11

Post Classical German Geography

The period of Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Ritter from 1800 to 1859 is
regarded as modern classical period of Geography. Humboldt and Ritter both jointly
were the founders of modern geography and great geographers of classical period.
"The death of Humboldt and Ritter in 1859 marked the end of an era in
the
development of geography as a branch of scientific knowledge. Humboldt and Ritter
had stood at the crossroads between the classical and the
modern" (Dikshit, 2006.
62). Now the biological sciences were completely
voyages of explorations and discoveries in the eighteenth revolutionized by the scientific
and
centuries. Different theories regarding the nature and origin of plantsearly nineteenth
and animals in
various parts of the world had began to be pieced
theories, culminating in Charles Darwin's book "The Origin together to produce complete
1859. This book contributed a major change in of Species' published in
physical and social sciences. perspective in the field of both
Darwin's "The Origin of Species' established that
surface have evolved through a slow and organisms on the earth's
evolutionary process of change among different cumulative process of change; and that the
need or use (Dikshit, 2006, 63). organisms had not resulted from
and radical concept was the ideaLivingstone (1992) remarks, "An equally important
of cumulative change
which appear as simple knowledge today, were through time. These ideas
were presented, and were highly evolutionary at the time they
contemporary influential in changing the
through process of
science." The evolutionary theory
was the onlyemphasized
which they were located, because this to the
way through whichenvironment
in
for survival and
sentimental adjustment be adequately their struggle
After the death of Humboldt and
Ritter in 1859
appreciated.
and
Origin of Species' (1859) upto the publication of Darwin's "The
philosophicalas aand methodological changescontemporary
in
period, these occurred many
geography discipline. The major concepts andthe concepts and approaches of
however, developed by the German methodologies
American and Russian scientists. scholars followed by thein French,geography were
Though Humboldt was one of the British.
founded no school and left no most versatile scholars of
that he had very disciples so that the method of his time, he
by
geographers ineffectively demonstrated in his own personal observation
coming several decades after his research, was not rediscovered
death. "As contrasted to this a
Post Classical German Geography 159
school of followers did developed around Ritter. Through his
of the only chair in geography in Germany, Ritter left behind a position as the holder
band of disciples who
enthusiastically applicd themsclves to the furtherance of regional perspective
geography, and some of them undertook to complete his plan of Erdkunde for thein
remaining parts of the world which Ritter had not been able to cover before his death
in 1859" (Dikshit, 2006, S8).
1. GERMANGEOGRAPHERS OF
POST-CLASSICAL PERIOD
After the death of Humboldt and Ritter, a new German School of
Geography
came into existence with was primarily most influence by Carl Ritter. Oscar Peschel,
Ferdinand von Richthofen, Friedrich Ratzel, Alfred Hettner, Albrecht Penk, Walther
Penk. Karl Haushofer, Walter Christaller, Oto Shluter and Karl Troll were eminent
geographer of post-classical period. Present chapter includes a brief account of
geography and geographers of Germany after Humboldt and Ritter.
(1) Oscar Peschel (1826-1875)
Oscar Peschel was a leading academic geographer in Germany for about twenty
years. He started his career as a journalist, but dedicated himself to geographical
writing from his young age. From 1849 to 1854 he worked as assistant editor of a
newspaper of Augsburg. He joined as editor of the famous weekly Ausland which
dealt with foreign countries and affairs and remained on this post from 1854 to 1870.
During this period, Peschel published two book : (1) The Age of Discovery (1858)
and (2) The History of Geography (1865). In his History of Geography, Peschel
criticized and opposed the views of Humboldt and Ritter.
Peschel was appointed as a Professor at the University of Leipzig in 1871 and
for the last five years of his life he held a new Chair of geography at Leipzig
University. He laid the foundation of modern physical geography. He died at the age
of 69 years and his book on physical geography was published posthumously.
Followings are the geographical writings of Peschel:
1. The Age of Discovery (1858).
2. History of Geography (1 865).
3. New Problems of Comparative Erdkunde(1869).
4. The Races of Man and their Geographical Distribution or Volkerkunde
(1873).
