions of the screening process in the
subordinate to technical skills. The bioparadigm is thus educational system. In the US, the question of
characterized, on the one hand, by calculating what will prevent turning democratic decision-
rationality and expansion of control; and on the other making or elections into such a “selection” has
hand, by increased unpredictability of life. been raised. In other places, Finland for example,
There are several everyday examples of the the same issues of biotechnology versus humanism
bioparadigm (cf. Jonas 1997, 118-122; Ritzer 1996, have been raised.
161-175) ranging from seemingly innocent propaganda According to the idea of Enlightenment, human nature
and media power to seemingly threatening genetic con- is the same everywhere and at every time. It is through
trol: rational discussion and reasoning that people and soci-
eties can find the right goals for themselves as well as
❑ INFORMATIONAL CONTROL: The the effective ways to reach these goals. It is reason that
digitalization of communication, media integration, makes emancipation and progress possible by stripping
virtual interfaces and simulations. There must humankind of mythical thinking (cf. Berlin 1979;
already be a plet- hora of 3-D-computer games Habermas 1987, 166-173). The central achievement of
which give a real feeling of experience and take the Enlightenment is the idea of a modern democracy
players to joyful adventure. that penetrates all levels of society; it applies to univer-
❑ GERONTOLOGICAL CONTROL: Medicalization sal human rights and community rights as well as to in-
of society, drugs (that affect organisms and the psy- dividual rights (Malmberg 1999, 81). In addition to its
che), artificial organs, body sculpting through plas- social and technological achievements, on the other
tic surgery, fetal diagnostics. An absurd, but still re- hand, the Enlightenment has brought about – often
vealing, example comes from Los Angeles tourist acci- dentally – phenomena that could not have been
guide (Lonely Planet): “Body sculpting isn’t just antici- pated. Chance and unpredictability are the
for the famous in this town, although being rich important equalizers of human action: they force us to
certainly helps. Cosmetic suegons performing check all special plans and even return us to the rank
liposuction, facial sculpting, buttock lifts and other and file (Jonas 1997, 107). The critics of the
services are Enlightenment emphasise that as we turn Galilei’s
telescope from the
2 A cyborg is a cybernetic organism, a being in science fiction and social reality, a symbiotic merging of organic life and technological systems
(Haraway 1985, 1991; Dumit & Davis-Ford 1998). Consider diverse implants or just mobile phones or computers. They make us all cyborgs
in a sense that they are extensions of human as Marshall McLuhan has stated.
1
FROM THE HUMANISM TO THE BIOPARADIGM IN (ADVENTURE)
cosmos to the smallest particles of nature, we also in-

crease the risk of these unknown and these unantici- Natural history of learning and
pated outcomes. human perception
Furthermore, on this double bind of humanism – the di- In the early 20th century philosophy there was a firm
alectics of the Enlightenment – is based with the 20th tendency to purify science of metaphysics. Logical
Century ideal of a self-taught and self-regulated empiricists wanted to simplify scientific language by
learner; as well as the entire humanistic educational going back to elementary sentences that describe per-
philosophy that aims at clarifying a human’s relation ceptions and logical combinations of these sentences.
with the world. Its mission has always been finding This thinking was based on the myth of a given reality:
ways of influencing, for example, human behavior, according to this idea, there are certain given sensory
characteristics, and learning capabilities. In this sense data that form the basis of knowledge. Later, in anthro-
adventure education could be considered as a long pology and psychology, for example, it was realized
hoped for child of a collapsing modernity; in a word, it that perceptions always include abstract matter; in
could be argued as fulfilling it’s promise by it’s other words, they are theory- (Hanson 1969), culture-,
intervention and prevention programs in dealing with and practice-ladden (Pihlström 1997). This idea was
such modern social problems as drug abuse (is there introduced already in the 1700’s by Kant in his
any other sort of use?), unemployment, violence etc. transcendental philosophy. However, his idea might
Rather than emphasizing these vital social issues as a have been ignored on the grounds that if theory is
way of legitimizing the use- fulness of diverse outdoor constantly inter- twined with perception, it is a
practices and the professionalization of adventure precondition that needs no special attention.
education, I would like to stress that we have reached a
line where pedagogy and educational philosophy, must The central idea of Kant’s 18th century Copernican
face an issue that, in the past, has been mainly just revolution in philosophy is that we never reach reality
speculated on; namely, whether or not we can as it is but always as it is interpreted by our minds. We
influence human features in dramatically new ways. merely know that a world of things exists, but we can
only reach the world of phenomena that is constructed
The dilemma of modern education has been between by the restrictions of our minds. In other words, Kant’s
providing ‘bildung’ and edification and responding to idea was that we reach the world as mental representa-
the needs of the society and the labor market. In the fu- tions, but we cannot reach the object of these represen-
ture, the question is whether it will be increasingly un- tations. One of the most interesting questions, at least
complicated to genetically determine how individuals to me, is to try to find out, are there other ways than
will be educated: who is going to be working in slavery cognitive-based learning; and if there are, how do we
on a mobile phone in sweat shops, and who is to know about them, how do we tell and write about, that
become a celebrated top scientist or artist, or is, conceptualise them, and, finally, how do we teach
adventurer on the top of the world. The old questions about them? Is adventure education one way to go
of educational philosophy about freedom, necessity beyond so-called epistemological fallacy?
and choice have been shown in new light by the latest
biotechnological and biomedical research. The The human mind is forever bound to the same concep-
informational or genetic control of behavior (cf. tual or linguistic system of categories characteristic of
examples above) may lead to the expansion of the species. This can be called the universal reason of
medical treatments to areas where they promote the Enlightenment or the “transcendental subject.” Ac-
controlling the society (Jonas 1997, 120) . cording to Kant, time, space, and causality are perma-
nent categories of the human mind that are essential for
When talking about the ease of control, we should con-
our perception. In Critique of Pure Reason, Kant
sider the seemingly innocent example of the increase in
(1969, 180-187) discusses the restrictions of perception
the consumption of stimulants and anti-depressants
which enable the application of the pure concepts of
such as Prozac. On the other hand, we should bear in
understanding. Kant also provides a foundation for
mind Michel Foucault’s (1988, 176) metacriticism of
the universal assumption that people who have grown
medicalization and his suggestion of establishing a
up in the same culture see reality in much the same
hos- pice and stimulation center where the terminally
way and that the forms of perception are shared.
ill or desirous of death could go for a week or a month
to enjoy life, using medicine as they wished, and then In the anthropological sense, it is the culture that
disap- pear as if they never existed. Elderly people are teaches us the hidden principles which we use to
not so much affraid of dying, but to be hospitalized organize our everyday life. The general categories that
under un- human circumstances. affect everyday life are coincidence, conventions and
traditions as well as rational decisions (Allardt 1995,
10-11). How- ever, in the bioparadigm there are
essentially no guaran-
1
JUHA SUORANTA
tees that such Kantian categories of perception would controlling behavior, stimulation, and producing de-
continue to be the basic conditions of the human world sired learning results with medicine.
order. It is on this that the claims of the revolutionary
character of the bioparadigm, in terms of, e.g., educa- The bioparadigm will help in completing
tional and medical philosophy, are based. rationalization in several areas of human activity,
including education, work, and leisure. Rationalization
Biotechnologically enhanced learning might mean an is required for the effectiveness, countability,
injection into the tissue, a pill under the tongue, predictability, and control of human action and of the
electric- ity into the synapse, a microchip implant (wo)man-made technological and social systems
under the skin (see Warwick 2000), a nano-sized (Ritzer 1996). It is the culture of the bioparadigm that
machine into the vas- cular system. This kind of can provide better ways for solving all these questions.
learning might take, in Kantian terms, a human’s, In this sense, the future will reawaken the utopias and
inborn or characteristic abilities for learning into new dystopias of the total control of human action, but also,
and unknown areas. a re-awakening of the paradoxes, the unpredictabilities,
and the counterstrategies of that control condition will
Similarly, as other primates show signs of the mecha-
be evident (Ritzer 1996, 162, 177-203).
nisms of human biological development and cultural
activities, we can think that the human being, as a
biological and cultural creature, will continue to On the Kantianism-breaking nature
develop further; in this sense, education always
resembles an experiment (Kauppi 1990, 29). The of the bioparadigm
question is who will control that experiment in the
Kant saw the intelligent subject, first and foremost, as
future?
pure consciousness; thus, he described the structures of
One answer comes from Bill Joy (2000), a cofounder the subject as the only conditions for an experience and
and Chief Scientist of Sun Micro System. Joy claims a world. In this case, transcendental philosophy meant
that new technologies give us power to remake the that objects were formed from within the reflecting
world. The combination of genetics, nanotechnology cognition. The thinking subject carries, in his or her
and robotics “open up the opportunity to completely re- experience, the model for perceiving and analyzing the
design the world, for better or worse: The replicating world and the essential structural characteristics of a
and evolving processes that have been confined to the world taking shape.
natural world are about to become realms of human en- The problem with Kant’s enlightened philosophy is
deavor.” According to Joy the whole idea of the that it is burdened with the preconceptions of a
bioparadigm, that of redesigning the world, so essential Cartesian ra- tionalism that differs from empiricism.
to education, is based on two dreams. The first dream He makes the problematic presumption that reason is
is the idea that intelligent machines can do our job for an eternal standard that is a precondition for all
us, allowing us to live in earthly paradise without any experience by all rational beings. However, according
bur- dens. The second dream is that we will slowly to the central presumption of the bioparadigm, the
replace ourselves with our robotic replicants and essential categories for thinking, perceiving the world,
thereby achieving immortality by the downloading of and adapting to it must be seen in wider terms than
our consciousnesses. But as Joy states, “on this path Kantian rationality. The re- ciprocal relation of human
our humanity may well be lost.“ or any other living being to the world is based on far
more complex connections than rationality. In his
As well known, the idea of humanity is a contested ter-
analysis of the early writings of Walter Benjamin,
rain, and as educators we should be ready to tackle
Martin Jay (1999, 179-180) notes his criticism of Kant:
Joy’s questions very seriously. We still need to think
3 Benjamin tried to go beyond Kant’s way of restricting
that just saying no is a valid option . experience to what is filtered through the synthetic a
It is, thus, important to note that education based on so- priori functions of understanding.
cial norms, traditions, and conventions does not neces- A different scientific tradition and different kind of
sarily increase human’s possibilities in the most thematics have led to similar arguments. According to
optimal and effective way. In terms of optimality and Daniel Dennett (1997, 72-75), who has studied the phi-
effectiveness, it is the bioparadigm that answers all losophy of the mind, our considering of the nerve sys-
the calls for rationalizing human action. However, the 4
tem as merely a data processing system is an error . Ina
ideas of rationalizing education are rarely taken to rough sense, both living organisms and various techni-
their logical end:
3 I want to thank Steve Bowles for reminding me of that option!

4 In terms of the history of learning, it is interesting that Dennett’s ideas that rise from the analytic tradition and a materialistic starting point
con- verge with the arguments of, on the one hand, physical philosophy in the phenomenological tradition (e.g., Merleau-Ponty 1993, 73-78)
and, on the other hand, science of philosophy in the tradition of critical theory (cf. Jay 1999).
1
cal instruments can be studied as communication and or outside the cyborg; those equipped with an artificial
control systems that interact with their surroundings. In
these systems, most of the interfaces (between the out-
side world and the system) rely on one or more feeders
that feed information to the “processor” of the instru-
ment or organism.
Essentially, the information feeders, processors, and
modems can be replaced with other similar ones and
transferred from one system to another. They are what
is called task-oriented instruments. Human beings, too,
have certain specialized parts that can be replaced,
such as artificial organs and instruments that help the
organism to function. Matters become more
complicated when we start talking about the human
mind. Compared with machines and less complex life
forms, the control system of more complex life forms
such as human beings and mammals is extremely
refined; their nerve systems can make millions of
decisions simultaneously around the organism. From
this point of view, the mind of a more complex life
form is not located in any one specific place as it is
often thought.
In terms of the bioparadigm and criticism of Kantian

thinking, Dennett’s insight is central: the history of the
human species before the current perception of the
mind and cultural history is the history of single-celled
organisms, fish, molluscs, reptiles, and nerve systems.
Mil- lions and billions of years connect the history of
the human being’s biological evolution with the
history of other living beings; therefore the human
body knows much more about the world and other
living beings than we dare to think. As Nietzsche
writes: “There is more sagacity in thy body than in thy
best wisdom. And who then knoweth why thy body
requireth just thy best wisdom?” (1891, First Part,
Chapter 4).
From the humanism to the

bioparadigm
The transfer from humanism to the bioparadigm can be
described and exemplified through the previously men-
tioned control mechanisms: the informational, geronto-
logical, and genetic. Seen from the other angle, the
bioparadigm has two dimensions.
The first dimension is that biotechnology goes into the
body and becomes an artificial part of the control sys-
tem of an organic living being. At its simplest, we can
think about a task-oriented instrument or a piece of
wire in the auditory organ that restores lost hearing or
even helps a deaf person to hear. Or think of those with
an organic heart disease who without medical
technology most likely would have died even just 20
years ago.
The fusions of artificial instruments and organisms are
called cyborgs. The mechanization can be either inside
1
JUHA SUORANTA
heart, an insulin pump under the skin, or an artificial
pacemaker belong to the first category. The
bioparadigm is crucial in maintaining their life. An
outside connection to the bioparadigm can be seen
in, e.g., various simulation environments (cf. the third
stage). One professor of cybernetics, Kevin Warwick
(2000), is tapping into his nerve fibers to conduct an
experiment with an implant that will send signals
back and forth between his nervous system and a
computer. He is planning to record and identify
signals associated with mo- tion, pain, and emotions.
The second dimension of the bioparadigm is the tri-
umph of biotechnology. It is in this field that the
previous questions must be faced: to what extent
can human control life? In the philosophy of
biotechnology, self-evident cultural truths are
problematized: in terms of chemicals and signals,
what is natural, what is artificial? It is known, for
example, that the natural chemical processes of the
brain produce substances that affect the biochemical
mechanisms of the organism in ways similar to
narcotics and psychopharmaceutical drugs. In a
Foucauldian tone it can be suggested that “raising
self-esteem pharmacologically might help a person to
express oneself and thus balance the power of the
bold and the brazen in our future society” (Korpi
1999).
There is currently much heated discussion about the
bioparadigm (cf. footnotes 3 and 4). According to the
critics, the development is reductive: it simplifies, re-
stricts, and represses the human being. On the other
hand, technology-freaks praise the progress and keep
developing their innocent techno-utopias. At the same
time, in secret laboratories all around the world scien-
tists experiment with cloning human embryos and
mixing human genes with those of a chimpanzee.
On the one hand, critics keep repeating their horrid
visions of computers watching over (wo)men as
well as their hopes for a nation of freedom governed
by (wo)man. On the other hand, we should remember
to ask who is watching over whom; moreover, what
is controlling one’s own life, i.e., human freedom, if
it is not an illusion created by the Enlightenment.
In his book Tiede ja Ihmisjärki (“Science and
Reason“), Finnish philosopher and humanist Georg
Henrik von Wright quotes Einstein: “the tradegy of
the modern human is generally in that he or she has
created for him- or herself living conditions that his
phylogenetic development is not up to.” Von Wright
continues: “must this be a permanent tragedy.
Considering how slow evolution is, there is a risk that
human cannot adjust to the changing living
conditions in time before he or she is doomed as a
species.” From this perspecitive virtual reality is an
example of a medium that overloads our senses and
di- minishes our ability to live; the bioparadigm is a
double-edged sword.
1
21st Century Avant-Garde netics of learning: human being is a complex learning
The Romantic rebellion of humanism is characterized

by a will to see through the eyes of the strange and
unfa- miliar other, to be somebody else than the
ordinary everyday self. The desired forms of
“otherness” have included race, gender, and sexual
preference.
As we enter the 21st century, the significance of the
forms of human otherness are changing. Now the
desire is to see through the eyes of another species. The
utopia of the bioparadigm is to change the human
being into a cyborg, a new animal species.
Biometaphors are also playing an important role in
film, music videos, as well as the Internet. At the same
time, biotechnology is being used to develop virtual
reality systems and the information technology
industry is doing serious research in hy- podermic
communications media. Moreover, new media
interfaces are often modeled on nature.
In the bioparadigm, the desire for otherness is not
necessarily directed toward the phenotype of the
human species; rather, the avant-garde desire to
otherness is redi- recting itself toward the genotype of
the species or totally outside of human species. Thus,
the utopia seems to be “the desire to see through the
eyes of an ant which could be made possible with a
“genetic capsule.” It is easy to imagine various
educational and social political visions, targets and
goals, in terms of making people more adapt,
acceptible and willing to obey to the capi- talistic
regime.
In this very basic sense the world view of the
bioparadigm fits the world view of new hyper capital-
ism like a glove fits the hand. They share the same
ethos and logos, so to speak. To use Joy’s (2000)
words: “We are aggressively pursuing the promises of
these new technologies within the now-unchallenged
system of global capaitalism and its manifold financial
incentives and competitive pressures.“
Tomorrow we will succeed...

So far our characteristic physiological mechanism has
regulated our sense perceptions and experiences. Thus,
the transfer from humanism to the bioparadigm means
another Copernican revolution. Synthethically
speeding up the evolution is a significant step in the
field of technique. On the one hand, the new cyber-
and biotechnic extensions of the human body might
signify the genesis of a new species. On the other hand,
we might think that we have come to the end of the
enlightened and romantic humanism which put
emphasis on the human being. There is no reasonable
answer to this question, but the ideas discussed above
can lead to either conclusion.
The latter conclusion is suggested by studies on the ge-
1
JUHA SUORANTA
machine that interacts in complex ways with children who are created to answer somebody’s
her/his/human environment. Geneticists (cf. unfortunate needs and unrealistic edu-
Portin 1999, 47) seem to think that, compared with
other animals, human genes have something
special that makes them life-long learners.
According to some genetics studies, however, the
difference between human genes and other animal
genes is only a gradational one.
We are still prisoners of both our culture and our
species. Very slowly evolution is changing the
typical characteristics of our species. In cultural
interaction, we can learn to look from the point of
view of another culture, often gradually and
learning unconsciously as cultures interact and
change. What the natural sciences, including
medicine, are most interested in changing are not
the epistemic preconditions of our culture, but the
superhistorical, biologically structured
preconditions of humankind. Nobody yet knows
or may ever know whether this current stage is but
an attempt to reinvent the human being, an idea
introduced by Dr. Franken- stein.
Almost 30 years ago, B. F. Skinner (1972, 5)

called for a technology of behavior, but found that
“a behavioral technology comparable in power
and precision to physical and biological
technology is lacking.” However, what might help
in fulfilling Skinner’s utopia is the bioparadigm
and its characteristics discussed above. Rather
than a mere technology of behavior, the fulfil-
ment would mean a more thorough biopedagogy,
i.e., direct chemical control of the prerequisites for
learning.
Even if we talk about the bioparadigm, the
enlightened tradition of humanism reminds us of
its existence in the fact that humans have the
ability and obligation to search for reasons for
their actions. This search is deeply rooted in
Western culture. Furthermore, the questions of the
transfer from humanism to the bioparadigm are
also social and cultural in result, and therefore
should be analyzed in the discourse of the social
sciences.
In the paper I have focused on the revolutionary

change in human’s relation to the world. The
importance of this transfer demands focus on such
issues as exercising social power, the symbolic
opposition between the elite and the people,
intellectual racism, (cf. Bourdieu 1999, 44-45) as
well as the nature of suffering: if we want to
understand and relieve unrecognized pain in the
world, we must study how beings live, not their
brain (Dennett 1997, 160).
Biological and technological questions always end
up being a part of people’s life-world – or the
social semiosis. The issues of the life-world are
always educational. It is not out of the question
that soon we might have, among us, cloned
1
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Inkinen, S. & Ylä-Kotola, M. 1999. (eds.).
ducted in this laboratory.
Mediatieteen kysymyksiä 3: Kirjoituksia
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1
ANDERS SZCZEPANSKI
WHAT IS OUTDOOR EDUCATION?
The Didactic Implications of Learning on
the Context of Landscape
This paper describes the process of acquiring knowl- mate between different parts of the country. Because of
edge in outdoor environments. ‘Hands-on’ and ‘minds- the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic, however, the Swedish
on’ activities are related to the concept of Out- door climate is much milder than that of other places at
Education, the epistemology of which will be dis- simi- lar northerly latitudes. More than half of the land
cussed in a pragmatic-hermeneutic perspective. The di- sur- face is covered by forest, mostly conifers except in
dactic issues will, thus, be interpreted in terms of the most southerly parts. Sweden’s forests are second
human expressions, i.e., traces of human activity in the largest in Europe after Russia’s. Almost a quarter of
cultured landscape, as well as in terms of nature itself, the country is mountain, and marsh. Arable land - open
i. e., phenomena independent of human beings, or cultivated country - makes up only 7% of the land
traces of natural forces. This is a way to expose surface. Lakes, of which there are about 100 000, cover
human understanding in meaningful situations, outside a larger area, almost 9% of the area of the country. The
the written culture, with direct access to the Scandi- navian mountain chains run north south and
phenomena. The epistemological and methodological form the border with Norway. In the south of Sweden
views of Outdoor Education in Sweden and the Nordic there is an area of high plateau, the Småland uplands.
context will be scrutinized and linked to an
ideological/historical perspective, in which man’s
relation to the physical environment is described. I NATURAL RESOURCES,
will provide an overview of empirical studies that INDUSTRY AND ECONOMY
indicate certain positive effects on preschool and
school children of an extended use of outdoor space for Sweden has extensive natural resources in the form of
educational purposes, effects that are connected with its forests, iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, ura-
health, motor development and concentration. Finally, nium and water power. Oil and coal reserves are very
I will describe the status of Outdoor Education as a small. In a century, Sweden has developed from an
field of higher learning and as a research discipline in agricultural society to a highly industrialized one, in
Swe- den. There are good reasons, on both which the service sector is more and more dominant.
epistemological and didactic levels, to pay attention to Of the country’s almost 500 000 companies, 300 000
the multitude and the pedagogical possibilities of the are one-person enterprises and a high proportion of
outdoor space in meaningful learning. An extended these are in the service or construction sectors.
pedagogical activity in the outdoor space results in a
It is a characteristic of Swedish business, and particu-
more vivacious educational perspective, in concrete
larly manufacturing industry, that a small number of
environmental work de- parting from direct
large companies account for a very high proportion of
experiences that will give the children, students and
employment, production and exports: 0.3% of compa-
teaching staff unique knowledge.
nies - 1 600 in number - have over 200 employees.
Swedish industry is over 90% privately owned. In
practice, the state runs the post and the railways and
Part I has large holdings in mining, power and shipbuilding.
In recent years, former state industries and state-
THE LANDSCAPE OF SWEDEN – owned companies have been incorporated or
privatized to some degree. Tourism is a major
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE industry in Sweden and has seen steady growth for
In terms of surface area, Sweden is the fifth largest many years. Tourism generates about 100 million
country in Europe. The ‘Cairn of Three Countries’ in kronor per year, (about 12 million USD). This means
the north, where the borders of Sweden, Norway and 3.2% of GNP and it provides employment for
Fin- land meet, is at the same latitude as northern 235,000 people.
Alaska, and Skåne in the south is at the same latitude
as Mos- cow. The distance from north to south is
nearly 1600 km, which means that there is great
variation in the cli-
1
ANDERS SZCZEPANSKI
HISTORY ENVIRONMENT
Sweden has been inhabited for at least 12,000 years. Nature Conservation
The core of Sweden as we know it today - Svealand
and the counties of Östergötland and Västergötland - A well-known scientist, A.E. Nordenskiöld, followed
emerged as a unit under a single king during and after the American model by proposing in 1880 that national
the 12th century. Birger Jarl founded Stockholm in the parks be created which would maintain the natural
year 1250. The embryonic structure of state and law- land- scape as it was before humans entered the scene.
making that was introduced by the kings of the The breakthrough, led by the German professor of
Folkunga family between 1250 and 1363 was an botany, Hugo Conwentz, came in 1904. A nature
important first step in the building of the nation. In protection committee led by the academy of Sciences
1350, Swe- den implemented a legal code covering the was given the task of investigating a Nature Protection
whole country. Under King Gustav Vasa, his sons, Act and in 1909 the choice of protected areas were
and, above all his grandson, Gustav II Adolf (1611-32), made.
the foundation of national administration, law, military
organization, education and other social institutions Sweden has a very comprehensive network of
were laid. The Swed- ish kingdom’s expansion in the protected areas, consisting of reserves and parks, while
Baltic began at this time. By the middle of the 17th only a few new national parks have been created in
century, after the victory over Denmark and successes modern times. Between 1964 and 1998 only fifteen
in the Thirty Years War on the European continent, new national parks have been established, whereas the
Sweden could regard the Baltic as a Swedish Sea. The number of reserves has grown to over 1.350 in the
Great Nordic War, which involved all Nordic same period. The difference between a park and a
countries, began in 1700. The victory of the Rus- sians reserve is that the park consist of a bigger area with a
at the Battle of Poltava marked the fall of the Swedish higher level of protection.
Baltic Empire.
The 1809 reform of the Swedish constitution led to a Outdoor Recreation

re- duction of the monarch’s power and the rising
control of the Parliament. The loss of Finland and the
possessions in northern Germany were compensated for Making provision for outdoor recreation is one aspect
by the union of the crown with Norway, which lasted of nature conservation. It is important, for example, to
until 1905. Now Sweden began to look inwards and protect and provide information about the common
accepted its position as a small state on the periphery right of access to private land. (Sw. ‘allemansrätten’).
of Europe. The long and laborious process of economic This term was first used at the end of the 19th century.
development started about the middle of the 19th Today it means that we have certain rights but also
century, with educational and agricultural reform, the obligations when we are on other people’s land and
building of canals and railways and the beginnings of water. The main rule is that the countryside must
industrialization. This was the foundation of the remain undisturbed and undamaged. This special
welfare state of Sweden of today. Swedish tradition makes it possible for us to go
almost anywhere in the Swedish countryside. The need
for information about these un- written laws has
increased tremendously in recent years. Many
GOVERNMENT immigrants and foreign tourists are not accus- tomed to
this concept.
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamen-
tary form of government. According to the
constitution, all authority rests with the people. Its A comprehensive term
representatives are the 349 members of parliament, the
unicameral Riks- dag, The term outdoor recreation is relatively new and its
meaning has been extended as our society has been
The Riksdag decides on all legislation and on the transformed. The most frequent definition is: Leisure
annual state budget. It approves the choice of a Prime time spent in the countryside to enjoy nature, be physi-
Minister and through a vote of no confidence with the cally active and relax. On average a Swede devotes
support of 50% or more of members can dismiss a about nine per cent of his everyday free time to outdoor
government or force an individual minister’s recreation (1983). Most kinds of outdoor activities are
resignation. The Prime Minister is the head of counted as recreation, regardless of whether one uses
government. The role of the monarchy is one’s muscles or gets help from a motor, or whether
representative and symbolic. Since 1994 general the activity affects nature or not. Outdoor recreation is,
elections have been held every fourth year. in fact, a comprehensive term in common use in
1
WHAT IS OUTDOOR
Sweden.
1
WHAT IS OUTDOOR
Recreational capacity tivities in the landscape, Outdoor Education tries to

animate the often abstract concepts of the scientific
Planning for outdoor recreation in protected areas can
disciplines, and thereby create a local historic,
be carried out without taking other land use into
ecological, and social sense of place amongst children
consideration. Sweden has more than 1,350 nature
and young people (Dahlgren, L.O. & Szczepanski, A.
reserves and about half have been created for outdoor
1997). Prac- tical knowledge is mastered through
recreation. Fears of damage caused by overuse
authentic activities in authentic contexts.
sometimes raises the question of how much wear and
tear reserves can stand. There is also the issue of From this perspective, one way of bringing text-based
overuse and disturbance that the people who visit the learning in educational settings to its original meaning
reserve will tolerate. The term ‘recreational capacity’ of gaining knowledge about the surrounding world
has been coined to describe nature’s ability to provide rather than rote learning of the text itself, is to reclaim
outdoor pleasure. reality (the landscape) as a learning environment. This
is one of the reasons for Outdoor Education. In this
context, Outdoor Education becomes an important
Sustainable development complement to theoretical or text-based learning.
and Agenda 21 Research has demonstrated (e.g. Marton et al, 1997),
that the traditional learning environment created
Agenda 21 was an outcome of the Earth Summit held within the educational system has some serious
in Rio de Janiero in 1992 and is a document of world deficiencies. Knowledge becomes superficial and
wide agreement with focus on man’s relation to the thereby temporary and does not make the significant
global Earth. In the autumn of 1996, the Ministers of contribution it could to individual development. The
Environ- ment from countries in the Baltic region met notion that learning should take place in a certain
in Saltsjöbaden, near Stockholm, to discuss the location at a certain time (the classroom situation)
development of an Agenda 21 for the Baltic Sea. The does not seem reasonable when considering the
high-level political meeting hosted by Sweden in May massive research on failure to understand central
1996 has created a political framework for sustainable concepts in e.g. economics, (Dahlgren, 1997), biology
development in the Baltic region. One important (Brumby, 1979), physics, (Johansson et al, 1985), and
element of the Rio agree- ments was the emphasis made the alarmingly high frequency of superficial con-
on the importance of local work for sustainable ceptions of learning (e.g. Purdie et al, 1996, Lonka &
development, with various groups in the community Lindblom-Ylänne, 1996)
taking part. It is at the local level that Agenda 21
activities have achieved their greatest impact in Swedish It may be assumed that these problems could be
society. All 288 of Sweden’s municipalities have handled by including the natural and cultural
embarked on Local Agenda 21 work. The environments more often in education. We should
municipalities are working to involve and inform local expand and deepen our knowledge of outdoor
stakeholders, citizens and, their own organization and education’s effects on learning and attitudes.
operations. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) Landscape architect and researcher Patrik Grahn
are playing an important part in Swedish Agenda 21 (1997) refers to research indicating that ‘the most
work by supplying ideas and disseminating knowledge creative environments for learning are unstructured and
and involvement. The ‘bot- tom-up’ perspective in variable environments’. But to what degree does the
Agenda 21 work has proven successful. Swedish physical environment determine people’s actions? Re-
Agenda 21 activities have mostly been developed search has only started, says Grahn. Later, we will re-
locally and transmitted upwards in the political turn to some research results that encourage increased
hierarchy. The common platform for outdoor education use of the outdoor environment for pedagogic
and Agenda 21 is to create understanding for the purposes.
dependence of nature for man in the society.
Today, significant resources are spent on research into
contemporary social problems such as violence, drug
Part II abuse, and alienation from one’s own existence. We
suspect that a more profound knowledge of
Humankind as natural creatures, gained through
OUTDOOR EDUCATION – Literary personal experiences and insights in the natural
education and sensory experience. Per- environment, can contribute to reducing this feeling of
alienation. Whether this is the case or not, and how
spective of the Where, What and Why these effects actually take place, are yet to be revealed.
of learning in the context of landscape. Increased research is needed that concentrates on
describing (for example) the natural experience’s
Outdoor Education is a thematic and interdisciplinary
pedagogic effects and how to promote them by
field of research and education in the natural and cul-
developing pedagogic methods.
tural landscape arena. Through thematic studies and ac-
1
ANDERS SZCZEPANSKI
In outdoor education, feeling, action, and thought are as incorrect as believing outdoor education to be the
united. The result is a pragmatic, consequential and ac- only road to knowledge. In all subjects in school/ pre-
tion-centered pedagogy created by and based on a prac- school, and in the natural and cultural sciences, we can
tical context. This educational approach emphasizes the identify many and clear relationships with the Swedish
holistic and even the aesthetic qualities of experience landscape, literature, arts, and music.
of the outdoor classroom’s physical environment. This
is a sharp contrast to science, which often dismantles Today, massive pedagogic research exists from studies
reality into pieces. Furthermore, the aesthetic of learning situations in classrooms, and yet pupils
experience contains artistic forms of expression and graduate unmotivated and indolent, and socially, liter-
creative activities such as play, sports, handicraft, ally, and ecologically illiterate. Ellen Key, (1849-1926)
drama, music, and art. A methodological connection Sweden’s most translated educator, talked of ‘soul
between the two approaches in our educational mur- dering in schools’. She fought for an alternative
organizations would create a more living conceptual pedagogy and field studies where the starting point
knowledge base. We must also clarify and visualize our for learning and knowledge was the real world.
pedagogic roots in educational history by bringing
The outdoor classroom as a learning context should
forward advocates of education in practical contexts.
therefore receive more attention concerning research
These contexts put greater importance on the road to
funds, teacher’s training, and governmental grants.
knowledge through the sensory experience. We can
This is needed for creating schools for tomorrow’s
take heed to these wise words: ‘Even a thousand words
learning, unbound by place, where the information and
cannot leave the impression of a deed’ (H. Ibsen). By
communication technology and outdoor education
the time of the ‘school garden education movement’ in
can unite in meaningful learning (Dahlgren &
1917, the pedagogic significance of gar- dening was
Szczepanski, 1997).
already brought forward in the three concepts of
knowledge value, beauty value, and educational value. A connection to this is to increase motivation by
‘Free social interaction in the school garden gives the supple- menting the classroom situation with ‘the
teacher an opportunity to get to know better and more extended classroom’. In this respect, the playground,
profoundly the characters of his disciples, than in the schoolyard, nature, culture, and society becomes as
classroom and behind the teacher’s desk’. In The important a learning environment as classrooms and
Education of Man, Friedrich Fröbel (1782-1852), states other rooms. Experiential understanding is relational in
that: ‘Children learn to love and appreciate nature, and character. A child gains understanding from uniting
they do this best by spending time amongst it’. what is seen, heard, felt and interpreted from earlier
experiences. In- terpreted in a pragmatic-hermeneutic
An additional sphere of influence for outdoor perspective, outdoor education tries to illuminate:
education is connected with environmental issues as a Where do these relationships exist? Do they exist in
part of education and the establishment of an the indoor classroom, the outdoor classroom, the
environmental perspective. Contemporary ideas of landscape defined by nature and culture, or in a
sustainable development in different fields of activity combination of these locations? These questions are
presuppose a deep and elaborate awareness of the central to outdoor education practice.
conditions of Man’s interaction with the environment.
To assure that today’s newly gained environmental In the didactic situation, the appearance of disorder
awareness in ‘the spirit of compost-modernism’ does (the unstructured meeting the uncontrolled) in outdoor
not become a verbal paren- thesis, we must also education, gives a ‘flow experience’, and thereby
increase pedagogic activities that visualize and clarify portrays learning as a process that creates order from
our relations with the landscape. In other words, we disorder.
must align pedagogic activity in outdoor learning
The same journey into the unknown (unstructured) and
contexts with natural and cultural phenomena in our
back to the known, constitutes the core of the
local environment.
hermeneutic interpretative philosophy. By regular and
Some interesting questions of practical pedagogic na- planned re- visits to reality, we are reminded of the
ture relevant to this might be: actual character of text-based learning: to create
images of reality based on the text. In this awareness of
❑ What can be done in the outdoor classroom rather the limitations of language and texts, there is also
than doing it within four walls? knowledge. Therefore, in both outdoor education and
❑ What effect does it have on understanding reality? in my interpretation of the hermeneutic tradition, the
❑ How can knowledge of nature, culture, and society process of reflection becomes a reflection of
penetrate the rooms that for so long have been linguistic dialogue as well as in action.
considered the core of education?
The belief that learning occurs only in a specified time The classroom walls constitute ‘a third layer of skin’
and place (the learning environment of the classroom) that separates us from nature, culture, and society - the
is systems of the real world for which the classrooms try
to
2
WHAT IS OUTDOOR
prepare us. Outdoor education tries to shift the perspec- grate nature, culture, and technology, and create a
tive and the division to the playground/schoolyard and sense of community in the shape of analogue codes,
the surrounding landscape as learning environments. and do not merely become digital codes (Code as a
Dewey (1859-1952) argued that we develop through system of symbols for meaningful communication):
practical experiences by doing things ‘under the skin’.
The pragmatic (action-centered) educational philoso- ❑ From soil to dinner table - the garden and the farm
phy, of which Dewey was an advocate, viewed educa- ❑ From spruce seed to paper - land use then and now
tion as a continuous reconstruction of experiences. In ❑ Water wheel and energy - life in lake and sea
his concept of ‘learning by doing’, reasoning is con- ❑ Life on leaves and in soil - organisms of environ-
nected to action. mental cycles and compost
In its methodological perspective, outdoor education ❑ Forgotten older technologies - food, housing, and
becomes an important tool that can animate the inten- fire
tions of the curriculum. In turn, the messages of places ❑ The sun and the wind as energy sources
create contexts and understanding in meaningful situa- ❑ The city and city parks as classroom and textbook
tions accompanied by and learning from a fellow-dis- Outdoor education and outdoor recreation can make us
coverer teacher. This puts further demands on the experience the living conditions and problem solving
teacher’s competence in pre-school and compulsory abilities of early Man. In nature’s learning context,
school, e.g.: members of a group become dependent on each other.
To view the scope of the outdoor environment as a This contributes to personal growth, increased self-
learning environment confidence, and an ability to trust others. Perhaps the
health pedagogic perspective also is one of the most
❑ To work thematically and inter-disciplinarily important methodological tools for working with
❑ To work with whole entities where self-confidence outdoor education. The sensory education’s road to
is secured as the outdoors becomes classroom and knowledge demands a bodily meeting, where the
textbooks frame of reference of our sensory capability, which has
❑ To see the outdoor classroom as a complement to evolved for millions of years in a ‘forest landscape’,
the indoor environment becomes stimulated. One of the main reasons for
❑ To be able to work in teams with problem-based le-
learning in, and from, reality is that it offers chances
arning
for experiences, and very likely also prevents learning
At school, learning still relies heavily on texts (literary
without reflection. The advantages of learning in
knowledge), an increased amount of digital texts and
outdoor environments are that many senses are
virtual reality, and less and less on first-hand experi-
activated and it creates a firmer sense of social
ences. This is a methodological problem, and a chal-
community.
lenge in which outdoor education can assist us. The
fundamental idea is to create more opportunities for The concept of outdoor education conceals very con-
concrete experiences in the outdoor classroom. Ingvar crete and hands-on methods that can be illustrated by
(1997), expresses the significance of our senses: the thematic activities for animating knowledge that
‘It is necessary to spend time outdoors for our brains to was mentioned earlier. Outdoor education as a method
be stimulated by the flow of sounds, light, shapes, and gives us the chance to secure a sort of ‘tacit
colors that nature offers. We need the outdoor stimuli knowledge’, where words are not enough. A central
for our hearing, our vision, and our skin, e.g. singing goal of this pedagogy is to create, by activities and
birds, whispering winds, sunlight reflections and shad- experiences in the outdoor environment, knowledge
ows, moisture and fog, and the colors of flowers and and close relationships to nature, culture, and society.
insects. The growth of our brain cells depends on this Outdoor education wishes to emphasize the importance
special stimulus nature offers. Especially at ages 3-6, of the direct view, ‘the fingers-in-the-earth
when the energy flow in the human brain is at its perspective’, where the intentionality (directness of
greatest’ (ibid. P 89). action and thoughts) in its didactic context is related to
the outdoor classroom as a learning environment.
In the reality of the outdoor classroom, we often en-
counter situations that are brimful of sensations: tastes, We may talk about outdoor education as a process of
sounds, and moods. With this pedagogy, we can clarify learning for the whole body, ‘hands – heart – head’.
and visualize for children in pre-school/compulsory For a teacher in outdoor education the essence is that
school, processes and cycles that are not visible in our he or she is willing to learn from experiences in
hi-tech ‘plugged-in’ society. Here are some examples different contexts outside the classroom (the formal
of such thematic activities that animate knowledge, learning environment). Experiences and reflections
inte- from this direct authentic situation is outdoor education
2
ANDERS SZCZEPANSKI
Part III Part IV
OUTDOOR RICHES FOR ACADEMIC OUTDOOR

