Compiled Mach Shop

GRINDING MACHINE
PROCESSES
GRINDING
Grinding consists of shaping a piece of work by bringing it

into contact with a revolving abrasive wheel. The process is
often used for the final finishing to close dimensions of a part
that has been heat-treated to make it very hard. In recent
years, grinding has found increasing applications in heavy-
duty metal removal, replacing machines with cutting tools.
This process is referred to as abrasive machining.
GRINDING
◈ There are two major types of grinding:
1. nonprecision
2. precision grinding.
◈ Nonprecision grinding is also called offhand grinding. Metal is
removed by this method when there is no great need for
accuracy. Pedestal or bench grinders can be used for this type
of grinding. These grinders are also used for rough grinding and
sharpening tools.
PEDESTAL GRINDER
Motor
Eye shield/Spark Deflector
Switch Wheel Guard
Adjustable Tool Rest Grinding Wheel
Water pot
Pedestal
BENCH GRINDER
In precision grinding, metal can be removed with great accuracy. There
are a number of different precision grinding machines available that can
grind metal parts to different shapes and sizes with very accurate
dimensions.
Form-relief Grinder (left), a

single machine for complete
form-relief grinding and
precision sharpening of a
large variety of cutting tools
and a hand-operated
Surface Grinder (right).
ABRASIVE
An abrasive is any material that can wear away a
substance softer than itself. Sand and sandstone are
perhaps the oldest abrasives known to mankind.
Prehistoric man used sand and sandstone to form or
shape edges of tools.
Abrasive Sand Sandstone

NATURAL ABRASIVE
Emery and corundum are two natural abrasives commonly used
in industry to sharpen tool edges. They occur as a mineral deposit in the
earth's crust. These abrasives, formed into wheels, are superior to the old
sand grindstones. Although they can cut faster and be made coarse or
fine, they cannot meet the demands of modern manufacturing. The
only other element known to be harder than emery or corundum is the
diamond, but its cost was prohibitive for industrial usage.
Emery Corundum Diamond
ARTIFICIAL ABRASIVE
The first man-made abrasives are silicon carbide and
aluminum oxide. Silicon carbide is best suited for grinding materials
that have low tensile strength but are very hard, such as ceramics,
pottery, and tungsten carbide. Aluminum oxide is resistant to shock
and therefore suitable for grinding materials of high tensile strength
such as tool steel and highspeed steel.
Silicon Carbide Grinding Wheel Aluminum Oxide Grinding Wheel
Which type of abrasive is superior, natural or manufactured?
Artificial or man-made abrasives have a distinct

advantage over natural abrasives because purity and grain
size can be readily controlled. Grain size is important
Various Shapes of Grinding Wheels
because undersize grains cannot do their share of work, and
oversize grains give work a poor finish.
GRINDING WHEELS
The grinding wheels used in both nonprecision and precision
grinding are made from aluminum oxide or silicon carbide.
These grinding wheels come in many different shapes, faces,
and sizes. Manufacturers of grinding wheels have standardized
these shapes and faces.
The wheels are made in a wide range of sizes for most grinding
jobs. A wide variety of mounted grinding wheels are also
made for use with small grinders for either offhand or precision
grinding on dies.
GRINDING WHEELS
Nine standard shapes for grinding wheels. Standardized grinding wheel faces.
These faces can be modified by
dressing to suit the needs of the user.
GRINDING WHEELS
Mounted points are tiny grinding
wheels permanently mounted on small
diameter shanks. They may be as small
as 1/16 inch in diameter.
How is the hardness of a grinding wheels determined?
Grinding wheels are formed by using a suitable material to

cement, or bond, the abrasive grains together in the desired shape. The
hardness of the wheel is dependent upon the amount and kind of
bonding material used. The hardness of a wheel is always understood
to mean the strength of the bond.
Various Shapes of Grinding Wheels
TYPES OF BONDS
There are many different kinds of bonds. Those most commonly
used are:
⮚ Vitrified
⮚ Silicate
⮚ Shellac
⮚ Rubber
⮚ resinoid
The vitrified and silicate are used more frequently than the others.
VITRIFIED BONDS
The vitrified bond has the strength and

porosity to enable it to remove a
considerable amount of stock from a job for
each inch of wheel wear. It is not affected by
water, acids, or ordinary temperature
changes, and it is free from hard or soft spots.
In the vitrified process, glass, feldspar, flint, or
other ceramic substances are mixed with the
abrasive and subjected to heat, which
causes the bond to form a glasslike structure
between each abrasive particle. The vitrified
bond is used in 75 percent of all grinding
wheels.
SILICATE BONDS
The silicate bond is made from sodium silicate. The hardness of

a silicate-bond wheel is governed by the amount of bond material
used, and by the amount of tamping or pressing. This kind of bond
produces a wheel that is milder acting than the vitrified wheel.
Because the abrasive grains are released more readily they do not
heat up so fast. Silicate wheels can be made in larger diameters than
vitrified wheels. They are generally used for grinding edged tools such
as drills, reamers, milling cutters, and so forth.
RUBBER BONDS
Rubber wheels are made of a mixture of abrasive, rubber, and

Sulphur. The mass is then pressed into shape and given a mild
vulcanizing treatment. Wheels of this bond are used for highspeed
grinding operations. Because of their high safety factor rubber-
bonded wheels can be made very thin for use in cutting off steel
stock.
RESINOID BONDS
Shellac-bonded wheels are made

by mixing the abrasive and the bond in a
heated machine, which completely
coats the abrasive with the bonding
material. After the wheels are formed,
they are placed in an oven, covered
with sand, and baked for a short time at
approximately 300 oF. Wheels of this
bond are used extensively for grinding
mill rolls, and for jobs where a high-luster
finish is required.
SHELLAC BONDS
Resinoid-bonded wheels are made by mixing powdered resinoid

with the abrasive. particles and adding a plastic substance so that the
wheels can be molded. The mold is then placed in an electric oven
and heated to approximately 300°F for a period ranging from a few
hours to three or four days depending on the size of the wheel. Upon
cooling, the wheel becomes very hard. Wheels of this bond are
generally used in foundries for snagging castings or for cleaning up
steel billets.
WHEEL STRUCTURE
The term wheel structure refers to the spacing of the abrasive
grains. Two wheels of the same grade and grain size but of different grain
spacing will have different cutting actions. Wheels with wide grain
spacing should be used on soft materials or when stock is to be removed
rapidly. Wheels with close spacing should be used on hard materials or
when a fine finish is to be given to the work.
Numbers are used to indicate wheel structure. The smaller the
number, the closer the structure. In general, the ranges are 0 to 3 for
close structure, 4 to 6 for medium structure, and 7 to 12 for coarse
structure.
WHEEL STRUCTURE
A B C
Grain spacing in a grinding wheel. (A) . Wide. (B) Medium. (C) Close.
GRAIN SIZE
The grain or grit number indicates in a general way the
size of the abrasive grains used in making a wheel, or the size of the
cutting teeth, since grinding is a true cutting operation.
Grain size is denoted by a number indicating the number of
meshes per liner inch (25.4 mm) of the screen through which the
grains pass when they are graded after crushing.
Coarse 10 12 14 16 20 24 -
Medium 30 36 46 54 60 - -
Fine 80 100 120 150 180 - -
Very Fine 220 240 280 320 400 500 600
WHEEL GRADING
The amount of bond used in making a grinding wheel
determines its hardness. Letters of the alphabet indicate the degree of
hardness. Norton and several other companies use letters at the
beginning of the alphabet to indicate soft wheels and letters at the end
to indicate hard wheels. Table below shows the grain sizes commonly
used with various grades of bond. The Carborundum Company uses a
letter system in the reverse order.
Very Soft Soft Medium Hard Very Hard
A E H L P T
B F I M Q U
C G J N R V
D K O S Z
Grade of Bond According to Hardness
How to select correct grinding wheel?
Several factors affect the selection of a grinding wheel:
⮚ the kind of material to be ground