5. Physical Erdkunde(1879).
Major Fields of Pesechel's Contribution
(i) Physical Geography : Perschelestablished physical geography in Germany
as a science and laid the foundation of modern physical geography. He attempted to
discover distributions of landforms and to classify them and then to explain the
origin of specific landforms. Dickinson (1969) observed. "Equipped with the
researches of the American geologists at the end of the century, and of the challenger
and other oceanic expeditions, and with subsequent advances in meteorology
Perschel could have dealt with causes of landforms and thus, avoided fortuitous
comparisons".
 160
History of Geographical Thouyh
(ii) Human Geography : Peschel made significant contribution to the
geographic study of mankind in his book 'VVolkerkunde' Perschel's this work is still
widely recognized as an important work by anthropologists. This book deals with
physical characteristics of mankind such as facial structure, stature, skin colour, hair
et. linguistic characteristics i.e. history, structure and classification, varioue
industrial, social and religious phases of development, and the races of mankind.
Peschel divided the races of mankind into (i) Australians and Papuans, (2)
Mongoloid races, (3) Dravidian population of western India, (4) Hottentots and
Bushmen, (5) Negroes, (6) Mediterranean race, and (7) Indo-European.
(ii) Comparative Geography : Peschel is credited to develop comparative
geography. He argued that comparative geography should have a definite method and
aim, like comparative morphology. The geographer should seek,with the aid of large
scale maps, similar physical features in different parts of the earth, compare their
characteristics and origin, and endeavour to relate them all genetically, as in
comparative anatomy" (Dickinson, 1659. 57).
(iv) Systematic Study : Peschel following Alexander von Humboldt adopted
systematic method in geographical studies.
Peschel was the first who recognized the dualism of geography. He excluded
the study of man from geography but devoted his scientific energies and his teaching
to both physical geography and human geography. Dickinson (1969) remarks, "He
made outstanding contributions to the study of the science of physical features of the
earth's surface (physische Erdkunde) and also made serious investigations of the
races and cultures of mankind, which he, like his contemporaries, defined a
volkerkunde."
(2) Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904)
Friedrich Ratzel after Alexandar von Humboldt and Carl Ritter was third most
important and renowned geographer of modern period. He established human
geography as a independent branch of
geography, so he is known as the Father of
Human Geography. According to R.E.
Dickinson (1969, 64), "There is no doubt that
Friedrich Ratzel has been the greatest single
contributor to the development of the geography
of man. He also made signal
contributions to
ethnography that are today highly esteemed by
cultural anthropologists."
Friedrich Ratzel was born in 1844 in a
middle class family in Germany. His
managed the staff in the palace of the Grand father
Duke of Baden in
Karlsruhe. After his early
education Ratzel served as apprentice to an
apothecary for four years. He pursued
study in zooiogy first at the university inadvanced
Heidel Friedrich Ratzel
Post Classical German Geography 161

berg and then at Jena. "Ratzel's youth had passed through a period of great
intellectual upheaval in the world of science in the wake of the publication of
Darwin's concept about the origin of species" (Dikshit, 2006, 68). Ratzel published in
1869 a commentary on Darvwin's work. He was more interested in field studies of
plants and animals than in the laboratory room. He engaged himself as an assistant to
aFrench naturalist on his trip to Mediterranean countries. Mean while he was
engaged by the Kolnische Zeitung (a periodical) to write popular accounts for his
work and travels.
When the war broke out between France and Prussia in 1870, Ratzel quit the
employment to join the Prussian army. He fought bravely in the war receiving
several injuries. He briefly resumed study at the university in Munich. There he came
into contact with the famous naturalist and ethnographer Mortiz Wagner who was
curator of the Ethnographical Museum. There he was introduced to his theory
concemed to the importance of migration in the evolution of species. "He then
resumed his post with the Kolnische Zeitung, which allowed him to travel over much
of Europe (especially Austria and Hungary), and many of his writings were
subsequently published in a book, "Travels ofa Naturalist". (Dickinson, 1969, 66).