ALL-AROUND DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION IN
❑ What does research have to say?
SWEDEN
Today, thanks to Swedish, Nordic, and international Linköping University, with the Centre for Outdoor En-
studies, we have a considerable amount of knowledge vironmental Education, (web site http://www.liu.se/
of the positive effects that spending time outdoors has esi/) has created a network and stronghold for outdoor
on health, creativity, and ability to concentrate. Some education in Sweden. Within post-graduate education
examples are: in Education, a 5 credit points course (corresponding to
❑ Foliage in the schoolyard generates more creative 5 weeks of full-time study) is offered, and there are
play behavior - both in the green areas and on artifi- also a number of 5, and 10 credit point courses at
cial surfaces (e.g. asphalt). The schoolyard foliage Bachelor level, (i.e. 20 and 40 credit points) of the
is a springboard to organized visits in parks and basic teacher education. Work is in progress to start a
nature outside the schoolyard; such visits are not so profile program in outdoor education and Masters
common at schools without green areas. These are degree which opens the door for a new academic field
all findings by Lindholm (1995), who concludes of education and research to start in the new
that although places create activity, schoolyards are millennium in Sweden.
some of our most neglected outdoor environments. Academic education in this field, specializing in out-
Planned and used correctly, the schoolyard can door recreation (20 credit points at bachelor level) is
create opportunities for aesthetic experiences, given at the Institute for Sports and Health at Örebro
motor activity, and learning and reflection - not University. The Swedish University of Agricultural
least importantly from a developmental Sci- ences, Alnarp/Uppsala, Karlstad University,
psychological perspective. Kristian- stad University, Umeå University, and Luleå
❑ Spending time outdoors has positive effects on University of Technology also offer courses o f 5 – 10
motor activity, ability to concentrate, and health - in credit points in related fields (outdoor
young people as well as old. This has been recreation/outdoor education/school garden
demonstrated by research leader Patrik Grahn of the education).
same department in empirical studies of the outdoor
environment at pre-school. He shows ‘that the most As an academic field of knowledge, outdoor education
creative environments for learning are still has a weak position in the country. Could it be the
unstructured, variable environments’. The positive educational culture’s heavy ‘Lutheran sediment’ that
effects of spending time outdoors are also hin- ders us in Sweden and the Nordic countries, where
supported by brain research (Gottfries and conditions would be excellent for developing the
Bergström, 1992) and educational research on questioning vein of outdoor education and outdoor
multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1993). recreation?
❑ Some knowledge of nature must be collected out- This paper is an introduction about Outdoor Education
doors. British researcher Wendy Titman (1994), in Sweden and Nordic contexts and all its contributions
who has received international attention for her constitute an important indication of its necessity.
work, ‘Special People, Special Places’, establishes Here, we see a co-operative extension in networks
this in her work. Titman has also observed the cle- between universities and practitioners in the Nordic
ar-cut connection that exists between the schooly- countries, Baltic states and Europe and all over the
ard’s design and children’s attendance, attitudes world making the scope of educational activities and
and behaviors. joint research work wider, and at the same time, more
❑ In a dissertation on urban childhood, performed in a profound.
modern suburb outside Lund, Bodil Rasmusson
(1998) establishes children’s need for space and di-
versity of surroundings. The physical environment Concluding reflections
‘speaks’ to the children, and sends ‘signals’ of
different possibilities and lack of possibilities in We would like to conclude with some provocative lines
respect of the child’s needs. The dissertation as practicing outdoor educators, since research within
illustrates the contrast between the need that is this field is still in its infancy, and it is our task to
conceived for the child, and the child’s own expand our knowledge of the pedagogic conditions of
perspectives and world of experiences. experiential learning in the outdoor classroom.
In the classroom ‘cave’, pupils are sitting ‘chained’ to
their desks, staring at white boards or computer screens
2
WHAT IS OUTDOOR
full of vertical, horizontal, diagonal and curved
lines. These are combined to put extremely limited
verbal labels on practically everything that
exists outside the
2
ANDERS SZCZEPANSKI
classroom walls. This is why the first-hand experience mental and developmental psychology. Stockholm
of outdoor education becomes an important base for in- University (Doctoral dissertation).
tellectual thoughts. It counter balances the university
campus, a place where indoor learning takes place as a Celebrating Diversity: Laerning by Sharing Cultural
preparation for indoor care-taking. In the heavy Differences - Third European Congress for Out-
cultural sediment of this educational culture, we are door Adventure Education and Experiential
educating new, ecologically illiterate generations. In Learning (1998) Higgins, P. & Humberstone, B.
our interpretation of hermeneutics and neo- (Ed) ISBN: 0-948314-32-x ,
pragmatism, knowledge is more than that which can be Christianson, S.A. (1995) ‘Undervisning med känsla
formulated. The tacit knowledge is the foundation of ger bättre minnesbehållning.’ (Education with feel-
our culture, and the breeding ground of visual ings enhances memory) Skolvärlden, No 16.
knowledge. This is best described as that which exists Dahlgren, L.O. & Szczepanski, A. (1997)
in the tension of a muscle, in the scent of an apple, in Utomhuspedagogik - Boklig bildning och sinnlig
the rhythm of a body, in the sense of proportions, in the erfarenhet. Ett försök till bestämning av
richness of language beyond the correctness of utomhuspedagogikens identitet. (Outdoor Educa-
grammar and the thesaurus. In this educational tion - Literary education and sensory experience.
perspective, we focus on the place of learning, it’s An attempt at defining the identity of outdoor edu-
Where. The landscape is here just as obvious an in- cation.) Linköping University, Skapande Vetande
terpretative environment as the classrooms of pre- No 31.
school/compulsory school, the libraries, and the virtual
Fitzpatric, C.N. (1968) Philosophy and goals for out-
classroom.
door education. Colorado State University (Doc-
toral dissertation).
We need the whole body Ford, P. (1981) Principles and Practices of Out-
door/Environmental Education. New York: Wiley
Eyes can see, ears they hear & Sons.
But hands know best how it is to touch. Gardner, H. (1993) Multiple Intelligence. The Theory
Your skin knows best when somebody is close. in Practise. New York: Basic Books.
You need your whole body to learn.
Grahn, P., Martensson, F., Lindblad, B., Nilsson, P. &
The brain can think and maybe understand,
Ekman, A. (1997) ‘Ute på dagis’. Hur använder
but your legs know best how it is to walk.
barn daghemsgården? Utformningen av
Your back will know how it feels to carry.
daghemsgården och dess betydelse for lek, motorik
You need your whole body to learn.
och koncentrationsförmåga. (‘Outdoors at the
If we are to learn the basics about our planet earth
day-care center’. How do children use the play-
then it is not enough with words.
ground? Playground design and its effect on play
We must be able to get in close.
behavior, motor activity, and ability to concen-
You need the whole body to learn. trate.) Alnarp: Movium förlag. Stad och Land, Re-
(Unknown Writer) search report.
Hammerman, D.R. & Hammerman, W.M. (1985)
Teaching in the Outdoors. (3 ed.) Danvolle: Inter-
References/Further Reading state Printers and Publishers.
(Titles translated for reference) Hattie, J., Marsh, H.W., Neill, J.T. & Richards, G.E.
(1997) ‘Adventure Education and Outward Bound:
Allmänna Barnhuset. (1998) Barndomens platser - Out-of-Class Experiences That Make a Lasting
miljöns betydelse för identitetsutvecklingen. (The Difference.’ Review of Educational Research,
places of Chidhood - The influence of environment Spring 1997, Vol. 67, No 1. University of Western
on identity development) Report. Sydney, Australia.
Att erövra Omvärlden. (To Conquer the Surrounding Kaplan,R.& Kaplan,S. (1994) The Experience of Na-
World) Barnomsorg skolakommitéen, läroplan 1-5 ture. A Psychological
år, Department of Education SoU (1997):157 Perspective. Boston:Cambridge University Press.
Bang, C. & Braute, I.N. (1997) Följ med ut - Barn i Key, E. (1995) Barnets århundrade. 4:e uppl. (The
Naturen. (Come Outside- Children in Nature.) th
century of the child. 4 ed.) Stockholm:
Stockholm: Universitetsförlaget. Skriftserien ABF.
Björklid, P. (1982) Children’s outdoor environment - Lindholm, G. (1995) Skolgården - vuxnas bilder
A study of children ‘s outdoor activities on two barnens miljö. (The Schoolyard - Adult Views on
housing estates from the perspective of environ-
2
WHAT IS OUTDOOR
Children’s Environment.) Alnarp: Movium SLU. at day-care centers spending much time outdoors.
(Doctoral dissertation)
A retrospective study.) Läkartidningen (No 8/98).
Matthews, M.H. (1992) Making Sense of Place. The Outdoors - The Roots of Life - Nature - The True
Children’s Understanding of Large-Scale Environ- Home of Culture, International Seminar of
ments. New York: Harvester Publ. Molander, B. Outdoort Activities Olomouc, september 25-27
(1993) Kunskap i Handling. (Knowledge in Ac- (1998), Palacky University Olomouc, Faculty of
tion.) Göteborg: Daidalos Physical Culture, Czech Republic. (78s) ISBN
Nabhan, G.P. & Trimble, S. (1994) The Geography of 80-244-0031-6
Childhood - Why Children Need Wild Places. Titman, W. (1994) Special Places; Special People -
Boston: Beacon Press. The hidden curriculum of school grounds. WWF
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praksis, (1998) Nikolaisen, A. Cappelen (201s) Zeitschrift für Erlebnispädagogik Heft 9/10/11
Akademisk Forlag ISBN 82-456-0463-1 Ziegenspeck, J.W. Prof Dr phil, Universität
Nordheden, I. (1995) Verkligheten som lärobok. (Re- Lüneburg, Institut für Erlebnispädagogik, (95s)
ality for a textbook.) Stockholm: Almqvist & ISSN 0933-565X.
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Knowledge Come Alive? On Art and Creativity in
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Olsson, T. (1995) Skolgården - det gränslösa
uterummet. (The Schoolyard – The Unlimited
Classroom.) Stockholm: Liber Utbildning.
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2
Johan Öhman
THE MEANING OF “FRILUFTSLIV”
Introduction Some 10 000 years ago a most dramatic change in the

history of humankind occurred, people became settled
In my work at the department of Physical Education and started to cultivate the earth. This change made it
and Health at the University of Örebro I have the great possible to collect valuable things (this had been quite
ad- vantage to work with outdoor life, or in Swedish: uninteresting to our nomadising ancestors) and to own
friluftsliv, in theory as well as in practice. Years of re- became the ruling norm in agricultural society. This re-
flections emerging from reading a lot of papers, theses sulted in hierarchical society with a structure of power
and articles, on the subject as well as ideas emerging based on richness. The other big change was that na-
from experiences and conversations with my students ture was parted in a good and a bad part. The good na-
during practising different kinds of outdoor activities ture was the cultivated earth, and the domesticated ani-
have resulted in some kind of a credo of outdoor peda- mals that supplied people with food, protection and
gogy. My intention here is to declare my beliefs and clothes. The bad nature was the threatening, uncon-
ideas concerning the possible meanings of friluftsliv in trolled wilderness from where the seeds of the weed
the modern western society of today and the pedagogic came, the insects who destroyed the crops, the elk who
potential of friluftsliv. I will use the Swedish term graced from the fields of oat and the wolf who killed
friluftsliv as it has a special meaning in the Nordic the sheep.
countries. The word consists of three words: fri - free,
luft - air, liv - life. I will use the term in the following The latest epoch in the history of man is the industrial
meaning: Friluftsliv is to travel and live in close society. In our struggle for a more comfortable life we
contact with nature where the main purpose is to make have succeeded in creating a society where we live our
experiences. lives almost totally separated from nature. Using sci-
ence as a tool for taking control of nature. The rational
and wide knowledge of the functions of nature has
The stone age human in the made it possible to rule nature and direct it in a way
industrial society that suits the desires of humans. Therefore we can sit
warm and safe within our four walls without any
For more than 90% of the time humans have existed on worries about beasts, the stormy weather or how to get
this earth we have lived as a part of nature as hunters food on the table. We also know that there are
and as gatherers. This epoch is the only one in the resources in the society to help us if we get in trouble.
history of humankind that has been long enough to With this security as a base the main strivings in
make any impression in our genes. This means that society is to ever increase the convenience by an
our inborn capabilities; physical, mental as well as increased material standard presup- posing an ever-
social, are made for managing a life in a small group in increasing economic growth. Faster and more efficient
the wild. appears to be the key words in the development of the
industrial society and the ruling norm seems to be “to
For these early people nature and culture was one unit; own more“.
there was no difference between the world of a human
and the world of nature. People were part of nature just Of course it must be considered a good thing that we
as evident as the birch, the hare and the wolf . This now quite easily can cure diseases that used to be
very direct and apparent dependency on nature created lethal, that we now have resources to take care of the
religious beliefs that prevented people from wasting weak and poor, that everybody can go to school and
the natural surroundings. If people did so, the culture that we can choose from a variety of cultural
would be extinct or people had to move or dramatically expressions and so forth. But there is another side of
change the way of living. For these people nature was the coin.
animated, it had a spirit and was holy. The spirits of First we must ask ourselves what it means now that we
nature ruled the occurrences in nature and it was have lost the contact with nature. Not more than 100
therefore important to have a friendly relationship to years ago a majority of the people in Europe, every
the “other side“, or else the spirits could punish day, literally speaking, stood with their hands in the
humankind, which could mean empty stomachs and a soil and with their own senses experienced the
lot of trouble. ecological reali-
2
Johan Öhman
ties for life on earth. But our dependence on nature is possible to experience in the same way in our ordinary
just as strong today as ever it once was in the days of lives.
the hunters and gatherers. Maybe there is a risk that we
fail to see this dependency while we speed up the What values are we talking about? When people, from
development of the society. a deeper perspective, describe the meaning of a
meeting with nature the following values are frequently
Secondly the modern project has also implied a separa- occur- ring:
tion of the human and other living creatures in our
❑ In nature we can experience peace and we seek for
minds. Natural science has objectified nature and in the
the silence and the stillness to recreate our strength.
most extreme cases made the living beings into
The impressions we get are interesting in a restful
soulless machines. This has made man and natures two
way.
totally separate units and has created an absolute
❑ In nature there are also the opposite, the excitement
border between man and nature. An important
and the challenge. This search for adventure is
question is : in what way has this effected our ethical
often connected with very extreme and dangerous
relationship with nature.?
activities but to most of us there is enough
We must also ask ourselves in what way the develop- challenge to make a trip in a canoe in a quite calm
ment of the society has effected (wo)man and the river or take a walk up in the mountains following
health of the (wo)man. On the one hand we have been the marked paths. Maybe we also like to take a little
able to dramatically decrease diseases that have been Sunday stroll in the forest nearby partly just
related to poverty, bad nutrition and sanitary because there is an uncertainty in the outcome,
defectives, on the other hand we have created health there might an elk standing on the path around the
problems connected to our welfare; we do not exercise next bend! Nature is unpredictable.
enough and we eat too much. But the great threat to our ❑ No matter what we seek in our outdoor life the
health today is connected to people’s psychosocial situation is real and possible to understand.
situation. Problems that are related to stress, alienation Compared with our every day life it is a simple
and lack of meaning in life are among the most reality where the demands and our needs are clear
widespread health problems today. Maybe the cause and distinct; when we are hungry we must eat, if we
of this is that the external development of the get tired we must rest or sleep, to get further we
technology and the structures of the society are so must ford over the mountain stream and so forth.
much faster than the possible internal changes in our More and more of our spare time is otherwise
minds and souls. Maybe people are left behind by their occupied by watching other people living our lives;
own creation, which could imply that we do not only laughing, crying and playing in the television,
lose contact with nature but also with our own culture movies, magazines and books. Fri- luftsliv is about
and our history, leaving humankind in an existential living a very real and obvious life where we, with
vacuum. our own bodies and our own senses, experience
hunger, pain, tiredness, joy and happi- ness. We
meet ourselves in a different way than in our
everyday lives.
The Values of Friluftsliv ❑ Being an anti-pole to our everyday life nature is a
place of refuge where we can get a sense of
It is in this historical perspective we can understand the freedom. The open air is without any closing wall
meaning of friluftsliv in the society today. Friluftsliv and only the sky as a limit gives you a physical
can be looked upon as the our last contact with nature. feeling of freedom. But you are also mentally free
It can be considered as some kind of lifeline which still from constraint. This contributes to a feeling of a
makes it possible for us to experience, with our own free choice in every situation: ” I can take this way
senses, the living systems surrounding us. Friluftsliv or that way, I can eat now or in an hour and I can sit
also means an experience of a way of living radically, here and just relax in the sun or ski to the top of the
different, from our every day life. Actually it is quite mountain“. The concrete reality also gives you a
strange that people by their own free will go out in the direct feedback if your choice was wise or not.
wilderness when they don’t have to and carry a heavy ❑ Being together and the feeling of communion is
luggage, eat strange food cooked on a primitive little another value of great importance in friluftsliv. It
stove and sleep on the hard ground in a small tent with- might be sitting around the fire with your own
out heating - when the main purpose of the family experiencing a great feeling of affinity. In
development of the society was to make life as other cases it can be a more direct need of close co-
comfortable as possible! The only reasonable operation in a small group in more adventurous
explanation why so many people regularly choose to activities.
live an outdoor life must be that there are a number of ❑ Meeting free nature is a central aspect of many peo-
values in outdoor life that are not ples outdoor-experience. Free nature means that na-
2
THE MEANING OF “FRILUFTSLIV”
ture consists of something living, a system of life forms, colours, moods and shades of nature, a
that the human can not control. Meeting nature is a nature full of meanings and messages,
way to experience yourselves belonging to an ❑ have a freedom to make your own explorations and
entirety with a special meaning. This entirety is you are able to form your own personal emotional
today often spoken about in ecological terms but it relation with nature,
can also be of a religious kind. Maybe this is about ❑ have time to experience and where you try to create
a feeling of affinity and reverence with life and the a rhythm which gives you peace, a rhythm where
living creatures on earth. Our ability to feel love our inner rhythm of rest-activity, hunger-
and affec- tion for the living things becomes a satisfaction and so forth is able to harmonise with
source of power. the rhythm of light-darkness, sunshine-rain, warm-
These values could be looked upon as intrinsic values cold and so forth (and not being ruled by clock or
of friluftsliv. I think that these kinds of values are the your agenda),
main reason why people want to live outdoor life in ❑ let the simple things (and the accordance with natu-
their leisure time. And I think these values should be re) rule when you choose activities and equipment,
the basis in the pedagogic use of friluftsliv. However, making us feel as close to nature as possible.
in my opinion, it is, in most cases the good use and The task of the leader or teacher is to guide the partici-
effects of friluftsliv that has been the basis (and pants by creating situations, converse, inspire, make
accordingly has been decisive) for how friluftsliv has different choices and their consequences apparent and
been treated for instance in school. I think there are if necessary lead the group if the problems exceed the
several problems connected to this way of treating ability of the participants.
friluftsliv. First, there is a great uncertainty if and in
what way friluftsliv fulfils the expected purposes. The
connection between experiences in nature and To offer a quality of life
environmental awareness or health seems to be quite
complex and associated with a number of cir- Friluftsliv being done in accordance with the
cumstances and conditions. And one could argue: if statements above can be looked upon as an aim itself.
there are other, more simple and certain ways to fulfil The important thing is not the effects of friluftsliv or
these purposes, why friluftsliv? I also think the if it is useful in any way. To experience the values
friluftsliv runs the risk of losing its soul (inner inherent in friluftsliv is simply a quality of life. Of
meaning) if we use it as an instrument. course, friluftsliv in this way is not considered as a
quality of life of everybody. When friluftsliv is used in
educational purposes it therefore must be treated as a
How and What to do? way to offer a possible quality of life, to give people a
chance to experience the values of friluftsliv. For
If the values mentioned above are going to be those who accept the offer, the meeting with nature can
expressed in the friluftsliv, and will be available for the be an important part of their life with a deep influence
participants to experience, it remains a great concern on their quality of life. Nature then appears to be a
both of how you do it and what you do. In my opinion refuge where we can escape from our complex reality,
the clue is to let the friluftsliv speak for itself, to catch the chaos of the society and the problems at work or
the inner meaning of friluftsliv. Therefore I think it is school. The friluftsliv counter-balances our everyday-
important to strive for a friluftsliv where you: lives and gives us an existence in harmony.
❑ participate in the life of nature, live as if you where This way of friluftsliv can be looked upon as a culture
a part of nature, not to disturb but without being an of its own. A culture which is a reaction against the
passive observer, industrial-society and a criticism on the way the
❑ put the meeting with nature in focus and not the society has been developed. In friluftsliv we can
activity, the activity must be seen as way to get in experience another sort of life, a life based upon other
touch with nature, values than the values ruling our modern society. In
nature we can get another perspective on our society
❑ create situations where the meeting with the diffe-
and everyday-life. From this point of view we are able
rent aspects of nature becomes as obvious as possi-
to question them. An important aim in friluftsliv is to
ble, in an humble way meet something greater than
show alternate values of life. The simple but yet rich
humankind, some thing people cannot control, the-
life, close to nature appears to be an ideal, something
refore it is important to experience the troublesome
we should try to imitate in our every day lives. We can
aspects of nature as well as the bright and beautiful
ask ourselves: if I feel such a great satisfaction when
ones,
living friluftsliv, should not the values of friluftsliv
❑ see the individual, personal experience as central, have a bigger influence on my everyday-life? And
look upon the human as a sensitive and sympathetic should not these values be the basis in the develop-
subject experiencing nature, an experience of the ment of the future society? In this way friluftsliv can be
2
Johan Öhman
an important source of inspiration in changes of our

lifestyle as well as changes in our society to enhance
the quality of life!
Maybe a deepened relation to nature also can offer the
lost human of our time a place in entirety and a new
sort of “ecological identity“. A deeper feeling of
coexis- tence and affinity with the living earth could
also result in a change in our ethical relationship with
nature, an ethical standpoint, leading us towards a
lifestyle and a development of the society in greater
harmony between the human and nature.
Friluftsliv at School?
In my opinion there is a considerable pedagogic poten-
tial in friluftsliv. It is hard to be unaffected by an
activity that so obviously involves your body and mind
as well as your soul. An important question is however
if it is possible to use friluftsliv of this kind at school
today. Are the teachers able to see the unique of
friluftsliv or is it just looked upon as useful and
wholesome activity among others? Have the youth of
today the ability to appreciate the peace and quietness
in nature or are they to used to the fast and spectacular
impression from the new entertainment-technology?
Are there necessary requirements regarding time,
money and organisation? Is there a will to try?
2
URBAN BERGSTEN & JAN SEGER
OUTDOOR EDUCATION IN RELATION
TO LEADERSHIP AND GROUP
PROCESSES
Traditionally, due to geographical and historical cir- on skiing skills. Here, integration efforts include
cumstances, outdoor education has been an important biomechanical aspects of skiing techniques, physio-
part of the PE curriculum in Sweden. Outdoor logical considerations for survival in arctic surround-
activities generally require extensive organisation and ings, the history of the Lapps and their style of living,
resources and it is therefore particularly important that and aspects of meteorology and geology. During both
planing and realisation are carefully conducted. periods the students live close together. In an attempt
The two projects, presented here, emanate from the no- to make the students conscious of leadership and group
tion that outdoor education constitutes an excellent dynamic processes, they are exposed to lectures, role-
arena for an inter-disciplinary approach involving the plays and sessions where these processes were
learning of skills and integrating knowledge from other emphasised.
subjects like biology, environmental issues, history, In a study conducted during the Viking hike the
geography etc. Furthermore, the projects stress the students are instructed to pay attention to the processes
possibilities of using outdoor education as a setting for within the study group, i.e. to have an intra-group
understanding organisational and group phenomena. focus, and they are encouraged to reflect upon their
Traditionally, physical education and sports tend to own behaviour: fear, anger, loneliness, degree of
focus on the product and the skill, whereas our influence on others, etc. After the hike the students
purpose is to present a model of broadening the individually esti- mated the effectiveness of their own
learning frame by involving learning outcomes such as study group using a standardised questionnaire. On the
the process and the awareness. These are considered basis of this individual estimation, each group, lead
in relation to personal development, organisational by a teacher, carried out a discussion with regard to
and group dynamics (including leadership style) and each group’s effectiveness, including a discussion
integrated into the established design and structure of focusing on each participant’s own contribution to the
the outdoor education curriculum. group work. Half a year later, the winter course formed
the next step in developing organisational
competence of the students. The same students
I
together with five teachers spent two weeks, twenty-
The first example emanates from two outdoor four hours a day, in the Swedish mountains, thus
education courses for first-year students from the constituting a model organisation, within which nu-
Coaching Programme, the Teacher Programme and the merous organisational and group phenomena could be
Health Promotion Programme. observed and analysed. In addition to developing
skiing and teaching skills , the purpose was to increase
At the beginning of new classes at the University Col- the awareness of the students concerning phenomena
lege the first semester starts, after about one week on of organisations and individual and group behaviours
campus, with a five-day course in outdoor activities. and dynamics. Preparatory lectures on campus were
The course involves hiking, canoeing orienteering, given concerning concepts such as open and closed
climbing, swimming and survival techniques. These systems, mandates, organisational boundaries and
skills are presented in an environmental and ecological leadership defined as a relationships. The model
context. Geographically, the course is pursued along organisation was defined as an executive group,
an old Viking trail, inviting historical, cultural and consisting of the five teachers, a group of ‘middle
physiological comparisons. For example, pulse regis- management’, consisting of ten students with special
trations are made during canoeing and hiking, from responsibilities like lodging, equipment, travel
which the students easily can understand why the Vi- arrangements etc. The remaining students constituted
kings preferred water as a means of transportation. the rest of the working model organisation. The entire
Six months later, the same students participate in a model organisation was structured with dimensions
two-week course in the Swedish mountains focusing and frames similar to organisations/companies in
contemporary society.
Johan Öhman
29
3
URBAN BERGSTEN & JAN SEGER
During the stay up in the mountains the students were groups constituted the training group. In addition, each
divided into five skiing groups based on skiing skills, project group handed in a written report to the project
with one teacher per group. Another group setting was client. At the end of the course, every student received
the seven cabin groups, consisting of students sharing individual feedback of her/his work and contributions
the same cabin. None of these groups corresponded to over the five weeks.
the study groups from the autumn course. On three oc-
casions ‘open’ executive meetings were held, where To conclude, we wish to stress that outdoor education
each cabin group appointed two observers with the curriculum consists of a multi-disciplinary core, based
task to listen and report back to their respective cabin on cultural, behavioural and natural sciences, in addi-
members. The executive group discussed openly tion to obvious qualities like recreation and aesthetic
problems and delights from the previous day and dimensions. Taking part in outdoor activities
information and suggestions concerning the coming stimulates social competence and personal growth, and
days. The purpose was to illustrate the work of the we also believe that outdoor education constitutes an
executive group. During the three-day backcountry excellent learning arena for understanding group and
skiing trip every student performed the task of organisational processes and providing leadership
leading the group for half a day. Back at the hotel each training.
group met separately to discuss sources of
joy/difficulties, every student’s own contributions to
the group, examples of leadership situations etc. References
Finally, a meeting was arranged for all groups, where
organisational fantasies were elucidated (i.e. the Priest, S. & Gass, M . (1997) Effective leadership in
rumours and fantasies that are prevalent in all Adventure Programming. Human Kinetics, Cham-
organisations). Each group reported what had paign, Ill.
happened in their own group and how they had Schutz, W. (1994) The Human Element. Jossey-Bass
perceived the work and in- cidents in the other groups. Publishers.
Furthermore, three female and three male groups were
formed and gender aspects were discussed (for
example, observation of ‘typical’ male/female
behaviour, the fact that the executive group were all
males – what would have been different if female
teachers had participated?).
II
The second example comes from an elective course for

third-year students. Twelve female and twelve male
students participated in the course which started with
a five-day formal leadership training course (LMDC;
Leadership and Management Development Course).
Briefly, this course deals with tracking and handling
conflicts, communication, giving effective feedback,
understanding group dynamics and leadership styles.
The remaining four weeks consisted of working in out-
door education projects including learning new
outdoor activity safety skills like CPR, rescuing in
kayaks etc. Each of the four projects had an external
project client and four of the students volunteered as
project leaders. The reasoning behind this was to
illustrate the difference between standard ‘group
work’ and ‘project methodology’, where the
emphasis is on leadership training by leading and
feedback. The project groups were constantly
encouraged to discuss the issues of leadership and
group dynamics in their respective groups while
working with their projects. The four projects were
Outdoor Cooking, Survival Techniques, Water- Safety
for Children, and Kayaking and Disablilities.
Each project was reported back to the client during a

day out of doors, where students from other project
3
KLAS SANDELL
THE AMBIVALENT SENSE OF PLACE IN
OUTDOOR, ENVIRONMENTAL AND ADVENTURE
EDUCATION
the Challenge: People, Power and the Environ-

‘Adventure’ is often associated with tourism, travel
ment. Black Rose Books, Montreal, pp. 121-129.
and new experiences. In spite of the environmental
arguments for ‘eco-tourism’ etc. at the same time it Sandell, Klas 2001. The Non-establishment of a
could be noted that tourism and travel are linked to Kiruna National Park 1986-89: A Discussion of
serious environmental problems, like the use of fossil Tourism, the Right of Public Access and Regional
fuel and heavy use of material resources. This could be Develop- ment. -Paper presented at the Kiruna
compared with ‘environmental education’ which session of the Travel & Tourism Research
could be seen as a way of highlighting our linkages to Association (TTRA) Conference ‘Creating and
nature, landscape and resource use, involving the Managing Growth in Tra- vel & Tourism’ April 22
need for a deepened ‘sense of place’. Very often this – 25, 2001, Sweden.
involves the use of coming back to the same place Aronsson, Lars & Sandell Klas. 1999. Ort, Tourismus
many times, e.g. at different seasons. Even though, und Nachhaltigkeit: Ortszugehörigkeit und
many of the current major environmental problems are Ortslosigkeit als Aspekte eines konzeptionellen
complex, diffuse, global, uncertain and not easy to Rahmens für einen Tourismus mit Beispielen aus
detect on a local and concrete level, often a more Schweden (Place, tourism and sustainability: Place
sustainable development is associated with local attachement and placelessness as aspects of a con-
adaptation and small-scale, (i.e., a ‘territorial’) ceptual framework for sustainable tourism with ex-
development strategy. In democracies, public amples from Sweden). -In: Tourismus Journal, 3
understanding, motivation and inspiration are crucial Jg., Heft 3, s. 357-378.
for a long-term acceptance of an effective
environmental policy, and perhaps a concrete Further discussions, informations and references with re-
territorial affinity is here a necessary mental prere- gard to these questions could be found in e.g. the follo-
quisite. Out of these different perspectives, a number of wing texts in English and German by the author:
crucial questions could be raised with regard to the ten- Sandell, Klas 1998. The Public Access Dilemma,: The
sions between the sense of place in outdoor, Specialization of Landscape and the Challenge of
environmental and adventure education. For example, Sustainability in Outdoor Recreation – In: Sand-
if a sustainable development strategy involves berg, A. L. & Störlin, S. (eds.), Sustainability – the
continuity and sense of place – what about the role of Challenge: People, Power and the Environment.
adventure and outdoor activities being a part of global Black Rose Books, Montreal, pp. 121-129.
instant travelling? Is a change of the role and the
Aronsson, LArs & Sandell Klas. 1999. Ort, Tourismus
content of adventure education an important ‘target’
und Nachaltigkeit: Ortszugehörigkeit und Ortslo-
for environmental education? If we could talk about a
sigkeit als Aspekte eines konzeptionellen Rahmens
Nordic outdoor life tradition characterised by simplicity
für einen Tourismus mit Beispielen aus Schweden
and popularity (including e.g. the public right of access
(Place, tourism and sustainability: Place attache-
to the countryside) to what extent could this be seen as
ment and placelessness as aspects of a conceptual
a source of inspiration for a closer linkage between
framework for sustainable tourism with examples
outdoor, environmental and adventure education?
from Sweden.). – In: Tourismus Journal, 3 Jg.,
Heft 3, s. 357-378.
Kaltenborn, Bjørn; Sandell, Klas & Haaland, Hanne In
See further in e.g. Press. The Public Right of access – Some Challen-
ges to Sustainable Tourism Development in Scan-
Sandell, K. 1998. The Public Access Dilemma: The dinavia. – Article to be published in the J. of Sus-
Specialization of Landscape and the Challenge of tainable Tourism.
Sustainability in Outdoor Recreation -In:
Sandberg, A.L. & Sörlin, S. (eds.), Sustainability –
3
ERIK MYGIND & MIKE BOYES
OUTDOOR ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN PHYSICAL
EDUCATION STUDENTS IN NEW ZEALAND AND
DENMARK
The purpose with the present study was to examine Keywords:Physical education students, outdoor activi-
New Zealand and Danish physical education students ties, socialisation, demographic profile, frequency,
outdoor activity patterns and to compare differences time and solo experience.
across cultures. A questionnaire was written in English
by the authors and then translated to Danish in order to
validate the understanding and interpretation of the
questions. Data were gathered from 270 first year PE
students at three Danish universities offering physical
education (Odense, Aarhus and Copenhagen). The
New Zealand sample was 241 from the University of
Otago in Dunedin, New Zealand.
Differences in educational traditions were noted. The
New Zealand first year students were on average 5
years younger. Significant higher mean age and more
available money among Danish students seem to
influence the choice of outdoor activities, especially
those not accessible in Denmark like winter activities.
Overall, the students in New Zealand and Denmark
enjoyed an abundance of outdoor activities and used a
variety of natural places. Generally, the New Zealand
students participated more frequently in outdoor
activities compared to the Danish students. This
observation might reflect the differences found in
demographic profiles and the New Zealand students’
stronger perception of being an ‘outdoor person’.
Friends and family were the most influential agencies
of socialisation into outdoor activities with no
difference between the New Zealand and Danish
students. The four most important factors that motivate
involvement in outdoor activities among females as
well as males were in priority order: experience of
nature, physical challenge and action, social relations,
and psychological challenge and action.
The study may be seen as a baseline source of data for
ongoing research and to inform theory and practice for
tertiary physical education courses including outdoor
pursuit components.
33
BARBARA HUMBERSTONE
HEGEMONIC STRUGGLES IN OUTDOOR
ADVENTURE EDUCATION?
A Question of Gender and Difference
The provision of Outdoor Adventure Education (OAE) people’s adventurous activities, ‘Leaping into Danger’.
and what young people experience as a consequence is A similar headline in 1998 read ‘Plunge Boy Risks
clearly influenced by a variety of factors. OAE is in- Death’. Both had pictures of young people jumping
scribed in a range of ways by broader structural issues. into local rivers. The first picture shows young women
It may on occasions embody hegemonic modes of mas- as well as young men being adventurous and enjoying
culinity, and therefore can be read in terms of gender the thrills and fun of jumping into the river. For
and sexuality, it is also inter-twined with discourses millennia, young people through these sorts of
around social class and ethnicity. activities have learnt to respect water and to develop
There is clearly a struggle over dominant their abilities to make decisions about what is
‘philosophies’ and ideologies in the ‘outdoor ‘ world. dangerous. Physical activity by girls has always been
What appears as The North American ‘way’, which problematic, yet we see them, along with the boys,
attempts to promote its mode of ‘delivery’ and enjoying the activity of , ‘Leaping into Danger’. All of
philosophies from behaviour- ist perspectives in us here agree that by denying young people the
splendid isolation from social and cultural theories, is opportunities to take ‘risks’, the more they will turn to
perpetuated through the vast tracts of works of perhaps other, more harmful risk-taking activities which inhibit
only one or two white males. Often silenced or ignored, their decision-making capacities.
are the voices and practices that challenge these domi- Nevertheless, we need to ask, ‘Is the provision of OAE
nating ideologies. In this presentation, I attempt to lo- through youth work/specialist outdoor organisations,
cate OAE in broader social and cultural contexts, particularly when interfacing with school, any less
examining possible struggles within OAE, but also likely to convey through its practices and philosophies
those without in which forms of OAE may provide a those values of wider society and/or prevailing
counter-culture to that provided frequently through masculinities and inferiorised femininities’? And if so,
sport and schooling. Arguably, the provision of OAE is it really a problem for young men or young women
outside of schooling, made available through other or society?
agencies such as youth organisations and/or specialist Can we, as outdoor educators, afford not to critique
outdoor providers may provide alternative messages outdoor adventure education? I suggest we must if
and values. As Pe- ter Becker suggested in his OAE is to be taken seriously by other communities,
introductory speech, youth work may have different both academic and practitioner. I have written
understanding of young people’s needs and the elsewhere of the necessity of engaging with social and
opportunity to provide different contexts from those cultural theory for an understanding of outdoor
available within schooling. education and adventure recreation as social and
In a sense, taking a critical stance within OAE (through cultural phenomena (see Humberstone forthcoming a).
critical self-reflection or /and critical analyses of the Before I consider the current ‘Politicised’ of gender in
field) can be seen as problematic. For much of the the UK and perhaps elsewhere- what has been daubed
philosophies and ideologies apparent within OAE, if ‘crisis of masculinity’- I would like to consider the
perhaps not necessarily realised in practice, may well concept of hegemony and how an understanding of
run counter to the ideologies of and some practices cultural struggles and ideologies of masculinity and
endorsed in wider society and schooling. Perhaps, OAE femininity come to be so central in schooling, sport and
is struggling against the competitive ethos and OAE. This is the more relevant when we are concerned
dominance of prevailing sports cultures and the with partnerships between the schools and the
current anti-risk or ‘culture of fear’ (Furedi 1997), providers of outdoor adventurous experiences. Kirsti
prevalent in wider society. and I have argued elsewhere that in many cases the
practices of OAE may be historically steeped in and
During a spell of hot weather, whilst writing this paper,
influenced by gendered
the local paper on its front page reported upon young
3
BARBARA HUMBERSTONE
outdoor traditions in UK and Norway (cf. Humberstone polarised