⮚ the amount of stock to be removed
⮚ the accuracy to size
⮚ the kind of finish required
⮚ the area of contact between the wheel and the work,
⮚ the kind of grinding machine to be used
The nature of the material to be ground affects the selection of the
wheel because, generally speaking, hard, dense materials require wheels
having a soft bond with silicon carbide abrasive; soft and tough materials
require a hard bond with aluminum oxide abrasive.
The amount of material to be removed is important selecting a
grinding wheel because, when considerable amount of material is to be
removed, the grains of a wide-spaced coarse-grain wheel will take a bigger,
deeper cut without heating, but with a slight sacrifice as to surface finish.
When the amount of stock to be removed is slight, a wheel of fine grain and
narrow spacing will take a smaller bite and give a good finish.
Other factors affect the grinding operation - for example, the speed of
the wheel, the speed of the work, the condition of the grinding machine,
and the knowledge and skill of the machine operator.
GRINDING WHEEL SPEED
In most modern grinding machines, the speed of the
wheel is fixed and unchangeable. In others, the spindle speed
can be altered by changing to different sized pulleys. More
recent developments include the use of a variable-speed
drive. Grinding wheel speeds should be held between 5,000
and 6,500 surface speed in feet per minute (sfpm). Some
special-purpose grinding wheels operate at faster speeds. The
safe operating speed is printed on the wheel.
If the surface feet per minute of a wheel must be determined, place a
speed indicator in the center of the spindle and check the revolutions for one
minute. Then multiply the diameter of the wheel in inches by 3.1416 in order
to obtain the circumference of the wheel. The circumference multiplied by
the revolutions per minute (rpm) will give the distance in inches that the
wheel would travel in one minute if rolled on its periphery at the given rpm.
This result divided by 12(12 in. = 1 ft) will give the surface speed in feet per
minute.
Example: Determine the sfpm of a 7-in.-diameter grinding wheel mounted on
a surface grinder, with an rpm of 3,200. Multiply the diameter of the wheel by
3.1416 and by 3,200 and divided by 12.
What causes the wheel to glaze?
Glazing is a condition' in which the face or cutting

edge takes on a glasslike appearance. This happens if the
abrasive grains wear away faster than the bond that holds
them together. As long as the bond is being worn away as
fast as the abrasive particles of the wheel are being dulled,
the wheel will continue to have good cutting action. To
remedy glazing, use a wheel with a softer bond.
Wheel Dressing
The cutting face of a grinding wheel must be kept in a

true, clean, sharp condition if the grinding operation is to be
done efficiently. This requires frequent dressing and truing.
Dressing is the operation of cleaning, or fracturing, the cutting

surface of a wheel to expose new cutting particles. Truing is the
operation of removing material from the cutting face so that
the resulting surface runs concentric with the wheel-spindle
axis.
Reminders when using grinding wheels
A. Handle all wheels with the greatest care in storing or delivery. Wheels
are frequently cracked by rough usage long before they are ever
placed on a grinding machine.
B. Wheels should be stored in a dry place.
C.Before a wheel is placed on the spindle, it should be sounded for
cracks. When tapped by a nonmetallic object, a solid wheel gives off a
dull ringing sound. A cracked wheel gives off a dull thudding sound.
D. Make sure that the grinding wheel is equipped with blotting-paper
gaskets on each side.
E. Never crowd a wheel on the spindle; the hole in the wheel should be
0.003 to 0.005 in. oversize to permit it to slide easily on the spindle and
squarely against the flange.
Reminders when using grinding wheels
F. Never mount a wheel without flanges, which should be properly

relieved and of suitable proportions.
G.Don't screw the wheel nut too tight. The nut should be set up only tight
enough so that the flanges hold the wheel firmly.
H. Keep the wheel clean and true by frequent dressing, but don't remove
any more stock than is necessary to put the wheel in proper condition. I
If a wheel vibrates excessively after it has been properly trued, there is
something wrong. Stop the machine and call an instructor.
I. Large wheels, that is, wheels over 12 in., require special balancing. Don't
attempt to balance them yourself and do not use the wheel until it is
balanced.
COATED ABRASIVE
A coated abrasive is made up of three parts:
1. A flexible backing material.
2. An adhesive, or bond.
3. Abrasive grains.
The abrasive grains are bonded to the backing sheet by means of the
adhesive. The backing may be made of paper, cloth, vulcanized rubber, or
a combination of materials. The bonds, or adhesives, used are glue, resin,
and varnish. These are varied to suit the requirements of the finished product.
The abrasive materials used in the manufacturing of coated abrasives are
flint, emery, crocus garnet, aluminum oxide, and silicon carbide.
Example of Coated Abrasives: (1)Abrasive Cloth, (2)Abrasive Belt, and
(3)Abrasive Disk
ABRASIVE CLOTH
Abrasive cloth is a textile product used in grinding,
polishing, sanding, and similar tasks. Abrasive cloth has been used for
many years in machine shop work to improve the appearance of a
job by polishing the surface, to remove sharp edges and burrs, or to
obtain a specified size by removing a small amount of metal.
What is the most common form of abrasive cloth used in machine
shop work?
Emery cloth is most often used for metal finishing. Although

still called "emery cloth" by shop men the abrasives now used are
the artificially produced aluminum oxide and silicon carbide. This
form of coated abrasive comes in 9 in. X 11 in. sheets or in rolls of
various widths.
ABRASIVE BELT
Abrasive belts are similar in basic
construction to abrasive cloth. They require a
flexible backing, an adhesive, or bonding,
agent, and an abrasive material. Abrasive
belts have the same variety of abrasive
materials with the same wide range of mesh
size as abrasive cloth. Machines are
designed to use abrasive belts for many
different kinds of grinding operations.
Abrasive belts are used for surface,
cylindrical, and centerless grinding and can
take heavy cuts and maintain close size
tolerances.
ABRASIVE DISK
Coated abrasive disks are used extensively in metalworking, and rank a very close
second to abrasive belts. They are used on portable machines as well as stationary ones.
Stationary machines use abrasive disks from 6 in. to 60 in. in diameter.
The abrasive disk is applied or attached to a backup pad of the same diameter. The
disk is fastened to the pad by an adhesive, by a bolt at the center, or by clamps around the
periphery. The pad backing up the disk can be made of rubber, metal, or a composition.
Coated abrasive disks are used to remove scale from welded parts, to remove rust
and die marks, and to prepare surfaces for finish coatings. The disks are given a very tough
resistant backing and the abrasive is of the aluminum oxide variety.
ABRASIVE MACHINING
Abrasive machining is the removal of metal with an abrasive wheel to form
a job to shape and size within the required size tolerances and surface
finish requirements.
The process of shaping metal by means of an abrasive wheel, better
known as grinding, is now considered a basic machining operation.
Types of Grinding Operations
⮚ Surface Grinding
⮚ Cylindrical Grinding
⮚ Centerless Grinding
⮚ Internal Grinding
⮚ Cutter Grinding
⮚ Tool Grinding
⮚ Thread Grinding
SURFACE GRINDING
Surface grinding is the process of producing and finishing

flat surfaces by means of a grinding machine employing revolving
abrasive wheel.
Surface-grinding machines are divided into two major

groups according to the shape of the table and how it moves. They
are:
Planer type - table is rectangular and traverses under the
wheel
Rotary type - the table is circular and rotates under the
wheel.
SURFACE GRINDING
Planer Types
A. Horizontal spindle using the outside diameter (OD), or periphery of the
wheel.
B. Horizontal spindle using the rim of a recessed or cupped wheel.
C. Vertical spindle using the rim of a recessed or cupped wheel.
Rotary Types
A. Horizontal spindle using the OD, or periphery of the wheel.
B. Vertical spindle using the rim of a recessed or cupped wheel.
SURFACE GRINDING
Fundamentally, surface grinding machines consist of a spindle for mounting a grinding wheel and
a table or magnetic chuck for holding the work.
Horizontal Planer-Type Surface Grinder
Surface Grinder Operational Controls
1. Handwheel, graduated to half-thousandths of an inch,

provides vertical adjustment of spindle head.
2. Removable unit spindle- plain-bearing, or antifriction-
bearing spindle.
3. Table-reversing mechanism operated manually through
lever shown, or automatically through second lever
located on
same shaft and tripped by adjustable table dogs.
4. Adjustable dogs permit stopping power movements
automatically at any desired point in each direction of
cross-feed.
5. Starting lever and trip lever start and stop both
longitudinal and transverse power movements.
Horizontal Planer-Type Surface Grinder
Surface Grinder Operational Controls
6. Start-stop push button switch and electrical control

compartment.
7. Large base compartment for spindle and table driving
motor.
8. Longitudinal table handwheel can be positively
disengaged when power travel is used.
9. Adjustable stops provide for any cross-feed from 0.01 to
0.09 in. (or zero feed) at either end of table travel. Knob in
center disengages cross-feed mechanism for manual
operation.
10. Graduated handwheel for transverse adjustment.
What wheels are used on the surface grinder?
The wheels most commonly used

on surface grinders are the disk, gage,
and thin rubber slotting wheels. The sizes
of the wheels may vary from very small
internal wheels used with a high-speed
attachment, to wheels 10 in. in diameter
with a 1-in. face.
Safety Flanges
Safety flanges are wheel flanges

that act on the wheel between the
spindle and nut. They should be at least
one-third the diameter of the wheel and
relieved or undercut on the wheel side so
that they bear on the wheel only at their
outer edges. This bearing surface should
be parallel with the opposite side so that
when tightened, the nut will bear evenly
against the flange, thus assuring equal
pressure all around.
How should the work be held for grinding?
Most surface grinders use a magnetic chuck to hold the work in
place on the machine, but the work may be held by clamping it directly to
the table or by placing the work in a vise fastened to the table. Work may
be held on the magnetic chuck in conjunction with a V block, angle plate,
or sine bar, or with special fixtures.
The magnetic chuck holds the work in place by exerting a magnetic
force on it. The magnetic poles of the chuck are placed close together so
that it is possible to hold very small pieces of work.
Magnetic Chuck
Horizontal Rotary Grinder
The horizontal rotary grinder, commonly

known as a ring grinder, consists of a horizontal
wheel spindle, having a reciprocating motion
similar to that of the shaper ram, and a revolving
magnetic chuck table supported by columns at
the front of the machine.
The worktable can be raised or lowered
and tilted for concave or convex grinding. The
machine is equipped with a coolant supply tank
and pump for wet grinding, and because it uses
the periphery of the wheel it can produce a good
finish. This type of machine is used to reduce flat,
concave, or convex surfaces, which makes it
readily adaptable for either toolroom or multiple-
production purposes.
Horizontal Rotary Grinder
A. Knob for fine adjustment of work to wheel