After the unification of Germany in 1871, he engaged himself to the study of
mode of life of German emigrants living outside Germany. For this purpose Ratzel
visited Hungary and Transylvania where German were in majority. Ratzel was
greatly excited by travel. In 1874 and 1875 he made a long tour for North and
Central America. On the experience of American tour, he was perplexed by the
Negro problem and impressed by the role of German in the development of the
American Middle West. In 1876 he published a book on Chinese emigration based an
his observation in California and the data based largely on British colonial
experience. In 1878 and 1880 Ratzel produced two volumes on the United States (its
physical and cultural geography).
Ratzel returned from America in 1875 and then resigned from the service as
journalist of the Kolnische Zeitung. Now he became a lecturer in geography at the
Technical High School in Munich in 1880. Living there until 1886, he became
established as an academic geographer. While at Munich, Ratzel published two
volumes on North America (1878 and 1880) and the first volume of his
Anthropogeographie (1882) arnd Volkerkunde (3 volumes in 1885, 1886, and 1888).
He also wrote frequently for Ausland and other articles. Ratzel became Professor of
Geography and followed Richthofen at Leipzig University in 1886, when Richthofen
was called to Berlin. He remained there until his death in 1904. In these years Ratzel
completed the second volume of his Anthropogeographie which was published in
1891. Under Ratzel's leadership, the Leipzing Geographical Society acquired an
international reputation.
Ratzel's final monumental work was on political geography (Politische
Geographie), published in 1903. He wrote a number of other research papers and
articles, many of which are collected in Klein Schriften (2 vols. 1906). He also wrote
a little book on Germany that proved classic in geographic literature and long served
 162 History of Geographical Though
as a standard text in schools. It was first published in 1898 and since that it
passed through many editions.
Writings of Ratzel
Ratzel was a great scholar, teacher, orator and very efficient writer. On his
credit he wore 24 books, more than 500 articles, more than 600 book revjews own
and
146 little biographies. He also prepared a bibliography of about 1240 facts
Following are the major writings of Ratzel.
(1) A Commentary of Darwin's Work (1 869).
(2) Creatures of Mediterranean Coast (1870).
(3) Travels of a Naturalist (1872).
(4) Chinese Emigration (1876).
(5) North America : Physical and Cultural Geography (1878 &
1880)
(6) Anthropogeographie (I vol, in 1882 & II vol. in 1891)
(7) Volkerkunde (3 vols, in 1885, 1886 and 1888).
(8) Political Geography of the United States (1893).
(9) Regional Geography of Germany (Germany Deutsch land,
1898)
(10) Political Geography (Politische Geographie, 1903).
(11) Earth and Life: A Comparative Geography
(1901-02).
Major Aspects of Ratzel's Contribution
(i) Human Geography
Friedrich Ratzel is recognized as the 'Father of Human
first scholar who provided a
framework for
Geography'. He was the
a systematic study of human
and stressed on the geography
principle of terrestrial unitv. His classical work
Anthropogeographie' published in
was
volume in 1891). Sub-title for the firsttwo volumes (I volume in 1882, and ll
Application of Geography to History, andvolume was 'An Introduction to the
for the second volume was, "The
Geographical Distribution of Mankind'. R.D. Dikshit (2006, 70) writes, "The two
volumes had represented to different
in geography. The First approaches the study of the human element
to
volume was
earth, which were studied in terms oforganized in terms of physical features of the
focus of this volume was to analyse how their influence on human culture. The
for and in
central
earth is shaped by the physical forces what manner man's life upon the
of nature..The Second
Anthropogeography is devoted to volume of
volume the focus had shifted from the Geographical Distribution of Mankind. In this
physical
attempting to explain geographical distribution of environment to human groups. n
attention to the role of migration in the cultural phenomena he paid grater
diffusion of cultural traits.
While staying of Munich, Ratzel prepared and
History of Mankind) in three volumes in 1885, published his Volkerkunde (The
1886
geographer to clearly formulate the concept of cultural and 1888. Ratzel was the first
referred to as historical landscape. landscape, which he often
 PostClassical German Geography 163

(ii) Political Geography

Ratzel's political geography (Politische Geographie) was published in two
volumes: First volume in 1897 and Second volume in 1903. In his political
geography Ratzel compared state to an organism. He emphasized the fact that a state,
like simple organism, must either grow or die and can never stand still.