and Pedersen forthcoming).
Hegemony
Gramsci’s (1985) concept of hegemony superseded the
‘strict’ Marxian notion of ideology with its over-deter-
minist economism and ‘false consciousness’ of the
masses. Bourdieu’s notion of symbolic violence is
taken as close to the Gramsci’s concept. Arguably, it
refers to that subtle process whereby subordinate
classes (the working class or pupils) come to take as
‘natural’ or ‘common sense’ ideas and practices that
are actually against their own best interests. That subtle
process is culture (Gibson 1985). As Wearing
(1998:61) points out, ‘hegemony, then, is the control of
the consciousness by cultural dominance through the
institutions of society. Power and privilege are
maintained through cultural hegemony, but struggles
over hegemonic control are in- evitable. Subcultures
are often formed which challenge dominant cultural
forms.’ Ideology however remains implicated in and
crucial to struggles for hegemony. Green et al.
(1990:30) suggest that ideology is, ‘the complex
system of perceptions and representations through
which we experience ourselves and come to make
sense of the world’. It is also implicated in serving the
interests of the dominant ruling group. For ’Ideol-
ogies are sets of ideas, assumptions and images by
which people make sense of society, which give a clear
sense of social identity, and which serve in some way
to legitimise relations of power in society’ (McLennan
1995:126). Central to people’s social identity is their
gender subjectivities- What it means to be a woman or
what it means to be a man in different cultural
contexts. These gender assumptions have varied across
the ages. Who decides and legitimates such notions and
how they are maintained and for what purposes were
and are matters upon which there continues to be
significant personal and political struggles. Leisure,
sport, schooling, youth work and the ‘outdoors’ are
important sites of hegemonic struggles. I would argue
that questions of gender and difference are central to
our understanding of how best to make available OAE
experiences to a range of young women and young
men, particularly if our concern is personal and social
development and empowerment, together with
countering the prevailing ‘culture of fear’.
Media
The popular media continues to be a visible site of
struggles around changing representations of masculin-
ities and femininities. Cultural messages that reflect
gender stereotypes are frequently evident, but the
media may also inadvertently portray struggles over
3
traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. sex classes, taught by men, research from Australia
Men involved in risk-taking adventurous activities (Collins, Kenway and Mcloed 2000)and from UK,
in the outdoors are generally represented as
‘heroes’. When women engage in these activities,
sometimes with fatal consequences, they are
depicted not as heroines, but be- having
inappropriately and selfishly. This was the case for
Alison Hargreaves, the British climber who having
climbed a number of Himalayan peaks tragically
died on K2 in 1995. The media were scathing of
her for de- priving her children of their mother.
Transgressions from masculine ‘norms’ are also

frequently ridiculed. For example pictures of the
UK soccer star David Beckham dressed in a
sarong, as he leaves a restaurant with ‘Posh Spice’,
filled the front pages of the tabloids in June 1998.
They were accompanied by headlines; ‘Beckham
has got his Posh frock on’ (Whitaker 1998:1).
‘Girlie gear sarong for sexy David. But does it
work for women?’ (Wheathers 1998:3). Written by
a woman, the latter headline goes on to further
collude with hegemonic masculinity, with com-
ments trivialising Beckham’s unconventional
image and relationship. The text implies that he is
dominated by his partner Victoria, becoming
feminised and emas- culated:’ David’s fashion
statement is alarming for us women who prefer
soccer stars in shorts not skirts. It’s enough to
make you weak with nostalgia for all things
reassuringly macho and smelling of Brut.’(P3)
It can be both women and men who may collude

to maintain the dominant gender order.
Politicisation of masculinity
In the UK, girls have for the first time in nearly 50
years been more successful than boys in the major
examina- tions, A levels. This has created an
almost panic response from David Blunkett
secretary of state for education. This so-called
‘underachievement’ by boys has been put down to
the ‘laddish’ culture adopted by some boys in
which academic achievement is shunned. Wil-
lis’s (1977) classic ethnographic work, ‘Learning
to La- bour: How Working class Kids get Working
Class Jobs’, highlighted the processes by which
the ‘lads’ rejected the hegemony of middle class
school values and ethos. Consequently they failed
academically and so could only take labouring
jobs. Failure of this sort is now seen as
problematic. There are apparently few unskilled
labouring jobs around for the ‘lads’ now and
more girls and women have entered the work
force. Gender or more specifically masculinity is
perceived to be in crisis. Boy trouble has been on
the political agenda in Aus- tralia since the early
‘90s. Whilst the knee jerk response of David
Blunkett was that boys would do better in single-
3
HEGEMONIC STRUGGLES IN OUTDOOR ADVENTURE
Maritan Mac an Ghaill (19..) and others suggest there masculinities (cf. Connell et al. 1982, Connolly 1998,
is no evidence to support this view. Kenway found that Murphy et al. 1990, Renold 1997, Skelton 2000). (see
for all male classes,’students and teachers can enjoy Humberstone forthcoming for a broader discussion of
being sexist and uncouth with impunity. Single sex the construction of hegemonic masculinity). Masculin-
provides new opportunities for old-style masculinity, ity through sport ). Mike Messner (1998) supports the
for male bravado and bonding…in terms of gender research and argues further that
reform such classes are bad news’(Phillips 2000:4).
Organised sports is a “gendered institution”-an institution
The view that there is a social problem because many constructed by gender relations. As such, its structure and
values (rules, formal organisation, sex composition, etc.)
boys are adopting ‘laddish’ negative behaviours is rein-
reflect dominant conceptions of masculinity and femininity.
forced by recent psychological perspectives. Organised sports is also a ” gendering institution”-an insti-
‘Masculin- ity’ it is claimed is ‘in Crisis’. Anthony tution that helps to construct the current gender order. Part
Clare, in interview about his recent book, ‘On Men: of this construction of gender is accomplished through the
Masculinity in Crisis’, says, ‘many of the men I have “masculinising” of male bodies and minds. ( Messner,
1998:119)
interviewed-such as…mountaineer Chris Bonington-
spontaneously described their childhood and Is organised outdoor adventure education a gendered
adolescence as a time of trial in which their strength institution and /or gendering institution? Or is it a
and ability to deny feelings (of fear, pain, sadness, loss) counter-culture, which contains struggles over gender
marked their status’ (Gold 2000:21). Moreover, he subjectivities? Drasdo (1972) argued that mountaineer-
challenges the biological deter- minism of the ing isn’t a sport. The Outward bound, with its early
evolutionary and socio- biologists,’ The role of social philosophies of ‘muscular Christianity’ and character
and environmental factors are inextricably entwined building, was a strong influence on the outdoor tradi-
with male hormones, that’s important because it tions in UK and North America. At its beginnings it
suggests that societies can organise themselves so that was almost exclusively a male institution conveying
this thing called male violence can be significantly re- mes- sages and practices about particular forms of
duced’ p21. What Clare is concerned with implicitly is masculinity. As Kirsti and I have argued elsewhere in
the hegemony of idealised masculinity and its affects examining the gender, class and outdoor traditions in
on men and society. He wrote the book, he says, in Norway and UK, ‘Wilderness’ places, constituted in
order to give, ‘ammunition (sic) to men who want to ‘natural’ environments , are not free from cultural
challenge patriarchy’p21. appropriation but may become symbols and markers
for hegemonic masculinity.(see Humberstone and
Pedersen forthcoming).
Schooling, sport and
hegemonic masculinities Physical education/OAE
Bob Connell’s (1990;1995) life-history research on the (school/youth interface) the
diversity of men’s experiences has shown the consider- preservation or transformation of
able pressure on individual men to conform to hetero- hegemonic masculinities
sexual hegemonic masculinity particularly through
sport with its informal codes and powerful sanctioning In the UK, the provision of outdoor education has been
mechanism. Hegemonic masculinity is socially and made available within the curriculum as outdoor
culturally constructed and is arguably not the adventurous activities(OAA) as an element within the
‘natural’ condition for men. Its form varies over time PE curriculum in schools. Until now OAA has been
but it continuously embodies, ‘toughness, physical compulsory at primary school level. With the
and sexual prow- ess, aggressiveness and the implementation of the new National Curriculum in
distancing of femininity’. For men to retain power at a September 2000, it is highly possible that some
societal level, especially with the considerable primary schools will decide not to teach OAA in PE.
challenge by women at all levels of society, the With the physical nature of OAA, there are some
maintenance of hegemonic masculinity is imperative. similarities with ‘sport’. But one government study of
OAA in the PE curriculum states that: ‘In OAA the
Most if not all the more popular sport cultural forms educative processes and experiences, and their
embody signifers of hegemonic masculinity which contribution to personal development and the broader
convey messages to boys and young men and may be curriculum, are as valuable as the activity skills
central to the early construction of dominant modes of themselves; the latter can be seen as vehicles for the
masculinity (cf. Skelton 2000). Ethnographic studies communication of more important messages about our
of British primary schooling as well as research in concerns for each other and for our environment’ (Clay
Australia evidence that football is central in 1999:15).
constructing gender relations in school and in the
construction of hegemonic
3
BARBARA HUMBERSTONE
Nevertheless, it is largely through the PE curriculum for the teacher’s attention (Evans 1989). Merely
that outdoor adventure experiences are made available mixing boys and girls together without sensitive and
to pupils in the UK. careful integration and without a change in teaching
Physical education is a formal site that is strongly asso- approach may serve to exacerbate misconception and
ciated with messages and practices that bolster mistrust between the sexes and so reinforce masculine
ideological forms of masculinity and exaggerated hegemony.
inferiorised forms of femininity. Historically, the Traditional sex segregation in British physical educa-
image of the physical education teacher promulgated tion lessons does little to create greater understanding
in writings and so forth was one displaying various between girls and boys. Arguably it augments attitudes
characteristics of toughness, aggressiveness and that announce and celebrate the stereotypical polarities
competitive zeal. Im- plicitly linked with physical of representations of masculinity and femininity pre-
education teaching and classroom control were various vailing in sport such that co-operation and the recogni-
modes of domination that encouraged physical and tion of similarities between the sexes is stifled. All-
verbal attacks, diminish- ing pupil self-esteem and male environments may be problematic for some boys.
confidence (Whitehead and Henry 1976; Cohen and Such contexts place many boys under considerable
Manion 1981). Arguably, these descriptions were only pressure to conform to non-emotional, uncaring
partial and represented the pau- city of pedagogical masculine stereotypes, the laddish culture (Askew
research in physical education at that time. However, and Ross, 1988;Wright, 1997 ). Research of both PE
such texts highlighted the symbolic nature of and work with young women in the outdoors suggest
traditional physical education and the myths that that issues pertinent to young women, such as those
surround it. Anne Flintoff’s (1993) research into initial concerning personal relationships and health can more
teacher education in physical education, although not easily be addressed in ‘safe’ girl-only situations (see
giving credence to the mythology of excessive phys- Baker-Gra- ham, 1999; Barak et al. (2000); Scraton
ical or mental brutality in physical education teaching, 1993; Spratt,
clearly demonstrated the discourses and practices that McCormack and Collins 1998; Zaman 1997).
reinforce traditional concepts of masculinity and femi-
ninity. Male students during dance classes worked hard There is some evidence from an ethnographic study of
to distance themselves from association with the activ- one mixed-sex outdoor adventure centre that the form
ity and declined the possibility of male to male contact and content of the hidden and overt curricula held posi-
if asked to work with another male. Flintoff (1993:194) tive implications for pupil’s learning and confidences.
found that in the institutions she studied normalising An unintended consequence of the teaching approaches
discourses of heterosexuality and ideologies of mascu- realised through the material conditions, social
linity prevailed partly, ‘[B]y retaining soccer and rugby relations and ethos was a shift in gender identities and
as male-only activities, the institutions ensured the in- relations during the co-educational experience
volvement of male students in … “masculinising prac- (Humberstone 1986;1993). Behaviours demonstrating
tices”’. collaboration, responsibility and group support were
valued and encouraged rather than those expressing
Unfortunately, her research did not appear to explore aggressive, competitive individualism. The
outdoor adventure education teaching, probably be- experience provided the opportunity for boys to
cause of its marginalisation in teacher education in the rethink their views about girls’ physical potential and
UK. competences. The programme visibly challenged
stereotypical assumptions of gender and everyday
Cultural hegemony is difficult to shift. Even when at- notions of physicality. Girls’ and boys’ apparently
tempts have been made to create more equitable prac- more sensitive understanding of themselves and each
tices in school physical education lessons, there still other was a consequence of the contextual and
seems to be a continued reinforcement of traditional ideological features characteristic of the outdoor centre
gender relations and identities (Evans et al. - they were learning new skills together in relatively
1996;Wright 1997,1999). However, it is important to small numbers where they were positioned centrally in
acknowledge action research that has been undertaken their learning and affective (emotional) communication
with boys in physical education classes aimed at social was acknowledged. It is suggested that ‘physical
and personal development. Festeu (1998) has shown education experiences of these types could form a
that with intervention to the PE programme, there can developmental basis for alternative masculine
be positive changes in boy’s behaviour that is counter identities that neither celebrate the warrior ethos not
to the ‘laddish’ cultural behaviour. For girls, research identify co-operative endeavour, caring, and
suggests that they lose out in mixed sex groupings emotional expression as “wimpish” weakness ‘ (
because of in-abilities of teachers to bring about Humberstone,1990:210). How- ever, this research has
pedagogic change, together with persistent demand by not been replicated either at that centre or with other
many boys mixed groups of young people in other outdoor
contexts.
3
Most recent critical research of outdoor cultures has fo- gages with critical analyses of the field, drawing upon
cused largely on girls and women’s experience and has broader social, cultural, educational and environmental
illuminated the benefits for women and their possibili- theories. I have suggested that gender and difference
ties, ‘where women, ’stretch societally imposed limits must be central to those analyses and that cultural
on the use of the female body by engaging in activities diversity needs to be respected.
such as rock climbing and outdoor adventure and ex-
press feelings of empowerment’ (Wearing 1998:181). Throughout this congress, we have seen a variety of al-
However, much of this research has also identified ternative ways of learning through the outdoors. We
problems with outdoor cultures. Numerous empirical have seen that aspects of OAE can be made available
studies have shown that outdoor adventurous through a variety of formal and informal organisations
experiences can not be seen merely as a good thing and agencies. It is clear that greater collaboration and
practising particular ‘neutral’ ideologies (see Collins increasing partnership between these organisations,
2000; Allin 2000). Still such put downs as, ‘last one particularly youth work and schooling, is rapidly devel-
across is a big girl’s blouse!’ (Allwood 2000; Levi, oping and can only be beneficial both for the field and
1995) are used apparently to motivate young people for the richness of young people’s experience.
Research currently in progress provides disturbing data
for providers of outdoor adventure at school/ outdoors
interface. Nicola Manson, who is conducting ongoing References
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4
KIRSTI PEDERSEN
TACIT KNOWLEDGE AND CULTURAL
REPRODUCTION OF GENDER IN
NORWEGIAN OUTDOOR LIFE
Introduction structures, relations, ideologies and symbols (cf.

Pedersen, 1999).
Norwegian culture has generally been described as ho-
mogenous with few significant social and cultural dif-
ferences, and where equality has been achieved A cultural studies approach to
between women and men on most social arenas. In this outdoor life
so-called egalitarian culture, outdoor recreation and
adventure – or friluftsliv as it is called in Scandinavian As a framework for interpretation I will use a feminist
countries – is often conceptualised as a key symbol of a and cultural studies approach. This includes an under-
common national identity (Nedrelid, 1991; Goksøyr, standing of gender as socially constructed structures,
1994). This is not necessarily so. Recent studies show relations and symbols that are dynamic and
that outdoor recreation and adventure is a very changeable and that might be transformed. Thus it
heterogeneous concept, comprising activities that opens up for the study of how women’s and men’s,
may take place in diverse social and cultural settings. girls’ and boys’ lives, as well as perceptions of the
These studies also show that this cultural heritage is male and the female, vary due to historical, social and
not necessarily passed on to the younger generations. cultural circumstances (cf. Moore, 1988;
When young people do participate in outdoor Melhus/Rudie/Solheim, 1992; Drotner, 1993a, b). This
recreation and adventure, sociologist Kjetil Skogen implies that what it means to be a woman or a man in
(1999) has shown that their participation represent a relation to outdoor life must always be studied in
reproduction of social class structures and male concrete social, cultural and geographical contexts. It
dominance. In my research I have shown how the also implies that we are here dealing with positions,
dominant understanding of simplicity and equality in qualities, skills and ideologies that are not bi-
outdoor life hides deep cultural preconceptions of ologically given. In addition the cultural studies ap-
women’s and men’s un-equal positions and proach is based on the understanding that culture is
significance in the Norwegian culture. I have also only rarely expressed, described or discussed, because
shown how the male dominance is expressed not only culture is something that a group of people share and
in the number of participants and the activities chosen, take for granted. When specific values and ideas have
but in the language, symbols, and interpretations of become embodied as a part of peoples’
meaning that are used (Pedersen, 1998, 1999) .
1 understandings of themselves and their own reality, it
is something that people live within, and not something
It is a paradox that while the dominant ideology they need to think about, describe or explain - unless
focuses on egalitarian values, outdoor life is obviously that which is taken for granted and as “naturally given”
gendered both on the practical, as well as on the is threatened or questioned.
ideological and the symbolic levels. These patterns are,
Culture is not a simple and one-dimensional concept,
however, most often taken for granted and explained as
but contains complexities and is given various
“naturally given”. I will argue that the gendering of
meanings in different studies and settings. However,
outdoor life can be conceptualised as muted or tacit
most definitions emphasise that a specific culture
knowledge, and that this mutedness or tacitness plays
consists of ideas, values, and knowledge about the
an important role in the processes of cultural
reality that a specific group share and communicate,
reproduction of gendered
and that new members
1 This paper is based on an anthropological study of how women and men in the age group 30 – 70 years old in Northern Norway, and describe
their experiences of use of nature and how they understand themselves in relation to nature. In addition this presentation is based on the
perspectives and questions that I have just started to study in a new project called Youth, nature and identity – between local traditions and
global trends, financed by the Program for cultural studies, Norwegian Research Council and Finnmark University College.
4
KIRSTI PEDERSEN
(children and young people) are socialised into. This is gendered issues and relations in outdoor recreation and
an understanding of culture that emphasises traditions adventure (Pedersen, 1993; Humberstone, 1986;
and continuity, and where the preconditions is a society Henderson, 1992). A summary of Norwegian national
where few social changes occur. It is only in relatively surveys from the 1970s and 1980s (Pedersen, 1993)
stable societies that one can study e.g. the culture of show that women
outdoor recreation and adventure in this way, as
ideas, values, codes and symbols that are transmitted ❑ participate in other activities than men
from one generation to the next – more or less without ❑ spend less time on outdoor activities
any changes. Contemporary societies are characterised ❑ make use of their local environment
by marked changes and continuous breaks with ❑ more often participate together with their family
traditions. It therefore becomes necessary to use a ❑ rarely stay overnight and rarely make physically
concept of culture both in research and education that challenging trips
opens up for the study of innovations and ❑ stop doing outdoor activities as young adults, espe-
reinterpretations. This is necessary in order to cially in the 25-34 age group.
establish an approach that makes it possible to grasp What then are the patterns among the younger genera-
both continuity and changes. What it is that is really tion in the 1990s? Based on a sample of more than
new, what is changing, however slowly, and what it is 12.000 students from 67 Norwegian lower and upper
that stays the same, can only be answered through secondary schools (aged 13-20) Kjetil Skogen (1999)
empirical studies in specific social settings. Therefore, has shown that there are substantial gender differences
in a study of how traditions, values and ideas are with regard to participation in some central outdoor life
transmitted, changed and re-created in outdoor life one activities. He summarises the patterns this way:
has to establish a differential, relational, open, and “Boys were generally much more active than girls in
dynamic approach. The concept outdoor recreation and fishing and sailing/motorboating. Skiing, wilderness
adventure must be treated as a phenomenon that con- camping and canoeing/rowing showed a more moderate
tains different cultural practices and meanings (cf. predominance of boys in the active categories. Picking
berries/mushrooms was the only activity with a modest
Breivik, 1978). To be more concrete; in a Norwegian
predominance of girls” (Skogen, 1999: 283).
context one can identify at least three distinct, but
Both these findings and my own anthropological
sometimes overlapping, cultural groups of outdoors
studies of outdoor life in a community in the very north
people:
of Nor- way during the 1990s indicate that gendered
1) ‘the gatherers’ for whom harvesting nature as part patterns in outdoor recreation and adventure seem
of their subsistence economy is a prime motive resistant to change. A stable pattern, both over time
2) ‘the wanderers’ – where hiking and skiing just for and synchronically between different social groups of
pleasure, ‘being out’, and health is the most impor- women and men, seems to be that men are oriented to-
tant wards activities, equipment, and skills, while women
focus on relations. Another stable pattern is that
3) ‘the sportified specialists’; hunters, climbers,
women’s outdoor life belongs to the private sphere, but
‘telemarkers’, and dog-sledders, where excitement
women’s activities at home often represent tacit and
and challenge is the prime motive (Pedersen, 1995,
important preconditions for men’s outdoor activities.
1999).
This can be illustrated by the following dilemma: when
In addition, my approach is inspired by Clifford Geertz the focus of my analysis was directed towards outdoor
(1973) understanding of culture as a combination of life activities, it was as if the women disappeared, and
models of reality and models for reality; as both vice versa: it was as if the activities disappeared when
actions and interpretations. This means that culture is the focus was put on women’s lives and contexts.
perceived both as forces that govern actions and as a Then the social organisation around the family and
context which creates meanings. Based on this double the local environment became visible. Mastering the
ana- lytical perspective one can study both how nature outdoors is an important symbol of male identity, and
and outdoor life organise the daily activities of men outdoor life activities serve as an area where men’s
and women, boys and girls, and the importance that privileged positions are learned and thereby
nature and nature activities have for the creation of reproduced. It also seems clear that “male” outdoor life
gendered identities and understandings of reality activities have a public relevance and symbolise a
(Pedersen, 1999). common and unifying, local and/or national culture.
My research also shows that there exist strong practical
and ideological traditions that “order” or “organise”
Gendered structures, relations and outdoor life as if biological sex is decisive for social
symbols in outdoor life and cultural relations. Thus the gendered organisation
and symbolisation is naturalised in a way that is stable
Until the beginning of the 1990s, few analyses were across the different outdoor life
published neither nationally nor internationally on
4
TACIT KNOWLEDGE AND CULTURAL REPRODUCTION OF GENDER IN NORWEGIAN OUTDOOR
activities, social and cultural groups, across time, and

with widespread popular support (Pedersen, 1999). Processes of cultural reproduction
of gender in outdoor life
However, a growing number of studies (e.g.
Humberstone ed. 2000; Pedersen, 1999; Humberstone, Although these findings may not be very sensational
1986; Warren ed., 1996) show that when the social and and new, the challenge for us as researchers and educa-
cultural conditions are present, women can master a tors in outdoor recreation and adventure is to trace the
number of different and difficult challenges in nature. mechanisms that stimulate this slowness and continuity
These studies show that what women and men do, or despite the dramatic social changes that characterise
can do in the outdoors, and how they perceive what post-modern societies. Inspired by the British anthro-
they do, is socially organised in different ways. In pologist Paul Connerton’s concept of social memory,
other words, we see that what women and men do, and the Norwegian anthropologist Ingrid Rudie (1995) as-
their perceptions of self and of each other, can neither sumes that knowledge is produced and transmitted
organisation- ally nor symbolically be captured by the across life spans, and to the new generations in two
dichotomy that follows biological sex. This becomes forms; as discursive or articulated knowledge, and as
especially clear when women participate with practical or tacit and incorporated knowledge. This
independent competence in areas that are traditionally might explain the earlier mentioned paradox, that de-
defined as male. This can serve as an eye-opener: then spite the fact that women and girls can have varied and
people really have to make up their minds about what extensive competence in practical outdoor life, and de-
we mean by so-called male and female activities and spite the general discourse about equality, their contri-
male and female values. At the same time it becomes butions to the history and development of outdoor life
clear that we are dealing with graded abilities and has not been made relevant in scientific interpretations
competence, and with complex, contradictive, and and the public debate. In order to understand how this
changeable relations. This constitutes a break with the can happen, social anthropologist Edwin Ardner’s
positions that have been, and still are, dominant in (1975) theory about “muted groups” can be useful.
many men’s research on outdoor life. Their underlying Ardner claims that when women are not represented in
and unexpressed, but sometimes also explicitly scientific interpretations it is because their experiences
expressed, assumptions is often based on an and understandings of reality have not been, or are not,
understanding about masculinity and femininity as if it acceptable for the articulated knowledge production.
is biologically determined - and therefore ‘naturally One result is that women - in order to be heard - are
given’ and unchangeable (see e.g. Faarlund, 1974; forced to advance their views through the dominant
Breivik, 1990; Bjerke, 1993; Søilen, 1995). male ideology. When research on and education
through outdoor life has had, and still has, difficulty in
This may explain another stable pattern. Despite the
giving room for women’s experiences and gendered
fact that women do have varied and extensive
issues, one can claim that this is because women and
competence in practical outdoor life, discourses on
their lives represent unarticulated experiential worlds
gender equality have so far hardly penetrated into the
for male scholars and androcentric knowledge
reality of outdoor adventure and education. Neither
production (Pedersen, 1999).
people in general nor researchers, educators or
politicians have paid particular attention to the male
Many feminist scholars (cf. Spender, 1980; Drotner,
dominance or the genderedness of this core symbol of
2 1993a,b) have emphasised the importance of language
Norwegian national culture . Seen from women’s and in people’s understanding of reality. My research
girls’ perspective, outdoor life can be described as an shows that language and metaphors that are used both
arena consisting of several activities where men and in daily life and scientific interpretations, tie men and
boys as a social group have a very privileged position, masculinity to outdoor life, in a away that implicitly
and that this reflect many of the male privileges in exclude women and the feminine. This is clearly
society. In other words, the feminist cultural studies visible already in the context where the Scandinavian
approach show that biologically determined concept for outdoor life - friluftsliv - was created: in
explanations simplify reality in a way that becomes Henrik Ibsen’s poem Paa Vidderne (In the Mountains)
absurd, and that outdoor life must instead be studied as from 1859. There are strong indications that the
a field of complex and contradictive gender-related Norwegian culture is so incorporated in the gendered
social and cultural processes. Thus the distance language and practices that it relates to, that the actual
between what women and men can decrease or in- content is not acces-
crease; and it can be more or less polarised.
2 Although the Department of the Environment as early as in 1987 expressed that gender equality in outdoor life is a public responsibility, one
can claim that few visible initiatives have been taken by official authorities in order to improve the situation for girls and women in outdoor
4
KIRSTI PEDERSEN
life during this period. It was for example not followed up in the action plan for outdoor life towards the year 2000, published by the
Directorate for Na- ture Management in 1991.
4
sible to us as meanings. By using an analytic concept male biased (androcentric) understandings must yield
that has been developed by the French sociologist to research and education which aim at visualising
Pierre Bourdieu (1977) one can say that we are in a inherent social and cultural gendered structures and
doxic field of the Norwegian culture. If this contradictions, and to transcend stereotyped
interpretation is right, the asymmetric gender relations 3
perceptions about female and male identities . My
and the male dominance represent the collective
studies show that so far it is mainly women who have
subconscious, and thereby deep cultural preconditions
taken the initiative to do this, for example by trying to
that at the same time are interwoven in the structures
create public attention about these issues, and ‘a room
of society. What we talk of here are hard-programmed
of their own’ where they can gain experience and
(cf. Rudie, 1984) culturally constructed practices and
exchange knowledge. Other initiatives that have been
understandings that are extremely difficult to
seen, is that groups of women have tried to challenge
restructure - and thereby change. It is in this context I
the male hegemony, and at- tempted to create
have argued that gender relations in outdoor life
collective strategies that can explode a privatised and
belong to the tacit and deep cultural preconditions in
family oriented outdoor life as the only framework for
the Norwegian society (Pedersen, 1999).
women’s contact with nature in contemporary
Another Norwegian social anthropologist Heidi society. Therefore it is very rewarding to work together
Skramstad (1999) analyses and discusses different un- with female students who are interested and on the
derstandings of the related concepts tacit and muted. offensive, and with male students who express posi-
She divides tacitness and mutedness in four different, tive experiences and feelings about working in gen-
but related, and partly overlapping processes: der-mixed groups in the outdoors, and to co-operate on
an equal footing. This fits with what the women I have
1) ideology or hegemony conditioned tacitness or mu- studied emphasise. They neither want to be like men,
tedness nor do they want to compete with them. The point for
2) practical experiences that we never talk about, sim- many of them is to strengthen women’s and girls’ com-
ply because they are part of the common sense in- petence and skills in nature, on their own terms, and
terpretations of everyday life and therefore not ne- thereby be able to create a basis for more profound na-
cessary to discuss ture experiences and a better quality of life. They also
3) politically motivated tacitness or mutedness becau- emphasise equal opportunities and gender relations.
se it does not pay to say anything The strategy where specific activities are organised for
4) experiences that can not be expressed because they women is seen as a means to reach this end, and not as
are traumatic and suppressed. an end in itself.
The kind of tacitness or mutedness that I have These finds and perspectives can create a basis for fur-
identified as being at work in the cultural reproduction ther reflections, theory building and studies. Percep-
of gender in outdoor life belongs mostly to categories 1 tions which advocate that the individual has great
and 2; the hegemonic conditioned tacitness, and the chances of creating and shaping his or her own
taken for grantedness in every day life experiences. identity, are inspired by theories of modernity which
However, one can not leave out of account that some view traditions as something that belong to pre-
people may have conscious political interests in not modern societies. But contemporary society is of
raising the gendered questions in relation to outdoor course also based on values and practices that can be
life. relatively stable. An important insight is therefore
that there both exist new possibilities and strong
limitations in the ways women and men, girls and
Cultural changes and gender boys, can use nature. One can also clearly see that
challenges in outdoor life when established outdoor life traditions like harvesting
and hiking lose their importance, then both individuals
The above mentioned social anthropologist Ingrid
and entire local communities are forced to re-negotiate
Rudie (1995) defines cultural reproduction as processes
and reformulate their possibilities in their search for
that over time contain both continuity and changes. A
new ways of being together, meaning, and culturally
basic question remains: how can the connections be-
gendered identities. This means increased cultural
tween men, masculinity and outdoor recreation and ad-
differentiation and specialisation. And the more the
venture be broken and given a new content both on the
traditions lose their hold, and the more daily life is
practical and symbolic levels, that include women and
reconstructed in terms of the dialectic interplay
the feminine? One precondition for that to happen is
between the local, the national and the global, the more
that the naturalistic, deterministic (essentialist), and
individuals are forced to negotiate lifestyles and
choose among a
4
KIRSTI PEDERSEN
3 The reflective team approach that was elaborated by Jan Seger and Urban Bergsten from Stockholm’s University in one of the workshops at
the conference, was a good example of how this could be done.
4
diversity of options (cf. Rudie, 1984; Zhiehe, 1989; perceived as

Giddens, 1991; Gullestad, 1996). Such processes can
be painful and influence new generations from as early
as their pre-school days (Pedersen, 1999).
These gendered processes show that people’s identity

in relation to outdoor recreation and adventure can not
be created or transformed according to the same
principle as when you fill your shopping basket.
External symbols, such as a fishing rod, a special
rucksack, or a weekend activity course, can never
replace experience. The division that Marianne
Gullestad (1996) draws between social roles,
identities, and the self can be helpful in order to
understand what is happening: people can take on
several outdoor life roles - for example in hunt- ing,
climbing or paddling - without having to seek ac-
ceptance for all of them. Nor must these roles necessar-
ily become part of their own self-understanding. A
deep understanding of one’s own self and skilfulness in
outdoor life activities can only be shaped through a
strong intrinsic motivation, lasting involvement, and
repeated experiences in the outdoors - over a long
period of time. If cultural changes are to take place,
both women and men must develop new values,
practices, and perceptions of what it means to be a
woman or a man; what women and men can (and ought
to) do, and the relations between them. So far my
studies indicate that we can not expect that nature and
outdoor life will be a significant or dominant point of
reference for large groups of girls (and women)
(however, I hope I am wrong) in their search for a
cultural identity in contemporary societies. This is still
a central point of reference for large groups of young
boys and men. We need studies that can illuminate
how such processes of cultural reproduction of gender
in outdoor life take place (Pedersen, 2000).
Concluding remarks
What is recognised as knowledge in society, school,
and in the different subjects, and how this knowledge
is produced and/or reproduced through the
educational system, is part of the culture of any
society. This can be seen in theories about social and
cultural reproduction (Bernstein, 1977; Willies, 1977;
Broch-Utne and Haukaa, 1980) that explain how
people and students who come from social classes that
share the educational culture’s dominant values, norms,
and perceptions of reality, succeed throughout the
educational system. These theories have shown how
the educational systems is better adapted to some
groups in society than others;
e.g. how boys’ physical and outdoor needs and
interests are better taken care of than girls’ (Evans, ed.
1986; Humberstone, 1986; Scraton and Flintoff, 1992).
Until recently, knowledge and skills about how to

travel and survive in the Norwegian nature was
4
KIRSTI PEDERSEN
something natural and something that was learned ambivalens’, in Drotner, Kirsten/Rudberg, Monika
through everyday life practices - from mother to
daugh- ter, father to son - not only in the rural areas.
As a formal educational subject, outdoor life has been
a part of the national curriculum since the late 1960s,
both in the primary school and in higher education.
Outdoor activities are naturally something that has
always been found in Norwegian schools, originally
more for social reasons and as a break in a
theoretically oriented school. During the latest
curriculum reforms in the 1990s, outdoor life has
gained importance as an independent subject. It is a
means to learn to preserve nature, and to sustain
outdoor life as a core aspect of Norwegian culture
and national identity. It is, however, an open question
whether and how the school system is able to
represent or support this field, and to stimulate
increased gender equality, skills, and enjoyment
about being outdoors.
Acknowledgements
Finnmark University College and the Norwegian Re-
search Council by the Program for Sport Studies
(1990-1994) and by the Program for Cultural Studies
(2000-2002) fund this research. Thanks to Ole Petter
Gurholt for translating the Norwegian text into
English.
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Moore, Henrietta L. (1988) Feminism and Anthropol- Willis, Paul E. (1977) Learning to labour: how work-
ogy. Camebridge: Polity Press. ing class kids get working class job. Farnborough:
Saxon House.
Nedrelid, Tove (1991) ’Use of Nature as a Norwegian
Characteristic. Myths and reality’, Ethnologica Ziehe, Thomas (1989) Kulturanalyser. Ungdom,
Scandinavica, Vol. 21: 20-33. utbildning, modernitet. Stockholm: Symposion
Bokförlag.
Pedersen, Kirsti (2000) Youth, Nature and Identity –
between local traditions and global trends. Project
outline, financed by the Program for cultural stud-
ies, Norwegian Research Council.
Pedersen, Kirsti (1999) «Det har bare vært naturlig».
Friluftsliv, kjønn og kulturelle brytninger.
Doktoravhandling. Oslo: Norges idrettshøgskole.
Pedersen, Kirsti (1998) ‘Doing Feminist Ethnography
in the Wilderness around my Hometown: Method-
ological Reflections’, International Review for the
Sociology of Sport, Vol. 33, no. 4: 379-389.
Pedersen, Kirsti (1995) ‘På sporet av et mangfold av
friluftslivsstiler’, in Damkjær, Søren/ Ottesen,
Laila (eds.) Ud i det fri - Sport, turisme og
4
Eric Maddern
THE CRUNCH
An Initiative to Renew Rites of Passage for Young People the
Rites of Passage Special Interest Group
This paper ist a developing description of the work of this has led to increasing adolescent crime (by those
a collaboration in the UK co-ordinated by Eric who hit out) and suicide (by those who turn their feel-
Maddern who is also the paper’s author. It is based ings inward):
on regular conversations by the group concerning
their work in It may “only” be 12% of young people who are driven
„youth rites of passage” programmes. Each person to extremes of crime and suicide. However research
works from this paper when describing this work in suggests (“Leading Lads“) that another roughly 60%
order to maintain the “authencity” of the groups of young people are not coping well and have problems
thinking. with low self-esteem. This is specially true with boys
whose self-confidence decreases through adolescence
Drawing inspiration from the forms and functions of and reaches a low at age 19 when they leave home.
traditional youth rites of passage - practised in numer- Their problems are compounded because most boys are
ous cultures around the world and throughout time - we reluc- tant to talk about difficulties. Many appear fine
are developing and piloting contemporary forms of from the outside but may be falling apart inside.
rites of passage which will help to meet the pressing
needs of young people in the 21st century.
2. The Time Honoured Solution
Though we live in rapidly changing times there is
RATIONALE
much about the process of growing into adulthood that
is the same as it has always been. This is why
1. The Problems examining how rites of passage worked in other times
and cultures and
Making the journey from the dependence of adoles-
cence to the responsibility of adulthood is never easy, applying those lessons to today’s situation can be of
but today it is exacerbated by many factors, including immense value. Most cultures recognised the
the following: potentially de-stabilising force of undirected youth, of
young men in particular, and devised clear, firm and
the bewildering complexity of educational pressures creative ways to constructively channel these energies
and choices, making it hard to see the wood for the to bring about a purposeful and responsive adulthood.
trees: Here is a brief summary of the form and functions of
traditional rites of passage, abstracted from several pre-
the extension of youth into the mid twenties and
industrial cultures from around the world. The focus is
beyond, with many young people showing a reluctance
on how it was for boys, but today much would be
to “grow up“:
relevant for girls as well.
for boys, fewer traditional male work roles, with more
women doing men’s work, but not vice versa; no “job
for life“: Form
a lack of socially useful work (the electronic culture, When a youth (between 13 and 17 years) is deemed
some say, is a “dismal substitute for the real thing“) ready by appropriate elders he is removed from his
leading to uncertainty around roles, purpose and cosy family circle and, with the co-operation of the
values: grieving women, taken “away“. Classically this is the
severance or separation phase.
the contemporary emphasis on fashion, celebrity and
image is superficial and unfulfilling, leading to feelings He then enters the threshold phase where he becomes
of emptiness and irrelevance: the dignified and highly valued focus of a series of
cere- monies that at times involve the whole
in a consumer culture that measures worth by material community.
possessions young people may become frustrated and
He is intensively taught survival skills - tracking, hunt-
angry if unable to purchase these symbols of value:
ing lore, communication, making fire, building shelter,
4
Eric Maddern
crafting tools and weapons - and the sacred topography ger of infection by evil. So, while the boys are learning
of the surrounding landscape. adult values, adults try harder to practice those values.
He is subjected to tests and ordeals that force him to The growth of children into adulthood is therefore part
confront his fears - especially his fear of separation of the continued growth of society as a whole.
from mother and the fear of death. Indeed, he will go
through a “death“, the death of himself as a child.
What about Western Traditions?
He is exposed to rapid-fire secret teachings from his
culture’s mythology which show him who he is and Some may object to this emphasis on drawing inspira-
where he comes from. tion from pre-industrial cultures. It seems a long time
since such rites of passage were practised in Britain.
He may be encouraged to seek a vision of his identity, That’s a fair point. In the West for many centuries it
purpose and connection with the natural world by fast- has been Work, especially the apprenticeship system,
ing alone in the wilderness. and
Towards the end of the threshold phase his adult
going into the Services, that have provided the two
responsibilities - to himself, to society and to the
main rite of passage experiences for most young
natural world
people. Both fulfilled some of the functions of
- are emphasised. traditional rites of passage and had comparable forms.
Finally, in the return phase, he is re-integrated to his But with the changing nature of work and the scaling
community where his new adult status is recognised, down of the Armed Forces these options are less
honoured and celebrated. available than they once were. This is a further reason
why there is a pressing need to develop contemporary
forms of rites of passage. In doing so we can learn
Functions from the Apprenticeship and Services models as well.
This rites of passage process achieves transformation
from an individual being to a social being, from one 3. A Note on Ritual
living just in the present to one who sees the past and
the future, from one who only consumes to one who For some the concept of “rites” as contained within
also creates. In particular the young person: rites of passage may have negative associations. In its
primary meaning “ritual” refers to “formal acts set by
learns how to survive independently and with confi- tra- dition, usually performed for a religious purpose".
dence in the wider world: Rit- uals - particular words and acts - are used to
consecrate or make sacred a place, a time, a person, an
by experiencing ordeals and the love of his elders,
object or a being of nature.
learns how to deal with difficult emotions (fear, pain,
anger, grief, greed, boredom, loneliness) and to feel They have the effect of intensifying experience, of
and express positive states (respect, appreciation, charging a person with feelings of reverence for
enthusiasm, love, courage): creative forces greater than themselves, be they
experiences a “spiritual awakening” by meeting with “divine“, “su- pernatural” or “ancestral“. Rituals work
Ancestral Spirits or the Divine or by seeing himself, for by using sym- bolism. They are, in essence, about
the first time, as a valuable part of the beauty and making meaning. They do not have to be attached to
splen- dour of Nature and the Cosmos: specific faiths, but, as the word “spiritual” suggests,
by being exposed to the powerful stories and strong can simply be practices which help a person spirally
traditions of his people, comes to feel a deep sense of as- cend to a heightened sense of being. They are, some
his cultural and individual identity: say, as fundamental to human culture as language
itself. In traditional rites of passage every lesson,
through the process of “seeking a vision” finds a sense ordeal or song is part of a sacred ritual clearly
of purpose in his life and begins to realise his adult re- designed to consecrate
sponsibilities:
the life of the initiate.
becomes an integrated member of his community. In
summary we could say that initiations teach independ- Today many traditional rituals have lost their value.
ence, emotional resilience, spiritual awareness, a sense However the need for ritual persists. Many people are
of identity, purpose, responsibility and community in- now experimenting with creating new rituals, drawing
volvement. Another benefit of the rites of passage pro- on the principles and practices of the past but adapting
cess is that the adults involved make extra efforts to and devising forms which meet the needs of the
purify themselves so that the boys are reborn without present. This is a necessary and healthy development.
dan- Making new forms of rites of passage is part of that
process.
5
THE
METHOD fears, learning survi-
The 21st century world is vastly different from that of