B. Handwheel for adjusting chuck to give concave
and convex surfaces
C. Handwheel for raising and lowering work chuck
D. Start-and-stop buttons for rotation of magnetic
chuck
E. Off-and-on switch for magnetizing chuck
f. Magnetic chuck for holding work
G. Grinding wheel
H. lever for adjusting speed of wheel slide
J. Dogs for adjusting length of stroke of wheel slide
K. Dog for quick return of wheel slide
L Wheel-slide reverse lever
M. lever for adjusting speed of wheel slide and
Wheel
Vertical Spindle Rotary Grinder
The vertical-spindle rotary grinder consists of

a cylindrical wheel mounted on a vertical spindle
and supported on a vertical column. This vertical
column provides a means of raising or lowering
the wheel. The worktable consists of a revolving
magnetic chuck supported on ways or slides,
which provide a means of moving the work to
and from the wheel. When the work and wheel
are engaged, the magnetic chuck rotates in a
clockwise direction, but the table is locked in
place on the ways of the machine. This machine
does not give as good a surface finish as the
horizontal rotary grinder, but has a use in the
toolroom as well as in production.
A. Steel guards M. Oil filter
B. Water cocks N. Feed and head elevating

Lever
C. 25-hp induction
P. Control cabinet
motor
Q. Chuck speed box with oil
D. Wheel head
pump
E. Air outlet
R. Chuck speed control
F. Air inlet
S. Pump control
G. Wheel dresser T. Wheel control
H. Ammeter U. Table-traverse control
J. Feed variator V. Chuck rotation control
K. Oil-flow indicator W. Chuck switch
L. Feed dial and X. One-piece steel
wheel magnetic chuck
A. Steel guards M. Oil filter
B. Water cocks N. Feed and head elevating

Lever
C. 25-hp induction
P. Control cabinet
motor
Q. Chuck speed box with oil
D. Wheel head
pump
E. Air outlet
R. Chuck speed control
F. Air inlet
S. Pump control
G. Wheel dresser T. Wheel control
H. Ammeter U. Table-traverse control
J. Feed variator V. Chuck rotation control
K. Oil-flow indicator W. Chuck switch
L. Feed dial and X. One-piece steel
wheel magnetic chuck
Safety Rules for Surface Grinders
A. Test all wheels for cracks or defects before installing them on the
spindle.
B. When starting a machine with a new wheel, stand a safe distance to
one side until you are sure that the wheel is sound.
C. Whenever there is danger of injury in any way to yourself, in loading,
unloading, or checking work on the chuck, stop the machine.
D. In removing work from the magnetic chuck, crank the table clear of
the grinding wheel and then pull the stock away from the wheel.
E. Small, thin pieces of stock, long stock, or stock with small contact
surfaces should be thoroughly blocked on the chuck.
Safety Rules for Surface Grinders
F. Do not use an unguarded wheel at any time.

G. Always wear safety glasses when operating a surface grinder.
H. Do not wipe a chuck with a towel- use an oil brush.
I. Shut off the machine while checking or setting up a job
J. Use properly undercut safety washers in mounting a wheel.
K. Exhaust hoods are supplied as a safeguard for the health of grinder
operators. See that they are properly adjusted at all times and that
they are not abused.
CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
External grinders are divided into three general groups:

plain cylindrical grinders, universal grinders, and special grinders such as
the centerless and cam grinders.
External grinding or cylindrical grinding is commonly
defined as the act of grinding the outside diameter of a piece of work
while it is ·revolving on its axis, to reduce it to size, and leave a fine finish.
However, external grinders are also used to produce external cams,
eccentrics, and special forms on the outside diameter of work. These
are done on machines that perform many of the operations done on a
lathe, but more accurately than the lathe.
Plain Cylindrical Grinder
This grinder is used to produce

external cylinders, tapers, fillets, undercuts,
and shoulders. It may be used for form
grinding by dressing the desired contour of
the grinding wheel.
In any cylindrical grinder, three movements

are very important:
(a) rotation of the work on its axis,
(b) movement of the work back and forth
in front of the wheel, and
(c) movement of the wheel into the work.
Trouble in cylindrical grinding, with the exception of wheel
content, or makeup, can be attributed to one of these movements.
Rotation of the work on its axis is important. If the centers in the work
are bad or if the machine centers are of poor quality and loose, the
work will be irregular in form. The movement of the work back and
forth in front of the wheel must be steady and smooth to ensure both a
good finish and accurate sizing. Movement of the wheel spindle in
revolving the wheel must be true and smooth to prevent vibration and
avoid chatter marks on the work. Movement of the wheel into the
work must be without play or bind to ensure accurate depth of cut.
The work in external grinding
usually revolves on two dead
centers, one in the footstock, and
one in the headstock. The work is
given its rotary motion by a drive
plate that revolves about the
headstock center. The drive plate is
driven by a motor, using pulleys and
a belt. The drive plate contains an
adjustable arm, which can be
located at varying distances from
the center and into which a drive
pin is fitted. This drive pin engages
the V slot of the grinder dog, which
is attached to the work, and hence
the revolving motion of the plate is
transmitted to the work.
Grinder Dogs
Steady Rest
Long, slender work, besides being supported by the centers at each end,
should also be supported by steady rests near its center to avoid bowing the
piece.
When using steady rests, the jaws must be kept properly adjusted to the
work; otherwise, the work might get caught between the lower jaw and the
grinding wheel and be thrown from the machine, or it might break the grinding
wheel. Center Steady Rest
Universal Grinder
Universal tool grinder is another type of grinder is rapidly being

accepted as a utility machine. It can do the work of many other grinding
machines, provided the necessary attachments are available. This
machine is truly universal; the wheel-spindle unit is adjustable both
horizontally and vertically and can be swiveled in a horizontal plane 110°
either side of zero. The headstock has both dead-center and revolving-
spindle drive, is adjustable along the table, and may be swiveled on its
base 100° each side of zero. The table may be traversed by hand or by
power with adjustable automatic reverse, and it may be swiveled 90° in
either direction. Because of its adaptability, some shops use only universal
grinders; other shops use them for work that might interfere with the
continuous operation of specialized machines.
Centerless Grinder
The centerless grinder is a

specialized machine, which was
developed for the rapid production of
cylindrical; external taper, or external
profile work, examples of which are
shown. In centerless grinding, two
wheels are employed: One, the
cutting or grinding wheel, is used to
remove the excess stock; the other, a
regulating wheel, is used to control the
speed of rotation of the work and rate
of feed. The work is supported on a
work slide or rest.
This machine has a distinct advantage over other
grinders because the work does not have to be center-drilled,
thereby saving the lathe time required for that operation.
Because the work need not be mounted on centers, and
because the grinding operation is almost continuous, loading
and unloading time is saved. Furthermore, heavier cuts can
be taken than with ordinary methods, and less material is left
by the lathe operator to be removed, which saves more time
and adds to the life of the grinding wheel.
INTERNAL GRINDING
Internal grinding is the
operation of grinding straight
cylindrical, tapered, or formed holes
to accurate size. The work is done on
the plain internal grinder, the
universal internal grinder, or other
machines especially designed for
that purpose.
Internal-grinding machines are divided into three groups,
depending on the manner in which the work is held and the technique
of operation.
These three groups are:
Work rotating type - the work is held in place by a chuck, collet,
faceplate, or special fixture.
Centerless - a set of rollers hold the work and give it a revolving motion.
Cylinder grinder - holds the work in a fixed, nonrotating position on a
reciprocating table and depends on the amount of eccentric wheel-
spindle travel to generate the correct size of the hole to be ground.
CUTTER GRINDING
In cutter grinding, the cutter grinder holds the cutter

while a rotating abrasive wheel is applied to the edges to
sharpen it. These grinders vary in design from simple, limited
purpose machines to complex universal machines, which
can be adapted to any cutter-grinding requirements.
Universal Cutter and Tool Grinder
A universal cutter grinder that is of

particular value for grinding and
resharpening all kinds of cutters held in
spring chucks or collets. The work head, on
the left, may be moved from left to right
(longitudinally), and swiveled around
through 235°. The wheel head, on the
right, may be moved up or down, to left or
right, or back and forth.
Safety Rules for Cutter Grinders
The following safety rules for cutter grinders must be observed at all
times:
A. Always wear goggles on all cutter-grinder work.
B. Under no circumstances is the machine to started unless the grinding
wheel is adequately guarded. Use a guard of the proper size and
adjust it closely to the wheel, allowing the minimum amount of wheel
exposure to work.
C. In mounting wheels on cutter grinders, use standard wheel bushings
and safety washers. Use paper washers on large wheels.
D. When hand-dressing wheels, be careful to allow ample hand
clearance between the wheel and the table or other parts of the
machine.
E. Hand dressing operations should be performed with a light pressure,