Ideas of Ratzel
Ratzel was the first complete human geographer of the world. He established
human geography as a systematic science and provided his new thoughts. Important
aspects of Ratzel's thoughts or ideas are given below :
(i) Determinism or Environmental Determinism : The first volume of Ratzel's
Anthropogeographie (1882) was designed to seek the causes of human phenomena in
the natural environment. His approach was influenced by the theory that the physical
environment played an active role in the evolution of life forms on the earth's surface.
This was based on Darwinian theory ofevolution. Thus, Ratzel's basic philosophy was
associated with the theme of survival of the fittest in a physical environment.
(ii) Organic Theory of State : In his Political Geography (1897) Ratzel
compared the state to an organism and he is credited with the organic theory of state
as wall as the concept of Lebensraum or living space. He brought a radical change in
political geographical thinking. He regarded the state as an 'earth-bound organism'.
Dickinson (1969) refers, "Ratzel believed the state, as an spatial organism, seeks to
reach its natural limits. If effective opposition is not offered by strong neighbours, it
tends overflow these limits."
Like other natural organisms, states were conceptualized to be involved in an
ongoing struggle for survival. The struggle was manifested in the states' exertions to
acquire larger and larger territories as living spaces to support their growing
populations. This was the central idea behind the concept of Lebensraum (living
space), that become so popular in Germany during the interwar years. The concept
implied the right of the more powerful states to expand their territories at the expense
of their weaker neighbours (Dikshit, 2006, 70). It was Ratzel's philosophy which
govermed the German policy in the third and fourth decades of the twentieth century
which finally led to the out break of the Second World War.
(i) Principle of Terrestiral Unity : Ratzel believed in the principle of
terrestrial unity. He tried to build a 'Fundamental unity in diversity'. "He stressed the
principle of unity in diversity, stating that in diverse physical conditions, man always
adjusted himself, and therefore, in order to have a complete view of the geographical
horizon of the earth we have to synthesize diverse physical and cultural phenomena
(Husain, M., 2002, 197).
(iv) Concept of Cultural Landscape : Ratzel was the first geographer who
clearly formulated the concept of the cultural landscape. He characterized it as the
historical landscape because it is the result of preceding historical phases of human
occupance." He formulated the concept of the cultural geographical province as a
composite of culture traits reflecting adistinctive group" (Dickinson, 1969, 70).
 Historyof Geographi
Though
164
Richthofen(1833-1905)
von a noble
(3) Ferdinand Richthofen was born on 5" May, 1833 in and
family
so he k
Ferdinand von attracted to geology
He was strongly
Karlsruhe in Silesia (Germany).
advanced training in geology. His keen
received career in geological
interest was in pursuing a
and research. Richthofen began his
exploration later under the
researches in the Alps and Austria, in the
of
auspices of the Governmentstructure of granites
Carpathians. He studied the
Tyrol and interpreted
and dolomites in the South
formations.
the dolomite as coral
government selected
In 1860, the Prussian
him to accompany an
expedition to eastern Asia
the region.
to study the lands and resources of
went to
After staying in China for some time he
California (U.S.A.) where he stayed for six
years, involving himself to the study of
geological structure of the region. Dickinson Ferdinand von Richthofen
writers, "He was always interested in the nature
gold, which he had
of the relations between volcanic rocks and the occurrence of
and
studied in Hungary, but he had also practical interests. He became a journalist
informed the German public through his news paper reports of the wealth in gold of
California. He warned against the investment of capital in gold-mining undertakings.
butrecommended the establishment of asmelting work with German capital."
Richthofen seized upon his great ambition in 1868 - geological research in
China. For this undertaking he was first financed by the Bank of California and later
by the Chamber of Commerce of Shanghai (China). The Chamber of Commerce ot
Shanghaifinanced four years of travel throughout China and to report it in English as
he had perfect command on English language. There Richthofen studied geological
structure and landforms. He supplied the Chamber of Commerce of Shanghai with
detailed reports concerned with a veritable quarry of information on the economic
geography of China, which were exemplary studies in that field.