pre-industrial cultures where rites of passage was a
conscious and common practice. We now know so
much more. Communication is instantaneous around
the world.
The speeds we can travel would have been unimagin-
able a hundred years ago. Our rate of resource
consumption (and corresponding production of
waste) increased exponentially. Above all life is so
much more complex.
We can easily be bewildered by an overwhelming
array of choice. A consequence of this is that we often
cannot see the wood for the trees, or, to mix metaphors,
the left hand doesn’t know what the right hand is
doing.
There are many domains of knowledge and ways of
working that can and sometimes do contribute towards
a rites of passage type experience for young people
today. But none of them, on their own, provide the
complete experience. Brought together, integrated by a
rites of passage perspective, their effectiveness and
potency could be increased many times. The principle
domains of knowledge and work which provide the
source material for the renewal of rites of passage are
as follows.
1. Sources
❑ Anthropology It’s by studying other cultures that
we know about the widespread practice of rites of
passage. The variety of approaches, rituals and ac-
companying mythology can be a source of insight
and inspiration to us now. Not that we would lift
complete processes from one culture into our own.
But we can glean ideas and perspectives. We may
be able to benefit from the direct teachings of, say,
Na- tive American, African or Australian
Aboriginal elders. We may also rediscover the
traditional practices of early British peoples such
as the Celts.
❑ Youth Work Whereas anthropology provides theo-
ry, youth work is about grass roots practice. Youth
workers are faced with the everyday reality of how
it is for young people. They learn non-patronising
ways of “being with” them and regularly discuss
and deal with the pressing issues of sexuality,
pregnancy, family breakdown, anger, conflict
resolution, racism, drug and alcohol use,
delinquency and the police, survival skills, work,
leisure and how to relate to adults.
❑ Outdoor Activities Outward Bound and other out-
door education establishments originally had rites
of passage as part of their agenda. That has
lessened due to pressures of time and money, but
nevertheless taking young people on adventures
into the wilds often involves them facing their
5
Eric Maddern
val skills and experiencing directly the awesome
beauty of Nature. It can suffer from a “macho”
approach with an over-emphasis on skills, but
recent initiatives have been concentrating on the
spiritual potential of the outdoors.
❑ Environmental Movement This encompasses a
wide range of activity for young people which
includes: exploring natural habitats and
developing the skills of a naturalist; being
involved in nature and wilderness conservation;
campaigning with environmental organisations;
doing “deep ecology” to expand awareness of
how we are part of a living planet;
knowing the scientific story of the origins of the
Earth and the evolution of Life. All this can lead to a
deeper connection with Nature and help individuals
see how they are part of the wider world.
❑ Creative Arts Most arts originated in a ritual con-
text and had a spiritual purpose. Now creative
works are made for an audience, but use of
symbol and metaphor in the act of creation still
expands a person. Listening to stories may deepen
a sense of cultural roots and awaken the idea of
life as a heroic journey. Writing poetry values the
individual’s experience . Participating in drama
brings confidence and can en- large the sense of
self. With sculpture and art people create meaning
with their hands. Making music and dancing is
freeing and joyful.
❑ Psychology In the last 30 years there’s been a
huge increase in understanding of the human
psyche and methods for personal growth and
development. The- se include listening, empathy
and communication skills, assertiveness training,
anger management, relationship and family
counselling, gender awareness, emotional
literacy, techniques for self-realisation, group
dynamics. There are many models available to
assist insight. These can be helpful in work with
young people.
❑ Survival Skills Skill training today includes a
wide range of contemporary skills such as
computer literacy, self-presentation, interview
technique, budge- ting etc. But young people also
often enjoy learning the more traditional arts of
survival such as map reading and navigation,
fire building and making shelters, finding wild
food and cooking.
❑ Spiritual Approaches All the faiths make
contributions here, teaching lessons in respect
and self-acceptance, learning to love, prayer,
meditation and stilling the mind, the vision quest,
nature as teacher, timeless values of beauty and
truth, the perennial philosophy…
This is not a complete list of sources to be drawn on
in renewing rites of passage for youth, but it is
enough. Many of these areas of knowledge are
peripheral to mainstream education, seen as optional
extras. From the
5
THE
perspective of rites of passage they are central. The natural world, perhaps spiritual awakening, reflec-
problem is that they are usually pursued separately. ting on purpose and dreams, asking “who am I?
What we are proposing is to create a rites of passage where am I from? what am I to do? what is the
process which builds on the basic traditional form (sev- mea- ning of life?", experiencing a rite of passage.
erance, threshold, return) but which fills in the content
by drawing on the above eight domains of knowledge
in an integrated and holistic way. Return
❑ Re-integration into the Community At the end of
2. The Proposed
this process (6 to 9 months) there would be an
unex- pected (to the young people) celebration
Structure Preparation arranged by their community to show honour,
respect, appreciation, love and that the “elders”
❑ Forming a Group A group of young people, say 16- know how to have a good time too!
19 years old, may already exist and may be inter-
ested in finding out more about the THRESHOLD
INITIATIVE. Alternatively a group may be formed Continuation
with the specific intention of engaging in the
Initiati- ve. There could be positive incentives for ❑ Mentor Development Initially there will need to be
young people to join such a group, like, for mentor development training for those who wish to
example, the paying of a minimum wage for run the THRESHOLD INITIATIVE. Then suitable
coming to meetings. young people who have been through the program-
❑ Weekly Meetings Regular two hour meetings me would be recruited to act as mentors in later
would be held (for, say, six weeks) for people to programmes. This process is an absolute key to
begin to re- the success of the Initiative. Ideally mentors
lax together, get to know each other, discuss issues would continue in a supportive relationship to
of concern, build up to the idea of a weekend away. mentees for up to two years.
This is very much like what already happens in
youth clubs.
3. The Proposed Content
Separation There are a huge number of possibilities of what would
actually be done within the structure outlined above. In
❑ A Weekend Camp Away from normal reality, time a workbook may be produced providing practical
media free, ideally with nature nearby, this taster ideas. What follows are some brief suggestions of
might include touching the wild, walking, activities appropriate to the three main phases of the
climbing, paddling, learning how to make fire, rites of passage process. This section is very much
hearing mythic tales around the fire, telling your “work in progress“.
story, speaking truth, maybe making a sculpture, a
picture, beginning to imagine what is possible,
returning home wanting more. Preparation for Separation
Meanwhile, back at the ranch…
Looseners - games, introductions, informal humour, 5
❑ The Adults Meet Parents, teachers, guides and
rhythms dance, stories.
guar- dians meet with the convenors of the
Initiative and are convinced of its value and Sharing Issues - e.g. about parents, divorce, sex, rela-
importance. Their cooperation is gained for tionships, drugs, violence. Using “talking stick” and
planning a celebration after the return from the “way the the council“. Introducing element of cere-
Threshold Retreat. mony, no giggling e.g. “This is a place where men talk
about men’s things".
Threshold
Conflict resolution - dealing with conflict as it arises.
❑ The Big One After several more weekly meetings Is- sues around competitiona nd cooperation.
and for those who are ready, this would be a 5 to 10
day (even longer if possible) epic adventure, taking Reviewing the Past - drawing a lifeline, look at what’s
place in a wild part of the country and including a given them strength, what they wish to be rid of, write,
subtle weave of physical challenge, survival skill paint, dance or tell their life stories, plot highs and lows
learning, creative expression, time in the group (“chuff charts“), draw “road maps“.
talking, listening and supporting, emotional
development, time alone vision questing and
tuning into the
5
Eric Maddern
Tell Tales, Make Music - tell traditional or personal Blessing and Caring for Tools - when involved in a
tales that are entertaining and/or have “teachings“; practical making project like carving or sculpture be
make im- provised music with whatever instruments sure to bless the tools first and care for them after.
are available; compose songs.
Making prayers, offerings, wishes, intentions -
Separate the Sexes - at times important to have sexes involves giving away, making a line from where you
meeting separately, possibly whole groups as they have are to where you want to be: “energy follows
different issues and require different kinds of ceremo- awareness; intent directs awareness".
nies.
Discussing Values - exploring meaning of the good,
Choosing a “stand behind” - each person has a mentor beautiful and true and other desirable qualities/values.
figure (like a godparent) who shadows them, answers
questions and speaks for them when appropriate. Assessing readiness for Threshold phase - is person
“psychologically” minded, will he’she benefit from it,
Giving history of place you live - exploring the past of
are they ready to move forward; be careful about look-
your community, its traditions, what connects you to
ing at “files“.
the land. Getting feeling of your “place on Earth“.
Presenting models of the self - e.g. the Medicine
Wheel, psychosynthesis, TA and gestalt, king-warrior- Threshold
magi- cian-lover and others. Acknowledge that model
is map not territory, different strokes for different folks Refine intention - what you intend is what you get;
etc. brings tremendous clarity; you get what you deserve or
need or have earned.
“Elders” talk about own experience - especially what
they gained from own rites of passage. Important to Simplicity rather than discomfort - Making sacred space
gain authority through authenticity, value of inspiring - demonstrate how to create a sacred space, to build a
talk, being able to operate without models. shrine - the importance of boundary, focus, effort,
beauty, offering…
Saying goodbye to “old self” - recognising what you
have to let go of, acknowledging fears, thinking about Looking out, looking in - rituals may focus on outward
how things might be in 10 or 20 years. vision leading to connection with Nature and Cosmos,
or inward vision to see own heart: or both.
Looking back, looking forward - rituals may focus on
Separation healing the past or opening up to the future: or both.
Making contracts - making simple open ended agree- Fear is threshold guardian - may be important to own
ments to be clear about what is being undertaken. up to fears beforehand or to crank them up; risk
Could also mean saying “I am not ready to take you". essential part of process. Methods may include
Taking responsibility for food - promote awareness of climbing, abseiling, a night walk, “a Night on the
what they are eating, encourage small scale fasting, Mountain of Fear" or simply speaking your truth in the
bring up issues around sugar, tea, coffee; set tone for group. Need appropriate level of challenge e.g. feeling
rituals by saying some kind of grace, be involved in that could die!
cut- ting wood for fire, create a bread-making Implementing models - if models have been introduced
ceremony. e.g. medicine wheel, eight directions now is the time
Survival Skills - design and build a shelter, use it as a for their meaning and value to be revealed.
bivvy, possibly keep a fire going all night. An expedition - this phase may involve coming to and
Tune into Wildlife - become aware of birds, insects, exploring a new place, cultivating curiosity, developing
mammals, trees, the sounds they might hear at night. aims and the means to meet them, alone or with
support achieving the goals, bringing back stories,
Earth Awareness exercises - e.g. a microhike, blindfold sharing the experience. To this could be added
walk, finding a special place, making a sound map, meditation/tai chi, storytelling, refining intention,
writing a poem, asking a question of a tree! storytelling, creative expression, making shrines and
ceremony.
Telling life story - or current chapter with a partner, fo-
cussing on upcoming transition. Respect - when working with physical skill need to re-
spect tools and materials e.g. ask a tree for a branch;
Telling Mythic Tales - one story (e.g. Jumping Mouse, frustrations at beginning give way to elation at feelings
the Quest for the Grail) can become a theme or an axis of “we did it!” Experience of transformation.
for a whole weekend.
5
THE
Next Steps - choosing goals to focus on after leaving

threshold phase. 2. Orientation to Self
Telling relevant chunks of personal history to a partner,
small group or whole group. Working with feelings
Return that arise. Expressing story in different ways – “chuff
charts“, pictures, dance, short writings. Gaining clarity
Half-way house - can be used on way back to commu-
and perspective on life journey. Getting sense of
nity to show slides of the week, present gifts, produce
drama, tragedy, blocks, potential, desires, hidden
A2 pictures of each young person doing something
talents. Leaders present models to aid understanding.
positive which can be given to the parents.
Letters to Selves - drawing on positive energy and feel-
ings generated write letters to selves as a kind of prom-
3. Orientation to Group
ise to the future. Establishing circle with talking stick, discussing rele-
vant issues, dealing with conflict, exploring the rela-
Angels - everyone has an angel, someone in the group tionships between mentor and participant. Developing
but they don’t know who. listening skills, empathy, mutual respect.
A Continuing Network of Support
4. Practical Survival Skills
WHERE TO FROM HERE Learning basic camping routines (use of sleeping bags
etc),; how to make and maintain a fire (including mak-
ing fire without matches, chopping wood); designing
Pilot Projects and constructing simple shelters; cooking food. . .
The year 2000 will see the trialling of this proposed
contemporary rites of passage form in different parts 5. Physical Challenge
of Britain. The intention is to work with as wide a
variety of groups as possible to learn as much as we Activities could include: a) paddling coracles and
can about the process. This work will be evaluated and Cana- dian canoe on the lake; b) rock climbing and
the results abseiling;
c) mountain walking up one of the nearby summits
disseminated widely. We are confident that the time (Elidir, Snowdon or the Glydirs). Working with
has come for an integrated holistic way of working positive visualisation, team work, moving in and out of
with young people that utilises the forms and fulfills comfort zones. Providing the chance for a spiritual
the functions of traditional rites of passage, but that is experience outdoors.
adapted to meet the needs of young people today.
6. Creative Expression
Eric Maddern
Activities could include: a) working with knives and
[email protected] Fachwen, North Wales
axes to carve and sculpt wood; b) making an
THE CRUNCH environmental sculpture; c) writing poems, making up
a song; d) doing dance (5 rhythms), movement or
A critical situation, a decisive moment martial arts practice; e) making music with drums and
A Rites of Passage Experience for Young Men other instruments.
Designed for Group from Westminster Council,
May 2000
Threads and Themes 7. Soul Food
Listening to old stories - folktales, myths and legends -
1. Orientation to Place talking about their meaning and lessons. Singing chants
and songs. Playing with animal and/or universe cards.
Getting familiar with the earthy dwellings and struc- Using ways to enrich the imagination, expand
tures of Cae Mabon, finding what1s where, hearing ba- possibili- ties. Daring to dream.
sic survival instructions. Some background to the cul-
tural and historical context. Touching the wild.
Encoun- tering forest, river, lake, mountain. Tuning 8. Ritual
into the complexity, beauty, interdependence, Gently introducing such notions and practices as: culti-
delicacy and rugged- ness of the natural world. vating awareness by stilling the mind; marking impor-
Expanding awareness of external world, from moss to tant life transitions; honouring elements, directions, an-
the stars. cestors, spirits, gods or God; creating sacred space and
5
Eric Maddern
building shrines; focussing intent (or prayer); cleansing Finding special place in forest; poetry and/or short
and purification; using symbolic actions and objects; story writing
making offerings, giving and receiving blessings.
More songs and stories (e.g. Jumping Mouse)
9. The Crunch Day 5
This is the climax of the week when each participant Focussing intent
does something they find challenging and scary but Mountain walk (most of day)
which they are willing to try. It could be a “vision
quest” or “night on the mountain of fear“, where they Reviewing and group process
spend a night alone in the forest. Other challenges
Making music, create a song
might be offered according to the readiness of the
participant. They may be instructed to reflect on what Day 6
is their unique gift, purpose or destiny.
Completing environmental sculpture on site
Tim e in pairs, reflecting alone
A Possible Sequence
Group discussion, preparation for Vision Quest
Day 1
Choosing site for the night
Arrive and settle in
Night on the Mountain of Fear
Day 2
Orienting to immediate natural environment Arrival of additional mentors
Telling own story in pairs – creating picture – sharing Day 7

with group Return from night out
Learning about fire lighting and chopping wood Group process – welcoming participants back Mentor
Introduced to notion of “sacred space“ group devises honouring ceremony for young men
Completions of process – e.g. writing letters, choosing
Hearing songs and stories around the fire new name Celebration
Getting sorted around cooking and washing up Day 8
Group discussion and process Clean up, pack and depart
Note: on Monday evening the group will need to be Final word
away from site between 7.15 and 9.30 due to a
previous Roundhouse storytelling booking. We acknowledge that the aim of this project is to
increase the “employability” of these young men.
Day 3 However we firmly believe that their life prospects will
Movement session leading to 5 rhythms dance be most effec- tively enhanced by increasing their inner
resources of self-worth, creativity, ability to speak their
Making sounds into calls, chants and songs truth and to listen to and hear others, a sense of purpose
Rock climbing session emphasising risk, teamwork, or direction, a feeling that they are part of a large and
positive visualisation wondrous world. That is what we will be aiming for in
this residential experience. After THE CRUNCH we
Group discussion about comfort zones confidently predict an expansion of possibilities and
Beginning to make something, a shrine perhaps? new feelings of empowerment in those who have
experienced it.
Presenting models e.g. medicine wheel, four
archetypes More stories and songs THE CRUNCH
Day 4 Young Man!
Canoeing in coracles, Canadian canoe
(yes, that means you)
Learning about making basic shelters – link to coracles
Do you want respect?
Further group discussion – looking at what you can
make in your life Do you want things to get better?
Do you want “a life“?
5
THE
Then come to THE CRUNCH!

This is a week specially designed for young men in the
wilds of Wales.
Here, with a bunch of amazing older men, you1ll have
a chance to get a grip on yourself, to see what your life
is all about.
How1s it going to happen? We can1t tell you. That
would give the game away. What we can say is that
you1ll get to sit around the fire, hear extraordinary
tales, be heard, make music, get lost in the forest,
paddle your canoe, snake up mountains, surprise
yourself.
And a lot more. All in a brilliant place.
So, be bold, step out, come to THE CRUNCH.
Life will never be the same again.
PS Quote from previous participant: “It’s like being
high on nothing!“
5
HERMANN RADEMACKER
UNEMPLOYMENT AND EDUCATION
I would like to make some introductory remarks realise a biographi-

regarding the German Youth Institute, where I am
coming from and the kind of research we do there. The
institute is almost totally financed by the federal
government. It is a kind of social research
infrastructure for the youth and family services in our
country. That means that those, who are mainly
interested in the results of our work are the
professionals and the politicians in the field of social
work. We have at least two types of research work at
the institute, one type is mainly characterised by
evaluating programs and projects, which aim at
supporting the social integration of disadvantaged
young people in our country and the other type of
work are more general surveys regarding the situation
of young people and families in our country and also
some longitudinal studies, focussing on political
attitudes and political activities of young people.
This means that the research work of the institute
covers the living conditions and the situation of all
young people in our county, but nevertheless has
special emphases on those young people who need
additional support to deal with the challenges of their
everyday life and those of becoming an integrated and
active member of society.
The reason – also that might be interesting for you –
why the institute was established more than thirty years
ago was that the German parliament had made a
legislation by which the German government has to
deliver a national report regarding the situation of
young people in country every four years, which means
one during each parliamentary term. Until today, the
co-operation with the commission, who is responsible
for this report, is one of the central tasks of the
institute.
I myself worked during the last twenty years on two
main subjects:
One was the co-operation between schools and youth
services and the other was the transition of young peo-
ple from school to work. The experience we made in a
variety of projects dealing with these subjects is the
main background for what I have to contribute here.
As you know, I am not an expert for outdoor and
adventure education, but I hope I will be able to
describe a kind of picture of the demands and
challenges young people have to deal with in order to
5
Eric Maddern
cal pathway into adult life and into society, which

will enable you to find and identify contributions
from outdoor and adventure education in order to
realise a successful juvenile biography.
The dramatic social change, which we see, at least
since the early 1970s, has also changed the
framework conditions of growing up. This change
was mainly introduced by changes in the world of
labour. And it is one main characteristic, which
makes this change obvious:
Since the early 1970s, the traditional Fordist type of
production, which meant mass-production by mass-
employment, is eroding. Since than we realise that
we have still mass-employment but no longer mass-
production. The first obvious outcome of this erosion
of the Fordist production massed was a rapid increase
of unemployment, which hit all western economies
– the eastern economies avoided the problem by
sticking to their old-fashioned and, compared to the
west, little productive economy. And I am sure this
was one of the main reasons of the social and
economic brake-down they suffered ten years ago.
The consequences this development had on the la-
bour-market is shown for the old Federal Republic
and West-Berlin in figure 1. It shows the
qualification specific unemployment quotas
between 1975 and 1997. Figure 1 shows at least some
of the consequences the changes in the world of
labour had on the labour-market. There is one fat
line in the figure, which shows the total
unemployment and there is only one line above this.
This is the line showing the unemployment-quotas
for those with no recognised qualification. During the
second half of the seventies, their unemployment was
about 50% higher than the total unemployment in our
country and when than in the early eighties we had a
rapid increase in unemployment they suffered much
more from unemployment than all the other qualifica-
tion-groups on the labour-market. By 1987 the differ-
ence in unemployment-quotas between the total
unemployment and the unemployment of the non-
qualified has risen to more than 8% while it was only
2% ten years before. The development between 1987
and 1991 shows that the non-qualified participated
over-proportionally in the recovery of the labour-
market between 1988 and 1991 and the gap between
the general unemploy-
5
ment-rate and theirs was reduced to 7%, however when
we had an increase in unemployment after 1989, they
again suffered much more than others. So, by 1997 the
unemployment-rate was almost 25% and that means
2,5 times as much as total unemployment.
Let us now have a look at the other lines in this figure.
The next line below the total unemployment is that for
those, who had an apprenticeship type of vocational
training and education in the German dual system,
which as you know means, they have an apprenticeship
contract with a private company and attend vocational
school for normally one day per week. These are about
60-70% of the German labour force, so it is no wonder
that the development of unemployment for them is par- Fig. 1
allel to total unemployment, because they contribute a
great deal to the total unemployment. All the other
groups are significantly smaller than this one, but still
it is interesting to have a look at them. So, the next line
refers to those, who took an exam at university. Their
line followed the general tendencies of unemployment
for most of the time, but they were always effected less
by increasing unemployment than the first two groups
and since the early 90s, it seems that their unemploy-
ment-rates are hardly effected by the general increase
of unemployment, which we had since than. Those,
who attended schools for technicians and masters are a
very, very small group in the German labour-market,
but a highly qualified one, however, mainly in
technical skills, which means that they do not
participate very much in the expansion of the services
sector and that might be an explanation for the fact that
their unemployment-rate is also increasing, however
on a comparably low level since the early 90s. One
group, which needs special attention is those, who
studied in our universities for applied sciences that is a
new type of academic training, which was established
since the early 70s and they offer highly business Fig. 2
oriented academic vocational training, for example for
engineers, social worker, business management, etc.. training in order to increase their chances of either
They are the only group in the German labour-market, transition into the regular structures of training or to
whose unemployment-rates went down since about succeed in their training and manage the transition
1994 while general unemployment was increasing. from training to labour.
So what this figure 1 shows is that a qualification is This strategy however, was only of very limited
important and makes a big difference regarding the success in the new “Länder” as you see in figure 2.
risks of unemployment. This figure, however, also This refers to the situation in the “new Bundesländer”
gave the main argument for German policies to and East-Berlin that is the territory of the former GDR.
overcome and limit youth-unemployment. As it shows It covers only the years 1991 to 1997, because only
that mainly the unqualified suffer from unemployment since than we have the relevant statistic. However, it
the strategy was to fight youth-unemployment by might be mentioned that had a speculative
qualifying young people. This strategy was pursued extrapolation for the years 1975 to 1991 been made, all
since the early 70s and we established a highly those lines would be near zero, because the GDR had
differentiated and developed support-structure for the only very little unemployment and in many industries
regular vocational training and education system in our suffered from lack of labour force.
country. It mainly consists of measures for pre-
vocational training, but also includes support for those But what is interesting here is the fact that we have two
in regular vocational education and lines above the line for the total unemployment. Also
those who made the apprenticeship type of vocational
5
HERMANN RADEMACKER UNEMPLOYMENT AND EDUCATION
education and training (dual system) are suffering from we had similar situations in the UK and in the United
unemployment more than the average. And this means: th th
States in the 80 and early 90 .
At least in East-Germany qualification does not at all Which function had qualification for success under
guarantee employment. We have areas in East-Ger- such framework conditions?
many, where 80% of the unemployed young people be-
tween 15 and 25 are qualified young people; here the This question is very easy to answer, the higher the
unemployment-rate for the unqualified is three times qualification the better. However, remember the
as high as general unemployment. Also this figure qualification paradox mentioned above. In the
proves the fact that a qualification makes a difference, selection-process companies make for apprentieships
but not all qualifications are of similar effect regarding or jobs, the certifi- cates you can show only help to
the re- duction of the risk of unemployment. And not pass the first barrier. For passing the next barrier, you
only the 20,1% of those whose apprenticeship type of have to show additional competencies in tests and
learning in the eastern part of Germany also the 7,4%, interviews and these have one general tendency:
which they hold in West-Germany, is much too high. Communicative and social abilities are becoming more
They are the ones, who prove another new important. Personality related criteria are valued high
phenomenon of the modern labour-market which we for the decisions of modern personnel managers.
call the ‘qualification paradox’, which means,
qualification is more necessary than ever before in The background for this development is not only the
order to have access to employment and to vocational use of new technologies in modern work-places but
and social positions, however it no longer guarantees also the introduction of new forms of labour
the access to those positions in the same way it did organisation. Mod- ern production processes are much
until fifty or forty years ago. more flexible than the old Fordist ones and that means
that the single worker has to take responsibility not
Before I try to analyse what kind of development lies only for his/her own contribution for the product – and
behind this, I would like to make one final remark on the modern term of product includes also services – but
the German situation: at least to a certain degree has also to take care of the
whole process. That means he/she has to communicate
The German strategy to limit and to overcome youth- and to negotiate with other workers, who contribute to
unemployment by qualifying young people had also the process. This means that besides workplace specific
the effect that we transposed the risks in the transition qualifications, which have to do with handling the
from school to work from the first to the second, which technology on this a specific workstation, there are also
is the transition from vocational educational and a lot of general qualifications necessary, which one
training to labour. This development resulted in an could also learn at school. But these new demands also
increasing number of young people mainly in the age mean that in modern companies we cannot use kids.
group from 20 to 45 being unemployed. By the end of We no longer have that patriarchal and custodial
the 1990s, their unemployment rate had exceeded the relation between the experienced master and the
general unemployment and that was the reason why apprentice who might have left school at the age of 15.
our government, as the governments in France and Modern production asks for the adult autonomous
Great Britain, had to introduce a political program for worker, who needs not to be super- vised, this normal
reducing youth-unemployment, which also included everyday work. That might be one of the reasons why,
support for employment. These measures, luckily, were in Germany for more than ten years, more than 50% of
effective and now again we have youth-unemployment those who begin an apprenticeship are older than 18.
below general unemployment. Why one should expect that – according to the
traditional normal biography of transition from school
Let us have a closer look on the effects such develop- to work – as they leave school with 15 or 16 (they do
ments have for young people. Let us first look at unem- not belong to that third of our young generation who
ployment as a frame-work-condition for the transition attend the Gymnasium until they are at least 18) they
from school to work. High unemployment means that should start their apprenticeship while they are 16 or
those who enter the labour-market for the first time that even younger.
are the young people, have the highest risk of
unemployment, because all those, who had the chance Until now we discussed the consequences of high
to enter the labour-market before them have already unemployment and the consequences of the use of
taken the few available jobs. That means that – at least new technologies and new forms of labour-
when there is no political intervention – youth- organisation for the transition of young people from
unemployment is always higher than general school to work.
unemployment, if we leave the development to the
I would now like to introduce another aspect, which is
market. That is what we see in most of the
discussed only lately in this context. That is the
Mediterranean countries, in Italy, Spain, Portugal;
changes on the labour-market and their consequences
for compe-
6
HERMANN RADEMACKER
tencies young people need today in order to manage risk, in a certain situation, at least not now, not before
their working life. the further development of qualifications.
In Germany we have now almost 50% of our labour So one of the aims in the concept of outdoor and
force, which have no long-term employment in compa- adven- ture education should be to improve the
nies. They have limited contracts or loose their jobs af- knowledge of people regarding their competencies and
ter comparably short terms of employment and there- to overcome the dramatic over- or underestimation of
fore are forced again and again to engage with the la- competencies, which we especially find in
bour market. And that means that they have to find em- disadvantaged youth and among those, who suffer from
ployers where the qualifications and competencies they an educational career, which was characterised more
can offer are asked for or if they do not find them, they by failure than by success.
have to adept their qualifications and competencies to
the existing demand on the labour-market. In other
words,
Literature:
They have to do market-research as well as product de-
Sennett, Richard: The corrosion of character,
velopment and it is their risk whether they succeed to
New York 1998
sell the product (qualification and competencies) they
have developed. This means that these people in our Voß, G. Günther/ Pongratz, Hans J.: Der
economic structure bare risks, which traditionally were Arbeitskraftunternehmer, in: Kölner Zeitschrift für
typical for the entrepreneur. And that is the reason, Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 1/1998,
why S. 131-158
G. Günther Voß and Hans J. Pongratz are using the
term ‘Arbeitskraftunternehmer’ (labour-force
entrepreneur) to describe this modern type of industrial
worker.
As this modern entrepreneurship is not only asked for
by those, who repeatedly have to act on the general la-
bour-market but also by those who stay in companies
for longer terms because also within the companies la-
bour-markets have been established with similar roles
applied. Also here a high degree of flexibility is asked
for and workers have to adapt their qualifications and
competencies to changing demands in a similar way as
those outside the company – however with the big dif-
ference that they can rely on support by the company
for their vocational further education and training. So,
this new ‘Arbeitskraftunternehmer’ might become the
modern type of labour force and in this sense might
replace the traditional industrial worker.
This means that entrepreneurial qualities are not only

asked for in the world of those “Yetties” (Young entre-
preneurial technologists) which we used to see as the
winners of the new economic developments. Entrepre-
neurship becomes a normal and general qualification in
the whole employment-system.
I think this is quite a challenge for outdoor and adven-
ture education because isn’t it one of the main educa-
tional objectives of those educational concepts to
enable young people to deal with risks, to take risks
and to get self-confidence, but also to experience
having successfully handled risks? And that is done
with the necessary responsibility, it must include young
people having developed the abilities to make
decisions on the basis of what they know about their
competencies and qualifications in order to deal with
a risk they have to face. And sure, this also must
include the alternative not to take the
6
SUSANNE KAISER
OUTDOOR, ADVENTURE AND EXPERIENTIAL
LEARNING IN PROJECTS FOR UNEMPLOYED
MALE AND FEMALE YOUNGSTERS
Introduction exam or with broken off apprenticeships – could

qualify in the field of domestic economy and
My name is Susanne Kaiser. I am a social worker. For gastronomy.
four years now I am working for the organisation bsj in
Marburg / Germany, a non-profit youth organisation, There are several reasons for the failure in their voca-
that works with the physical aspects and potentials of tional context:
adolescent life styles. The body, movement and ❑ problems at school
physical expresssion are the focus of our social work ❑ lack of self-confidence
programmes, since physical action is an important ❑ lack of motivation
means of communication and interaction, especially for ❑ difficulties in the apprenticeship
the disadvantaged youth. ❑ conflict between occupation and family-orientation
I am working in two programmes:
Pedagogical training in
1. Interactionproject: Bistro A Capella
Its purpose and aim are: social and vocational integra- Bistro A Capella is a public restaurant with regular
tion of young immigrants, male and female. Within this business hours and catering service for diverse
programme I co-operate with schools in Marburg. I events. There the young women make the experience
will give more detailed information about this of a real working field. Additionally they get a
programme later on. qualification in the field of gastronomy as well as a
general pedagogical qualification.
2. A Project called AQUA: Two pedagogues are working with the young women
to promote their social skills. Pedagogical contents can
The name stands for Arbeit (work), Qualification and be the following: It is necessary to work through the
Adventure. This programme gives young unemployed individual biography of each participant, especially
persons between the age of 19 and 24 years the their experiences at school as well as their problems
possibility to improve qualifications that are concerning their everyday-life at work. Nearly every
necessary to enter the labour market: professional skills young woman in Bistro A Capella lives in an
as well as social skills. Participants of this programme individual difficult situation. The most frequent
receive an employment contract for one year. Part of problems are drug problems, difficulties within the
their contract is to undertake a pedagogical training to relationship to their partners, family problems as well
promote their social skills. as financial problems (e.g. high debts). These problems
have to be worked through and supported individually.
The bsj started this programme in co-operation with Activities, which are individually chosen and
another organisation in 1996. The first employment orientated at the individual social environment, are
training was for young men who could qualify in based on subjects like drugs, role of the women,
handicrafts such as working with wood or metal. These sexuality, debt consult. The aim is to consider and
latter skills would help them afterwards to find an reflect upon past experiences and develop new
occupation. strategies of behaviour.
The AQUA womens programme in which I am It is generally noticed that most of the women have a
working, started in October 1998. In the beginning, 15 lot of problems in social behaviour. e.g.
young unemployed women – usually with no or a low
level final ❑ low competence in problem solving
6
SUSANNE KAISER
❑ missing competence in team work others. Most important is

❑ communicative difficulties
❑ low flexibility
❑ low frustration tolerance
❑ low endurance
Those key qualifications - at the moment broadly in
discussion - play an important role for the search of a
job or an apprenticeship. This is especially so for our
participants. The promotion of those key
qualifications is very important because they left
school with no or a low level final exam. The
promotion of these key qualifications can increase their
chance to get a job or an apprenticeship.
Generally these competences play an important role for
the functioning of everyday-life in Bistro A Capella.
The conceptional idea is that methods based on adven-
turous experiential learning initiate and promote the
development of key qualifications. Challenging
situations should give the young persons the possibility
to experience individual limits. For every activity the
principle of Challenge by Choice is valid, that means
each participant lays down his/her own individual
limit. As a result participants do not only learn
something about themselves but also something about
the group. They get to know their colleagues in
different settings and learn to accept different,
individual limits. At the same time they experience
being supported through motivating and helping others.
Besides this, they develop together alternative
strategies of behaviour which are important for their
everyday work and their co-operation.
Adventure based activities start to work with the
strength of the participants. In contrast to their experi-
ences in school where those activities, which
emphasise action and exercise, dominate. Young
persons experience directly the effect of their
behaviour and can therefore react more adequately.
They also have the possibility to change their
behaviour if they want to modify the result. Every
activity tries to include the unity of head, heart and
hand.
Adventurebased activities and

experiential learning in Bistro A
Capella
As I already mentioned most of the participants have a
lack of experience of adequate and productive co-
operation / teamwork. Verbal attacks, mobbing, low
reliance and high fluctuation belong to the everyday
life of the Bistro. With the help of adventure based
activities and experiential learning, I try to create a
positive effect on these tendencies. A special setting,
consisting of problemsolving activities as well as
activities to promote confidence in others, should
create an atmosphere that encourages the participants
to find an appropriate way of how to engage with
6
OUTDOOR, ADVENTURE AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN PROJECTS FOR UNEMPLOYED MALE AND FEMALE
mutual acceptance. Adventure Based Counseling
(ABC) describes a consulting and training
programme that has been developed by Project
Adventure, USA. The main effects of the
programme are: strenghtened team structure,
experienced individual limits and developed
common rules which should have a positive effect
on the work fitness of the group.
Problem solving activities, confidence establishing
activities, activities at a low and a high ropes
course and – most important – continuous
reflections of the group-processes – all this leads
to a more clearing perspective about their way of
dealing with others and to alternative
possibilities of behaviour.
Example from the practice:

We should go up the wall. Yes, but how? You can
make it, she said and went off. Imagine, a wall, 4
meters high, 15 women of different weights, and
everyone should go up there, without any aid.
Something that seems to be impossible for a
moment was successfully solved within minutes.
We could not do it on our own, we worked as a
team, co- operated, helped us, encouraged us and
suddenly we managed it. We absolutely want to
save this feeling for Bistro A Capella!
I think the problem of integrating in a team arises
because of feeling insecure of one`s own person.
The womens’ biographies show a number of
frustrations and failed plans. Such experiences do
have a negative effect on the self-esteem of
women. They often think they will never be able
to manage life properly. This self-concept
becomes obvious through their lack of confidence
in their own competences. Challenging settings
should give the participants the possibility to
overcome their own limitations. Such an
experience can have a positive effect on the self-
esteem and further on the work in a team.
To obtain these positive effects, I work with
different adventure based methods. Contents
depend on the developmental status quo, the
needs and the readiness of the group.
Some parts of my work include climbing (at a rock
or in a hall), canoe-excursions, outdoor games,
biking-tours, ABC- and City Bound programmes.
City Bound has a close coherence with teaching
vocational qualifications. City Bound programmes
aims to train not only the already mentioned key-
qualifications but also those situations, that are
necessary for the entrance into an occupation.
Before I present this method in more detail, I want
to say that reflections upon every activity does
play a very important role. The reflections helps to
guarantee the transfer of the experiences to the
everyday life. These ex-
6
SUSANNE KAISER
periences are considered collaboratively, along with all The development of the City Bound concept was a
other participants, concerning their meaning for the ev- result of considering two aspects:
eryday life. So, the activities give the participants the
opportunity to develop further their behaviour and to 1. considering young persons and their needs within
integrate the positive experiences into their self- their current social surroundings.
concepts. 2. considering the critical remarks around the transfer
of outdoor activities skills to everyday-life.
After two years of my practical experience, I realized
that the women are more open to workshops that last In the Interaction project, I mainly work with the
several days. These workshops were much more suc- method of City Bound.
cessful than those one-day programmes which took After my first experiences with City Bound I found out
place once the week. One reason for this is the high that conventional adventure educational contents are
fluctuation within the group. As a result I had to work not sufficient to realize the aims of the programme, es-
every week with a different composition of the group pecially the vocational integration of young immi-
and could not progress with the beginning processes. grants. Similar to the target group of Bistro A Capella,
Addi- tionally, these processes were disturbed by stress those latter young people also have a lot of deficencies
situations and conflicts of the daily work.. That`s why in school achievements as well as in social behaviour.
I de- cided to start with a 2 or 3 day programme and The target group of the Interaction-project consists
continue then with a weekly rythm. Participants report mainly of young people who
afterwards that they received a good group-feeling.
They also gave a positive feedback about individual ❑ are at the transition from school to occupation
experiences. E.g.: “That was much better than taking ❑ come from different countries (Kasachstan, Russia,
drugs.” Or: “Always when I feel fear coming up I think Turkey, Germany)
of this situation. And I did manage it.“ ❑ are in the 8th or 9th grade of secondary or special
school as well as in preparatory courses at vocatio-
Another problem is the fact that most women refuse to nal schools
take part at programmes over night. There is nobody to ❑ have only a low educational level
take care of their partners, children and animals, and all ❑ are strongly frustrated at school
their friends are not involved. Anyway, I organised a ❑ have only a low motivation for going to school or
three-days City Bound workshop in Cologne with to work
some of the women. The task of this workshop was to ❑ live in a problematic social surrounding
organise work and accommodation for themselves. ❑ often have family problems, e.g. unemployment,
They had to visit different offices, find out the right addiction, violence within the family
persons to turn to, make phone calls and so on. Step by ❑ only have a low level of frustration tolerance
step they carried out their tasks, but without ❑ have reduced possibilities of acting (in the sense of
completing them finally. Otherwise one might have low mobility)
had to offend several persons, e.g. an employer Those deficencies can be understood as a result of dif-
because one has to cancel a job offer after the ferent origin and therefore lingual and cultural difficul-
programme. The aim of this workshop was to gain the ties. It is obvious, that the young people feel very inse-
competences to be able to work in their familiar spatial cure about German contexts because they do not have
and social surroundings (knowledge of addresses to any experiences with e.g. school contents, job
turn to, utilisation of public transports). Af- ter the situation, social manners. Besides, they feel a strong
programme the women were enthusiastic about the rejection by the local population. That is why they
idea of moving away from their own well known town often turn to ethnocentric groups which they seldom
they live in. And they were surprised with their dare to leave.
abilities to build up a new life, based upon their own
self-organisation and on their own. Even if not one of In addition, the needs of school stand in contrast to the
the women actually relocated the experience is still a needs of the young people. School has the major task
real value and enrichment for them. to teach intellectual / cognitive contents which are
important for the final exam. It has no capacity to
prepare disadvantaged young people properly. It
City Bound as a method for would be necessary to teach the following
qualifications:
vocational preparation
❑ writing letters of application
City Bound is an established term and means activities ❑ practice presentation talks
of the field of experiential learning in urban spaces. ❑ be informed about the chosen field of occupation
City Bound originally cames from Belgium and is an ❑ developing a realistic perspective on employment
addition to Outward Bound, whose activities mainly ❑ developing key qualifications
take place outside, in nature.
6
OUTDOOR, ADVENTURE AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN PROJECTS FOR UNEMPLOYED MALE AND FEMALE
School and youth welfare services should work close tions of their peers. E.g. it is their task to responsibly
together to complement one another and to work with gain different information or to interview passer-bys.
different subjects to provide an holistic approach. The activities mainly have the aim to overcome the lin-
Within the described processes the traditional activities gual deficencies of the participants (they do not only
of experiential learning are not sufficient and need to exist for foreigners!) and - in coherence with that -
be modified and extended. That is why the concept of a the in- hibition to go towards unknown persons. These
vocational training – using elements already known in activities prepare them for an interview with an
the City Bound methods – was developed. The City authority (journalist, police president, personal chef...)
Bound methods are extended by my own new ideas at the end of the programme - e.g. an interview about
and transfered to other working fields like Bistro A the situation for vocational places in a firm or the
Capella. description of a special profession. In contrast to other
methods of experiential learning the individual here,
With this way of co-operation you are able to reach within the activities, stands in the foreground. The
most of the young persons and to change traditional conceptional idea of the programme is to start working
school structures. with the whole group, later on with smaller groups and
in the end with the individual. This does not mean,
Pedagogical relevance of resources that the whole group is not important, but not generally
and not always. Similar to the above mentioned
in cities adventurebased programmes, the reflection of the
Considering the living space city one can find out two activities plays a decisive role and usually takes place
superior subjects: spaces and human beings. Those two in the whole group.
can be divided into many smaller fields, but I reduce
Finally I want to give some examples to give you a
them into
concrete idea of the programme.
1a. unused spaces
I start the programmes with an activity for the whole
1b. occupied spaces group, e.g. the task to take a picture of a group of
2a. subjects passer-bys (one can change the conditions - dependent
2b. contacts / communication on the participants - with the following factors: number
of people; a dog, a child, two nationalities). The playful
1a. Unused spaces are relevant in town planning, new way of managing social contacts, the creative result of
and re-organisation of spaces e.g. through building pro- the task and the handling of the reactions of the passer-
jects. I do not take those into consideration within my bys stand in the foreground. It is easier to be con-
City Bound programmes. fronted with those tasks in the safe situation of a game
and a confidental group.
1b. Occupied spaces means those spaces, which have a
clear attribution (e.g. a bridge to cross a river or a An activity for smaller groups could be the already
road), but which also have other possibilities. I think, mentioned interview. An alternative is to exchange an
that all the surroundings of young people have affects egg against something more worthful or against some
upon them mentally. One aim of City Bound is to reach other food - but in this condition one has to be sure that
and develop a new perspective, e.g. a new perspective no participant comes from a country where poverty
on human beings, a new utilisation of spaces. and beg- ging are necessary to survive. The programme
could end for example with an interview with someone
2a. Subjects has to be understood as a superior term for
in authority. This interview is similar to a job
an endless number of ressources, e.g. work, but also
interview. It has to be done alone or together with
traffic, environment, poverty.
maximum one other person.
2b. social contacts and communicational processes
(nonverbal and verbal) automatically happen if human A very important aspect of a pedagogic in a City is the
beings meet. They are the reason for strong feelings of promotion of mobility. I remember a female
insecurity by our participants, but at the same time they participant, who preferred to get up one hour earlier
have to cope with them, if they want to integrate into than needed only to take the schoolbus to a train
the job market. station. Then she could meet in the bus a friend with
whom she could take the train to our meeting point.
At this point City Bound as a vocational preparation She could have started with the same train from her
starts its work. home one hour later, but she was too afraid to stay in a
In different settings, the young people have to manage train on her own.
situations which are strongly isomorph to their every- This is not an unusual phenomenom, as I realized
day life. Besides, they are confronted with various froom my job experience. But in our society it is
reac- absolutely necessary to be flexible, not only at the
search for a job.
6
SUSANNE KAISER
In only a few cases the young people do find an

apprenticeship close to their neighbourhood. They
need the competence to use public transports,
timetables and maps – that is why this should always
be part of a City Bound programme. I often play a
game, a board game called Scotland Yard, in reality – a
group of detectives chases a criminal who takes the
underground to flee. Ev- ery two stations the
participants have to tell their location and ask for the
location of others. Other examples are to visit a town
blindfolded or in a wheelchair, to rope down from a
bridge, as so on.
I want to finish my lecture with a citation of a partici-
pant, half a year after the workshop, right before an in-
terview concerning a job offer:
“Fear, why should I have fear? We have already done
this before in the workshop!“
Through the Interaction-project the cooperation with
schools and bsj becomes more and more successful.
We receive a lot of positive feedback from schools and
there is an increasing number of new cooperational
partners. We are now continuously working at 8
schools.
After 3 years of practice at a vocational school bsj
started this year a special training that is similar to the
existing training of vocational preparation. In the new
training the curriculum is extended through a special
pedagogical support: social training and adventure
based activities. The target group is similar to the one
of Interaction-project. Bsj is responsible for the
pedagogical support.
6
1
DAVID LE B
RETON
VIOLENCES ET ACTIVITÉ DE PLEINE NATURE
Violences eux. « Eclipsés de la scène sociale, écrit Azouz Begag,

ils se sont retirés du champ éducatif, abandonnant le
En France, 7,8% des jeunes de 12-19 ans déclarent ter- rain des responsabilités aux acteurs sociaux,
avoir été frappés ou blessés physiquement au cours des institutionnels: enseignants, animateurs, policiers,
12 derniers mois. Avec une nette prédominance magistrats, assistantes sociales… Le père ne se mêle
masculine près d’un jeune sur 8 déclare avoir commis plus des activités de ce fils qui ne communique plus
un acte de violence sur quelqu’un,. Par rapport à 1998, avec lui. Le fils ignore l’impact sur son père de ses
la délinquance des mineurs de 1999 est en hausse de comportements antisociaux ».
3
11%. En 1999, 150000 mineurs sont mis en cause pour

des crimes et des délits. 2247 mineurs sont incarcérés La socialisation s’effectue donc davantage dans la rue
en 1993, 3495 le sont en 1997. La question majeure est au contact des pairs, dans un climat d’affrontements
celle des limites, c’est-à-dire du sens partagé qui réels ou symboliques permanents. Les phénomènes de
permet d’exister et de se situer comme acteur au sein groupe y jouent un rôle essentiel, notamment
d’un collectif. Nous passons d’une société régie par d’incitation au passage à l’acte. C’est un leit motiv des
des interdits, donc par une responsabilité envers travailleurs sociaux, des enseignants, des médecins de
l’autre, à une société structurée par le possible et banlieue ou des équipes hospitalières : pris isolément
l’impossible. Pour beaucoup la loi n’est pas vécue ces jeunes les plus turbulents de leur quartier sont
comme une nécessité de protection à la fois sopuvent sympathiques mais en groupe leur
personnelle et collective pour assurer un comportement devient vite incontrôlable pouvant aller
fonctionnement propice du lien social, mais comme un du simple chahut ou de conduites provocatrices à la
obstacle à une volonté personnelle toute puissante. Sa violence. « On est tous pareils dans le bande, dit un
transgression ne soulève souvent pas la moindre jeune de Strasbourg. C’est quand on est en bande qu’on
culpabilité mais la bonne conscience d’avoir été plus se la joue. Mais quand on est seul on commence à se
2
malin . calmer. En fait on a envie de frimer, de se montrer ».
Une jeune femme d’origine maghrébine de Carrière-
Le défaut de containing de nombre de familles souvent Sous-Poissy dénonce dans son quartier « ces crétins qui
dissociées, conflictuelles ou dont la figure paternelle pourrissent la vie à tout le monde avec leur racket.
est absente ou sans autorité amène les enfants à Leur loi, c’est la force et leur force c’est la bande.
privilégier la culture de rue au contact des pairs au Seuls, ils te font la bise. En groupe ils sont pires que
détriment d’un sens de la mesure et de la des chiens. Et il n’y a rien à leur dire, ils n’écoutent
reconnaissance de l’autre. Pour nombre de ces jeunes, pas» (Libération, 2-11-1998).
la famille n’est plus une instance de socialisation,
mais un refuge affectif et fonctionnel qui n’exerce plus Dans la culture de rue l’agressivité, la force, sont
une fonction d’intégration au sein du lien social. premières, le désir parait sans limite avec le sentiment
Souvent chez des jeunes nés de l’immigration, la de puissance que donne l’appartenance au groupe, la
langue des parents n’est plus la leur, ils ne la présence des autres. Elle provoque un permanent rap-
comprennent qu’en partie. Les pères notamment ont port de force plutôt qu’un rapport de sens, la violence
souvent perdu toute autorité, disqualifiés socialement. ou l’intimidation plutôt que la discussion et la pesée
Inscrits dans une autre époque de l’immigration, ils ont des arguments. La moindre remarque, le moindre
sacrifié leur existence au bonheur de leurs enfants qui reproche est
ne se reconnaissent pas en
1 David Le Breton est professeur d’anthropologie à l’université de Strasbourg. Il est notamment l’auteur de Anthropologie du corps et modernité
(PUF), Passions du risque (Métailié), La sociologie du risque (PUF), L’adieu au corps (Métailié), Eloge de la marche (Métailié).
2 Cette attitude n’est pas le monopole d’une frange radicale de la jeunesse précarisée, elle touche bon nombre de personnes parfaitement
intégrées, je pense par exemple à l’extraordinaire désinvolture de nombre d’automobilistes face au code de la route ou aux limitations de
vitesse.
3 A. Begag, D. Delorme, Quartiers sensibles, Point-virgule, 1994, p 100-101. Citons à titre d’exemple le propos de cet ouvrier algérien qui
obtient en 1970 un F5 à la Courneuve alors qu’il a déjà 7 enfants : « A ce moment j’ai cru que la vie serait plus facile. Un grand logement,
une salle de bains. C’était pour moi du luxe. J’ai cru que les enfants allaient être mieux, et je me rends compte que non. Regardez Sélim, il
est né ici, il n’a ja- mais connu les privations et malgré cela, il ne fait rien à l’école. Travailler comme moi, il n’est pas capable, c’est trop dur.
Franchement, je ne sais pas quoi faire de lui » (Farid Aïchoune, Nés en banlieue, Paris, Ramsay, 1991, p 33-34).
6
DAVID LE BRETON
vécu dramatiquement et engendre des conséquences avec le risque ou même de violence relève parfois
sans commune mesure avec l’objet du litige (une d’une imposition de problématique tant ces actes
mauvaise note, une remarque anodine, etc.). Elle s’inscrivent pour certains jeunes comme la banalité des
amène en outre à vivre dans un défi permanent, à sans jours et impliquent plutôt une conception particulière
cesse vouloir démontrer aux autres qu’on est à la de la
hauteur. La démonstration de force prime sur les « justice », une forme commune de rupture de l’ennui.
ressources du langage qui ne sont souvent même pas Lutter contre la « rouille », le fait de rester sur place
envisagées : la parole est d’emblée disqualifiée ou sans activités : « Quand il n’y a rien à faire, on
source de mépris. commence à casser tous les trucs, déclare un jeune
« La parole, ça marche pas, c’est nul, personne ne strasbourgeois. Ca commence comme ça : au début, on
t’écoute. Pour se faire entendre il faut tout niquer », dit est dans un coin, on squatte et comme on n’a rien à
un jeune strasbourgeois. L’individu ne tolère aucune faire, tu sais, on a envie de bouger, de faire quelque
limite, aucune loi, mais il vit cependant dans un monde chose et comme c’est parfois trop tard le soir pour aller
d’insécurité intérieure, sans cesse sur le qui-vive, prêt à en ville et bien on prend des pierres, on commence à
flamber pour le moindre propos, il devient totalement tout casser pour provoquer la police, mais tout ça parce
tributaire des attitudes du monde extérieur à son égard. qu’on ne nous donne rien à faire ».
Nombre de scènes de violence sont enclenchées par
5
exemple par la présomption d’un « regard » négatif à Les « quartiers d’exil » n’ont pas le monopole du mal
l’encontre d’un jeune. de vivre de la jeunesse contemporaine, mais ils
cristallisent plus qu’ailleurs l’exclusion, le chômage, la
A l’image des autres conduites à risque la violence est délinquance, et connaissent en ce sens un effet de
un jeu avec la limite, une manière de se heurter au grossissement et de radicalité des problèmes et
monde à défaut d’une butée pour s’enraciner et trouver notamment de la violence. Le problème concerne la
4
la distance propice au lien social . Vivre « à la limite » société toute entière. Ces cités de banlieues bâties
s’impose dès lors que la société ne donne plus à comme lieux de transition, répondant à l’aspiration
l’individu l’étoffe de sens qui mettait entre le monde et populaire d’une vie meilleure, construites à la hâte sans
lui une distance où il pouvait trouver sa place. Le politique d’intégration ou de vitalisation de leur tissu,
défaut de sens et de valeur se résout dans le corps à se sont refermé en impasses d’existences sur leurs
corps à la fois réel et symbolique, la frontalité du habitants, elles sont devenues des ghettos ordinaires
rapport au monde en quête d’un contenant. Là où une hantés par le chômage ou l’exclusion, où grandissent
dissension avec un autre aurait pû donner lieu à une des milliers de jeunes, hostiles souvent à l’école et
discussion, à une mise au point, l’agressivité apparaît donc sans autre perspective que le chômage, la
immédiatement, provoquant souvent la stupeur des délinquance, voire la drogue et son commerce
victimes. Le chauffeur qui rappelle qu’on ne doit pas 6
prospère , attisant chez leurs habitants des haines
fumer dans un bus se fait d’emblée prendre à partie, multiples, des jalousies, des incompatibilités, des
sans discussion possible. Insultes, menaces, crachats, positionnements individuels en termes « raciaux ». La
dégradations, attitude démonstrative ou de défi, ces dérégulation sociale de ces quartiers est contemporaine
comportements aujourd’hui nommés « incivilités », qui de la précarisation des emplois, d’une aggravation de la
deviennent alors relativement courant en réponse à une misère ou de criantes inégalités sociales, d’une
hostilité réelle mais souvent aussi présumée. fragilisation du lien social, d’une montée du racisme et
de l’intolérance pour une partie grandissante de la
L’affectivité semble primer sur toute autre logique. Il population. Ces enclaves sociales attisent les peurs
ne reste alors qu’un contact brut (et brutal) avec un diffuses de nos sociétés dans ce contexte de
monde où il faut conquérir sa place pied à pied et de mondialisation, de désorientation des repères,
manière toujours provisoire, ce qui implique la d’incertitude face à l’avenir. Les incivilités rendent
recherche de sensation, le rapport physique à l’autre l’existence d’une immense majorité d’habitants de ces
ou au monde. Prise de marque au risque du corps, ou cités inquiète et lourde de colère : voitures brûlées, ou
même du corps à corps, face à un monde qui se dérobe « visitées », actions « commandos » de pil- lage de
ou ne dit plus la nécessité intérieure de l’existence. magasins, racket envers les commerçants
Mais parler de jeu
4 Voir à ce propos David Le Breton, Passions du risque, Paris, Métailié, 2000.

5 Il y a cependant un sentiment d’attachement des jeunes à leur quartier. Nous demandons un jour à un jeune ce qu’il ferait s’il avait beaucoup
d’argent. Il répond du tac au tac : « J’achèterai tout l’Elsau » (son quartier). Le quartier est un refuge, un lieu de souveraineté personnelle que
nul ne vient disputer.
6 D. Lepoutre y insiste également op. cit. p 42-43, il analyse aussi avec rigueur la sociablité juvénile, les codes et les valeurs qui la structurent,
don- nant ainsi un éclairage précieux sur les cités, issu de l’ethnologie. Là où F. Dubet et F. Lapeyronnie voient à l’oeuvre une violence
anomique, D. Lepoutre perçoit plutôt une culture adolescente, une violence ritualisée. D’où la tonalité plus « optimiste » de D. Lepoutre qui
conclut son ouvra- ge en écrivant : « Gageons que cette nouvelle lisibilité culturelle de la jeunesse des grands ensembles de banlieues
produira à terme des acteurs sociaux légitimes à force d’être reconnus et, par voie de conséquence, des citoyens de la République » (D.
Lepoutre, op. cit., p 339).
6
VIOLENCES ET ACTIVITÉ DE PLEINE
installés sur les lieux, présence du bruit (écoute de CD fonctionnement dont ils sont eux-mêmes souvent
en bas des immeubles à plein régime), courses victimes. L’Ecole leur parait privée de signification
poursuites en voiture des voitures volées, dans le contexte où ils vivent, ils ne s’y sentent pas
omniprésence des chiens (pit-bull, etc.), attitudes reconnus, elle véhicule une culture et surtout des codes
provocatrices d’adolescents ne payant pas les d’interaction trop éloignés des leurs. Les enseignants se
transports en commun, s’interpellant bruyamment d’un reconnaissent mal dans ces élèves à leurs yeux
point à l’autre d’un bus, etc. En même temps, parler bruyants, bavards, impolis, mutipliant les incivilités, ils
d’intégration de ces jeunes déjà est grinçant et désigne ne se sentent pas respectés (souvent les élèves pas
du doigt une société où il ne suffit plus de naître, de davantage). Quant aux violences entre élèves elles se
grandir et de disposer d’un état civil en règle pour être multiplient dans certains collèges.
considéré comme un citoyen à part entière.
7 Quand le lien social ne s’établit plus que dans la
Les violences urbaines , la haine diffuse mûrissent dans méfiance ou le rejet, quand le sens se fait lacunaire, il
ces quartiers de relégation où vit sans perspective une reste la brutalité du monde et pour affirmer son exis-
population stigmatisée, en proie à un chômage tence le recours à une brutalité qui n’est pas forcément
considérable, victime d’une discrimination à l’emploi. vécue comme telle par les jeunes. Ainsi, par exemple
Les conduites à risque y foisonnent (fugues, tentatives des formes violentes de jeu ont fait leur apparition dans
de suicide, toxicomanies multiples, recherche de les cours de collèges exposant la victime à être frappée
8
vitesse avec des voitures ou des deux roues, etc.) . Des sans ménagement par le groupe de manière arbitraire .
9
émeutes les secouent dans des circonstances « La société est perçue comme une « jungle » dans
particulières. L’étincelle qui embrase l’événement tient laquelle les « gros » exploitent les « petits »; et les
souvent à un conflit avec la police (arrestation, bavure, « malins », les « pauvres types ». Il ne s’agit pas d’une
provocation, etc) soulevant, de bonne ou de mauvaise forme de domination, mais d’une chaîne continue où
foi, la question de la « justice ». Dans les années chacun utilise autrui. Aussi la domination devient-elle
quatre-vingt aux Etats-Unis, au Royaume Uni ou en impersonnelle, dépourvue de centre, et, dès lors, disent
France, ce sont des exactions policières (réelles ou les jeunes, les pires de tous, les plus pourris sont ceux
supposées) qui sont à l’origine des émeutes urbaines. qui prétendent parler au nom des dominés, car ils ne
Les jeunes se sentent humiliés, harcelés, victime du peuvent que les manipuler plus encore », notent F.
délit de « faciès ». Les relations avec la police sont 10
Dubet et F. Lapeyronnie . Si vous en imposez pas,
dégradées et s’enveniment au moindre fait monté vous êtes écrasés.
parfois en épingle au fil de la rumeur. Une logique de
ressentiment est souvent à l’œuvre, sans nuances, à la De nouvelles formes de relations sociales apparaissent,
manière dont la violence dont ces jeunes pensent être fondées sur des rapports de force qui alimentent par
l’objet. Par ailleurs ces émeutes sont vécues par les exemple le « business », les différents trafics de
jeunes comme une forme d’appel populaire à la « drogues où le jeu symbolique avec la mort relève cette
justice » par la violence. Il s’agit à la fois de dire un fois davantage des formes traditionnelles de la
refus de la justice républicaine et d’exercer une délinquance plutôt qu’à une souffrance personnelle
pression sur les pouvoirs publics et sur les juges pour diffuse. Une autre terre nourricière de la violence
provoquer la tolérance. Ceux qui cèdent à la haine se réside dans le marché parallèle de la drogue qui
définissent à travers le sentiment de rejet, de alimente sans doute le pire de l’insécurité dans les
discrimination dont ils se sentent l’objet. Ils se banlieues. Enorme source d’enrichissement pour ceux
comportent en conséquence et alimentent alors une qui le dirige et source de gains considérables pour des
rancoeur à leur encontre (attaque de pompiers, d’agents mineurs employés comme guetteurs lors des
de transport en commun, de fonctionnaires des postes, transactions et qui reçoivent des sommes plus
de commerçants locaux, de médecins généralistes, sans importantes que le salaire de leur propre père. Outre la
compter les affrontements avec les policiers, etc.). Le puissance de disruption sociale qu’elle contient la
racisme et l’exclusion tendent à produire leur objet à drogue est responsable de plus de la moitié des délits
travers une ethnicisation de certains jeunes qui recensés en France dans les cités. Outre cela il existe
retournent alors à la société globale le type de dans ces quartiers un énorme marché de
7 Sur les violences urbaines cf M. Wieworka et al., La violence en France, Paris, Seuil, 1998; S. Body-Gendrot, Ville et violence. L’irruption
de nouveaux acteurs, PUF, 1993; C. Bachmann, N. Le Guennec, Violences urbaines, Albin Michel, 1996; Autopsie d’une émeute, Albin
Michel, 1997. Voir aussi le dossier « Les jeunes ont-ils la haine ? », Cultures en mouvement, N°11, octobre 1998.
8 Cf D. Le Breton, Passions du risque, op. cit.
9 Voir par exemple D. Lepoutre, Coeur de banlieue. Codes, rites et langages, Jacob, 1996, p 248 sq. D. Lepoutre parle également des « tannées
ri- tuelles d’accueil » (p 250 sq).
10 F. Dubet, D. Lapeyronnie, Les quartiers d’exil, Seuil, 1992, p 121. Cf également François Dubet, La galère, Seuil, 1987; A. Jazouli, Les
années banlieues, Seuil, 1992.
6
DAVID LE BRETON
recyclage d’objets volés dans les voitures, les maisons, d’extrême droite. Une dialectique confuse s’entretient
11
des entrepôts, les magasins . entre le rejet dont ces jeunes sont l’objet et la réplique
La haine, quand elle existe, apparaît comme une forme d’une violence diffuse pour s’opposer à ce rejet perçu
de résistance maladroite et brutale, souvent cynique, au comme injuste. Une violence concrète, parfois bien
fait de vivre à la marge, une manière de se poser en organisée, systématique, animée d’un lourd
s’opposant puisque le jeune, à tort ou à raison, croit ne ressentiment, s’oppose avec ses propres armes à la vio-
pas avoir d’autres choix, à travers une définition de soi lence symbolique d’être marqué d’une différence
étroite qui reprend à l’envers les catégories du mépris stigmatisée. Un sentiment d’exclusion, d’injustice,
pour les retourner contre une société perçue comme d’assignation à une catégorie devenue morale incite le
globalement hostile. La société tend à se diviser entre jeune à ramasser la pierre qu’on lui a symboliquement
« inclus » et « exclus » et les jeunes impliqués dans les jetée en adoptant une violence physique. Mais celui qui
incivilités ou les violences urbaines se sentent reçoit la pierre n’était pas nécessairement quelqu’un de
participer de l’exclusion sans voir clairement une issue favorable à l’exclusion ou un raciste, mais il risque de
à leur situation. Parfois il s’agit simplement pour devenir à son tour un partisan du pire. Les mêmes
certains jeunes de rappeler qu’ils existent tout en vivant généralisations s’opèrent d’ailleurs dans certains
des moments d’exaltation en s’opposant à la police tout quartiers où toute présence étrangère est aussitôt
en faisant la une des médias. A Strasbourg, par suspecte et interpellée, les facteurs chahutés, les bus
exemple, où chaque année brûlent désormais entre cinq caillassés, etc. Assignation de l’Autre à une différence
cent et six cent voitures, ce sont plusieurs dizaines qui insupportable avec des formes de discrimination de
sont incendiés la veille de Noël ou de la saint part et d’autre qui brouillent encore davantage des
Sylvestre. La violence est alors une affirmation cartes déjà pipées.
identitaire, elle se ritualise sous des formes multiples,
La violence ou les incivilités de certains jeunes est un
répondant à la nécessité de prendre sa revanche en
symptôme de la formidable résistance de notre société
s’attaquant aux symboles de l’intégration des autres
à assumer son histoire, son ambivalence à exiger les
(incendies de voitures, saccage de magasins par
devoirs inhérents à la nationalité française sans en
exemple) ou en essayant d’en profiter sans bourse
donner concrètement toujours les droits. Ce qui amène
délier (dépouille, casse, racket, trafics, etc). Elle
une part de ces jeunes à revendiquer ces droits en toute
soulève de façon dramatique la question des victimes.
indifférence à leur devoir. Et à profiter des failles du
Dans maintes formes de délinquance juvénile aucune
système pour faire fructifier un « business » parfois
culpabilité n’intervient, aucun regret, ces jeunes n’ont
très rentable mais qui alimente incivilités et violences.
pas l’impression de faire mal, ils n’ont aucun recul sur
leurs actions. Ils ne comprennent pas pourquoi ils se
heurtent à une telle réprobation : « On s’amusait », Outdoor
disent-ils. Les personnes âgées sont volées : « c’est
normal, elles ont de l’argent et nous on en a pas ». Le J’arrêterai ici mon analyse pour évoquer rapidement
quartier est lui même un territoire voué à la fauche et à l’usage de l’escalade comme technique de prévention,
la dégradation. Le moindre objet laissé sans ou d’accompagnement de jeunes en difficulté. Outre le
surveillance est considéré comme mis à la disposition souci du renouvellement du travail social, la conver-
de celui qui passe par là. Les espaces non surveillés gence de deux tendances sociales a amené nombre de
sont des incita- tions à leur rendre visite, les professionnels à tenter l’expérience des “activités à ris-
supermarchés ou les commerces sont une cible que“. D’une part, ce constat d’une relation priviligiée
permanente. La haine est une réplique au rejet social, au risque chez les jeunes générations, surtout celles
au racisme ordinaire, à l’absence de perspective, à la dont on dit qu’elles sont “en difficulté“. De l’autre le
12
descolarisation , une réponse sans ambiguité à foisonnement de cet imaginaire récent faisant du risque
l’exclusion, au sentiment d’appartenir à un monde une forme nouvelle d’héroïsme socialement valorisé.
autre et d’être sans perspective. Bien entendu ces Curieuse rencontre entre des prises de risque
manières radicales d’exister sans souci de l’autre et silencieuses et douloureuses, débouchant parfois sur la
dans une rage permanente alimentent simultanément la mort ou la mutilation, et ces prises de risque encensées
peur et donc le rejet social dans une spirale sans fin par les médias, promouvant de “nouveaux aventuriers”
dont profitent les mouvements
11 Un journaliste de Libération interroge Grégory, 18 ans, un jeune de Réhon (3500 habitants), dans le bassin sidérurgique de Longwy, fils d’un
ca- dre syndical : « Ici vivent des Français qui ont appris à baisser leur froc. Mon but c’est de vivre aux dépens des autres, de force si possible
». Si on lui parle métier il répond : « dans la drogue ». Si on lui parle logement il répond : « Loin des ratons » (Libération, 15-2-1999).
12 Une mise au point à ce propos : la déscolarisation est loin de toucher l’ensemble des jeunes issus de l’immigration. A condition sociale égale,
ils réussissent mieux que des jeunes de parents français. Pour les jeunes des cités en revanche, de toute origine, quand l’échec scolaire ou la
fuite hors de l’école apparaissent, c’est l’avenir qui risque d’en pâtir sérieusement. Ce sont alors des centaines de milliers de jeunes,
dépourvus de tout bagage scolaire et dont les chances d’intégration, dans les circonstances actuelles en tous cas, sont pratiquement nulles.
7
sous les feux de la rampe, faisant de certains marins ou non fermée à clé, vélo ou mobylette négligemment
grimpeurs les nouveaux “héros” d’un stade qui s’étend posés contre un mur, sans antivol, des magasins
désormais à la société toute entière. sans surveillance, des refuges ouverts aux tout
Ainsi, depuis quelques années, l’escalade est-elle venants. Son système de valeur est ici mis en défaut
devenue sur un plan socio-éducatif, voire même par une organisation sociale qui ne prévoit pas le
thérapeutique, l’une des voies priviligiées d’action vol comme modalité possible de relation à l’autre,
envers des jeunes en difficultés. Et certes, l’escalade, comme l’observe par exemple F. Chobeaux.
surtout quand elle implique réellement une relation à la ❑ L’ailleurs: Le sentiment que l’ailleurs n’est pas
montagne, mais déjà simplement le déplacement sur seulement pour les autres, de mettre à son tour
une falaise quelconque de la région, est pleine de un pied dans le rêve.
vertus thérapeutiques. Rappelons nous en effet que la ❑ Briser la pathologie du temps : renouer avec une
relation au risque relève avant tout d’un imaginaire, et temporalité orientée vers un projet et venant rompre
qu’elle mobilise les ressources de l’acteur au niveau avec une existence répétitive. Il s’agit de retrouver
surtout d’une efficacité symbolique. Il n’est pas la perspective du passé, du présent et de l’avenir.
indifférent qu’un thérapeute comme Robert Desoille, ❑ La régulation du goût du risque. Surtout si ce
praticien du rêve éveillé dirigé, ait beaucoup utilisé la der- nier s’enracine dans des conditions sociales et
rêverie ascensionnelle pour dénouer ses patients grâce cultu- relles qui en fait une logique individuelle de
à des images inductrices empruntées à la montagne et conquê- te de signification. Il s’agit d’en faire une
à l’ascension. “L’être éduqué par la méthode de activité contrôlée, même si le jeune demeure plus
Desoille, écrit Bachelard, découvre progressivement la ou moins autonome dans son cheminement,
verticale de l’imagination, aérienne. Il se rend compte respecté dans ses initiatives, voire même dans ses
qu’elle est une ligne de vie. Nous croyons, pour notre excès, afin d’en rendre la nécessité intérieure
part, que les lignes imaginaires sont les vraies lignes de moins impérieuse ailleurs quand le jeune est seul ou
vie, celles qui se brisent le plus difficilement. soumis à la dynamique d’émulation avec ses
Imagination et volonté sont deux aspects d’une même copains. Que les vertus anthropologiques de la
force profonde. Sait vouloir celui qui sait imaginer” prise de risque soient déjà distillées en lui pour
13
( ). Quand on parle d’"activités à risque", il faut ainsi qu’il ressente moins la fascination de s’y livrer
surtout prendre la mesure d’un imaginaire du risque. ailleurs. La mémoire de l’épreuve surmontée est
Sauter en parachute ou grimper une paroi en étant nourrie par l’imaginaire du danger et l’intensité de
assuré ne relève guère d’un risque réel; en revanche l’effort. Si l’épreuve est banale, elle ne laissera
pour le jeune qui se livre à ces activités, l’appréhension guère de trace. Il ne faut pas craindre de se surpren-
est grande, et l’épreuve surmontée est une instance de dre.
fabrication du sens. ❑ Se donner une limite physique. L’escalade est une
activité physique qui ne délaisse aucune parcelle du
L’escalade, comme la randonnée et d’autres activités corps. Tous les muscles, les membres, les mouve-
de pleine nature, n’exige pas une longue préparation ments sont sollicités. L’effort est continu et total. Il
physique ou technique, elle est rapidement accessible ne fait pas seulement appel à la dépense physique,
au plus grand nombre et rappelle pour certains la il exige aussi une vigilance de tout instant.
jubilation enfantine de grimper. L’escalade s’inscrit ainsi dans la passion moderne
des épreuves intenses qui exigent des acteurs de
J’énumèrerai ici un certain nombre de points qui me
donner le maximum de leurs ressources. De
paraissent faire de l’escalade une voie propice d’action
nombreux adolescents, les “nouveaux aventuriers“,
sociale ou éducative.
les auteurs d’exploits ou de performances à
❑ Le déplacement. La randonnée ou l’escalade sont l’intérieur, mais surtout hors du champ sportif, la
pour le jeune la chance de vivre un moment hors du foule de ceux qui se livrent “pour rien” à des efforts
commun, d’échapper à la routine institutionnelle, intenses et prolongés lors de mara- thon, de courses
voire à la chronicité. Changer de lieu est aussi à pieds, de triathlon, d’escalades, de raids, etc, tous
changer de milieu, de repères, d’interlocuteurs, ces “conquérants de l’inutile” qui se multiplient
boulever- ser provisoirement sa vision du monde, aujourd’hui, tous sont emportés par une recherche
s’ouvrir à une autre dimension de l’existence, de limites, ayant aussi valeur de garantie pour
surtout si le jeune est citadin et ne dispose que de l’existence. “Aller au bout de soi même“, “dé-
maigres repères pour appréhender le monde rural passer ses limites“, “découvrir ses limites“, “se dé-
où se déroulent souvent les randonnées ou les passer“, “se prouver à soi même qu’on peut le
escalades. Dans ces villages de montagne, par faire“, etc. Tels sont les propos que tiennent ces
exemple, le jeune découv- re une forme de vie acteurs. Conduites innombrables de défis où il
sociale qui le surprend: voiture s’agit de s’affronter soi (même si cela implique
une lutte fa-
13 Gaston Bachelard, L’air et les songes. Essai sur l’imagination du mouvement, José Corti, I99O, p I3O.
7
DAVID LE BRETON
rouche avec les autres), sous les yeux des autres qui stitutionnalisée ni codifiée“, écrit françois Chobe-
donnent une valeur encore plus grande à un enjeu aux. Dans le cours de l’escalade l’élaboration de rè-
qui demeure cependant intime. Trouver une limite gles s’institue dans une relation concrète à la nature
physique, là où les limites symboliques font défaut; et elle est sollicitée par l’efficacité et la sécurité qui
se tracer soi même un contenant (containing) pour doit soustendre l’action. Le jeune n’est pas ici con-
se sentir enfin exister, contenu de manière fronté à une règle qu’il peut juger vide de sens ou
14
provisoire ou durable ( ). A travers la quête de oppressive, il construit lui même dans son rapport
limites, l’individu cherche ses marques, teste ce à la paroi les règles d’action auxquelles il se
qu’il est, apprend à se reconnaitre, à se soumet. Il tient sa sécurité entre ses mains et
différencier des autres, à restaurer une valeur à son apprend ainsi à reconnaitre la nécessité de repères.
existence. Et selon l’intensité de l’épreuve qu’il
traverse pour expéri- menter ses limites, il se
procure provisoirement ou durablement une prise Réflexions d’ensemble
plus assurée sur son existence. Aller au bout de
soi se charge d’un sens plein, mais dont l’incidence Le travail de préparation, le rêve éveillé qui précède la
demeure strictement individuelle. Dans sa relation réalisation de l’escalade ou de la randonnée,
à la paroi, le jeune se sent contenu, il appuie en l’évocation au retour, des temps forts de l’entreprise,
permanence son corps contre une limite. Son débat permettent au jeune de se déprendre d’une temporalité
permanent contre un monde qui lui échappe se sans valeur, répétitive, et libère des bouffées
substitue ici à un débat avec une paroi tangible dont d’imaginaire, crée un moment de rupture, de
il accompagne les courbures en les touchant de sa jaillissement provisoire du goût de vivre. Le cours de
propre main. Il sait contre quoi il doit se coltiner. l’escalade est un moment d’exception, il participe du
❑ Une sociabilité de type “commando“. La sociabi- sacré personnel et en cela il réintroduit la dimension du
lité qui caractérise une telle entreprise est temps et celle de la valeur. Il irrigue une existence
particuliè- re, elle est de type “commando“, c’est-à- souvent marquée par l’échec et l’indifférence au temps
dire réduite à sa plus simple expression, centrée sur qui passe. Et ce moment fort, nul ne sait à l’avance ce
l’efficacité et l’effort. Elle donne à voir une forme qu’il peut générer chez le jeune, quel processus
élémentaire du lien social, sans doute plus propice à initiatique il vient ébranler qui mettra peut-être des
des jeunes habitués à vivre avec une poignée de années avant de mûrir, mais sans lequel rien n’aurait
copains. Et ess- entiellement pour “faire des été possible.
coups“. Cette sociabili- té immerge le jeune au sein
d’un groupe où la re- sponsabilité de l’un implique Mais l’escalade n’est qu’un outil. Ce n’est pas une fin
en retour celle de l’autre à son égard sous peine de en soi. Elle ne possède aucune vertu magique de
mettre l’expédition en péril. L’apprivoisement de la restauration du goût de vivre qu’il suffirait de prescrire
relation à l’autre, sur un mode moins rudimentaire à certaines populations. Elle sollicite en profondeur le
que la concurence acharnée qui caractérise souvent rapport à l’inconscient de l’individu et elle le confronte
les “bandes” trouve peut-être dans ce style de à une structure anthropologique dont les effets ne sont
groupe son meilleur outil. Injonction pas indifférents. Elle mobilise, au cours d’une activité
homéopathique de sociabilité et de confiance, sans intense, la peur, le vertige, le vide, la relation
exposer le jeune à une trop grande impli- cation. imaginaire à la mort, c’est-à-dire des instances très
❑ Une homéopathie du vertige. L’escalade puissantes de la vie personnelle et surtout inconsciente
transpose sur une autre scène, ailleurs, le sentiment des acteurs. D’une certaine manière, les affronter “sur
de vide, de vertige éprouvé à ne pas se sentir une autre scène” revient à en apprivoiser
contenu, ni soute- nu dans l’existence, mais elle en l’appréhension. La confiance en soi, la revalorisation
absorbe les effets destructeurs au niveau individuel. de soi, l’impression forte ressentie pour avoir été
L’escalade est emblématique, elle conjugue le capable de surmonter l’obstacle, sont des sentiments
vertige et le contrô- le, l’abandon et la toute qui ne vont pas disparaître avec le retour à l’institution
puissance. Elle favorise une reprise en main, ou à la famille. A moins qu’au fil des mois la
dramatisée ailleurs, d’une existence instable. Un chronicité ou le sentiment d’abandon ne viennent en
instant elle donne à l’individu le sentiment de atténuer les effets, voire ne les fasse disparaître
s’appartenir, de maitriser la confusion, un vertige, complètement.
qui règne au coeur de sa vie.
❑ Des règles irréfutables. “L’escalade n’a pas L’escalade n’est qu’un outil dont les dispositions
d’autres règles que celles que se donnent chaque anthropologiques sont puissantes, mais dérisoires si les
pratiquant puisqu’elle n’est pas nécessairement in- effets heureux qu’elle peut susciter ne sont pas relayés
par la poursuite du cheminement thérapeutique ou
socio-éducatif avec le jeune. Le sentiment
14 Cf David Le Breton, Anthropologie du corps et modernité, PUF, 2000.
7
d’indifférence ou de révolte qui s’impose à certains Menninger K., Man against himself, New York, Har-
dans ce contexte est justement lié, le plus souvent, à ce court, Brace, 1938.
qu’ils ne perçoivent l’escalade que comme une
Prévenir, “Adolescence, santé et société“, n°23, 1992.
récréation avant de retrouver le vide d’une institution
ou d’un quartier où l’existence personnelle ne s’attache Prévenir, “Risques“, n°24, 1993.
à aucune valeur, à aucune signification. En ce sens, Volant E., Levy J., Jeffrey D. (eds), Les risques et la
l’escalade ne vaut que ce que valent les animateurs, mort, Montréal, Méridien, 1998.
leur qualité de présence, leur capacité à susciter la Wieworka M. et ales, La violence en France, Paris,
confiance, leur solidité à jouer un rôle de contenant, et Seuil, 1998.
surtout de relais.
Bibliographie:
Arènes J., Janvrin M.-P., Baudier F., Baromêtre
santé jeunes 97-98, Paris, CFES, 1999.
Bachmann C., Le Guennec N., Violences urbaines,
Paris, Albin Michel, 1996.
Bachmann C., Le Guennec N., Autopsie d’une émeute,
Paris, Albin Michel, 1997.
Baudry P., Le corps extrême, Paris,
L’Harmattan, 1991.
Bell N. J., Bell R. W., Adolescent risk taking,
Newbury Park, Sage, 1993.
Body-Gendrot S., Ville et violence. L’irruption de nou-
veaux acteurs, Paris, PUF, 1993.
Chobeaux F. (éd.), Escalades. Démarches
pédagogiques, utilisations éducatives et
thérapeutiques, Paris, CEMEA, 1994.
Choquet M., Ledoux S., Adolescents. Enquête
nationale, Paris, INSERM, 1994.
Csikszentmihalyi M., Beyond boredom and anxiety,
San Fransisco, Jossey-Bass publishers, 1977.
Dubet F., La galère, Paris, Seuil, 1987.
Dubet F., Lapeyronnie D., Les quartiers d’exil, Seuil,
1992.
Ehrenberg A., La fatigue d’être soi.Dépression et
société, Paris, Odiule Jacob, 1998.
Frontières, “Les conduites extrêmes“, vol 6, n°3,
1994.
Goguel d’Allondans T. (éd.), Rites de passage :
d’ailleurs, ici, pour ailleurs, Ramonville, Erès,
1994.
Jeffrey D., Jouissance du sacré. Religion et
post-modernité, Paris, Armand Colin, 1998.
Le Breton D., Anthropologie du corps et modernité,
Paris, PUF, 1990 (4e édition 2000).
Le Breton D., Passions du risque, Paris, Métailié,
1991 (4e édition 2000).
Le Breton D., La sociologie du risque, Paris, PUF,
Que-sais je ?, 1995.
Lepoutre D., Coeur de banlieue. Codes, rites et
langages, Paris, Jacob, 1996.
7
STEVE BOWLES
CRITICAL PEDAGOGICS AND THE WORK OF
OUTDOOR ADVENTURE EDUCATION
Experiential Learning as it maybe today and tomorrow
The Job Of Work At hand vision of the good life. By the same token critical peda-
gogy works against any vampire-culture ( where the
This essay tries to express and examine some of the is- life blood is sucked from folk) that survives only
th
sues that were presented and discussed at the 4 Euro- through an silence(ed) of democratic folk-ways. In the
pean Congress for Outdoor Adventure Education and words of Paulo Freire the “Culture of Silence” is op-
Experiential Learning (2000). My task there was to try pressive and a critical pedagogy that is informed
and open up some of the voices from the most variable through a critical theory moves against such fangs of
and the wide-ranging and inter-disciplinary domain of the vampire. The life blood is not to be sucked from
critical theory and critical pedagogy. My task here, folk. The “silence” that Freire asked us to reasonably
through this essay, is to build a little from that rebel against was that kind of silence which denied a
Congress for the Congress publication. participation of folk in real living folk-ways and in
I was also then, as I write still now, attached to a con- general terms this can be called a denial of democracy.
gress workshop group that met under the themes of In this critical pedagogy is firmly within an active, if
both critical theory and pedagogy as they are attached minority tradition, where education itself is a
to “violence“. Therefore, violence is on display. democratic participation as a life-long process. Did
Freire say that we must all yell and shout ? Did Freire
With this clear I will take two steps. First I will briefly say that we must talk and talk and talk ? In one way
introduce some of the key words, themes and issues of yes he did. But in another he did not. Freire did not
a critical and experiential pedagogy. Then I will move deny the silence that is thoughtful. He did not deny the
in to something that I would like to call “my style” of silence that is a saying “no” ! The silence that Freire,
work which is something that asks for a participative- and Giroux, works against is the oppressive silence that
act yet it is also something that moves and will move is merely providing more blood to the vampire and the
only through folk. culture that is ruled by the vampire(s) through fear
and/or through oppressive acts that are all too often
subtle and sickly-subtle ideologies of silence that deny
Others, Henry Giroux and a folk as folk. Values all too often grow from the sucked-
“Culture of Violence” blood of the weak. ( Bauman 1992)
Henry Giroux was not “born” an academic and his pro- Henry Giroux walks both the “Mall” and the “Hy- per-
fessorial status today in the university is one that re- markets” of academia and the street - all as folk-ways.
mains true to his “roots” as it remains active in his He straddles and his steps are wide. Theory and
“sowing of seeds“. Giroux is one example from a practice, are for Giroux, a most inter-woven texture
critical pedagogy domain that straddles and navigates that is life itself and that life might be a good life for
the street-ways as it navigates and straddles the aca- all. Such is the hope and the promise of life in terms
demic-ways. Giroux joins the circus of the life- of Henry Giroux and other critical pedagogical and cul-
complex and he well understands that to survive this tural workers. Some examples might help explain
daring and performative life, as circus, is to be critical better my words.
of all without losing the humanitas and caritas of all
involved and without which we may never live the It was Kurt Hahn that helped create one popular rule of
good life and find well-being. He is, of course, thumb for our work in OAE. He helped create the
reflexive at work but that reflexivity is attached to the popular idea that we learn “through the sea” not
good life and to well-being for without sense of the “about” the sea in the OAE way. Without categorising
“moral” realm there is little real meaning to the circus Hahn as a critical theorist it is still possible to take a
that is explored through a critical pedagogy. For look at this popular visionary statement in terms of
example critical theory moves against any act of democracy and thereby find a quite massive movement
oppression and this is possible only through a at work through-
7
STEVE BOWLES
out the ages. To have an education that is “through” ness of suffering. As “adventure programming” offers
democracy rather than merely “about” democracy is new necks, with new blood, to the vampires of “value”
the story-line here that is possible. through a Capital-culture language of the “Captains of
A democracy takes slow and sometimes painful pro- Industry“, feelgood-consumerism and do it yourself
cesses of communication and deeds. A democracy can- self-improvement schemes ( all for sale with a full-
not be just accelerated according to the whims and the value contract ) then a critical pedagogy might be just
wants of the fast-time market forces. In this an OAE what the real doctor ordered. A sense of rhetoric is no
that tries to re-vision the words from those like Kurt stranger to critical theory and to a well informed
Hahn is indeed a radical edu-action. As I have written critical pedagogy but such is no mere and idle
before the “outdoors” can sometimes allow just such a semantics. A couple of examples might suffice to carry
slow-time participation with folk as folk that all have on the story so far.
the “time” to just sometimes “stand and stare“. The
In 1998 as I surfed the net seeking out curriculum de-
“outdoors” may be a peopled-time and a peopled-place
signs and marketing spins I came upon one comment
of a slow-con- templation of sorts vis-a-vis the fast-
from a leading “adventure programming” type from the
time city.
USA and as this person was holding a Phd, housed in a
As John O’Neil wrote so well : “Hope is the time it university and leading an outdoor education
takes to make the place … where (folk) can work to- programme I stopped awhile to focus my research on
gether.” (O’Neil 1972, 1976) the blurb . I found the following :
In terms of a “through-democracy” movement the “Ninety to ninety-five percent of all people who loose
work of OAE may, when allowed and when promoted, their jobs do so because of a lack of interpersonal
attach this sense of hope and time and place to the nec- skills. Out of the top five qualities employers value
essary and always difficult worlds of a democratic slow most highly, three of them are directly related to
and low status-knowledge-act. But this will only be interpersonal effectiveness. Skills of such
when the fast-time vampire-culture of flexible-value importance should not be left to only genetics and
and accelerated learning is confronted through folk as chance.“
folk and with folk-ways. The “outdoors” work can do (Dr. C. Bunting)
this.
The obvious marketing comment from Bunting above
But, of course, when the vampire-value is to the front pretends to find an authoritive voice through the use of
then the “outdoors” may well be a different kind of statistical data and logical progression. Being found on
place where quick and vampire-valued-evaluations are a site of the university and being the words of a doctor
enforced as the fast-time-city is taken in the heavy ruck- adds more weight. It would surprise little to find some
sacks of the “adventure programme“. But my point is “Spiders Web” games or similar programming tools to
here that a critical pedagogy with an informed position be used by many that believe in this expert-voice. But,
via a critical theory well knows this and might work in I suggest, anyone with an inkling of critical theory will
other ways. Maybe. Such is a potential and such is a find in this expert-comment enough material to last a
hope and such isa potential. That is a very big point in- month work days in search of some clearly needed
deed. We can together say “yes” as we can together say alternative. Why?
“no” through the slow-time knowledge that is attached
to past times and places and directed towards a better First it is clear that unemployment is caused through
tomorrow. Such is not the “IT” machine that has no the socio-economic and political domain. Capitalism,
memory and works only as mere information in the for example, is forever expanding and seeking the
fast-time-futures of things. Such, begun a little above, is cheapest labour around. To cut a long story short the
one language-game of OAE with a critical pedagogic very movements of capital, at cyber-space-speed, can
vision that demands a dialogue with and for folk. cause unemployment and does so far more than any
localised interpersonal skills ! Has Bunting never
In this an OAE that strives and serves with and for asked this question. Critical theory has and so has any
folk-as-folk as a folk-way will not yield to the lan- critical pedagogy. Second we might ask Bunting just
guage-games of the newly invented “adventure pro- how good interpersonal skills can be “effective” when
gramming” regimes. The very motivating-vocabulary the buttons pressed by capital are far away from the
that is full of hope and potential and promise in a work place of folk. When, that is, Japan, the USA or
folk way ( that is democratic and always re- some other most dis- tant-hand presses the button of
visioning toward the good life and well-being ) is not profit and loss from the stock market world of “IT“.
one that easily gives an open neck to the vampire The two examples, as questions to Bunting, are just
and it is not one that offers itself up for the sacrifice two of hundreds of course but enough has been
( a sacrifice that is all too often a culture of silence ) suggested to begin a campfire discussion within a
as a forgetful- critical pedagogy.
7
CRITICAL PEDAGOGICS AND THE WORK OF OUTDOOR ADVENTURE
If another example is needed however I might throw in future (