especially when dressing thin wheels. A slip of the hand or a broken
wheel may cause severe lacerations.
F. Any changes of guards, dogs, centers, setup, tooth rests, or other parts
of a machine are not to be made while the machine is running.
G. When grinding spot-facers, counterbores, and so forth in a draw collet,
use a special, automatic safety guard, or shut the machine down to
remove the work.
H. In backing off drills, spiral reamers1 and so forth, see that the tooth rest.
is properly adjusted in relation to the wheel and work, to prevent
slippage and consequent spinning of stock. Ask the instructor about this
adjustment.
I. Care should be taken in handling sharp tools such as reamers, drills,

cutters, and counterbores because severe lacerations may result from
stock slipping through the hands.
J. Towels are not to be used to hold small tools such as spot-facers,
counterbores, and similar tools, which become warm while grinding. Ask
the instructor how to take care of work of this class.
K. Exhaust hoods are supplied as a safe guard for the health of grinder
operators. See that they are properly adjusted at all times and that they
are not abused.
THREAD GRINDING
Precision thread grinding has an extremely wide application in modern
industry. Many manufacturers of precision-threaded parts depend upon
thread grinding to obtain the extreme accuracy that the ever-rising standards
of modern industry demand.
External Thread Grinder
In external-thread grinder for general-purpose work, threads may be

ground on work up to 6 inches in diameter and 18 inches long, held between
centers. Many different types of threads may be ground, including American
National form, 60° sharp V, 29° Acme, modified Buttress, Whitworth, and
special thread forms. Threads may be right- or left-handed, straight, tapered,
or relieved; they also may be in single and multiple pitches from 1 to 80
threads per inch.
External Thread Grinder
Internal Thread Grinder
An internal-thread grinder is designed and built for

grinding internally threaded parts on a production basis,
with high finish and to close limits. Whether grinding fine
threads from the solid, or coarse threads that have
previously been roughed and then heat treated, a
tolerance on the pitch diameter of plus or minus 0.0002 in.
can be held.
Internal Thread Grinder
DRILLING
Engr.Vence Remos B. Alonzo,
RMEE,RME,RMP
Drilling Machines
Round holes are commonly drilled in metal by means of a machine tool called a drill press. The
term drilling machines is much broader in meaning and includes all types of machines designed for drilling
holes into metal.
Many operations other than drilling a round hole can be performed on the drill press. Some of
these are sanding, counterboring and countersinking, honing, reaming, lapping, and tapping.
Considerable skill is required to drill a hole of proper size in exactly the desired location at a high rate of
production. The machine operator must be able to locate the hole properly and accurately, and the
machine operator must be able to align the drill correctly.
Basic Construction
Successful operation of the drill press requires the operator to be familiar with all parts and to
have an adequate working knowledge of the machine itself. The operator must also be able to set up the
work properly, to select proper speeds and feeds, and to use the correct coolant.
The bench-type drill press (Figure 3-1) and the floor-type drill press (Figure 3-2) are commonly
found in home workshops and in industrial machine shops. These machines are designed to rotate a cutting
tool (twist drill, countersink, counterbore, and so on) to advance the cutting tool into the metal and to
support the workpiece.
Basic Construction
Head
The design of the drill press head varies with

different machines (Figure 3-3). In most machines, the electric
motor is bolted to the head, and a V-belt drive is used to drive
the spindle at from three to five different speeds by shifting the
V-belt from step-to-step on the pulleys. For maximum life of
the V-belt, the belt tension should be just tight enough that
loosening is not necessary to shift it.
Spindle
The spindle is the rotating part. It is usually splined and
made of alloy steel. The spindle rotates and moves up and down in a
quill or sleeve, which slides on bearings. A pinion engages a rack
fastened to the quill to provide vertical movement of the quill,
permitting the twist drill to be either fed into or withdrawn from the
workpiece.
A typical spindle assembly is shown in Figure 3-4. Spindle
speed is controlled on smaller machines by changing the V-belt from
one step to another on the pulleys. Gearboxes are provided on the
larger machines for making changes in spindle speed.
Some upright drill presses have back gears, which supply
more power to the spindle. Slower spindle speeds are a result of this
increase in power. On some machines, the back gears can be engaged
and disengaged by means of a lever conveniently located on the
machine.
Table
The table is supported on the column of the

drill press. It can be moved both vertically
and horizontally to the desired working
position, or it can be swung around so that
it will be out of the way. Most tables are
slotted so that the work, or a drill press
vise for holding the work, can be bolted to
them (Figure 3-5).
Base
The supporting member of the

entire drill press structure is the base. It is
a heavy casting with holes or slots for
bolting it to the bench and for securing the
work or workpiece directly to the base.
The base supports the column, which in
turn supports the table and head.
Feed
The feed on a drill press can be either manual or
automatic. Feed is expressed in thousandths of For example, a drill operated at 600 rpm with a
an inch per revolution of the spindle. The feed of feed of 0.005 in. would make a hole 3 in. deep in 1 minute.
a twist drill is the distance the drill moves into This is determined by multiplying the feed of one
the work per revolution of the spindle. revolution by the number of revolutions made in one
Automatic feed is always referred to as power minute:
feed. A hand lever or handwheel is used on
manual-type drill presses in which small twist 0.005 X 600 = 3:00 in.
drills are mounted for light work.
Feed
Feed
Feed
Feed
Feed
A 1/2-in. drill operating at 600 rpm would have a
Cutting speed cutting speed expressed in feet per minute. The circumference
in feet equals the diameter (1/2 in.) multiplied by 'TT (3.1416,
or 22h) and divided by 12. Multiply this result by the rpm
The cutting speed of a drill, often
called peripheral speed, is the speed of the (600), or
circumference. It may be explained as the ◦ Cutting Speed =2 X 7 X 12 X 600 = 78 fpm.
distance that a drill would roll if placed on its Cutting-speed calculations as a rule need not be
side and rolled for one minute at a given rpm. precise and the above method may be shortened as follows:
The cutting speed is expressed in feet per
◦ Dividing 3.1416 by 12 equals approximately 1/4
minute (fpm) and does not mean rpm.
◦ Example: Thus the cutting speed could be figured by multiplying 1/4 by
the drill diameter by the rpm, or stated as a formula.
◦ Calculate the cutting speed
◦ Cutting Speed= 1/4 x drill diameter x rpm.
for a l/2-in. drill that revolves
at 600 rpm. In this problem, using the simpler formula, the cutting speed
would be calculated as follows:
◦ Cutting Speed = 1/4 x 1/2 x 600 = 75 fpm
The difference i$ so small as to be negligible.
Cutting speed
◦ When the cutting speed is known, how can ◦ What cutting speeds are recommended for drilling some
you calculate the rpm? of the more commonly used metals?
When the cutting speed is known, the rpm The following average cutting speeds are
may be calculated by using either of two recommended when drills made of high-speed steel are
formulas: used. For drills made of carbon tool steel, the cutting
𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑥 4
◦ rpm= speeds should be about one-half less.
Drill diameter
Cutting speed ◦ Aluminum 200-300 fpm
◦ rpm =
1/4 X Drill diameter ◦ Brass-soft 200-300 fpm
Applying the formula to the problem in ◦ Cast iron - soft 100-150 fpm
Question 67, the rpm would be ◦ Copper 200fpm
◦ 75- X -4 = -30.0 = 600 rpm ◦ Machine steel 80-100 fpm
◦ Monet metal 40-60 fpm
◦ Stainless steel 30-50 fpm
◦ Tool steel alloys 50-60 fpm
Cutting speed
Capacity
Capacity of a drill press is expressed
in several ways. Usually, drill presses are
rated by the distance from the center of the
twist drill to the column of the machine
(Figure 3-6). Some drill presses are rated by
the distance from the top of the table in its
lowest position to the tip of the spindle at its
highest position. Another rating is given as
the distance the spindle can travel from its
uppermost position to its lowest position. Still
another rating is the largest straight shank
twist drill that can be mounted in the drill
press spindle or drill chuck.
Types of Drilling Machines
Several types of drilling machines are in existence. Manual-feed drill
presses are either light-duty or medium-duty machines. Those with automatic or
power feed are heavy-duty machines. Drilling machines are sometimes classified
as either vertical-spindle or horizontal-spindle machines and as either single-
spindle or multispindle machines. The multispindle machines are also called
gangdrilling machines. of handling work that, because of its weight or size,
cannot be mounted on a drill press table.
A radial drill can be equipped with either a plain table or a universal
tilting table (Figure 3-11). The universal tilting table is designed for angular
drilling. The table can be rotated through 360". When several drills are mounted
on the same table, the machine is called a gang drilling machine (Figure 3-12).
Sensitive Drill Press
These machines can be of either the
bench type (see Figure 3-1) or the floor type
(see Figure 3-2). They are belt-driven, hand-fed
drill presses. The hand feed of the sensitive drill
press permits the operator to "feel" the cutting
action at the end of the twist drill. A
counterbalanced spindle is moved vertically
with a hand lever or handwheel. These
machines are designed for relatively light work
with small twist drills, which are prone to
breakage under power feed.
Twist drills up to l/2 inch in diameter
can be used on the sensitive drill press. The end
of the spindle is bored for a standard No. 2
Morse taper, to fit the tapered shank of a drill
chuck or a twist drill.
Variable-Speed Upright Drill Press
The back-geared drill press (Figure 3-7 and