Richthofen's interest was not limited to locating minerals, but his
was in the study of geological structure and the origin of landforms. He keen tointerest
a major work on China, in which he would present his want write
scientific
this intention he returned to Germany in 1872. At the end of investigations. Witn
War, the unified German Empire came into the Franco-Prussian
existence. The newly formed German
government was keen on promoting scientific research through
grants. Richthofen received a sufficient grant for the publication of hisliberal financial
Thus, he succeeded for the publication of its 5 volumes China studies.
contents of this classic work was as under (according to between 1877 and 1912. The
In the first volume Dickinson, 1969, 78-79):
Richthofen deals with the structure of the mountains
central Asia and their influence on the of
movement of people. He recognized the loess
 165
PostClassical German Geography
deposits of northern China as wind blown dust from the Steppe. The second volume
is concerned with North China, and is based mainly on his observations particularly
concerned with geology and landforms. The third volume was to deal with South
China on similar lines, but he died before achieving it. The work was completed from
his materials by Ernest Tiessen. Alarge atlas of China was also to accompany the
work.
After Richthofen's return from China in 1872, Berlin had given him warm
reception. He was employed as incharge of the German geographical society, the
Gesellchaft fur Erdkunde which under his leadership arose to the first rank among
geographical societies. In 1875, Richthofen was appointed to the post of geography
at the University of Berlin. There he was granted leave of absence to complete his
pending work on China. He was invited to the University of Bonn in 1877 as
Professor of geography, and then he was engaged in teaching and the work on China
lay in obeyance. In 1883, Richthofen was called to Leipzig where he devoted himself
to the development and presentation of clearly defined system of geography. After
three year in 1886 he was called back again by the Prussian Government to the
University of Berlin to join a newly established Chair in geography where he worked
tillhis death in 1905.
Richthofen's Contribution to Geography
Richthofen was originally a geologist who later became a renowned geographer.
He was the first German scholar who made difference between the general
(systematic) and special (regional) geography. He pointed out that regional
geography must be descriptive while general geography deals with the spatial
distribution of individual phenomena on the surface of the earth. For systematic
regional study he emphasized the needs of field observation. He insisted that
geography must refer to the study of earth's surface where its various parts are in
contact with each other.
Richthofen's most valuable contribution is in physical geography. According to
him, the purpose of geography is to focus attention on the diverse phenomena that
occur in interrelation on the face of the earth (James and Martin, 1981, 167). He
suggested the methodology for geographical studies that first the physical setting of a
region be studied and then the adaptation of man in that setting be examined. He
emphasized that the main objective of geography was the exploration of the
interrelationship of man to the physical earth (environment) and to the biotic
features. For some decades his methodology remained the basic pattern of
geographical studies not only in Germany but also in other countries of Europe and
America. His writings are as under:
(i) Geography of China : Richthofen's geography of China was published in 5
volumes from 1877 to 1912. First three volumes were published in his time which
were devoted to Central China, North China, and South China respectively. Volume
forth and fifth were published after his death using his collected materials.
(ü) Inaugural Address on Methodology(1883) : It is the inaugural address
delivered by Richthofen at the time of accepling the Chair in physical geography at
 History of Geographical
166
Leipzig. It is concermed with his methodology which deals geography as ascience Though
is distinguished by its chorological or spatial distributional perspective
that (ii) AGuide to Scientific Explorers : This book was published in 1886 which
urged greater depth in research and drew attention to many open questions, as
already shown in his work on China. The book, indeed, was a morphology of
features on the earth's surface.
China in 190
(iv) Atlas of China: Richthofen published a large atlas of
1905.