a comment for dialogue. As the so called “Youth-at-
Risk” ideology sweeps the stage ( a stage that is made
by the new apolitical party that can only be called the
conservative-left-right-left that marches to the tune of
identity politics for-sale ) we find that these youth that
are at risk are those youth who are lacking in self-
esteem, lacking in interpersonal skills, lacking in trust,
lacking in honesty and coming from “bad-family-
backgrounds” where stability is just another word for
nothing else to lose. Such is the research ideology of
most YAR work. Now let us, for awhile, take this
rhetoric at face-value. Let us accept such a definition
of “at-risk” and let us allow that OAE work can help
this condition. Having said that there is a question that
niggles still. Even by accept- ing the very ideology of
this “at-risk” brigade we are, if we have any critical
awareness, condemned to ask something more. There
is something deeply wrong with this.
The definition of a “Youth-at-Risk” is the same defini-
tion that the public has found for the very actions of so
many political leaders. Political leaders and parties are
accused of just this lack of honesty, lack of trusty ac-
tions, lack of good family-values and so on. This is
then very strange for we do not see “at-risk”
programmes advertised and run and researched for
political leaders and political parties ! Why, the critical
theorist asks, is this the case ? Is this another case of
blame and shame the underdogs? Or, the well informed
critical theorist and pedagogical worker may offer
another interpretation that is worthy of consideration
and dialogue. The words from Michael Weinstein
might be used thus :-
“First of all, the greatest threats are targeted: unmar-
ried teenage mothers. They are the ones who produce
the gang members who deal the drugs that pollute the
social body. No safety net for them. And for their
children, orphanages that will never be, because
they will be too expensive to build. No safety net;
Tough Love instead. It is a favour to the person
deprived of welfare to remove them from dependancy
… Under these swarmy rationalisations is a sadistic
glee in the tram- pling of the weak. The unmarried
teenage mother … Has enormous abuse-value …
exploited to satisfy the will to punish … That is the
way technotopian conservative corporatism works
…“
(M. Weinstein 1995. The Triumph of Abuse Value.)
This is not the place to investigate the intricate details
of any such case but it is the time and the place to open
up such a debate within the field of OAE that has, I
suggest, only just begun to find the nerve to tackle
such issues.
Whether we talk in terms of the farce of a democratic
participation ( check out the protests at the World
Trade Organisation and the official responses to those
protests) today or we talk in terms of a ecological
7
STEVE BOWLES
check out the ways that an evermore global and
expan- sive movement of capital destroys local
knowledge and local systems) we will quickly be led
into talking about critical theory in one way or
another. That is if we “care” and “take care“. Even in
our educational systems we may, as those like Henry
Giroux have tried to do, work to promote an
education with and for democracy for this is lacking
today. As Giroux ( with Mclaren) writes in their
introduction to the series of books concerning teacher
empowerment and school reform:
” In an age when liberalism and radicalism have

come under severe attack, American education faces
an un- precedented challenge. The challenge has
now moved beyond the search for more humanistic
approaches to schooling and the quest for
educational equality. To- day’s challenge is the
struggle to rebuild a democratic tradition presently
in retreat.“
(Giroux and McLaren 1989. See frontispiece to
“Critical Pedagogy, The State and Cultural Strug-
gle“)
To ask for a critical approach within the work of the

“outdoors” and OAE generally is to ask reasonably. It
is not, as those like John O’Neil (1972 ) have said
many times, to dive ourselves into ivory-tower theory
without first taking our own street-wise senses of
peopled-time and peopled-place seriously. I follow
the advice from O’Neil here. I hope and suggest that
enough has been said already to encourage a debate.
To add just a little more however I can try and work
in reflexive ways concerning our own work with the
European Institute. I will thereby be personally
involved and “in” at the deep end of the deep
swimming pool. That, as it should be.
FIRST SCENARIO
It has been said many times that our work is in
“crisis“. Over the last decade such a cry has been
common especially from those prolific “adventure
programming” types that constantly call out for a
conformity to “their models” and “their codes“. The
work of those like Si- mon Priest ( 1996a, 1996b )
serves here as one good example. The “crisis“, for
Priest, is one that where people work outside of his
own model of competence and qualification “level“.
There becomes a crisis of confidence in the work of
“adventure programming” ( as judged by client-
contracts and finance) when other ways of working
are advertised as educational peradventure and where
the customer is not always right or seen as a thing to
be satisfied. There is, according to Priest, a “need”
for his kind of “flow” ( as it were) to happen between
the advertising world of the “competent” workers and
the value perceptions of the clients that pay. When
this “flow” is not realised then the profession gets a
bad name. I have argued some of the many objections
to this
7
line of Priest at other times and places and here I only and then justified through the repetitive needs of the
wish to make one point. The way that Priest uses the well qualified and certified establishments of habitual
word “crisis” is what is interesting. The hidden mean- “success-machines“. The adventure experience does
ings and the “left-aways” are significant for me here. not need to lose good practice.
This was evident even during two seminar events
where both Priest and myself spoke and wrote in quite Nor does the “unknown” need to be a ridiculous “lais-
different ways of a “crisis“. ( see Priest 1996a, 1996b sez-faire” free for all ( rave of death and destruction).
and compare Bowles 1996a, 1996b in the same But the qualification systems must not destroy the ad-
publications) To cut a long story short I have tried to venture that is in itself one reason-for-being. This was
see any “crisis” as having a socio-political and said many years ago by those like Drasdo and Hodgkin
economic realm and to ask for a wider appreciation of and has been repeated, through plea, enough by my
that term just as a critical theorist might do through own work already. The point that Peter Becker leaves
their adherence to a inter-disciplinary and critical us to consider is the ways that an adventure experience
perspective. ( Bowles 1998, 1999 ) can be worked as a pedagogic practice in a way that
will not be scienticism and will better be a scientific
My words above from the “Youth-at-Risk” section openness as one aspect of the creative human and
may help continue this debate for continue it needs to existential condition and a quest for an authentic
do and such is my aim here. There the “crisis” is subject. Giroux would recognise here a kind of
opened as a big crisis of “abuse-value” attached to “Border Crossing“.
techno-utopias and the socio-economic domain, it is
attached to the blame-and-shame culture of violence If then we take this point from such a reading of
that individual- ises “problems” in a most inhuman Becker we are quickly lead into some stormy seas of
folk-way and it is attached to the lack of nerve to find pedagogic practice. We must perhaps ask just what this
a political and public-face so that dis-honest crisis really is in the terms of the lived-good-life of
politicians and “read-my-lips” promises are the lies of folk. We may ask again from Georg Simmel. We may
tomorrow. The “crisis” therefore, for me, is a complex ask in the context of the works of Simon Priest.
issue that involves a most critical social and
economic condition. All the so called qualifications, For Simmel the “crisis” ( he often used the word “trag-
competence standards, accreditation schemes for edy” in the same vein) was one aspect of the culture of
“things” and customer-satisfaction ideologies will do the modern world as experienced by the conscious par-
nothing to work better such a condition where ticipant of both capitalism and modernity. First there
solutions are big problems themselves was a crisis at work with life itself whereby the living
! I suspect my position is reasonably clear. What of culture becomes something apart ( as in an alienation )
others ? Second there is the crisis that is inherent within the
money-value of capitalism. Money, for Simmel, be-
As Chair of the European Institute Peter Becker has comes the main measure of things valuable and in this
written about a sense and a condition of “crisis“. If we abstraction there is generated a situation where
consider then the work of Peter Becker ( 2000 ) we anything that can be sold will be sold and in this
might claim that his words ask us to view the adventure money itself equalises all value and anything goes.
and the crisis in a totally different way but without los- There is, for example, no sense of value that can
ing any sense of reasonable decision-making. Becker oppose the market for the market-value may take all
sees the adventure as a situation of a crisis itself or at for its own. But by the very same condition there
least an always-potential crisis on the ever-new remains a human world that is beyond mere money.
horizon. Becker sees the adventure experience as a life There remains a certain sense of tragedy at work.
force, an existential and a human condition, where, no
matter the need for control, we have also a respect for Many critical theorists and pedagogical workers would
change and movement against static forms of habitual add even to this, through the earlier appreciation of this
“safety“. In this we might say, through these words, by Karl Marx, that this tragedy becomes, under the
that Becker allows us to re-vision a pedagogic logic of capitalism a farce ! The separations of a
practice that stays true to such a sense of adventure. conscious culture are one thing and indeed take on a
We may build quite reasonably upon the words of tragic face ( reflexivity itself has a tragedy in its own
Becker to say that a good science and a good art and a making ) but when money as a part of the capitalist
good pedagogic practice must not only practice what it relations of alienation becomes dominant then there is
preaches but also work in ways that will truly never try a move from tragedy to farce ! One face of this farce
and destroy such an adventure. The crisis in this sense here, for OAE work through any kind of both
is always present in the situation of any OAE work and humanitas and caritas becomes “adventure
such should not be relegated to the bad places or to the programming“.
lower-levels of work as defined by the regulating
Concerning the works of Priest we might say that this
programmes of the domesticated scene
Simmilian appreciation of crisis is something far
bigger
7
STEVE BOWLES
and stronger and more complex than any mere call-to- Let us say, just for the fun of it, that money per se
programming will ever be able to “solve” . Such cannot be bad. It is just a thing for exchange and just
complexity is simply not felt by Priest at all. We may measures of a variable reciprocity. When for example a
ask just why this is ? Such are the questions that project is made by an OAE group and researched and
Becker does ask and tackle in ways that are his own. funded then money here would simply be a simple in-
The interested reader must seek more on this matter between “thing” where the main driving force would
and I only hope to have touched a surface and a heart- be the real and the active peopled-project as the first
felt mind somewhere. and the last aspect of the work. The motivating
Becker, while no critical theorist in any one-way-street, vocabulary would hap- pily reflect just this and it
shows a subtle and yet still steady appreciation of criti- would find its words from a very human and sensuous
cal theory and therefore potentially a valid critical praxis. We might call this kind of circulation a PP-M-
pedagogic position within OAE. Becker, I claim, PP type. That is when Peo- pled-project is made as the
deserves both a close and a respectful reading vis-a-vis first and the last consideration and where Money is
the work of those like Simon Priest because Becker but a mere in-between. But can there be other ways
does not close-up and follow in any idle fashion the that creep us on us ?
self-evidences of the market or of the “value-base” When money is attached to a profiteering Capital-
for research yet nor does he reduce personal-acts to the circulation system then we might consider a different
globalised capital movements either. In this my own scene. We might ask ourselves if our projects become
words vis-a-vis those of Priest are clashed through a somehow reversed so that the logic looks more like
good “third-other” ( that always necessary “third“) the formula M-PP-M. That is where the first and the
perspective. (1) last “thing” is Money and the mere in-between is
people ( as things). In such a reversed logic ( M-PP-
M ) we are likely to find a quite different motivating
SECOND SCENARIO vocabulary perhaps. We might find that humans
becomes “resources” for example and we might find
It is common to hear the call towards “value- for- that humanitas and caritas is lost to risk-management
money“. Such is, of course, not surprising in a cli- and the evaluations of the market. The language of
mate of risk-upon-risk and the “thing-like” the market itself might well dominate and become
manufacture of the most risky of risks attached to oppressive to folk.
money. Money that equalises all “value” so that before
we really “know” it anything goes - so long as it pays. When projects are made because the project-group
Therefore when even all learning must pay then we “needs” money then the project group seeks out
have a very big story at work indeed. Such is, of projects that will pay no matter what those people as
course, not in any way surprising in a climate of a folk really want and need themselves. The funding
“thing-like” manufacture of uncertainty where truth system creates the evaluation in this M-PP-M logic and
must pay (as learning must pay) in this ever-expanding when the funding system is built upon a conservative
explosive “value for money” universe. It comes as no attachment to the politics of the market forces then the
surprise to find a corresponding language at work evaluation and the research language will ( if sensible!)
where the postmodern-selves are flexible-selves seek a research language that satisfies the funding
seeking flexible markets and jobs and seeking a politics. Those that pay the piper may thereby, yet
language to justify and advertise such anything goes again, often select the tune as it were ! ( The example
adventures. There are here quite many deep questions given above - first from Bunting and then from
that we as a European Institute must ask and work Weinstein - gives some meat to this scene and helps the
through. One question is the question of money and its debate ) The point here is only this. We must as a
place in our decision-making. European Institute take-care and we must care. We
must not politically follow the idols of market
It is self-evident ( unfortunately) that money is “neces- evaluations and when our education confronts the self-
sary” even though the working education through the evident nature of the money-for-money logic then our
“outdoors” will teach a very different story as one can- education is a political act and there is education IN
not eat money and money will not keep one warm and politics. Such are debates that those of us inside OAE
dry. To question the place of money today is to risk today rarely have and, I firmly suggest, must have.
both sanity and professional position. But such must be From the European Institute the work of Barbara
done. Money must be questioned because it is such a Humberstone and Gunter Amesberger have provided
self-evident “thing“. Education is nothing if it does one such step towards debate and dialogue.
not confront such self-evidences. But education today
may well be nothing as money becomes both the overt
and the covert driving force of all “learning” !
8
What can Be Said? its lack of consistency ? My point is here that no theory
must even try to be such a consistent theory in a world
The question - “what can be said” - is an eternal one that moves as movement itself and I am suggesting
perhaps. This short essay says much more than can be here very strongly that this is one position that so much
said and the essay itself can do no more and do no less. of critical theory has appreciated and tried to work with
In this a philosophical position is inherent in such a in the most variable of ways.
communication.
In this I use the work of Peter Becker with respect and
Perhaps I might re-phrase. What can we say together ?
in the context of this essay itself. Paulo Freire warned
Now I am back to John O’Neil and the theme of hope.
us about people reading too many books and others
I work and have worked here in this essay with a sense
have said that to read one book well is better than to
of hope. “Hope” being the time it takes for folk to
read many books not so well. All fair points at times. It
make the place to work together. I have tried to open
is in this arena of debate that I write and I try and work
up some debates through doing the impossible. Such,
- with a sense of “Praxis“. I say no more. Praxis =
I suggest, is something that any essay on outdoor,
Folk-ways and it acts through Knowledge-folk-ways
adventure-based and experiential education is
that are real and situated - theory must have itself as a
condemned towards in one way or another. If
practice. Con- sistent theories are never reasonable !
something finds an illumination then I will have
To re-present reality is maybe the adventure itself but
written “well-enough” just as the Winnicot parent of
this does not mean that we might not KNOW a “thing”
Becker well knows the futility of the over-ordered-
or two as we live real moving lives !!! Experiential
certainty and the impossibility of law and order. I hope
Education is condemned to such. But there is much
that something begins with a critical theory with a
more, as Becker invites, to any such
pedagogy and the work of OAE no matter how long it
“correspondence“.
takes.
Footnotes: The related work of Robin Hodgkin ( 1997) might tell
one part of this story, to many folk, quite well.
( 1 ) I mention the work of Peter Becker here deliber- Hodgkin uses, like Becker, the work of Winnicott.
ately but with no intention to try and find any connec- Here play and exploration become significant
tion without either ambiguity or difference. Becker will educational happenings in the human movement that is
use in his work the psychological positions of those a movement of adventure always somehow “in-
like Winnicott, for example. He will not be found between” the realms of safety and the frontier realms
citing the works of Marcuse and Fromm, Freire and of quasi-unknown situations. That is an education
Illich, Merleau-Ponty and Marx for example and all ( bordering on a crisis) peradventure and as a
these working theorists do have a firm place in this potentiality in a “space” where meaning is made again
essay in someway, some peopled-way, and at some and again. Like-wise they both well appreciate a
time or another. I will not appropriate any one sense of multiple active freedoms as creative folk-ways
persons work in any other way than in my ( and on the move. That is as an educational and pedagogic
sometimes “our“) specific work. I do however claim potential. Both see the “place” of time and a space that
that Becker has links with a critical pedagogical is “meaningful” and perhaps of a “speed” being
approach even if I believe he sits on that proverbial integral to the whole affair. But such is what a critical
fence at times and waits without wanting to jump into pedagogy tries to work with too no matter the big is-
the darkness of that adventure scene itself. Winnicott is sues of difference. Becker and Hodgkin would both say
one safe way to do that. Another safe way of avoiding that we make our worlds but we do not make them in
that adventurous jump is to dwell upon soft versions of ways that are simply our own for we live our lives in
a rites de passage process where the “return” after various structures of action. We are socio-historical
liminal-living-situations (sought for through a dis- being. Such might be called an active sense of
satisfaction with the “present“) is cited as an almost “memory” or an historical appreciation in the
asocial thing. concentric circles of a polymorph lived-life. Maybe.
But at the same time I think that the work of Becker The task of OAE today, or at least one reasonable task
helps us all find connections without any fear of idle among many, is to practice what these writers concern
utopian dreams. Becker is critical of idle utopia and my themselves with. In the light of OAE and the adventure
point is this - so too is a good critical theory and peda- as it concerns a critical pedagogy we might do well to
gogy. If my words here sound silly then I only ask for play with and explore with some “tools” and “probes”
the person to stand up and show just how any one and move like the fugue and the radical rubato into the
theory is, in itself, a set of solid certainties or even a realms of the frontiers until such a time as we can
well established and CONSISTENT whole ! Which create new structures at work. Perhaps we need to test
theory, for example and as Michael Rosen (1996) best out and cross the borders a little of both OAE and
says, has ever been ostracised by the academic critical pedagogy through the very natures of our
community because of work peradven-
8
STEVE BOWLES
ture. I suggest that both Hodgkin and Becker would Priest, S. (1996b) Outdoor Adventure Programming.
agree here. To do this is far better than to try and hang In Neuman, Mytting and Brtnik 1996
static labels upon these folk or the folk-ways of critical
pedagogical practices. I urge a playful exploration here Rosen, M. (1996) On Voluntary Servitude: False Con-
that respects both similarity and difference. sciousness and the Theory of Ideology
Simmel, G. (various) In Frisby and Featherstone 1997
Suoranta, J. (1999) Nuorisotyöstä
seikkailukasvataksen. Taju
References :
Wardell and Turner (1986) Sociological Theory In
Baumann, Z. (1992) Mortality, Immortality & Other Transition. Allen and Unwin
Life Strategies. Weinstein, M. (1995) The Triumph of Abuse Value.
Becker, P. (2000) Desire, Rejection or Simply Toler- C-Theory. At www.ctheory.com
ance. Opening Address to the Eoropean Congress
in Edingburgh 1998 and published in the Eorpean
Institute publication of 2000 under the title of
„European Perspectives“
Bowles, S. (1996a) Blending Roots and Sowing Seeds.
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor
Leadership. Volume 13, number 2. Penrith, UK
Bowles, S. (1996b) Adventure Education: A Search
for meaning and definition. In Neuman, Mytting
and Brtnik 1996
Bowles, S. (1998) Being Peradventure. In Lethonen
1998
Bowles, S. (1999) Reasonably Doing the Impossible.
In Suoranta 1999
Freire, P. (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed.
Frisby and Featherstone (1997) Simmel on Culture.
sage publications
Giroux, H. (1992) Border Crossings: Cultural Workers
and the Politics of Education. New York and
London
Hodgkin, R. (1997) Making Space for Meaning.
Polanyiana 6 (2)
Lehtonen, T. (1998) Adventure for Life. Jyvaskyla,
Atena, Finland
Neuman, Mytting and Brtnik (1996) Outdoor
Activities. Prague Conference Report. Lüneburg,
Germany
O´Neil, J. (1972) Sociology as a Skin Trade. London
O`Neil, J. (1974) Making Sense Together: An Intro-
duction to Wild Sociology. New York
O`Neil, J. (1976) Critique and Remembrance. In John
O`Neil (ed) 1976 On Critical Theory. London
O`Neil, J. (1986) Sociological Nemisis: Parsons and
Foucault on the Therapeutic Disciplines. In War-
dell and Turner 1986
Proest, S. (1996a) The Ralationship Among Change:
Programme Type and Facilitation Technique in
Adventure Programming. Journal of Adventure
Education and Outdoor Leadership. Volume 13,
number 2. Penrith, UK
8
KAYE RICHARDS & LINDA ALLIN
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
EATING DISORDERS AND OUTDOOR ADVENTURE
MENU
In line with the theme, ‘food for thought’, this paper is
organised around a menu. Our dining out begins with
Introductory Nibbles ‘introductory nibbles’, whereby we consider the
meaning and significance of food. A ‘selection of
wines’ is presented in order to develop an
Selection of Wines understanding of eating disorders. In this section the
Red, White, Rose history, the aetiology and the prevalence of eating
disorders are briefly outlined, with particular attention
to the developmental stage of adolescence and the
Main Course significance of gender. The main course of ‘traditional
meat and two veg’, provides an invitation to link these
Traditional Meat and Two Veg. key themes within the context of outdoor adventure.
This allows us to consider how the perceived benefits
Dessert of participation in outdoor adventure can form a basis
for an alternative approach in the treatment of eating
Sticky Toffee Pudding disorders. The dessert, ‘sticky toffee pudding’, pro-
vides a more critical examination of the links between
outdoor adventure, eating disorders and physicality.
Coffee and LeCure This highlights wider agendas needing to be addressed,
as eating disorders are located in the outdoors. Both,
‘coffee and LeCure’ and ‘after dinner hints’ consider
After Dinner Hints some of the issues of intervention and prevention of
disordered eating in an outdoor adventure setting.
Introductory Nibbles ‘good’ you have been ? Remember the saying –

Food In Our Lives. ‘naughty but nice’ ? What emotions do you associate
Food is central to our lives and for physiological survi- with food ? Is food on your mind the whole time –
val. It is the focus of many conversations and what time will breakfast, lunch, dinner, tea be ? Do you
punctuates our days. It is usually a social activity, with frequently ask yourself shall I or shall I not eat ? Who
friendships made and communities brought together will be there and notice what I eat ? Do you feel guilty
over a cup of tea or a meal. Indeed in many cultures, after eating ‘unhealthy’ foods ? Do you count the
food is a sign of welcome to a guest and to refuse to eat calories of the food you eat ?
would be considered offensive. Food is also highly What does food mean to you in the outdoors ? Does
connected to emotion and emotional states. It is your relationship with food in this setting change ?
associated typically with pleasure and, sometimes, as a How often do you think about food ? Is it a drudge –
comfort when we are feeling down. this may be the the same old sandwiches, or dried expedition rations ?
meaning of food for the majority of us, yet the Are your eating habits different in the outdoors ? Do
relationship between food, social context and emotion you eat high-energy food in order to sustain the
can be much more complex. To consider this physical demands of a mountain expedition ? Does
relationship, and its meaning, we ask you to explore the cooking of meals over a small camping stove
your own answers to a series of questions: provide an enjoyable daily ritual ? Do you become
What does food mean to you ? Is it something you can more aware of the physiological need for food ? Do
take or leave ? Is it a vice, a temptation - to be indulged you eat more to compensate for energy expenditure ?
in or refrained from depending on how ‘naughty’ or Do you feel less guilty when
8
eating because you have completed physical activity ?