Figure 3-8) has a greater range of speeds than the
floor-type sensitive drill press. It is also larger and
equipped with a power feed. The reversing
mechanism on the back-geared upright drill press also
permits tapping operations.
Radial Drill Press
In a radial drill press (Figure 3-9), the
vertical spindle can be positioned horizontally and
locked on an arm that can be swiveled about, and
raised and lowered on a vertical column. Thus, the
spindle can be placed in any position within its
range. The various arm and spindle movements are
shown in Figure 3-10. Some radial drills do not
have the last two movements illustrated.
Because the drilling head is moveable to
any position, it is not necessary to move heavy
work for each hole that is to be drilled. Therefore,
the radial drill is especially adaptable for work of
this kind. The radial drill is a heavy-duty drilling
machine. It is capable
Questions
1. Explain the purpose of the drill press. 7. Why do you need a drill press vise?
2. Name the basic parts of a drill press. 8. What is the advantage of a back-
3. What is meant by the capacity of a geared motor drive on a drill
drill press? 9. press?
4. What is a radial drill press? 10. What is the advantage of a six-spindle
5. How is spindle speed controlled in a drill press?
drill press? 11. Where are six-spindle drill presses
6. Why is spindle speed important in a used?
drill press?
Drilling Machine Operations
Good sound judgment and trial-and-error are important in each
drill press operation. Hard and fast rules are not practical for
operation of the drill press because composition and hardness of
material, type of machine, condition of the machine, condition of the
cutting tool, lubricant, depth of hole, and many other factors
influence the speed and feed at which a material can be worked.
However, suggestions can be used as a guide, and the operator can
make intelligent observations and adjustment of feeds and speeds for
a given operation.
Drilling
The chief operation performed on
the drill press is drilling, which is the
removal of solid metal to form a circular
hole. Prior to drilling a hole in metal, the
hole is located by drawing two lines at right
angles, and a center punch is used to make
an indentation for the drill point at the center
to aid the drill in getting started (Figure 4-1).
Never attempt to start a twist drill without
first using a center punch to make the
indentation for starting the drill point.
Twist Drill
Twist drills are used in drilling machine
operations. They are usually made from carbon
steel or high-speed steel. Carbon steel twist drills
are not suited for high-speed production work.
They must be operated at lower cutting speeds than
twist drills made from highspeed steel. All twist
drills have three major parts: the shank, the body,
and the point. They are available in many different
sizes (see Table 4-1). These different sizes are
classified as follows:
I. Fractional: '/&"to 4" X 1/64" increments
2. Millimeter
3. Number: 1 to 60, 61 to 80
4. Letter: A to Z
There are many different kinds of twist drills. Some twist drills are designed for specific types of work. A number of
different twist drills are illustrated, with their specific applications, in Figures 4-3
through 4-13.
Drilling Suggestions
The operator should check to make

certain that the drill point has started properly
before the drill has cut too deeply. Frequently,
the drill point fails to seat properly in the
punch mark, and a small hole is made off
center.
The operator should use layout and layout circles so that he can determine whether the
twist drill is making a hole concentric with the layout circle at the start and is going properly. If
the small hole made by the drill is not concentric with the layout circle, the drill should be
withdrawn. A cape chisel can be used to cut a groove, or several grooves, on the side toward
which the drill should be moved so that the drill can be "drawn" back to the center of the layout
circle. It is too late to shift the twist drill point without marring the workpiece, after the drill has
begun to cut itsfull diameter.
After the mounted work is placed on the worktable of the drill press, the worktable should be
adjusted to a convenient height for drilling, considering both the length of the twist drill and drillholder.
The height of the spindle should be adjusted to provide the shortest distance for feed of the twist drill to the
work.
After the proper speed has been determined, the machine can be started and the twist drill
lowered to the work. The drill should be fed to the work slowly until the metal has been penetrated by the
point o the drill. Then, a check should be made to see that the drill has started properly.
Tapping
The drill press can be used as a means of tapping (or cutting threads in a drilled hole). Precision
hand-tapping can be performed on the drill press with the work mounted on the drill press table in the
position as for drilling the hole. A tap wrench is mounted on the square shank of the hand tap, and a lathe
center is mounted in the hollow spindle of the drill press. Then, the tap is placed in the hole in the
workpiece, and the point of the lathe center is placed in the center hole in the shank end of the tap. The
hand-feed lever of the drill press is used to maintain steady pressure without forcing the hand tap, because
the tap wrench is used to turn the tap into the work. Actually, the drill press is used, in this instance, chiefly
as a guide for precision hand-tapping.
Automatic drilling machines can be equipped with one of three types of tapping devices:
◦ Friction-type tapping attachment
◦ Motor-reverse control operated by a small lever control
◦ Automatic reverse feed handle control
Tapping
Countersinking
◦ The operation in which a cone-shaped enlargement is formed at
the end of a hole is called countersinking. A conical cutting or
reaming tool is used to taper or bevel the end of the hole (Figure
4-27).
◦ The countersinking operation involves fastening the workpiece
properly, mounting the countersink in the drill chuck, aligning
the countersink with the work, selecting the correct spindle
speed, and using care in feeding the countersink to the work.
The countersink should be rotated at a relatively slow spindle
speed, using cutting oil for a smooth job in steel. Failure to
clamp the work properly, a dull tool, or excessive spindle speed
can be the cause of a rough countersinking job.
Counterboring
◦ The operation in which a hole is enlarged
cylindrically partway along its length is called
counterboring. A counterboring tool is used to
enlarge the diameter of the hole to accommodate a
stud, bolt, or pin having two or more diameters-for
example, a filister-head screw.
◦ The counterboring tool (Figure 4-28) must be
properly aligned with the original hole so that the
pilot on the end of the counterbore will fit into and
follow the original hole properly. The size of the
enlarged hole is produced by the cutting edges on
the counterbore.
Spot-Facing Operation
◦ Another operation similar to
counterboring is the spot-facing
operation (Figure 4-29). Just
enough metal is removed to provide
a bearing surface for a washer, nut,
or the head of a cap screw. The
spot-facing tool should be mounted
in the drill press spindle, and the
pilot of the spot-facing tool should
be aligned with the original drilled
hole (Figure 4-30).
Reaming
The reaming operation is used to accurately size and finish the inside of a hole. Reaming is used to
make a drilled hole more accurate and smoother. A hand reamer can be used to finish a hole to the exact
dimension. A hole should be drilled l/64 inch undersize and then machine reamed to obtain an accurate smooth
hole of standard size. If the blueprint should call for a M-inch ream, a twist drill 1/64 inch under 1/2 inch
should be used to drill the original hole.
Machine reaming can be performed in the drill press by substituting the correct size of reamer for the
twist drill in the drill press spindle without changing the mounting position of the work orremoving it. The
correct spindle speed for machine reaming is approximately one-half the drilling speed. The automatic feed can
be used for reaming.
The slight taper at the end of a reamer is provided to facilitate entry of the reamer into the hole, and the
reamer should be extended through the hole a distance of at least 1 1/2 inches to produce the accurate size. The
reamer should never be rotated in the reverse direction, because the edges may be broken or dulled.
Grinding and Buffing
The drill press can be used for simple grinding and buffing operations. The work can be held in a
drill press vise with a cup-grinding wheel mounted in the chuck.
A burring or polishing operation can be performed by mounting a buffing wheel in the chuck.
The work should be held securely.
Other Operations
Many drill presses can be
adapted for mortising operations by
means of a mortising attachment (Figure
4-31). The attachment usually fits over
the chuck, and the fence and hold-down
are mounted on the table. A M-inch
square hole is usually the maximum
capacity for a mortising attachment on the
drill press. Trepanning and boring
operations can also be performed on the
drilling machine (Figure 4-32).
Holding Devices
Drill presses and drilling machines require two types of holding devices: devices for holding the tool or
cutter, and devices that secure the workpiece in a properly mounted position for drilling, tapping, and so
forth.
Tool or Cutter Holders
Most cutting tools have either a straight shank or a
taper shank. Most drill presses are equipped with a
Morse taper spindle. Straight-shank drills are held in
a chuck.
◦ Chucks
Many styles of chucks for a variety of
purposes are manufactured (Figure 4-33 and Figure
4-34). The drill press chuck has a Morse taper on the
chuck shank. The tapered shank fits into the drill
press spindle. Three small jaws in the chuck tighten
simultaneously toehold the straight-shank twist drills,
which are 1/2 inch and smaller in diameter.
◦ Sleeves and Sockets
A tapered drill sleeve is used to hold taper-shank twist
drills that are too small for the tapered hole in the spindle of the drill
(Figure 4-35). The hole inside the sleeve is tapered to fit the tapered
shank of a twist drill. The outside of the sleeve has a Morse taper to fit
the hole in the spindle. The tanged end fits into the slot in the spindle.
A drill socket is used to hold twist drills with shanks too
large to fit into either the drill press spindle or a sleeve (Figure 4-36).
It also has a tanged end to fit into the slot in the drill press spindle.
A tapered key or drill drift is used to remove twist drills,
sleeves, and sockets from the drill press spindle (Figure 4-37). These
drifts are made of tool steel and hardened. The drift is driven through
the slot in a sleeve or socket to remove a taper-shank twist drill.
Work Holders and Setup Devices
The workpiece must be securely fastened to