Crollworked on the maps of southern China after his death in
(4) Alfred Hettner (1859-1941)
Alfred Hettner was born in 1859 in Prussia (Germany). According to Dickinsor
(1969), "AIfred Hettner was one of the most influential figures in Germany in the
development of geography. He was the only
geographer of his generation, and probably the
first who entered university with the intention
of becoming a geographer." He studied at the
University of Halle during 1877-78, where he
first came under the influence of Kirchhoff who
gave to Hettner his first insight into the field of
geography. In 1878 he moved from Halle to
Bonn where he was much influenced by
Theobald Fischer and turned to his first research
on the climate of Chile. From Bonn he went to
Strasbourg, where he completed his doctorate
work in 1881 under Gerland, by continuing his
work on climate of Chile and western
Patagonia. His doctoral thesis was published in
1881. He also studied the geology of the Alfred Hettner
highlands Saxony. While at Strasbourg Hettner became deeply
in
philosophy and methodology of geography. interested in the
In November 1881
Hettner returned to Bonn University to
Richthofen. In 1882 he went to Bogota in Columbia to work as a study unus
British Ambassador. There he collected private tutor to u
interest. Out of this he prepared a book sufficient
on
materials relating to geograpn
was published in 1888. In 1884 Travels in the Columbian Andes whie
Hettner returned to Germany
Leipzig. According to Dickinson and lived neary
years in Dresden and fou
attended
Richthofen' s Kolloquium at Leipzig and continued his work on (1969), "he
the Saxony high the
lands. He geomorpholog,
under Ratzel, who had just submitted this research for the habilitation at Lelpi
(1887)." succeeded Richthofen on the latter's
in order to
transfer to be
American in 1888extensive travels in South America,
with the assistance of A. Richthofen went again South
ethnologistand director of the Bastian, the renowned German
stage coach and mule, lived inMuseum
the
for Vokerkunde, "He travelled by boat, Ta
 Post Classical German Geography 167

contracted atrophy of the leg muscles that affected his ability to walk for the rest of
his life. These travels covered more than one year and their results are revealed
mainly in the letters he wrote to Richthofen, and in his diary which was subsequently
at the disposal of his students" (Dickinson, 1969, 112-13). After about two years he
returned to Leipzig to take up an academic appointment under Friedrich Ratzel in
1890-91 where he remained until 1897. He was not influenced by Ratzel's approach
to the geography of man and laid greater emphasis than Ratzel on the physical
phenomena in geography. In May 1894 Hettner was appointed as an assistant at
Leipzig.
In 1895, he established his own periodical, the Geographicsche Zeitschrift. He
moved to Heidelberg in 1899 where he spent the rest of his carrier from 1899 to
1928. He retired in 1928 from Heidelberg University. Apart from his journey to
South America, Hettner also travelled widely in Russia (1897), North Africa (1911)
and Asia (1913-14).
Writings of Hettner
During his long professional carrier, Hettner wrote a number of books and
articles in German language on various aspects of geography. His main works are as
follows :
1. Travel in the Columbian Andes (1888).
2. Geography of Russia (1905).
3. Regional Geography of Europe (1907).
4. England's World Domination and War (1915).
5 Surface Forms of the Continents (1921, and 1928).
6. Bases of Regional Geography (1924).
7. Geography: Its History, Character and Method (1927).
8. Spread of Cultureover the Earth (1928 and 1929)
9. Comparative Regional Geography (1933-35)
Hettner established at Leipzig in 1895 a geographical journal namely
Geographische Zeitschrift' and continued to edit until 1935. His methodological
essays were collected and published as a book in 1927 bearing the title Die
Geographie Ihr Geschchete lhr Wesen und lhr Methoden' (Geography: Its History,
Character and Method).
Ideas of Hettner
Hettner was a famous methodological geographer of his time. His main ideas
and concepts are given below:
() Geography as Chorology: Under the leadership of Alfred Hettner, the
revived concept of geography as chorology (science of areal differentiation) became
the guiding principle of geography in Germany and all over the English speaking
world after the publication of Hartshorne's Nature of Geography in 1939."As such.
Hettner rather than Richthofen has come to be remembered as the father figure in the
contemporary revival of the concept of geography as chorological science" (Dikshit.
 Geographical Thought
History of
168
from the time of ancient Greeks
Tracing the development of geography science of the earth's
2006, 74-75). emphasized that geography is chorological described as the study
and Romans, he out that geography may be properly between continents,
surface. Hettner pointed difference such as
earth's surface according to its localized to project geography as the
of the Thus, Hettner attempted
regions, districts and localities.
areal differentiations.
science of distributions and Geography : Hettner was not in the favour
and Human stressed that "The six
() Unity of Physical
geography versus human geography. He
man-must each
of dualism of physical world-land, water and air, plants, animals and
interconnections and causal
realms of the physical and in their spatial
own merits agent
be studied on their associated in area. It is true that man, as a primary
relations in so far as they are this is
dominant role in this study, but
the earth, will play a the
of change in transformingobjectives of the study. The essential concern is with
not the measure of the arrangement as associations in area" (Dickinson,
phenomena on the earth and their
pointed out that since the character of any region with the
1969, 117). He also incorporates not only physical but also human
development of human settlement
type of elements formed equally important components of
aspects and both
geographical study.