Have you ever thought, ‘can I cope with the pressure to White Wine
have to eat in order to have enough energy to complete The Aetiology of Eating Disorders.
the day’s activity ?
The development of eating disorders have been linked
It is evident that peoples relationships with food are di- to dysfunctional patterns in the family, early develop-
verse, yet recognition of the psychological dimensions mental factors, personality characteristics, social and
of this seems to go somewhat unnoticed in the outdoor cultural pressure and age (Hsu, 1989). In general the
adventure experience. To examine the link between eating disorder sufferer develops intense and
outdoor adventure and eating disorders, the ways in destructive relationships with food, body image and
which food is addressed requires a more extensive self-esteem. Impaired functioning in relationship to the
examination. By asking ourselves what food means self emerges from feeling ineffective and powerless in
for us we are able to recognise the ways in which food the world, having a limited repertoire to responding to
dominates many aspects of our lives. It is this emotions and needs, personal struggles with personal
domination of food that becomes a constant identity, little awareness of self to value and looking
preoccupation for a person with an eating disorder. to weight for a sign of self worth (Bruch, 1973). Low
Eating evolves into a solitary and painful experience, body weight and food control become a search and
representing the key metaphor in a struggle for self– addiction for perfec- tionism of, “an external body
expression, identity and control. A preliminary configuration, rather than an internal state” (Brumberg,
understanding of how we come to know about eating 1988). As suggested by Button (1993), “the pursuit of
disorders, their history and their aetiology, provides the goal [of low body weight] becomes more important
an initial framework for examining further the dy- than the goal itself”(p4). More recently both the
namics of eating disorders in an outdoor setting. medical and the psychological models have been
challenged with a greater recognition of the ways in
which eating disorders may be representative of
Red Wine conflicts in achieving the female contemporary role
(Brown, 1993). The interaction of the physical,
A History of Eating Disorders
psychological and social conditions of eating
disorders illustrates the complexities of both under-
The first medical account of an eating disorder was in standing and addressing the phenomenon of disordered
1689, when it was identified by Richard Morton as eating. Due to this complexity, a diverse array of theo-
‘nervous consumption’(in Silverman, 1997). It was retical perspectives can be examined in the context of
not until approximately two hundred years later that the eating disorders, for example family models (Eisler,
basis of what is now known as anorexia nervosa was 1995), psycho-dynamic models (Herzog, 1995), self-
recorded. Low body weight and self-starvation were starvation models (Fitcher & Pirke, 1995) and social
recognised as the core physiological symptoms. These perspectives (Hepworth, 1999). Feminist models of
symptoms were addressed through the method of eating disorders provide an important perspective, as
force-feeding and control over the sufferer, approximately 90% of sufferers of anorexia and
representing an understanding of eating disorders that bulimia nervosa are women (Brown & Jasper, 1993).
was underpinned by a medical model of self-starvation.
This focused on an asocial and highly individualised
physical explanation, with limited recognition of the Rose Wine
psychological dimensions. It was not until the late
1960’s, when the Diagnos- tic and Statistical Manual Current Issues of Eating Disorders.
of Mental Disorders criteria emerged, that a growing
The issue of eating disorders has received a growing
awareness of the psychological formations in the
attention in the last decade as the incidence among
development of eating disorders was achieved. In
young women and girls has risen. The incidence of
consequence, during the 1970’s / 1980’s the
anorexia nervosa is usually quoted at around one per
psychological aspects received greater attention. This
cent of the population, yet the number of girls who
included the emergence of pscho-anlaytical ap-
may not show all the signs and symptoms that make up
proaches, for example Burch (1978) and Selvini
the diagnosis of anorexia is much higher. The
Palazolli (1974), alongside the suggestion by Crisp
suggestion is that 5% of girls develop sub-clinical
(1980) that anorexia nervosa was an attempt to, “cope
anorexia nervosa (Button & Whitehouse, 1982).
with fears and conflicts associated with
Dieting is a risk factor for eating disorders, yet by the
psychobiological maturity and phobic fear of adult
age of eighteen 80% of women have experienced
weight” (in Silverman, 1997: 8). Alongside this,
problems and issues concerned with eating and losing
bulimia nervosa, symptomatically characterised by cy-
weight (Brown, 1993). Smolack and LeVine (1996)
cles of binge-purge eating, became apparent and was
report that up to 40% of elementary schoolgirls report
defined in the early 1980’s.
trying to lose weight. This practice of
8
FOOD FOR
dieting is occurring young and younger, with girls as fully. A traditional model of outdoor adventure
young as seven or eight years old controlling their food suggests that such experiences could provide a valuable
intake in order to lose weight and feel better about framework in addressing these developmental
themselves (Bryant-Waugh and Lask, 1995). components. That is, participation in outdoor adventure
Components of the development of an eating disorder education has typically been associated with a rise in
emerge predominantly throughout early teenage life, a self-esteem through achievement and risk taking
crucial time for struggles of identity. Both gender and (Kimball and Ba- con, 1993), a greater appreciation of
the developmental demands of growing up female add the physical body through physical activities
to the difficult transition from adolescence to (Mortlock, 1984), a greater sense of control as self-
adulthood, where the changing body is an outward sign sufficiency (Ewert, 1989) and a challenge to traditional
of matura- tion. In western culture, the gender gender roles (Humberstone, 1990). In analysing these
socialisation process typically means that girls are themes more closely we need to consider the ways in
brought up with a limited awareness of the potential of which the developmental factors of eating disorders can
their bodies (Young, 1990). Messages from key manifest themselves in different activities. To achieve
individuals and social institutions also contribute to such an analysis, we invite you to visualise the
women’s sense of dissatisfac- tion with the realities of experiential activity of the ‘spider’s web’ that is used
their body shape and size (Orbach, 1986). Moreover, frequently in outdoor education. As you visualise this
the physiological realities of adolescence means that as activity reflect upon how the issues of self-esteem, the
they mature, girls move away from the societal ‘ideal’ body, control / power and gender become apparent
thin female body type to a more curvy and rounded throughout these experiences. In what ways do they
figure. Boys, in contrast, move closer to the ideal male provide opportunities to positively address these
body type (Smolack and LeVine, 1996). Furthermore, issues ? Having considered a recovery component now
the influences of the cultural values of dieting, examine how these very issues could be negatively
consuming less or no fat / carbo- hydrate as health impacted upon. Thus, ask yourself in what ways are
eating and excessive exercise means that those at risk there both recovery and reinforcement opportunities of
are more likely to develop an eating disorder (Hartley, an eating disorder in an outdoor setting ?
1998). The public acknowledgement of the way in
which messages about the ‘ideal body’ contribute to the
prevalence of eating disorders was exemplified in a Sticky Toffee Pudding
recent UK Government Body Image Summit, held in A Critical Examination of Outdoor
June 2000 (Guardian, 2000). This summit aimed to Ad- venture and Eating Disorders
address the way in which the media, particularly the
fashion industry, convey an ideal of ‘thin is best’. It As we consider a model of recovery and reinforcement
was reflective of a preventive strategy, in collab- we can conceptualise a continuum of troubled eating.
oration with the media, in reducing eating disorders by This allows us to recognise both the diversity of eating
trying to reverse the current portrayal of extremely thin issues and the risks factors that contribute to eating dis-
women. Whilst a commendable step forward in raising orders. Many of the dimensions of eating disorders, for
awareness of the social and cultural pressures on young example a negative body image, are prevalent in many
women, the results of the summit provide girls with people without a defined eating disorder, being espe-
more contradictory messages. It remains unacceptable cially prevalent in women. Thinking around a contin-
to be fat, but it is now also unacceptable to be thin. uum of troubled eating serves to illustrate how assump-
These societal conditions add to the already confusing tions concerning the positive increase in self-esteem
expectations and uncertainties that exist in modern from participation in the outdoors can no longer be
society in relation to women’s roles and identities. taken for granted. For example, when we look at the
idea of self-esteem through achievement we need to
examine what is commonly understood by this in
Traditional Meat and Two Veg relation to the outdoor adventure experience. In many
The Links Between Outdoor cases, the signs of achievement in outdoor activities are
demonstrated or encrypted onto the physical body.
Adventure and Eating Disorders. Relating such elements to the body reminds us that all
experiences and emotions are ‘embodied’; i.e. felt and
Four basic themes in the developmental components of perceived through the physical body. For those with
eating disorders can be identified. These are low self- eating disorders, the interrelationships between self and
esteem, a negative relationship with the body, the body can be heightened, leading to more complex
feelings of powerlessness and gender identity. It is and emotionally charged feelings that may be negative
these four themes that allow us to begin to examine the rather than positive. For example, someone in the pro-
interface between eating disorders and outdoor cess of being passed through the spider’s web can feel
adventure more
8
powerlessness rather than empowered, as they give wider issues prevalent in eating disorders, for example
over the handling and control of their physical body to exercise addiction (Pruitt etal, 1991). Thirdly, self-
others in the group. A comment from a peer /instructor sufficiency proposes independence and self-control.
regarding a participant’s large size in relation to the Self-control is central to an eating disorder, any inap-
size of the hole to be passed through can be propriate influences upon this dynamic of self-control
internalised by a person as their being ‘too fat’, risks prescribing to unhealthy notions of self-control.
damaging a fragile self-esteem. Furthermore, a person Finally, eating disorders emerge out of struggles to
may have fear around their body size, which is overcome unequal power relationships and it would be
silenced, because the goals for the activity are already naive to assume that group relationships avoid power
defined; for example goal achievement or team relationships and that all outdoor adventure spaces ac-
effectiveness. In this way the social and cultural tively seek to demystify gender roles.
context and relationships between individuals within
the physical space of outdoor adventure activities can A more critical analysis of the social construction of
reinforce eating disorders by denying individual needs, eating disorders, and the fact it is a largely of women’s
rather than help in an individual’s recovery. phenomenon, has to alert us to the issues of
maintaining woman’s oppression. It is necessary to be
One important question remains, that is, if these issues mindful of who defines and controls the embodied self;
arise within an experiential activity such as the spider’s both in society and in an outdoor adventure setting.
web, how much greater are the issues raised when pro- This allows us to locate more fully the social and
viding outdoor adventure experiences, where the indi- cultural context of eating disorders and avoids the
vidual physical body is more central to the successful medicalizing and pathologizing of the developmental
completion of the activity ? This can be illustrated in risk factors. In beginning to understand these
reference to a recent incident in a climbing session dimensions we can examine the ways in which
when an outdoor instructor encouraged a young physicality and links with body image are impacted
woman during an abseiling activity by suggesting that upon in an outdoor setting. The centrality of
‘her bum looked great in her harness’. This reinforces physicality and the body to women’s experiences of
the idea that woman should be preliminary concerned outdoor adventure is discussed in several recent
with their appearance and that competence is research papers (Allin, 1998, 2000; Carter, 2000;
determined by physical attractiveness. It also Woodward, 2000). These publications consider the
demonstrates that the socialisation of women’s sense of empowerment which women can gain through
physicality does impact upon the outdoor adventure participation in outdoor adventure. They also begin to
experience and risks being heightened as outdoor show, however, the ways in which such participation
adventure rests on traditional gender values. Thus, we can be a source of dis-empowerment and lead to a low-
can longer assume, as suggested by Conner (1999) that, ering of self-confidence. For example, Allin (1998)
“there is no evidence or reason to believe a wilderness noted that the criteria for positive evaluation in the out-
programme is harmful or could in any way exacerbate doors is often the demonstration of physical compe-
a bulimic or anorexic condition” (p8). A study by tence or, at least, a ‘get stuck in’ approach. In Carter’s
Richards (1998) highlighted how some women who (2000) study, women reported a lowering of self-
had trained as outdoor educators had developed eating esteem through having to ‘prove’ their capabilities,
disorders as a way of coping with the contemporary gain credi- bility or cope with challenges to their
female role which was being defined in an outdoor ability levels. One explanation for this lowering of self-
adventure setting. This was in part reflective of strug- esteem and confidence lies in the way outdoor
gles against a reinforcement of low-self esteem and adventure education is constructed and the links
disempowerment of the female physical body. between physical competence and masculinity
If traditional goals of outdoor adventure, as presented (Connell, 1987). This can lead women who may
earlier, are now reconsidered we can identify further already lack confidence in their abilities to make
how a reinforcement model may be developed. Firstly, negative self-assessments or, alternatively, feel
self–esteem through physical achievement risks pressurised into putting on a façade of bravado, which
encour- aging physical failure, which in consequence in consequence models a denial of emotional needs.
could enhance further an already negative body Thus, risk factors in the aetiology of eating disorders,
image. This is of particular concern if we examine the for example a lowering of self-esteem and being
social constraints upon women’s physical performance unable to value and address emotional needs, have
in an outdoor adventure setting. Secondly, opportunities to emerge in an outdoor adventure
challenging the self to take risks has an inherent value setting.
of controlling the mind over the body. This could The issues in addressing disordered eating in outdoor
maintain the mind / body dichotomy which is adventure is further highlighted when, as suggested by
prevalent for an eating disorder sufferer, as they are in Conner (1999), “potential students with bulimia or an-
continual denial of bodily needs. Further- more, such orexia, with a history of violent, destructive or suicidal
a dichotomy needs to be located within behaviours should not be admitted to a wilderness
8
FOOD FOR
programme” (p8). Why is it that we see many ample, how can focusing on healthy functioning and
provisions for disaffected young people, yet when self-respect in developing positive body image and ex-
violent and suicidal behaviour is linked specifically to ploring a pathway to success unrelated to outward
what is largely a woman’s phenomenon they risk being physical appearance, as examined by Stewart (1998),
denied the wilderness experience. Excluding women be enhanced by an outdoor adventure experience ?
with eating disorders from outdoor programmes Under- standing such processes, however, will require
stems more from ig- norance, fear and a medical model clearly defined boundaries for the goals of outdoor
of eating disorders, rather than a realistic appraisal and adventure, ranging from recreation, education,
positive management of the potential outcome. Even development and therapy. This will require, not only an
though there are physical risks which need to be taken analysis of the differences and similarities between
seriously, for example increase rise in electrolyte these goals for outdoor adventure experiences, but
imbalance and cardiac arrest with an extremely low more importantly that appropriate strategies are in
body weight (Treasure & Smukler,1995), suggestions place to ensure quality practice is achieved in each of
such as Conners in excluding potential students with these contexts. For example, if a therapy model of
bulimia or anorexia fails to understand the intervention is developed then professional therapeutic
reinforcement model which this risks prescribing to. procedures will need to be considered and evaluated
By locating the gender perspective more fully, which is fully, both from an eating disorders and adventure
easily recognised as 90 % of eating disorder sufferers therapy perspective. Thus, we need to be careful of the
are women (Bordo, 1990), it can be argued that ways in which we seek to inform ourselves of the
exclusion of such sufferers from the outdoor adven- how the theory of the aetiology of eating disorders and
ture experience is a reinforcement of the wider the practice of treatment are related to any outdoor
phenomenon of maintaining women’s oppression in adventure experience.
society. This alerts us to the debate surrounding who
defines and controls women’s mental health (Usher,
1991), in con- junction with the management of After Dinner Hints
outdoor adventure programming for women. These Issues of Practice.
debates strengthen the rational for why a recovery and
reinforcement model of eating disorders in an outdoor ❑ The following ‘after dinner hints’ suggest some in-
setting is required and the ways in which a gender itial strategies to support the process of addressing
perspective is central to this debate. disordered eating in an outdoor adventure setting.
❑ Reflect upon your own prejudices and stereotypes
upon the body.
Coffee and Le Cure ❑ Avoid commenting on people’s body image and
Prevention and weight.
❑ Be mindful of the psychological and social compo-
Intervention. nents of food.
❑ Demphasise food in terms of it being a goal for the-
An analysis of intervention strategies provides the plat- rapy for eating disorders.
form from which successful programming models can ❑ Avoid taking control or manipulation over peoples
be developed, which include rather than exclude eating habits.
women’s personal defining of eating disorders. De- ❑ Conceptualise a continuum of troubled eating.
veloping strategies to eradicate risk factors can aid in ❑ Critically reflect upon the centrality of the body in
primary prevention; i.e. reducing the incidence of an outdoor adventure setting.
eating disorders. It is important that a thorough ❑ Identify the ways in which outdoor adventure collu-
examination of the potential of outdoor adventure des with the oppressive social construction of deve-
being integrated into already developed non-outdoor lopmental components of eating disorders.
intervention/ prevention provisions is completed. Non- ❑ Focus on esteem and process in outdoor activities.
outdoor programmes which have been implemented in ❑ Reflect upon goals of outdoor adventure experience
a school setting include; reducing the prevalence of and evaluate them in terms of a recovery and
dietary restraint and the level of concern about weight reinforcement model of eating disorders.
and shape (Stewart 1998; Killen et al, 1990); ❑ Explore partnerships with already existing eating
increasing knowledge and improving eating attitudes disorder intervention provisions.
and intentions to diet (Morena & Thelen, 1993); and As we end our dining out together, we realise the task
reducing moderate and extreme weight loss behaviours of addressing disordered eating, as identified in this
and low body image (Paxton, 1993). By understanding short paper, is both complex and problematic. This
the specific psychological and sociological processes should not discourage us from the potential that such
which underpin such programmes, the role of outdoor programming could bring in intervening, what has the
adventure in providing an appropriate ingredient in the highest mortal-
treatment of eating disorders can be examined and
realised more fully. For ex-
8
ity rate of all psychiatric illnesses, anorexia nervosa. Bryant-Waugh,R. & Lask,B. (1995). Childhood-onset
The significance of developing such approaches are eating disorders, in K.D.Brownell & C.G.Fairburn
very much needed - lives are at stake. We hope that (eds) Eating disorders and Obseity. A comprehen-
this ‘food for thought’ creates future menus, which not sive Handbook (pp.183- 188). London: The Guild-
only implement outdoor adventure ‘courses’ to actively ford Press.
intervene any further rise in disordered eating, but
also consider a critical perspective to future Carter, M. (2000). Developing confidence in women
approaches. working outdoors: An exploration of self-confi-
dence and competence in women employed in ad-
venture recreation, in B.Humberstone(ed) Her out-
doors; Risk, challenge and adventure in gendered
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8
STEVE LENARTOWICZ
WORKING WITH DISAFFECTION AND RISK
BEHAVIOURS
Although the theme of this strand of the conference

was drugs, the workshop focused on the broader theme Citizenship
of working with disaffection and risk behaviours. The
misuse of drugs and alcohol was seen as a symptom Rights Responsibilities
of underlying issues of disadvantage and deprivation
such as homelessness, failure at school, family
breakdown, racism etc. These issues can also lead to
other symptoms, such as depression, suicide, risky Active part in
sexual behaviour and involvement in crime. Decision-making
In the United Kingdom, information on serious drug

misuse is limited. In one survey, it was found that 3%
an empathy with other people. They need to develop
of young people aged 16-18 were dependent on illegal
personal and social skills such as communication, deci-
drugs, and 5% were dependent on alcohol. This is an
sion-making and problem-solving. They need to learn
indication of the scale of the serious end of the drug
to handle risk, and to have access to the information
problem. However, it is thought that around 40% of
which well inform their decisions. They also need a
young people have tried illegal drugs.
chance to experience success, excitement and
It is clear that there is a link between drug use and adventure in a positive context.
other factors. 10% of non-participants in education,
The emphasis on support means that the responsibility
training or employment were found to be drug-
lies much wider than the individual and the state
dependent, and 13% alcohol-dependent. 88% of
authorities – there is a vital role for parents,
homeless young people in London have used drugs –
communities and voluntary and private sector
this is twice the rate of non-homeless young people in
organisations. An effective response means a multi-
inner cities. 78% of students who have been
agency approach, with the state, the individual and
permanently excluded from school have used illegal
civil society working in partnership. One example of
drugs, 38% of them have used drugs other than
such a multi-agency approach is the setting up of
cannabis, 9% of them have used cocaine and 5% crack
Youth Offending Teams in England, which bring
cocaine. Truants are twice as likely to have tried
together agencies such as the police, probation ser-
solvents or drugs, and three times more likely to have
vice, education service, youth service, social services
used hard drugs, than non-truants. Young people
under one umbralla, and which have a duty to form
attending schools for those with educational and
partnerships with the voluntary sector. On a wider
behavioural problems are four times more likely to
plane, the new Connexions strategy in England seeks to
use drugs than the average.
bring ‘joined-up thinking’ to all work with young
At times, the solution to the problem has been seen in people.
terms of protection, control and punishment. However,
Once it is recognised that there is a responsibility on
it is clear to many people that this approach ignores the
civil society, then the notion of citizenship must be ad-
real causes, and that an emphasis must be given to pre-
dressed. We need young people to be active citizens,
vention and support. Clearly there are structural factors
and they need us to act as active citizens towards them
to be addressed: young people need an absence of eco-
too. Citizenship has sometimes been seen as a balance
nomic and social deprivation, so that there are opportu-
between the rights of the individual and the
nities for fulfilling employment and recreation,
individual’s responsibilities to society. Citizenship
satisfactory housing and so forth. Young people need
education has often been limited to gaining
stable, supportive families and communities. They
knowledge and understanding about these rights and
need to have the opportunity to develop self-esteem,
responsibilities, and about the structures of society.
self-confidence, their values systems, emotional
However, such a view of citizenship misses an
intelligence, and
important element – in order to be an active citizen, a
young person must have a voice in deci-
9
STEVE LENARTOWICZ
sion-making, especially in decisions which directly af- We should give equal attention to each of these three
fect them. elements. In many outdoor adventure programmes,
It is not possible to learn to take responsibility and to emphasis is only given to the activity, and little
make such decisions through education that is located attention is paid to the learning climate and process.
just in the classroom. Citizenship has recently been in-
Each of the three elements of the programme can be
troduced into the school National Curriculum in Eng-
managed in one of the three decision-making modes.
land, but it needs to be reinforced by opportunities to
The table summarises the interaction of these elements
learn in other contexts. Outdoor Adventure - based Ex-
with the three modes (after John Heron, The Complete
periential Learning has much to offer here.
Facilitator’s Handbook).
The process of becoming an active citizen is one of
empowerment. Empowerment can be seen as a
process of growing from dependence to independence, Decision making modes about
but this is an insufficient definition. True elements of a learning event (after
empowerment involves recognising our John Heron)
interdependence, with each other and with the Earth.
Empowering young people means that we must design Decision-making mode
our education programmes so that they are able to take Element of the Hierarchy: Co-operation: Autonomy:
an increasing responsibility for decision-making. learning event Facilitator ma- Facilitator Decisions are
When we work with young people, after an initial stage kes decisions makes deci- made BY the
of making contact and trust-building, we often provide FOR the group sions WITH group
the group
activities in which they participate. Deci- sions about
the activity are made FOR the young people. This is Activity:
What task will 
especially true when using hazardous activities such as
we do?
canoeing or climbing. Sadly, much outdoor education
Group
does not progress beyond this stage. The next stage is Process:
to involve young people in shared decision-making, 
How will we
by supporting them to take some responsibility. work together?
Decisions are made WITH the young people. Fur- ther Learning Process:
progress in empowerment is made by giving full re- How will we le-

sponsibility, so that decisions are made BY young peo- arn from this?
ple. Eventually, at least for some, there will be a
leadership or peer education role, where decisions are
made THROUGH them. In the example given in the table, the facilitator negoti-
ates with the group about what task they do. Perhaps
they are given a choice of activities, and in discussion
Empowerment
with the facilitator they decide to take on the challenge
of a full day’s canoe journey. Responsibility for how
Decisions made… the members of the group work together to achieve the
FOR task is given entirely to the group. They have to decide
WITH
how to support the weaker members of the group, how
BY
THROUGH to keep up morale at difficult times, when to stop for
…young people. rests, how to deal with disagreements, and so forth.
The facilitator only steps in to ensure safety and to
give technical instruction. However, at the end of the
The task of the facilitator is to be aware of the stage at day, the facilitator steps in and directs a review of the
which young people are working, and to manage the experience in order to draw learning from it.
learning activity by making decisions about how he or
she works with the group so as to move them up the There are also higher levels of decision making - for
stages. There are three important elements involved in example, deciding which mode is used is a decision
any learning activity: in itself, which can itself be made using any one of
the three modes. In this case the facilitator might have
❑ Content: the activity itself said, at the end of the day, “Would you like to run the
review, or shall I run it?”, delegating the decision to the
❑ Social Climate: the group process involved in un-
group. The group decides that they would like the
dertaking the activity
facilitator to direct the review.
❑ Process: how participants learn from the
experience of the activity The ultimate aim is to empower the group, and the
individuals within it, to be able to make autonomous
deci-
92
9
WORKING WITH DISAFFECTION AND RISK
sions in each of the three elements. Learning to manage

interpersonal situations and the process of learning
from experience are important outcomes. A
‘curriculum for empowerment’ would see learning
programmes designed to provide a progression
towards these outcomes, by gradually moving the
locus of control from left to right in the table.
9
FRANÇOIS CHOBEAUX
EDUCATIONAL AND THERAPEUTIC USES OF
HIGH-RISK OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES
Nowadays, in France as in other western countries,