give satisfactory and safe results. Mounting and
supporting the workpiece properly are extremely
important. Of course, the layout work must be done
properly, but the correct procedure for making setups
and for operating the drilling machine must be followed
carefully for satisfactory results.
◦ Vise
A drill press vise is used to hold and support the work
on the drill press table. A vise with a graduated swivel
base is shown in Figure 4-38. An air-hydraulic vise is
used on high-production machines (Figure 4-39). A
combination table and vise for drilling machine
operations is shown in Figure 4-40.
◦ Parallels
These accurately machined bars are made in
pairs. Parallels are used to raise the work
above the drill press table so that the part can
be drilled completely through without damage
to either the viseor the table. Parallels should be
placed carefully so that the twist drill will not
damage them after completing its passage
through the work (Figure 4-41).
◦ V-Blocks
Round stock can be securely clamped
with V-blocks for drilling (Figure 4-42).
Care must be taken and the work
clamped securely. Otherwise, the
operator can be injured when the twist
drill takes hold in the workpiece, causing
the work to swing around.
◦ Angle Plate
The angle plate is useful when it is
desirable to drill a hole parallel to another
surface. The angle plate is usually made
of cast iron, and holes and slots are
provided for clamping it to the machine
table to
◦ T-Bolts
These bolts are placed in the T-slots
provided in the table. Either the
workpiece or the vise can be securely
fastened to the table (Figure 4-44).
◦ Straps or Clamps
An assortment of straps or clamps can be
used to clamp workpieces to the table.
The clamps should be made of a good
grade of steel to prevent bending under
pressure (Figure 4-45).
◦ Step Blocks
A step block is used to support the end of a
clamp or strap opposite the work. These
blocks are usually made of a good grade of
steel and are usually made in pairs (Figure
4-46). A step block is useful as an aid to
keeping the strap level when fastened to the
work.
Questions
1. What type of operations can be 8. High speeds and light feeds are 13. What is counterboring?
performed on a drill press? especially recommended for
14. What is spot facing?
________drill diameters in depth.
2. What is the purpose of a center
15. What is mortising?
punch? 9. Most automatic drilling machines
are controlled from a handy push- 16. What is a chuck?
3. Name the parts of a twist drill.
button ______ station.
17. What is a drill drift?
4. What are the decimal and metric
10. The drill press can be used as a
sizes of a No. 78 drill bit? 18. Identify the following: vise,
means of ______ or cutting
parallels, V-blocks, angle plate, T-
5. What is the decimal and metric threads in a drilled hole.
bolts, step blocks.
equivalent of an "A" drill bit?
11. Name the three types of tapping
19. What are straps and clamps used
6. Why is speed important in a services for automatic drilling
for in drilling?
drilling operation? machines.
20. Why should you not hold work
7. What are the results of a drill bit 12. What is an inverted drill press
by hand when drilling?
with unequal lips? used for?
ME 408
MACHINE SHOP THEORY

AND PRACTICE
Introduction
Machine tools in use today are the products of the Industrial
Revolution, which started a little more than 200 years ago. Drilling, turning,
milling, planing, grinding, and metal forming, the basic machine tool
processes in use today, evolved from hand tools. It was not until machine
tools replaced hand tools that the life of abundance we have come to know
and enjoy began to evolve.
Prior to World War 11, machine tools played a very important part in
making the United States the most highly industrialized nation on the face of
the earth. In the 1950s, the design of machine tools began to change
drastically. Advances in design and development have been so great that
they have surpassed all previous advancements.
Introduction
The development of this new technology did not occur by accident. It is
the result of an unprecedented surge in spending by the machine tool industry for
research and development.
Once machine tools were simple and uncomplicated. This is no longer
true. Machine tools are becoming more and more complex. More features are
being built into their design and performance.
Some machine tools are small enough to be mounted on a table, while
others are so large they require special buildings to house them. Machine tools
can be grouped into six major classifications based upon the operations
performed by the machines to shape metal.
Introduction
These basic operations include the following:
• Drilling and boring (including reaming and tapping, turning,
• and milling)
• Planing (including shaping and broaching)
• Grinding (including honing and lapping)
• Metal forming (including shearing, stamping, pressing, and forging)
There are six basic metal-shaping operations that can be performed by a machine, such as boring, drilling,
milling, stamping, punching, and shearing press; or a combination milling and planing machine. Variations of
the six basic operations are employed to meet special situations; for example, there are machine tools that
combine two or more operations, as in a boring, drilling, and milling machine or a combined milling/drilling and
boring machine. Newer metal shaping operations have been developed that employ the various
characteristics of chemicals, electricity, magnetism, fluids, liquids, explosives, light, and sound.
Drilling and Boring
Drilling is a basic machine shop operation dating back to primitive humans. It
consists of cutting a round hole by means of a rotating drill (Figure 2-9). Boring, on the other
hand, involves the finishing of a hole already drilled or cored. This is accomplished by
means of a rotating, offset, single-point tool that somewhat resembles the tool used in a
lathe or a planer. The tool is stationary and the work revolves on some boring machines. On
other types of boring machines, the reverse is true.
Two other types of machine tools are included under the classification of drilling
and boring. These machine tools perform reaming and tapping operations. Reaming
consists of finishing an already drilled hole. This is done to very close tolerances. Tapping is
the process of cutting a thread inside a hole so that a screw may be used in it.
Drilling and Boring
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f5HfRpeT7Fg
Turning
Turning is done on a lathe. The lathe, as the turning machine is commonly called, is the
father of all machine tools. The principle of turning has been known since the dawn of civilization,
probably originating as the potter's wheel. In the turning operation, the piece of metal to be machined is
rotated and the cutting tool is advanced against it (Figure 2-10).
By contrast, the turret lathe is a lathe equipped with a multisided toolholder called a turret,
to which a number of different cutting tools are attached. This device makes it possible to bring several
different cutting tools into successive use and to repeat the sequence of machining operations without
the need to reset the tools. The cutting tools themselves are mounted and protrude from the turrets.
Turning
Single- and multiple-spindle automatics are used when the number
of identical parts to be turned is increased from a few to hundreds, or even
thousands. These machines perform as many as six or eight different
operations at one time on a number of different parts. Single- and multiple-
spindle automatics are entirely automatic. Once set up and put into
operation, these machines relieve the operator of all but two duties. The
duties of the operator consist of monitoring operations and gauging the
accuracy of finished parts.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EsAxOnzEms
Milling
Milling consists of machining a piece of metal by bringing it into
contact with a rotating cutting tool with multiple cutting edges (Figure 2-11).
A narrow milling cutter resembles a circular saw blade familiar to most
people. Other milling cutters may have spiral edges, which give the cutter the
appearance of a huge screw.
Milling
There are many other milling machines designed for various
kinds of work. For example, the planer type is built like a planer, but it
has multiple-tooth revolving cutters. Machines that use the milling
principle but are built especially to make gears are called bobbing
machines. Some of the shapes produced on milling machines are
extremely simple (like the slots and flat surfaces produced by circular
saws). Other shapes are more complex and may consist of a variety of
combinations of flat and curved surfaces, depending upon the shape of
the cutting edges of the tool and the path of travel of the tool.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AxHexqN0Hr0
Planing
Planing or shaping metal with a machine tool is a process
somewhat similar to planing wood with a carpenter's hand plane. The
essential difference lies in the large size of the machine tool and the fact
that it is not portable. The cutting tool remains in a fixed position, while
the work is moved back and forth beneath it. On a shaper the process is
reversed. The workpiece is held stationary, while the cutting tool travels
back and forth (Figure 2-12).
Planing
A somewhat similar operation is known as slotting. This operation is
performed vertically. Slotters, or vertical shapers, are used principally to cut certain
types of gears.
Broaches may be classified as planing machines. The broach has a
number of cutting teeth. Each cutting edge is a little higher than the previous one,
and it is graduated to the final size required. The broach is pulled or pushed over the
surface to be finished. It may be applied internally (for example, to finish a square
hole) or externally (for example, to produce a flat surface or a special shape).
Planers are usually very large. Sometimes they are large enough to handle
the machining of surfaces that are 15 to 20 feet wide and about twice as long.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4S4nGSoYeYM
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y-dA7fZn7q4
Grinding
Grinding consists of shaping a piece of work by bringing it into contact with a
revolving abrasive wheel (Figure 2-13). The process is often used for the final finishing to
close dimensions of a part that has been heat-treated to make it very hard. In recent
years, grinding has found increasing applications in heavy-duty metal removal, replacing
machines with cutting tools. This process is referred to as abrasive machining.
The grinding machine can correct distortions that have resulted from the heat
treatment process. It may be used on external cylindrical surfaces, in holes, for flat
surfaces, and for threads. Under the classification of grinding are included operations
known as lapping and honing.
• Lapping involves the use of abrasive pastes and compounds. It is limited in its use to
extremely small amounts of stock removal and to situations where there is a high
degree of precision and surface finish needed.
• The honing technique, in contrast, is widely accepted as a process separate from that
of lapping. For example, there are honing machines with rotating heads that carry
abrasive inserts for the extremely accurate finishing of holes.
Grinding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrHQRhJ4yuc
Other Processes
Metal forming includes shearing, stamping, pressing, and forging metals of
many kinds. It requires the use of many kinds of tools, including the
following:
1. Shear-This tool is used to cut metal into the required shapes.
2. Punch press-This tool is used to punch holes in metal sheet and plate.
3. Mechanical press-This tool is used to blank out the desired shape from a
metal sheet and squeeze it into the final shape in a die under
tremendous pressure.
4. Hydraulic press-This tool does the same work as the mechanical press by
the application of hydraulic power.
Other Processes
4. Drop hammer-This tool is operated by steam or air. It is used to
forge or hammer white-hot metal on an anvil.
5. Forging machine-This tool squeezes a piece of white-hot metal
under great pressure in a die. During the process, the metal flows
into every part of the die cavity where it assumes the shape of the
cavity.
Other Processes
The research and development efforts of the past few years
have resulted in a number of new operations for shaping metal into
useful parts. Discounting entirely those processes that form metal in its
molten state or in a powder state, many new developments have the
effect of broadening the capabilities of machine tools. Following are
some of the better-known developments:
• Abrasive machining • Explosive forming
• Capacitor discharge machining • Fission fragment exposure and etching
• Cold extrusion • Gas forming Hot machining
• Combustion machining • Hydroforming Laser (light beam) cutting
• Electrical discharge machining • Magnetic forming
• Electromechanical machining • Plasma machining Spark forming
• Electrolytic machining • Ultrasonic cutting and forming
• Electrospark forming
• Electron beam machining
Other Processes
A number of the processes were developed to do specific work,
such as machining extremely hard materials. Many of the
developments came about through aircraft, atomic energy, and rocket
research. Some of these processes have been adapted to production-
type machines, as in electrochemical milling, electrical discharge
machining, magnetic forming, abrasive machining, electron beam
machining, electrospark forming, and cold extrusion. A number of
processes are still awaiting the basic research necessary to incorporate
a process into a piece of production equipment. Although some of
these processes are today's curiosities, they will play an important part
in manufacturing goods for a rapidly growing economy.
ME 408
Machine Shop Theory, and
Practice
Engr. Vence Remos B. Alonzo
©2024 Batangas State University