many programmes of educational and social activities Asserted factors of interest and
aimed at young people facing important problems of underlying mental perception
integration, for example, drug users, are at least partly
based on outdoor sports that involve a specific risk. Contributors who use these techniques pinpoint three
factors of interest.
What are the specific characteristics of the approaches
developed in France ? They already take part, or took part, in these activities,
and enjoy or enjoyed them. Their wish to introduce
Why is there such an interest in this type of sports – them to the group clearly is part of a sharing process
what are the underlying mental perceptions ? in- duced by a great emotional and human investment.
There is a flux of desire at stake in it, professional rela-
What conditions are identified for the effectiveness of
tionship leaving room for emotions. Yet it does not im-
these techniques ?
ply that such an emotional dimension is necessarily un-
What issues are being discussed ? conscious. Terms such as « meeting », « sharing », «
dis- covering » and « pleasure » are often pointed out.
Definitions, and specifics of the In addition to this, the aspect of what we call in France
French situation « pleine nature », the great outdoors, is demanded and
expected. Activities which take place in the natural en-
The french label ‘ high-risk sports’ applies to sports vironment require from the individuals and groups the
which take place in a natural environment and which mobilisation and use of abilities such as co-operation,
involve a constant and great phisical risk. These delegation, trust, collective organisation and responsi-
include cliff-climbng, high mountaineering, white bility for oneself and others. All these capacities the
water sports and caving (undertaken in chalky areas). development of which will ensure the social
integration that these actions seek to achieve.
Unlike in some Anglo-Saxon countries, only very few
of the activities organised by French youth workers or Last but not least, contributors place the emphasis on
therapists are part of standardised programmes. As a the emergence of great emotional charges linked to
consequence, there are next to no « programmes » - in these activities. This aspect is presented as particularly
the English sense of the word – where schemes are interesting with groups who put on a blasé attitude, for
based on the use of one sport or another for a set length whom who nothing seems to interest any more.
of time. Social workers prefer to include specific tech-
niques based on activities – sporting, artistic, etc – in Beyond these specific and essentially rational claims, it
the context of the educational or therapeutic is possible to identify four major lines of underlying
programme of which they are in charge. We are mental perceptions, which are scarcely examined in
therefore talking about the use of these techniques spite of their apparent lack of rationality.
amongst others rather than as the centres of coherent The notions of atonement and redemption are very
programmes. often quite vividly present in the mind of the individual
The target group is made up of young people aged 15 concerned as well as to the rest of the world. The idea
to 30, who are all facing problems of social integration, is that the difficulty of these tough activities would
up to the extent of social exclusion. They are all users make possible to erase past wrongs and debts to
of in- toxicants, either legal substances such as alcohol, society. The presence of this major Christian theme of
or prescription drugs (which they misuse), or of illegal atonement is not surprising in our countries.
drugs ranging from cannabis to heroin. It is also noticeable that a sublimation of passions and
These young people receive specialised and compre- behaviours is expected from these activities because
hensive support, which can last years. the participant has been forced to learn to handle a
con-
9
FRANÇOIS CHOBEAUX
trolled risk in a measured and well-considered way. «Risque ordalique» «Risque dynamique»
The belief is that this learning of a skill in control is
sup- posed to lead to a sensible handling of one’s own Choice left to an external decision Choice left to the individual
life almost immediatly and automatically. This Achieves the « buzz » Achieves structure
expectation is particularly common in the case of Assessed in relation to death Assessed in relation to life
actions aimed at drug-users. Controls life Enhances life
Makes one feel better Makes one have a better
Many of the activities which are aimed at addicts are knowledge of oneself
thought to enable the transition from an uncontrollable Internalised, solitary Expressed, socialised
and lethal addiction to drugs to another kind of depend- An end in itself A means to an end
ence. This new dependence is softer, positive, social- Based on a death wish Based on a desire for life
ised, linked to the discovery of great feelings and emo-
External superego Self
tions through these activities. It is often said that the
achievement of a support programme is to shift the ad-
These examples of contrast lead one to view very
diction from the need for a fix of heroin to « fixes » of
differently the role of supervision and the conditions
adrenaline.
of support in these risk-based practices.
Quite often there is also an expectation of a cathartic
Contributing organisers of these activities who come
process, whereby the violent and sudden emergence of
from the « ordalique » perspective set up conditions al-
deep and hidden emotions, made possible by the ex-
lowing a direct confrontation with risks. They
treme emotional states encountered, would almost
intervene as instructors, through emotional support and
automatically neutralise the emotional charges thus
non-negotiable pressure - « you can, you must ».
revealed.
Their help is only technical and focuses on the task to
accomplish.
A few requirements identified for the Those who come from the « dynamique » perspective
effectiveness of these treatments rely on the organisation and environment of the activity
to create pretexts and a system of relationships between
In fact, there are two fundamentally opposed ways of
people. They use risk as a working tool, not as an aim.
taking risks into consideration that are to be thought
Their role is not confined to technical advice on the
about. The opposition lies between the so-called « ris-
car- rying out of the task. They insist on themselves
que ordalique » - the risk of ordeal – and « risque
being present and involved as well as on their function
dynamique » - dynamic, active, risk.
of emotional support – « you can do it, I wouldn’t put
In the first case, « risque ordalique », attention paid to you in danger because I like you, I value you. »
the individual’s attitude toward risk, that is the endless
The choice of the « risque dynamique » logic
personal search for reassurance through the successful
obviously implies the presence and active participation
handling of self-imposed trials, is not very liberating.
of youth workers, medical staff and therapists during
The alienation caused by drug use or other dangerous
the activities. Without these it would be impossible to
activities is replaced by a similar alienation, now
identify the emerging emotions or to do any attendant
caused by the « use » of different activities, but still
work on them.
seeking the same feeling of defying death. At this
point, the person looks more and more desperately for Moreover, such action must be part of a comprehensive
a meaning to his life but is constantly constrained by and co-ordinated project of support. To fit into a
limits which trap him. consistent scheme requires that it be developed over a
long period.
By contrast dynamic risks lead the individual to go for-
ward and, with some support, to take responsible steps Finally, there must be an adaptation of the method of
which bring hope and new prospects. The risk is there- teaching these techniques and a reflection on the practi-
fore positive, constructive, and part of the transforma- cal conditions of implementation. It is especially neces-
tion and developement of the person. sary to take into account the conflicting relationship of
the young people – they may have problems with
A few examples to illustrate the contrast in types of
standardised learning and constrictive teaching
risk :
methods. Also, one must take account of their having
difficulties in complying with rules and sometimes
getting suddenly and terminally discouraged when
they encounter an early failure.
96
EDUCATIONAL AND THERAPEUTIC USES OF HIGH-RISK OUTDOOR
ISSUES WHICH ARE BEING DISCUSSED AND marked by passionate people who have tried to lead
ARE AS YET UNANSWERED and share with others, who have involved themselves.
It is not easy to assess the impact of these actions. Very There have been and there are always exchanges of
few qualitative studies are currently undertaken and pleasure and desire, all for the best.
those which are, deal with unreliable criteria – such as Desires for rationalisation of these projects slowly
assessment of changes in behaviour in the short term or emerge, needs for training for « instructors », assess-
an appraisal of the « sense of change » expressed ver- ments, all necessary to bring these methods into com-
bally by the protagonists. These procedures do not take mon use. The spread of these practices depends on it.
into account the importance of the over investment and Will it not however lead to an impoverishment of the
of the process of counter transference required of the essence and diminution in the effectiveness of these
staff involved in these innovative practices. They also methods if they become mere techniques that can be
do not take account of the importance of containing, implemented by mere technicians ? The capacity to
which is both a protection and an external superego recognise others and endowe them with controlled and
linked to these actions, allowing no infringement of the conscious desires cannot be taught. It may be the
sole rule, which is that of life. They also ignore all limitations which will stop the ambitions to generalise
exogenous factors linked to the protagonists’ lives, and order these educational and therapeutic
changes in their environment, family mobilisations – adventures.
the people who are taking part are a young age group
with changing material and emotional environments.
It is possible to assess the global impact of a support Some french and belgian references
programme but it seems rather risky to try to isolate
one of its technical parameters. ANSTETT, Michel. et SACHS, Bertrand. (direction).
Sports, jeunesses et logiques d’insertion. La Docu-
The training of « instructors » - social workers, thera- mentation Française, Paris, 1995.
pists, people specialised in the area of high-risk activi- CHOBEAUX, François. (direction) Escalades.
ties – to use these tecniques with such groups and with Démarches pédagogiques. Utilisations éducatives
the specific aim of helping their integration is not very et thérapeutiques. CEMEA, Paris, 1994.
developed. CHOBEAUX, F. et DUBOUCHET, D. “Le risque ou
There has been little research into the didactics specific la vie ?” in Prévenir n°34, 1er semestre 1998, Mar-
to such situations. There is no continuing dialogue be- seille, pp. 55-58.
tween the therapists involved in these programmes. LE BRETON, David. Passions du risque. Métailié,
There is almost no rational approach that would allow Paris, 1991 et rééditions.
the justification of the choice of a specific technique GOOR, Jean Pierre. (coord.) Parfums d’aventure. Une
with a specific group. évaluation de projets de sport-aventure. Fondation
Roi Baudouin, Bruxelles, 1994.
There are currently thousands of contributors who sim-
ply design their own way of proceeding on their own,
without regularly exchanging their views with one an-
other. There is therefore no consensus that could
emerge from such exchanges.
Quite often, these techniques are only put forward as
the last resort, where all else has failed. People
promoting programmes on risky and adventurous
practices are even more likely to claim that they can
succeed where everyone else has failed. Then what
happens to the people targeted when this approach «
does not work » for them ? Will they be regarded as
beyond help, or will the instigators of these approaches
be taught to be more modest and therefore more
responsible ?
To conclude
We have come to the end of a first and pioneering
stage in the investigation of this approach to a
problem,
9
PETER HIGGINS
LEARNING OUTDOORS: ENCOUNTERS WITH
COMPLEXITY
The “right answer” approach is deeply ingrained in The genetic modification of a crop requires deep
our thinking. This might be fine for some mathematical understanding of an organism in a number of ways
problems, which do indeed have one right answer. and at various levels. This kind of science takes place
The difficulty is that most of life isn”t that way. Life is at an interface between genetics, physiology and
ambigu- ous. biochemistry and is provided as an example of
Von Oech (1990) “scientific complexity”. But this interface, complex
as it might be, is highly controversial and has to take
account of ecological principles and human
Abstract perceptions, politics etc.
In modern education the conventional approach is to Whilst such an example has an environmental dimen-
make efforts to simplify the learning process. This is sion it may be seen as a relatively local issue compared
done through the application of appropriate methods to to an issue such as global climate change. This is now
a defined and increasingly prescriptive curriculum of such significance that governments are beginning to
which is in itself compartmentalised into subjects with take the matter seriously. Investigating the causes of
well defined boundaries. However, most human global climate change has so far been the
interactions (with others as well as the natural and preoccupation of the scientists who study it and it has
modified environment) are complex. Understanding proved to be a “scientifically complex”. However,
this world and living and working within it requires despite awareness of the human causes (emissions of
awareness of relationships, connections and carbon dioxide etc) governments and individuals are
consequences. Whilst there may be ways in which the slow to react. The issue of global warming is, by
school curriculum might be changed to encourage definition, not confined to one locality. I (and the rest
learning and understanding of this type, such changes of industrialised society pollute in one part of the
seem unlikely. Direct experience outdoors is globe, but someone elsewhere (eg in Bangladesh) may
proposed as one way of achieving these learning suffer the results of sea level rises. This example of
outcomes. The question of relevant research in outdoor “environmental complexity” clearly has social,
education is raised. Whilst I seek to make general political and cultural dimensions.
points about these issues, the paper must be seen as
primarily reflecting the situation in education in the All of the above are also influenced by
UK. communications technology, globalisation and the
media. It is obvious that we might not think about it in
such terms but “complexity” is a facet of everyday
Complexity and the big issues life for all of us. In the present paper I consider the
degree to which education provision prepares us to
I would like to consider the notion that many of our in- think and address our feelings about such issues.
teractions with the world are “complex” and discuss
the range of meanings which may be associated with
this. Perhaps the most obvious manifestation of Schooling
complexity is in our relationships with others. Pick any
person you know and think about the subtleties and By the time a school student is 16 years old, he or she
nuances of that relationship. What do you really know will have spent around 9% of his or her life (awake or
about them and they about you? Add a third person to a asleep) in schools and schooling. Calculated as waking
conversation and the interactions might best be hours between the age of 5 and 16 the figure is roughly
described as “social complexity”. Extending this notion 43%. This period of exposure to schooling is provided
to the multicultural society in which we now live and by the state to give the student a start in life and in the
add the issues of eq- uity and social justice and the hope and expectation that he or she will play a full and
result may be described as “cultural complexity”. active role in society. The period is a preparation, and
the best the state can provide within limited funds, for
9
PETER HIGGINS
what lies ahead. My purpose in calculating the percent- no doubt a rationale for this based on the premise that
age (and it may seem low or high to the reader depend- at higher levels the subjects are more technical (and
ing on their experiences) is to both emphasise the hence a specialist is required) and that this strategy
significant amount of time this represents and the breaks the curriculum into manageable chunks for the
obvious fact that there is a lot of time spent not in student to digest. Also it may well be convenient for
school when the student will be subject to a wide range schools to be arranged this way. When student
of other influences. This begs the question, “what is it knowledge is assessed this generally occurs under the
reasonable to expect the school to provide and what subject headings.
can be left to these other influences?” Whilst much has
been written on the role of the school in society there is
little debate over the central function of the school in Learning
purveying knowledge and skills and in the
development of informed attitudes and values. According to the Scottish Consultative Council on the
Additionally it may be appropriate to suggest that the Curriculum “learning is messy ... we rarely learn any-
school might help the student make sense of their thing by proceeding along a single path to pre-deter-
experiences outside school and, as suggested above, mined outcomes” (SCCC, 1996: 9). It seems that we
apply all this to later life. understand the world by relating pieces of
information to others and fitting at all together. As
The central issue of interest then is “can the school do
multi-sensory animals we understand the world
this?”
through sight, sound, taste, smell and touch. We also
relate to events in ways which are intellectual,
The standardised curriculum physical, emotional, aesthetic and spiritual. Whilst it
may be possible to experience an event through a
It is not the purpose of the paper to question the effec- single sense and know it in a single way (eg reading
tiveness of the school in delivering the curriculum. text and considering it intellectually), this is not the
Schools have to be efficient and focussed in the norm. The more complex the experience, the more
delivery of curricula. This means that structures and ways there are of experiencing it and knowing it. The
systems are put in place to make it easy for the teacher more ways an event is known, the better that chance
to teach and the student to learn. Increasingly it also that it will be understood. Wilson (1998) reports that
means that each step of the way is monitored and the the neurobiologist Charles Sherrington (writing in
learning product (student knowledge) measured. 1941) considered the “brain as an enchanted loom,
perpetually weaving a picture of the external world,
The selection of the curriculum (what is studied) and tearing down and reweaving, inventing other worlds,
how it is studied (in school) is generally not a matter creating a min- iature universe” (Wilson, 1998: 11).
for the student, and with increasing government The more multi-sensory the experience, the more
involvement in this process, may not be much of a colourful the weaving. This view has been supported
matter for the teacher. It is not my purpose here to by the work of many educational psychologists since
review the research on child development. However, it then and is in line with the “constructivist” position
is clear in the early years of a child”s development he which holds that learners actively construct meaning
or she sees no subjects let alone boundaries between by building new experiences into previous ones. It
them. For example a representation of an event may be seems to be the newness of experiences which attract
verbal, visual, text or a mixture of all three. In the early our attention and help in the construction of meaning.
years of schooling, due acknowledgement tends to be As Bateson (1979) put it, it is the “differences that
made of this and the schooling of the child often takes make a difference”.
place with one teacher (in one classroom) where a
variety of subjects may well be taught together. A Certainly many teachers are well aware of the theory of
child-centred approach is often taken, though usually learning, and make a point of cross-referencing their
within the confines of the classroom. subject to other areas within the curriculum and
endeavour to place it in a broader context. But how
In later years the curriculum is divided into a number does the education system encourage the student to
of subjects which fit within structures in the school. apply this knowledge to build up relevant
Cen- tral to the process is reading and writing (and now 1
“worldviews ” (Brookes, 1993) and opinions? How
ICT) and these are given a special place in the
does it help the student to deal with problems which
curriculum. Other subjects such as history, geography,
require the application of knowledge from several
chemistry, physics, biology etc are taught by
disciplines? Clearly school leavers have done much of
specialists. There is
the work for themselves as they do, by and large,
succeed in the modern world. However, this is not to
suggest that this process could
1 Brookes (1993) uses the term “worldviews” (or mindsets) to mean ways of seeing the world which are either absorbed tacitly from everyday
1
experiences, or educationally constructed as a function of the structure of the school and its practices etc.
1
PETER HIGGINS
not be aided by the school. This is a key skill and subjects are taught without these dimensions they will
schools should take responsibility for this aspect of the not be valued
student”s development. In fairness to teachers, schools
and educational policy makers this is an issue which
causes considerable debate (at least in the UK). Here a Encountering simplicity
number of recent consultation documents refer to the
central importance of core skills (such as working with The reasons individuals recreate outdoors are many
others and problem solving) but there seems little ex- and varied. However, a desire to “get away from the
plicit guidance on how this might be achieved. This is pressures and complexities of everyday life” is high
in stark contrast to the detailed way in which guidance amongst them. The outdoors is seen as a place to focus
on how the “subjects” are taught is provided in policy on the important things; food, shelter and safely negoti-
documents and text-books. ating potentially hazardous (adventure) experiences.
These are the lower order needs in Maslow”s oft cited
“hierarchy” (Maslow, 1970). Indeed many an outdoor
What else might the school do? education programme cites this as a rationale, arguing
that outdoor education can provide tasks and
In the preceding text I have not suggested a radical re-
challenges which bring the student in touch with these
structuring of schools. This is and has been the focus of
important realities which are often obscured by modern
many a debate over at least the last century. Although
living. Through this process the outdoors is seen as a
it seems to me to be a false divide with inappropriate
place where individuals can “confront themselves”
ter- minology there are those who argue for
and, provided they engage in appropriate reflection,
“progressive” or for “traditional” approaches. The
“develop” as a result. The essence is to strip away the
reason I have avoided this issue is that there seems at
complex and focus on basic needs. Staying safe, warm,
present no possibility of this debate being taken
dry and well fed is the priority, and working with
seriously, and in the context of this paper I wish to
others is often seen as the way to be successful in
focus on a more modest (though substantial) ambition
achieving a common goal. That through such
for outdoor education.
experiences valuable perspectives on day-to-day life
Eisner (1985) argues that schools teach “explicit”, “im- are revealed is a common tenet of outdoor recreation
plicit” and “null” curricula. These can be restated as and an important aspect of outdoor education.
“what you can see the school teaching”, “what message However, I would argue that outdoor education has an
students take from how the schools goes about it” and an important role in extending the student perspective
“what is left out”. So far I have briefly discussed the out from simplicity towards encounters with
first two of these but “implicit” in a curriculum which complexity. In this light such experiences may be
is de- livered in a manner which emphasises individual viewed differently.
subjects, there is a sense that the connections between
them are relatively unimportant.
Encountering complexity
There are issues which are of educational relevance to
the school but which are difficult to fit into existing ÔWe stood in the early morning autumn sun on a field
curricula. Suggestions for inclusion might be health, of dew-sparkled grass outside a remote churchyard on
citizenship and sustainability. All three of these the banks of the River Findhorn in north-east Scotland.
interrelate with a range of aspects of the traditional We used Tai Chi relaxation exercises in preparation for
disciplines and all can be regarded as having the the journey ahead and discussed their use to prepare for
dimension of complexity. They also relate to each exercise, and the principles of dealing with an
other. So, for example, the health of the individual is external force by relaxing “with” it to allow it past
closely related to sustainable (non-polluting etc) rather than pushing against it. On our journey we
practices and decisions on sustainability are, in the discussed the rock shapes carved by the river and
final analysis, made by the elec- torate. erosion in spate conditions. Our attention was
captured by the shimmering golden leaves of the aspen
Each of these has a knowledge base and some are trees on the river banks and the conversation shifted to
indeed taught by some schools within a set curriculum. deforestation and the centuries old relationship
How- ever, it is in the null and implicit curricula that between trees, sheep, people and landownership (in
messages are learnt regarding the importance of the which the trees and the people always seem to fare
areas and how they might be thought about. Thinking worse than the sheep and the landowner!). A leaping
about and dealing with complex issues requires key salmon gave rise to debates on the biology of salmon,
skills which must include critical analysis, integrated fresh-water ecosystems, salmon fisheries and the
thinking, problem solving and personal and social management of watercourses and adjacent land. Lunch
skills and the approach and ethos of the school is allowed a discussion (with diagrams in the sand on the
central to this process. If the beach) of the effects of currents on floating ob-
1
jects in the water, laminar flow and current lines. plinary boundaries. One or two have raised brought
Throughout the day each individual worked to develop “new” concepts in scientific thinking to public aware-
their own skill and enjoy the journey, and there were ness (eg Lovelock (1987) on the Gaia hypothesis,
many opportunities (gladly taken) for people to teach Gleick (1987) on chaos theory). In a recent book
or help each other. As we reached the end of our considering the importance of the search for a “unity
journey at dusk the mist gathered over the river and the of knowledge” (a small number of natural laws which
setting sun streamed through it, broken into shafts by underlie every branch of learning), the great American
the pinewood on the river bank. A quietness settled on naturalist E O Wilson argues that every student (and
the group as each individual found their own way to political leader) should be able to answer the question
savour the last moments of a perfect day.Õ “what is the relation between science and the
There is of course, another perfectly accurate explana- humanities, and how is it important for human
tion of what we were we doing there: “kayaking”. welfare?” (Wilson, 1998: 11). He argues that that few
could; a tragedy considering that most of the issues that
One of the most obvious aspects of education outdoors are of concern (eg ethnic conflict, arms escalation,
is that, in most settings where such activities take place damage to the environmental etc) “cannot be solved
there is a lot going on! Think of any such experience without integrating knowledge from the natural
and try to remember the place, the activity, the scenery, sciences with that of the social sciences and
the weather, the natural heritage, the human impact on humanities” (Wilson, 1998: 11-12). Similarly the
that place, the people you were with, the relationships physi- cist and author Fritjof Capra (1997: 3) argues
between them etc. It is immediately apparent that that “the more we study the major problems of our
trying to describe the event fully would be impossible time, the more we come to realise that they cannot be
2
(although I have made my own attempt above ). The understood in isolation. They are systemic problems,
example I have given could lead anyone inquiring into which means that they are interconnected and
one small part of the event, into deeper and deeper interdependent”.
levels of enquiry. For example, consideration of what
happens to the eroded rock leads to thoughts about the What is notable about these two authors is that they are
water cycle and the rock cycle, geological time etc. I prominent scientists who have felt the need to write
used “kayaking” as a sort of “throwaway” at the end of “popular” books to argue for awareness of complexity.
the passage, but what of the complex sensory interface At this point a mention should be made of “complexity
between the kayaker, the kayak and the moving water theory”. This is the notion that within complexity order
and rapids of the river? can be found and natural laws of complexity can be un-
earthed. They are looking for qualities of nature that
It is clear that any experience of the natural heritage
“display common features across many levels of
can bring us face to face with issues of ecology,
organisation” (Wilson, 1998: 95). The two authors
biogeochemical cycles and human relationships. These
cited above give the perspectives of advocate (Capra)
are the very things that schools teach about. Such expe-
and guarded inquisitor (Wilson). Both are of the view
riences assist in placing these in context and through
that “complexity” offers a conceptual framework for
this exploration theory and practice meet. ie “the ideal
integrating a range of disciplines (mainly scientific)
encounters the real”.
which have become isolated. The search for such
The essence of such experiences is that the outcomes understanding seems attractive, important and elusive.
cannot be predicted to any great degree. This uncer- It is mentioned here because it is an indication of the
tainty is the essence of adventure, and a working and effort which is now being made to address
satisfactory relationship with adventure involves a mix deficiencies in positivistic “disciplinary thinking”
of careful thought and creative application. (Brennan, 1994: 7). Whilst the underlying issues are
deep and complex in themselves it is clear that
“disciplinary thinking” is unlikely to aid progress.
A theory to fit the experience? Perhaps learning outdoors can contribute to the ed-
ucation process which in turn may encourage thought
It is notable that a number of authors (predominantly and progress in this area.
well known scientists) have, in recent years written
books which make a deliberate attempt to cross disci- As I noted earlier there is never a shortage of critics of
the so called traditional approach to education. Dewey
(1956) and Freire (1972) are well known antagonists
but
2 It is of course the nature of such experiences that each individual has their own view of what really happened. This is, in itself a facet of
complexity. Outdoor educational programmes tend to make the assumption that there is a degree of commonality in such shared
experiences (and I have implied this in my example). This may be a perfectly reasonable assumption, but at present there is little or no
evidence that such questions are asked or researched. This is in accord with Brookes (2000) who argues that outdoor educators “are
inattentive to the cultural and social nature of the reality they construct”, and that this tendency “weakens outdoor education theory”. This
1
PETER HIGGINS
issue has implications for addressing both complexity as a unifying theme, and approaches to research in the field.
1
more recently others such as Hirst (1974), Warnock changes were introduced we would, in order to address
(1993) and Brennan (1994) have added their voices to other concerns about schooling, still need to provide
the criticism. There seem to be a number of aspects of practical, student-centred learning opportunities.
“traditional” education which irritate these authors.
Many of these are shared and they include the lack of
focus on the needs of individual learner (Dewey,
1956), the lack of practical elements in schooling (eg Can outdoor education help in
Warnock, 1993: 169), an over-emphasis on knowledge understanding complexity?
at the expense of the development of thinking skills,
the dominance of the positivist paradigm in As the preferred methodology of outdoor education is
education, and despite caveats as to it”s to encourage learning through experience and to
“helpfulness”, the limitations of “discipline-based develop confidence in self-directed learning and
learning” (Brennan, 1994: 7-10) in addressing critical reflection (eg Hopkins and Putnam, 1993;
complexity. Dahlgren and Szczepanski, 1998; Higgins and Loynes,
1997) it does seem as though it may contribute, though
No account of complexity, interdiscipliniarity and edu- I will not over- state the claims for learning outdoors.
cation would be complete without mention of Sir Pat- A great deal of that has been done in the past and
rick Geddes, the Scots polymath who is regarded by received little critical examination. However I will
many as the founder of environmental education. argue that through education outdoors, complexity
Geddes, who was influential in a bewildering range of can be addressed and that this can contribute to our
fields towards the end of the 19th century and in the
education system to the benefit of individuals, society
early part of the 20th century was harshly critical of the and the natural heritage.
trend (especially in universities) towards increasing
specialisation. He felt that without broad interest and As with school education, education outdoors can be
knowledge, students would not understand the signifi- considered (in Eisner”s terms) to have explicit, implicit
cance of discoveries in their own specialist field. He and null curricula. I have argued elsewhere that the
felt this to be significant, as only in this way could dominant “explicit” outdoor curriculum has a content
knowledge be brought to bear to the benefit of which concerns itself with physical activities and per-
mankind. So strong was his belief in this that sonal and social education (Higgins, 2000a/b). Cer-
throughout his life he put a great deal of effort into the tainly in the UK outdoor programmes employ a wide
development of “thinking machines” to aid the range of activities which mirror those popular in out-
process. These were diagrams (often in the form of a door recreation. Alpine skiing, mountain biking, raft-
grid) which showed the relationships between ing, snowboarding, visits to climbing walls etc are now
subjects or disciplines. The best known of these relates popular but very few outdoor centres ever take groups
to “place, work, folk” and the discipline based away on camps or journeys (walking, canoeing or sail-
corollary of “geography, economics, anthropology”. ing) (Higgins, in press; Nicol, in prep). The use of a
Through the development of such devices Geddes wider range of technologies and toys has spawned
“hoped to initiate and educate others to accept the need more and more qualification structures and this has led
for educational reform and to pursue a synthesis of all to an increasing focus on the technical and safety
knowledge” (Meller, 1990: 45). As reading of any ac- aspects of staff training at the expense of staff
count of Geddes” life will reveal, he lived according to development in personal and social education (despite
this ethic, making outstanding contributions to a num- it being the acknowledged raison d”etre for many
ber of fields including town planning, environmental programmes) and environmental literacy (Higgins,
education, biology, social reconstruction and interna- 2000a; Nicol, in prep). This situation is both
tional peace. Also see Boardman (1978) who gives a paradoxical for the stated current purpose of outdoor
full account of Geddes” “thinking machines” and his education and (at best) pointless for the environment.
use of them. Whilst outdoor education in the UK can claim to do
much of educational merit, there is little evidence of a
Brennan (1994: 10) asks “how can we overcome shal-
trend to encourage either environmental knowledge or
lowness in education, and alert the learner to the fact
a deeper relationship with the natural heritage.
that we are complex beings who live in complex
relations with each other and our physical
Whilst this has implications for the implicit and null
surroundings?”. He makes several suggestions (such as
curricula and does, of course have implications for the
adopting human ecology as a central organising
“take-home message” for students, my greatest concern
theme in secondary schooling) which would require
is for the missed opportunities to engage with complex-
fundamental changes in the school curriculum. Whilst I
ity. I believe such an educational venture is both essen-
support his suggestions, such changes are, in the short
tial and a practical possibility for outdoor educators to
term, extremely unlikely. Fur- thermore, such changes
engage with.
would only partially address the concerns noted above.
I believe that even if Brennan”s
1
PETER HIGGINS
How can this be done? derstandings of the nature of knowledge” and “experi-
ence of alternative ecologies of ideas” (Brookes,
Earlier I argued that outdoor learning experiences were 1993:16).
unavoidably and essentially complex. The complexity is
there all around and permeating through the In discussing the difficulties in handling values in envi-
experience. Perhaps the first action to take is to ronmental education, Elliott (1993) asserts that values
acknowledge and illuminate this fact. Environmental education is only likely to become a “significant peda-
complexity and social complexity are facets of the gogical issue in schools when there is a serious attempt
outdoor learning experience and this can be pointed out at adopting an interdisciplinary approach. A uni-disci-
at every opportunity. plinary approach is an excellent way of reducing the
awareness of complexity and of promoting a particular
Second, the content of outdoor courses could place em- value stance to the exclusion of others” (Elliott,
phasis on such knowledge, of which the most obvious 1993:19). Outdoor education can be used to present a
example is environmental. This approach has been ad- broad range of issues in an interdisciplinary manner
vocated by a number of authors who have argued that (Nicol and Higgins, 1998a/b) and hence such values is-
man”s impact on the planet demands a particular ap- sues can be raised.
proach to education outdoors (Crowther, 1984; Crow-
ther et al, 1998; Martin, 1993; Cooper, 1991; Higgins, Finally it is worth reflecting on Freire”s assertion that
1996a,b; Nicol and Higgins, 1998a,b; White, 1998). “the important thing is to educate the curiosity through
Common themes are the the development of environ- which knowledge is constituted as it grows and rede-
mental awareness and knowledge, awareness of human fines itself through the very exercise of knowing”
dependence on physical and ecological principles, and (Freire, 1998:31). Whilst this can be done indoors there
the consequences for the Earth (and ourselves) of indi- are great opportunities in the outdoors to encourage cu-
vidual and collective actions. Martin (1993) suggests riosity.
that the use of adventure activities to assist in this pro-
cess of “developing an alternate view of the world in Complexity as a purpose for
this manner is the most desirable and defensible
rationale for outdoor education” (Martin, 1993:10).
learning outdoors
In a comprehensive review of the changing scene in
Practical ways of doing this include issues of human
environment and education, Smyth (1995:5) considers
interaction with the environment through students
the central importance of addressing complexity.
being clearly involved in the water cycle (by fetching
Although a scientist by profession he bemoans the fact
and carry- ing water to drink, discussing where it came
that, in the light of the prestige associated with
from, how it got there, where the urine goes and how
individual disciplines, educators find inter-
cities deal with all this) or the carbon cycle (burning
disciplinary studies difficult to promote. He cites
wood in a camp fire and discussing the age and growth
“territorial and administrative challenges” as two of
of the tree, the carbon dioxide produced and its effect
the main problems. He argues that the common
on global warming, the role of photosynthesis in the
tendency to side-step such issues by “leaving inter-
production of oxygen etc) (Higgins, 1996b). As well as
disciplinary integration to the student (unrealistic), or
simple discussion of such issues it would be perfectly
passing responsibility to the informal sector (dismiss-
appropriate to conduct simple experiments, survey
ive), must be resisted if the status of holistic
attitudes in the group etc. It is clear that to do this job
environmental education is to be maintained” (Smyth,
well the outdoor educator will need to be well
1995:5).
informed, highly motivated and imaginative. This may
be perceived as very demanding, but it is worth Above I have suggested basis for “complexity”
pointing out that those who educate outdoors have all becoming a unifying theme in learning outdoors and a
the advantages of stimulating surroundings and rich range of ways in which this can be achieved. It is
opportunities to use experiential techniques. important that the outdoor sector decides if this is an
appropriate educational endeavour. To do so requires
Third, such experiences could be used to discuss and a willingness to examine a range of questions
challenge ways of seeing the world or relating to associated with human recreational and educational
others. Outdoor learning experiences readily generate relationships with the natural heritage and the origins
opportunities to do this. Brookes (1993:15) suggests and contemporary purpose of “outdoor education”. I
that “the difference between outdoor education as would contest that those who educate in the outdoors
escapism and outdoor education as the lived experience should (like any other educator) be able to explain
of worldviews lies with what the teacher knows”. He “what they are teaching”, “why they are teaching it”
goes on to suggest that this might mean; in essence “to and “how they are doing so”. Furthermore, they should
be able to read educational ecologies (eg how be able to explain how their training, experience and
knowledge is socially constructed and defined), “offer qualifications (in educational as well as technical ar-
alternative un- eas) make them suitable to do the job. If “complexity”
1
is
1
PETER HIGGINS
to be addressed the training and qualification must The fourth suggests a way of examining the
reflect this, and this means that they should have a educational pathways from complexity through to
broad understanding of the subject matter and issues citizenship and critical perspectives. In this model the
which should be reinforced by professional training. reader can find up to five C”s and the educational
Whilst I have argued that the issue of complexity de- implications of addressing them. Fuller treatment of
serves attention, it is of course little more than an “Connections” and “Con- sequences” in outdoor
assertion as there has been no research that I am education can be found in Hig- gins, 1996a,b.
aware of in relation to the suggestion. A range of As with all “thinking machines” they can have no value
research in outdoor education does now exist but much other than in their use for this purpose. Indeed it would
of this relates to the measurement of outcomes. Whilst be counter to the notion of engaging with complexity to
the research is commendable and valuable some suggest that education could be simplified to a few
philosophical questions demand attention. Who is models!
deciding what questions to ask, are the questions
“good” questions? If we only ask certain questions
ourselves we will only get outcome related answers, References
and this is more in accord with a positivist approach
than an encounter with complexity! Bateson, G. (1979) Mind and Nature: A Necessary
Unity. New York: Ballantine.
Tanner (1980) suggests that the purpose of Boardman, P. (1978) The Worlds of Patrick Geddes.
environmental education “must be the creation of an London: Routledge and Keegan Paul.
informed citizenry which will actively work towards”
Brennan, A. (1994) Environmental Literacy and the
the goal of “maintenance of a varied, beautiful, and
Edu- cational Ideal. Environmental Values, 3(1), 3-
resource-rich planet for future generations”.
16.
Suggestions such as those I have made (though not
fully developed) regarding the prospects of engaging Brookes, A. (1993) Deep and Shallow Outdoor Educa-
with complexity are intended to make a contribution to tion: Can We Tell the Difference? The Outdoor Ed-
environmental literacy and social development and ucator, June, 8-17.
thereby towards this goal. Such an approach is Brookes, A. (2000) Dwelling in the Details: The Fal-
demanding and requires sensitivity, but it provides the lacy of Universal Nature Experience, and the Myth
outdoor educator with a organising principle in the use of the Essential Self. Paper presented at “Friluftsliv
of outdoors for valid educational purposes, which I - I et nytt arhundre.Seminar on Outdoor Education
believe has urgent and wide relevance. and Deep Ecology in the 21st Century. Norway,
January 2000.
Capra, F. (1997) The Web of Life: A New Synthesis of
Afterword Life and Matter. London: Flamingo.
In the spirit of Patrick Geddes I offer a few “thinking Cooper, G. (1991) The Role of Outdoor and Field
machines” to help in dealing with these concepts in a Study Centres in Educating for the Environment.
practical manner. The first is a view of outdoor educa- Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor
tion which has guided our practice at the University of Leadership, 8(2): 10-11.
Edinburgh for many years. The “three circles model” Crowther, N. (1984) The Role of Outdoor Education
sees the outdoor educator operating within this domain, Teachers in Providing for the Needs of Tomorrows
moving form one emphasis to the other as the student Society: A Philosophy and a Justification. Journal
needs dictate and circumstances allow. of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership,
1(6): 12-15.
The second is a view of the important aspects any edu- Crowther, N., Higgins, P and Nicol, R. (1998) The
cational “transaction”. It is a version of the model sug- Contribution of Outdoor Education towards
gested by Devlin (1994) which graphically explores the Learning to Sustain. In: J Smythe (editor) Learning
relationships between the learner, the teacher or to Sustain. Stirling: SEEC and Perth: SNH, p
facilitator and the subject matter or curriculum.
58-60.
The third is a view of “what education should be Dahlgren, L. and Szczepanski, A. (1998) Outdoor Ed-
about” which has been promoted in one form or ucation: Literary Education and Sensory Experi-
another by a number of key educational figures such as ence. Sweden: Linkoping University.
Geddes, Comenius, Pestalozzi. To summarise Geddes” Devlin, G. (1994) The Business - Let”s Hear it for the
view, education should be more about the three H”s Teachers. Broadcast, Volume 29, November, 21-
(Hand, Heart and Head in that order of priority) than 24.
the
Dewey, J. (1956) The Child and the Curriculum and
three R”s (Reading, wRiting and aRithmetic). (See The School and Society. Chicago: University of
Bordman (1978) for a review of this). Chicago Press
1
Eisner, E. (1985) The Three Curricula that All Schools residential outdoor education centres to deliver
Teach. In: E.Eisner, The Educational Imagination. programmes relating to sustainable living. PhD
New York: Macmillan. p87-108. Thesis. University of Edinburgh.
Elliott, J. (1993) Handling Values in Environmental Nicol, R. & Higgins, P. (1998a) Perspectives on the
Education. In: Values in Environmental Education. Philosophy and Practice of Outdoor Education in
OECD/ENSI Conference Report. Edinburgh: Scotland. International Workshop at University of
SCCC. p18-24. Umea, Sweden,AugustÊ1998.
Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Re- Nicol, R. and Higgins, P. (1998b) A Sense of Place: A
printed 1996, London: Penguin. Context for Environmental Outdoor Education. In:
Freire, P. (1998) Pedagogy of the Heart. New P Higgins & B Humberstone (Editors) Celebrating
York: Continuum. Diversity: Sharing Cultural Differences in Outdoor
Gleick, J. (1987) Chaos. London: Sphere. Education. Buckinghamshire: European Institute
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Outdoor Education and Outdoor Leadership, 13 (1996) Teaching for Effective Learning. Edinburgh:
(2): 34-39. SCCC.
Higgins, P. (1996b) Outdoor Education for Smyth, J. (1995) Environment and Education: a view
Sustainability: Making Connections. Journal of of a changing scene. Environmental Education Re-
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Higgins, P. and Loynes, C. (1997) Towards Consensus Research Area in Environmental Education. Jour-
on the Nature of Outdoor Education. Journal of nal of Environmental Education, 11(4): 20-24.
Outdoor Education and Outdoor Leadership, Von Oech, R. (1983) A Whack on the Side of the Head.
13(4): 2-3. London: Harper Collins.
Higgins, P. (2000a) Values Education and Outdoor Ed- Warnock, M. (1993) The Uses of Philosophy. Oxford:
ucation in the UK: Mission, Mandate or Expedi- Blackwell.
ency? In: P. Barnes (Editor) Values in Outdoor Ed- Wilson, E. O. (1998) Consilience: The Unity of
ucation. Penrith: Association for Outdoor Knowledge. London: Abacus.
Learning, p50-59. White, J. (1998). An tir, An Canan, “sna Daoine (the
Higgins, P. (2000b) Outdoor Education, Outdoor Land, the Language, the People): Outdoor Educa-
Re-Creation and the Environment: Which Direc- tion and Indigenous Culture. in P. Higgins and B.
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on Outdoor Education and Deep Ecology in the Buckinghamshire: European Institute for Outdoor
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Hirst, P. (1974) Knowledge and the Curriculum. Lon- 65-70.
don: Routledge and Paul.
Hopkins, D. and Putnam, R. (1993) Personal Growth
Through Adventure. London: David Fulton Pubs.
Lovelock, J. (1987) Gaia: A New Look at Life on
Earth. Oxford; Oxford University Press.
Maslow, A. (1970) Motivation and Personality. New
York: Harper Row.
Martin, P. (1993) Outdoor Education: Practical Impli-
cations of a Deep Ecology Philosophy. The Out-
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itative Research: A Philosophic and Practical
Guide. London: Falmer Press.
Meller, H. (1990) Patrick Geddes: Social Evolutionist
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Nicol, R. (in prep) Outdoor Education - an investiga-
tion into the potential of Scottish local authority
1
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
4Th Eurocongress “OTHER WAYS OF LEARNING”
Allin, Linda Bringzén, Kenneth

Division of Sport Sciences Linköpings universitet
University of Northumbria 581 83 Linköping
Newcastle SWEDEN
Ellison Place 013-28 27 48/28 23 52/0709-92 45 92
Newcastle upon Tyne
NE1 8ST Brookes, Andrew
UNITED KINGDOM Latrobe University Bendigo
0191-227 3851 ph PO Box 199
0191-227 4713 f Bendigo 3552
AUSTRALIA
Andeu, Jonas
61.3.54396487 ph
Stensunds FHS
61.3.5447848 f
61991 Trosa
SWEDEN Chobeaux, Francois
0705-707164 C.E.M.E.A.
24 Rue Marc Seguin
Baldwin, Nicholas
75018 Paris Cedex 18
Base Camp
FRANCE
PB 103
33.1.53 26 24 38 ph
N-2420 Trysil
33.1.53 26 24 19 f
NORWAY
93887233 ph Collins, Diane
62451743 f Independent Consultant/
Becker, Peter Prof. Dr. Researh With Buckinhamshire Chilterns
Johann-Anton-Schmidt-Str. 20 University College
61250 Usingen 156 Locksway Road,Milton, Portsmout
DEUTSCHLAND PO4 8LE
0049(0)6081-13851 ph ENGLAND
0049(0)6081-13908 f 44 23 92 824234 ph
44 23 92 824234 f
Bergsten, Urban PHD
Västerlånggatan 56 Dahlgren, Lars-Owe
111 29 Stockholm Linköpings Universitet
SWEDEN 581 83 Linköping
08-22 50 80/0746-48 78 51 SWEDEN
013/28 21 20
Bowles, Steve
Perapohjolan Opisto Dawidson, Annika
95410 Kivirenta Rostaskolan
FINLAND Otto E. Andersens Gata
+358 16 482 143 703 44 Örebro
+358 16 482 575 fax SVERIGE
019-21 33 80 ph
Brügge, Britta 019-21 33 77 f
Bänorp, Villaborg
590 75 Ljungsbro Eggers, Ulrika
SWEDEN Stensund Folkhögskola
013-394074 ph 61991 Trosa
SWEDEN
1
Ekström, Stina Gustafsson,Åsa
Nobelgymnasiet Lidingö Folkhögskola, Utepedagogerna
Södra Klaragatan 6 Kottlavägen 116
653 40 Karlstad 181 41 Lidingö
SVERIGE SWEDEN
054-18 31 61 ph 08-636 23 48 ph
Engh, Anne 08-636 23 01 f
Högskolen i Vestfold [email protected]
Fossåsveien 26 Henriksen, Jesper
Vestfold Oure Idraetshojskole
NORWAY Kattesundet 1 B TH
333 83957 ph 5700 Svendborg
33031300 f DENMARK
0045 4089 3030 ph
Faldmo, Marielle
Base Camp Higgins, Peter Prof. Dr.
2422 Nybergsund Head of Outdoor and Environmental Education
NORWAY Moray House Institute of Education
624/53209 ph University of Edinburgh
+47 62 45 17 43 f Cramond Campus
Cramond Road North
Forsberg, Kerstin Edinburgh
Bergshammars Skola EH4 6JD
Nyköpingsvägen 34 SCOTLAND
611 50 Nyköping +44 131 312 6001 ph
SVERIGE +44 131 312 6335 f
0155-58367 ph
0155-58541 f Höögt, Bengt
Stensunds FHS
Forsmark, Jonas 61991 Trosa
Glimmerv.6 SWEDEN
61144 Nyköping
SWEDEN, Hoejland, Thomas
Loengangsstraede 37 A
Gasser, Martina 1468 Copenhagen K
Schiebstätte 14 DENMARK
6800 Feldkirch 0045 3391 2059 ph
AUSTRIA
Humberstone, Barbara Prof. Dr.
Gelter, Hans Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College
Dept. of Teachers Learning 251 Woodlands Rd
Luleå University of Technology Woodlands
971 87 Luleå Southampton
SVERIGE ENGLAND
+46-920-91012 ph 023 8029 2546 ph
+46-920-72323 f 023 8029 2546 f
btinternet.com
Grahn-Stenbäck, Margaretha
Linköpings universitet Jansson, Per-Ola
581 83 Linköping Stenssund
SWEDEN SWEDEN
013-28 20 52/0709-14 15 23 ph 0156-532 00 ph
Jansson, Ulla-Britt
Gustavsson, Bernt Box 49 013
Linköpings universitet 100 28 Stockholm
581 83 Linköping SWEDEN
SWEDEN 08/545 707 20 ph
013-28 21 36 ph 08/545 707 39
1
LIST OF
Jansson, Frank Kvarnlind, Berit

Engelbrehtsgatan 1A Kulturskolan
78330 Säter 811 80 Sandviken
SWEDEN SVERIGE
Jönsson, Sofie 026-248850, 070-6878265
Stensunds Folkhögskolan [email protected]
61991 Trosa
Le Breton, David Prof.
SWEDEN
University of Strassbourg
070-2604721
9 me du Fonder
Jonsson, Karra 67300 Schiltigheim
SSKT-KOTA ry FRANCE
Satakunnantie 31 03 88 18 85 57 ph
20300 Turku
FINLAND Legen, Robert
+358 2 2795112 ph Bildhuggarvägen 9
+358 2 2795101 f 12144 Johanneshon
SWEDEN
Jordet, Arne Nikolaisen
Hedmark College, Faculty of Teacher Education Lempinen, Juho
Laererskolealléen 1 SSKT-KOTA ry
2418 Elverum Satakunnant1ie 31
NORWAY 20300 Turku
+47 62 43 0085 ph FINLAND
+47 62 43 0001 f +358 9 3105 811 ph
+358 9 3105 8448 f
Kaiser, Susanne
European Institute for Outdoor Adventure Educa- Lenartowicz, Steve
tion Brathay Hall, Trus
Biegenstr. 40 Ambleside
350 37 Marburg Cumbria
GERMANY LA22 0HP
06421-6853312 ph ENGLAND
06421-6853322 f +44-15394 33041 ph
+44-15394 39701 f
Kujala, Jari
North eastern cervices Social Centre of Helsinki Lingehed, Lena
Ala-Malmintori 2 Studjefrämjandet
00700 Helsinki Dvärggatan 14
FINLAND 543 36 Tibro
+35805188715 ph SWEDEN
+358931058448 f 0504-146 37
[email protected]
Lithammer, Hasse
Keus, Bart Lidingö Folkhögskola, Utepedagogerna
St TRAP Kottlavägen 116
Erlecomse Weg 36 181 41 Lidingö
6577 JB Erlecom SWEDEN
NETHERLANDS 08-636 23 41 ph
024-6631807 ph 08-636 23 01 f
024-6631259 fl
Loynes, Christopher
Kleppe, Jon Runar Threshold
Base Camp Hallam Eend, Skiprigg
PB 30 Dalston, Cumbria
N-2420 Trysil CA5 7AN
NORWAY UNITED KINGDOM
+47 62 45 17 42 ph +44-16974 76188 ph
+47 62 45 17 43 f [email protected]
1
Lundkvist, Marie Pedersen, Kirsti PHD
Nynäshamns kommun Finnmark College
Sunnerbyskolan 9509 ALTA
Carl Bondes väg 12 NORWAY
148 91 Sorunda ++7845 0238 ph
SWEDEN ++7843 4438 f
08-534 209 00 ph
08-530 444 14 f Rademacker, Hermann
(lundkvist?) German Youth Institute
Nockherstrasse 2
Moore, Robin D-815 42 Munich
North Carolina State University, School of Design GERMANY
Natural learning iniative +49 89 62306-144 ph
Box 7701 +49 89 62306-162 f
NC State University, Raleigh,
NC 27695-7701 Rangdén, Birgitta
USA Kulturskolan
+919 515 8344 ph 811 80 Sandviken
+919 515 7330 f SVERIGE
026 256089
Mygind, Erik PHD
Institute of Exercise and Sport Sciences Richards, Kaye
University of Copenhagen Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College
2200N, Copenhagen Departement of Leisure & Tourism
DENMARK Wellesbourne Campus
3532 0894 ph High Wycombe
3532 0870 f Buckinghamshire
HP13 5BB
Nilsson, Ann-Charlotte ENGLAND
Kunskapscentrum 0151-231-5239 ph
590 40 Kisa 0151-231-5357/5348
SWEDEN
013-21 99 60/070-342 75 20 ph Robinson, Matt
013-21 89 60 f, Lindley Educational Trust
Hollowford Centre
Nilsson, Maria Castleton
Stensunds FHSK Derbyshire
61991 Trosa S33 8WB
SWEDEN ENGLAND
Nord, Lena Rybeck-Norman, Johanna
Stensundsfolkhögskola Nynäshamns kommun
61991 Trosa Sunnerbyskolan
SWEDEN Carl Bondes väg 12
Öhman, Johan 148 91 Sorunda
University of Örebro SWEDEN
701 82 ÖREBRO 08-534 20 900 ph
SWEDEN 08-530 44 414 f
019/30 32 69 ph Sack, Carla
Österholm, Jimmy European Institute for Outdoor Adventure Educa-
Jimmys Teamcenter tion
Box 408 Biegenstr. 40
821 26 Bollnäs 350 37 Marburg
SWEDEN GERMANY
0278-62 40 30 +49-6421-6853314 ph
+49-6421-6853322 f
1
LIST OF
Sandberg, Erland Sjölander, Sverre

Nobelgymnasiet LiU
Anna Leks Väg 6 Stora Greby
656 38 Karlstad 590 62 Linghem
SVERIGE SWEDEN
054-83 55 60 ph 013-28 17 48/013-763 00 ph
Sandell, Klas Strid, Jan-Paul
Dept. of Physical Education and Health Linköpings universitet
Örebro University 581 83 Linköping
Kjesäter SWEDEN
S-643 92 Vingåker Suoranta, Juha Prof.
SWEDEN University of Lapland
+46 19 30 34 11 ph Faculty of Education
+46 151 51 13 57 f PO Box 122
96101 Rovaniemi
Schirp, Jochem
FINLAND
bsj-Marburg
Biegenstr. 40 Sörli, Yngve
35037 Marburg Base Camp
GERMANY PB 30
+49 6421 685330 ph N-2420 Trysil
+49 6421 6853322 f NORWAY
[email protected] +47 920 82 382 ph
+47 62 44 17 43 f
Schön, Ebbe Szczepanski, Anders Dir. Msc.
Helgalunden 13
Linköping University
118 58 Stockholm
Centre for Outdoor Environmental Education
SWEDEN
Department of Arts, Crafts and Design
08-641 59 62 ph
Teknikringen 3
Sebek, Ludek Mjärdevi
Faculty of Physical Education. Part Rekreciogi 581 83 Linköping
771 11 Olomouc SWEDEN
Tr Miru 115 013-28 19 91/0709-75 68 03 ph
CZECH REPUBLIC 013-28 19 96 f
0042-68-563 6252 ph Thaberman, Boel
0042-68-542 3091 f Landstinget i Östergötland
Karolinergården Fettjestad
Seger, Jan PHD 590 48 Vikingstad
Idrottshögskolan SWEDEN
Box 5626 013-33 12 39 ph
114 86 Stockholm
SWEDEN Theglander, Britt-Louise
08-402 22 56 ph Pedagogkonsult AB
08-402 22 87 f Mandolinvägen 14
[email protected] 196 37 Kungängen
SWEDEN
Sjöberg, Rickard 08-581 743 32 ph
Industrigatan 2B 08-581 713 28 f
61333 Oxelösund
SWEDEN
Sjögren, Dagmar
Studiefrämjandet Östergötland
Platensg 25
582 20 Linköping
SWEDEN
1
Vesterlund, Erik
Utvecklande äventyr i Västernorrland
Box 47
860 33 Bergeforsen
SVERIGE
060-806 05/070-674 00 01 ph
070-383 16 01 f
Wejdmark, Mats
Naturskolan
Viaskolan
Skolgatan 35-37
149 30 Nynäshamn
SVERIGE
08-520 385 90/070-683 85 90 ph
Wiberg, Lena
Studiefrämjandet Östergötland
Platensgatan 25
582 20 Linköping
SVERIGE
013-25 23 03
1
OTHER WAYS OF LEARNING
Outdoor Adventure Education and Experiential
Learning in School and Youth Work
Fourth European Congress

for Outdoor Adventure
Education and Experiential
Learning
9. – 13. September
2000
Rimforsa/Sweden
EOE

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First published in 2001 by

European Institute for Outdoor Adventure Education and Experiential Learning

Proof-Correction: Steve Bowles, Peter Higgins, Barbara Humberstone

If school and youth work cooperate than the contribu-

cosmos to the smallest particles of nature, we also in-

3 I want to thank Steve Bowles for reminding me of that option!

In terms of the bioparadigm and criticism of Kantian

From the humanism to the

21st Century Avant-Garde netics of learning: human being is a complex learning

The Romantic rebellion of humanism is characterized

Tomorrow we will succeed...

Almost 30 years ago, B. F. Skinner (1972, 5)

In the paper I have focused on the revolutionary

The 1809 reform of the Swedish constitution led to a Outdoor Recreation

Recreational capacity tivities in the landscape, Outdoor Education tries to

Part III Part IV

OUTDOOR RICHES FOR ACADEMIC OUTDOOR

Introduction Some 10 000 years ago a most dramatic change in the

an important source of inspiration in changes of our

The second example comes from an elective course for

Each project was reported back to the client during a

the Challenge: People, Power and the Environ-

outdoor traditions in UK and Norway (cf. Humberstone polarised

Transgressions from masculine ‘norms’ are also

It can be both women and men who may collude

Introduction structures, relations, ideologies and symbols (cf.

activities, social and cultural groups, across time, and

diversity of options (cf. Rudie, 1984; Zhiehe, 1989; perceived as

These gendered processes show that people’s identity

Until recently, knowledge and skills about how to

METHOD fears, learning survi-

The 21st century world is vastly different from that of

Next Steps - choosing goals to focus on after leaving

Telling own story in pairs – creating picture – sharing Day 7

Then come to THE CRUNCH!

I would like to make some introductory remarks realise a biographi-

cal pathway into adult life and into society, which

This means that entrepreneurial qualities are not only

Introduction exam or with broken off apprenticeships – could

❑ missing competence in team work others. Most important is

Adventurebased activities and

Example from the practice:

In only a few cases the young people do find an

VIOLENCES ET ACTIVITÉ DE PLEINE NATURE

Violences eux. « Eclipsés de la scène sociale, écrit Azouz Begag,

11%. En 1999, 150000 mineurs sont mis en cause pour

4 Voir à ce propos David Le Breton, Passions du risque, Paris, Métailié, 2000.

14 Cf David Le Breton, Anthropologie du corps et modernité, PUF, 2000.

If another example is needed however I might throw in future (

” In an age when liberalism and radicalism have

To ask for a critical approach within the work of the

Introductory Nibbles ‘good’ you have been ? Remember the saying –

eating because you have completed physical activity ?

Although the theme of this strand of the conference

In the United Kingdom, information on serious drug

sions in each of the three elements. Learning to manage

Nowadays, in France as in other western countries,

Allin, Linda Bringzén, Kenneth

Jansson, Frank Kvarnlind, Berit