Engr.
1 Vence Remos B. Alonzo
Lecture 1
Workshop Safety and
Organization

General Machine Shop Safety Training

Terms and Definitions
PINCH POINTS
Occur between rotating and fixed
parts which can create a shearing,
crushing or abrading action.
RECIPROCATING MOTION
The equipment may entrap a worker
between a moving and stationary
object, during the up, down, back
and forth motion.

TRANSVERSE MOTION
Creates a hazard when the worker is pulled into the pinch point or shear point
or is dragged by the moving parts into other moving parts.
CUTTING ACTION (Involves: Rotating, Reciprocating or

Transverse Motions)
Dangers exists at the point of operation where finger, head, and arm injuries
occur and where flying chips or scrap material can strike eyes or face.

PUNCHING ACTION
Results when power is applied to slide for the purpose of
blanking, drawing or stamping metal or other materials.
Danger of this type of action occurs at the point of
operation where the stock is inserted, held or withdrawn.

SHEARING ACTION
Applying power to a slide or knife in order to trim or shear metal or other
materials. Hazards occurs at the point of operation where the stock is
inserted, held or withdrawn.
BENDING ACTION
Applying power to a slide in order to draw or form metal or other
materials. Hazards occur at the point of operation where stock is inserted,
held or withdrawn.

GUARDS
o Physical barriers that prevent access to danger areas.
o Must prevent hands, arms, or any part of the body or clothing from
making contact with dangerous moving parts.
o Should prevent contact, be secured and well constructed.
o Should protect from falling objects and contain the hazard.

TYPES OF GUARDS
Fixed Guards-Are a permanent part of the machine, they are not dependent
on moving parts to perform their intended functions.
Interlocked Guards-When opened or removed the tripping mechanism and
or power are automatically shut off or disengaged, the machine cannot
cycle until replaced.

Adjustable Guards-Allow flexibility in accommodating various sizes of

stock. Properly adjusted this guard provides protection from point of
operation hazards.
Self-Adjusting Barriers-As the Operator moves stock into the danger area,
the guard is pushed away, providing an opening that is only large enough
to admit the stock being used. After the stock is removed the guard
returns to rest position.

Photoelectric (Optical) Presence Sensing Device-Uses a system of light sources

and controls which can interrupt the machines operating cycle if the light field
is broken, the machine stops and will not cycle. This can only be used on
machines which can be stopped before the worker can reach the danger area.

Presence-Sensing Devices-
o Either stops the machine or will not start if a hand or any body part is
inadvertently placed in the danger area.
o P-S Devices create a sensing field that detects the presence of an object
larger than an outlined size.
o When the signal is obstructed the P-S sends a stop signal to the
machine.

Radio Frequency (Capacitance) Presence-Sending Device-Uses a radio beam

that is part of the machine circuit control, when the capacitance field is broken
the machine will stop or not activate.
This device can only be used on machines which can be stopped before the
worker reaches the danger zone.

Electromechanical Sensing Device-Has a probe or contact bar which descends

to a predetermined distance when the operator initiates the machine cycle. If
there is an obstacle preventing it from descending its full predetermined
distance, the control circuit does not actuate the machine.

Pull Back Device-Uses a series of cables attached to the
operator’s hands, wrist and or arms. Used primarily on
machines with a stroking action.
o When the slide or ram is up the operator is allowed
access to the point of operation, when the slide or
ram is descending a mechanical linkage withdraws
the hands from the point of operation.
o A restraint device uses cables or straps that are
attached to the operators hands at a fixed point and
are adjusted to allow the operators hands travel
within a predetermined safe area.

Safety Trip Controls-Are devices that provide a quick means for deactivating
the machines in an emergency situation.
➢ A pressure sensitive bar, when depressed will deactivate the
machine. If the operator or anyone slips, trips, loses balance or is
drawn toward the machine. Applying pressure to the bar will stop
operation of machine.
➢ It is position sensitive as it has to be activated by the operator
during an emergency situation, therefore it’s position is critical to
the operator.

Personal Protective Equipment
➢ When exposures to hazards cannot be engineered completely out of the

process and other forms of Administrative procedures cannot provide
additional protection, a supplementary method of control is Personal
Protective Equipment.
➢ PPE is not a substitute for Engineering or Administrative Controls.
➢ 29 CFR 1910.132 OSHA Standards set controls for PPE usage.

Types of PPE
➢ Eye and Face Protection
o The employer shall ensure that each affected employee uses
appropriate eye or face protection when exposed to eye or face
hazards from flying particles, molten materials, liquid chemicals,
acids or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapors or potentially
injurious light radiation.

Types of PPE
➢ Respiratory Protection
o A respirator shall be provided to each employee when such
equipment is necessary to protect the health of such employee.
o The employer shall provide the respirators which are applicable and
suitable for the purpose intended.
o The employer shall be responsible for the establishment and
maintenance of a respiratory protection program, which shall
include the requirements outlined in paragraph (c) of this section.
The program shall cover each employee required by this section to
use a respirator.

Types of PPE
➢ Head Protection
o The employer shall ensure that each affected employee wears a
protective helmet ( hard hat ) when working in areas where there is a
potential for injury to the head from falling objects.
o The employer shall ensure that a protective helmet ( hard hat )
designed to reduce electrical shock hazard is worn by each such
affected employee when near exposed electrical conductors which
could contact the head.

Types of PPE
➢ Foot Protection
o The employer shall ensure that each affected employee uses
protective footwear when working in areas where there is a danger of
foot injuries due to falling or rolling objects, or objects piercing the
sole, and where such employee's feet are exposed to electrical
hazards.
o Protective footwear must comply with any of the following
consensus standards:
ASTM F-2412-2005, ANSI Z41-1999,
ANSI Z41-1991
Types of PPE
➢ Hand Protection
o Employers shall select and require employees to use appropriate
hand protection when employees' hands are exposed to hazards such
as those from skin absorption of harmful substances; severe cuts or
lacerations; severe abrasions; punctures; chemical burns; thermal
burns; and harmful temperature extremes.

Abrasive Wheel Machinery
➢ An Abrasive Wheel is a grinding tool consisting of bonded abrasive

grains.
➢ Grinding wheels are made of natural or synthetic abrasive materials
bonded together in a matrix to form a wheel.
o Numerous shapes; flat disks, cylinders, cups, cones and wheels with
specific cuts & grits.
➢ Abrasive grains constitute the central component of any grinding wheel
and the hardness and friability of the grinding materials will
significantly affect the behavior of a given wheel.

➢ Abrasive wheel hazards that can occur using abrasive wheels include but
are not limited to, shock, scrapes, cuts, eye injury and loss, finger injury
and loss, hearing loss, head and body wounds.
o Wheels can break and become dangerous flying projectiles in a work
environment.
o Dust can be a health hazard and employees should were proper PPE
when working on materials that create large amounts of dust in the
operation.

➢ Hazards can be created by external factors;
o Distractions by someone or something else
o Horseplay in or around work area
o Conversations with someone while operating machinery.
o Reaching across working areas
o Wearing jewelry (rings or necklaces)
o Long hair ( not tied up and back)
o Loose fitting clothing
o Hot sparks
o Gloves
Mechanical Power Presses
➢ Mechanical Power Presses are machines that transmit force to cut, form,
or assemble metal or other materials through tools or dies attached to or
operated by slides.
➢ 3 types of Mechanical Power Presses
o Mechanical
o Hydraulic
o Pneumatic

➢ A Mechanical Press is a machine that exerts pressure to form or shape

or cut materials or extract liquids or compress solids.
➢ A Press is a mechanically powered machine that punches, shears, forms
or assembles metal or other materials by means of cutting, shaping or
combination of dies attached to slides or rams.
➢ A Press consists of a stationary bed ( or anvil ), and a slide ( or slides )
having a controlled reciprocating motion toward and away from the bed
surface, the slide being guided in a defined path by the frame of the
press.

➢ Major components of a Mechanical Press are;

o The Frame
o Motor
o Flywheel
o Crankshaft
o Clutch
o Brake

➢ Main Hazard
o AMPUTAIONS
▪ Placing hand into point of operations
▪ Unguarded or inadequately guarded presses
▪ Deactivating or over-riding safeguards
➢ Safeguards most commonly used:
o Barrier guards attached to fixed surfaces
o Presence-Sensing devices
▪ Radio Frequency Sensors
▪ Light Curtains
▪ Pullback Devices
▪ Fixed Guards
Robotics
➢ Robots are machines that load and unload stock, assemble parts,
transfer objects or perform other tasks.
➢ They can be used to replace humans who were performing unsafe,
hazardous, highly repetitive and unpleasant tasks.
➢ Robots are used to accomplish many different types of application
functions such as material handling, assembly, arc welding, resistance
welding, machine tool load and unload functions, painting, spraying and
other functions.

Robotics
➢ Industrial Robots are programmable multifunctional mechanical devices

designed to move materials, parts, tools or specialized devices through
variable programmed motions to perform task safely.
➢ Robot injuries do not normally occur during normal operating
conditions. But rather under these conditions:
o During programming
o Program touchup
o Maintenance or Repair
o Testing, Setup or Adjustment.

Robotics
➢ During many of these operations, the Operator, Programmer or

Maintenance Worker may temporarily be within the robot’s working
envelope where unintended operations could result in injuries.
➢ Mechanical hazards include workers :
o Colliding with equipment (Robot’s Arm or peripheral equipment)
o Being crushed (trapped between the Robot’s Arm or peripheral
equipment)
o Injured by falling objects ( failure of gripper mechanisms with
resultant release of parts )

Robotics
➢ Effective Safeguarding of Robotics
o The proper selection of an effective robotic safeguarding system
should be based upon a hazard analysis of the robot’s system use,
programming and maintenance operations.
o Among the factors to be included are the tasks a robot will be
programmed to perform.
▪ Start up
▪ Command or programming procedures
▪ Environmental conditions
▪ Location and installation requirements
▪ Possible human error
Robotics
▪Scheduled and unscheduled maintenance
▪ Possible robot and system malfunctions
▪ Normal mode operations
▪ Personnel functions and duties associated with operation.
o An effective safeguarding system protects not only the operators but
also engineers, programmers, maintenance workers and others who
work on or with robot’s systems and could be exposed to hazards with
a robot’s operation.

Robotics
o A combination of safeguarding methods maybe used. Redundancy
and backup systems are especially recommended , particularly if a
robot or robot system is operating in a hazardous condition or
handling hazardous materials.
o The safeguarding devices employed should not themselves
constitute a hazard or curtail necessary vision or viewing by
attending human operators.
o Personnel should be safeguarded from hazards associated with the
restricted envelope ( space ) through the use of one or more
safeguarding devices.

Robotics
o Mechanical limiting devices

o Non mechanical limiting devices
o Presence Sensing devices
o Fixed Barriers ( which prevent contact with moving parts )
o Interlocked barrier guards

Lockout-Tag Out Requirements 29 CFR OSHA
1910.147
➢ The intent of Lockout – Tagout is to safeguard employees from the

unexpected startup or machinery or equipment or release of hazardous
energy.
➢ Lockout is the placement of a lockout device on an energy isolation
device ( circuit breaker, slide gate, line valve, disconnect switch, etc. )
o A lockout device utilizes a positive means such as a lock to hold an
energy isolating device in a safe position and prevent re-energization
of the machine.

1910.147
o The lockout device must be substantial enough to prevent removal
without the use of excessive force or unusual techniques.
o Lockout shall be used unless the employer can demonstrate that the
utilization of a tagout system will provide full employee protection.
➢ Tagout is the placement of a tagout device ( tag or other prominent
warning device ) on an energy isolating device to indicate that the energy
isolating device and the equipment being controlled, may not be operated.
o The tagout device shall be non-reusable, attached by hand, self-
locking and non-releasing with a minimum unlocking strength of no
less than 50 pounds, must be equivalent to an all environment
tolerant nylon cable tie.
1910.147
o The lockout device must be substantial enough to prevent removal
without the use of excessive force or unusual techniques.
o Lockout shall be used unless the employer can demonstrate that the
utilization of a tagout system will provide full employee protection.
➢ Tagout is the placement of a tagout device ( tag or other prominent
warning device ) on an energy isolating device to indicate that the energy
isolating device and the equipment being controlled, may not be operated.
o The tagout device shall be non-reusable, attached by hand, self-
locking and non-releasing with a minimum unlocking strength of no
less than 50 pounds, must be equivalent to an all environment
tolerant nylon cable tie.
Summary
➢ BE AWARE OF THE DANGERS OF THE MACHINE YOU ARE
OPERATING
➢ USE ALL REQUIRED SAFETY EQUIPMENT
➢ ENSURE GUARDS ARE IN PLACE AND FUNCTIONAL AT ALL TIMES
➢ HAVE A PRE-OPERATIONAL CHECKLIST FOR EQUIPMENT’S
SAFETY FEATURES
➢ FOLLOW ALL SAFETY REQUIREMENTS IN PLACE IN THE SHOP YOU
ARE WORKING IN.
➢ DO NOT USE AN IPOD TO MUSIC WHILE OPERATING MACHINERY


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GRINDING MACHINE

Grinding consists of shaping a piece of work by bringing it

Form-relief Grinder (left), a

Abrasive Sand Sandstone

Artificial or man-made abrasives have a distinct

Grinding wheels are formed by using a suitable material to

The vitrified bond has the strength and

The silicate bond is made from sodium silicate. The hardness of

Rubber wheels are made of a mixture of abrasive, rubber, and

Shellac-bonded wheels are made

Resinoid-bonded wheels are made by mixing powdered resinoid

Several factors affect the selection of a grinding wheel:

⮚ the kind of material to be ground

Glazing is a condition' in which the face or cutting

The cutting face of a grinding wheel must be kept in a

Dressing is the operation of cleaning, or fracturing, the cutting

F. Never mount a wheel without flanges, which should be properly

Emery cloth is most often used for metal finishing. Although

Surface grinding is the process of producing and finishing

Surface-grinding machines are divided into two major

1. Handwheel, graduated to half-thousandths of an inch,

6. Start-stop push button switch and electrical control

The wheels most commonly used

Safety flanges are wheel flanges

The horizontal rotary grinder, commonly

A. Knob for fine adjustment of work to wheel

The vertical-spindle rotary grinder consists of

A. Steel guards M. Oil filter

B. Water cocks N. Feed and head elevating

A. Steel guards M. Oil filter

B. Water cocks N. Feed and head elevating

F. Do not use an unguarded wheel at any time.

External grinders are divided into three general groups:

This grinder is used to produce

In any cylindrical grinder, three movements

Universal tool grinder is another type of grinder is rapidly being

The centerless grinder is a

In cutter grinding, the cutter grinder holds the cutter

A universal cutter grinder that is of

E. Hand dressing operations should be performed with a light pressure,

I. Care should be taken in handling sharp tools such as reamers, drills,

External Thread Grinder

In external-thread grinder for general-purpose work, threads may be

An internal-thread grinder is designed and built for

The design of the drill press head varies with

The table is supported on the column of the

The supporting member of the

The back-geared drill press (Figure 3-7 and

The operator should check to make

The workpiece must be securely fastened to

MACHINE SHOP THEORY

Engr. Vence Remos B. Alonzo

©2024 Batangas State University

©2024 Batangas State University

©2024 Batangas State University

©2024 Batangas State University

CUTTING ACTION (Involves: Rotating, Reciprocating or

©2024 Batangas State University

©2024 Batangas State University