General and Special Geography : Hettner believed that geography was
(i) particular areas as well as the elements
concerned both with the unique character of
According to him, the deep study of
of similarity of universality between them. suitably presented by the
particular regions can be effectively made only when it is Similarly, the study
relevant general concepts, necessary to identify their uniqueness. raw materials for
provide
of areas as unique assemblage of different phenomena general or
general studies. Thus, he rejected the view that geography could be either
regional. To him, like other fields of learning, geography also must deal in both the
unique areas (regional geography) and with universals (general geography), but the
study of regions is the main field of geography. The regional studies should be made
with the outline of systematic geography.
(5) Albrecht Penk (1858-1945)
Albrecht Penk was a leading German geographer of the early decades of the
twentieth century. He' was born in Leipzig in 1858. Penk studied natural sciences at
the University of Leipzig, starting in 1875. In 1880 he went of Munich to work under
the geologist Karl Zitel, and he was employed at the University of Munich in 1883.
at the age of 25 years. After two years, he was invited to the Chair of physical
geography at the University of Vienna. He remained there for about twenty years and
established a well equipped geographical institute there. In 1906 Penk accepted the
Chair of geography at the University of Berlin where he retained the
twenty years and retired in 1926. During this period, he also headship for
Rector of the University in 1917-18. served for a year as
Penk followed the comparative method of field study
to locate and compare in practised by Humboldt :
respect to a particular problem. "His objective was
thoroughly geographical; his method to that end was
geological. From the operation
Post Classical German eography 169

of exogenesis processes and morphological forms one can often deduce evidences for
the development of crustal movements" (Dickinson, 1969, 102). His fundamental
work on the morphology of the earth's surface namely. The Morphologie der
Erdoberflache' was published in two volumes in 1894. It was the Albrecht Penk who
first used the term geomorphology. He distinguished the study from geodesy and
geophysics and used the tern geomorphology.
Albrecht Penk gave especial emphasis to the description of the forms of the
earth features (morphometry ) as well as to the processes of formation and to the
grouping of similar landforms into distinctive regions. His classification system was
based on fom not on process. As a geomorphologist he sought the origin of land
foms in genetic processes through time. He pointed out the correlation between
temperature and evaporation.
Anumber of geographers in Germany were trained under Penk or were strongly
influenced by his ideas and methodologies during the twenty years at Berlin, the later
half of his career. His pioneering ideas inspired many young geographers and
scientists to pursue research in the field of geomorphology and climatology.
(6) Otto Schluter (1872-1952)
Otto Schluter was born in 1872 in Westphalia (Germany). He began his
academic studies in German language and history in the University of Freiburg and
Halle. During 1895-1910 Schluter developed his conceptual framework of human
geography. From 1911to 1951 he was the director of the geographical institute in the
University of Halle where he carried out his major part of researches on the
geography of settlement in Central Europe. Schluter retired in 1951 as Professor
Emeritus. After retirement he prepared his basic work on the geography of setlement
in Central Europe which was published in three volumes. On the basis of this pioneer
work on human settlement, Otto Schluter is recognized as the Father of Settlement
Geography'.
At the University of Halle, Schluter was highly impressed by the lectures of
Kirchhof, the first professor of geography in that university. In 1895 he moved to
Berlin where under Richthofen's influence, he took keen interest on the scope and
method of human geography. During 1895-1910 Schlutter published his following
works:
(1) Remarks on the Geography of Settlement (1899),
(2) Habilitation Thesis on the Settlements of North Eastern Thuringia (1903),
(3) Objectives of the Geography of Man (1906),
(4) The Relation between Man and Nature in Anthropogeography (1907).
In 1911 Schluter was appointed as Head of the geography department at the
University of Halle in succession to Philipson, where he remained for the rest of his
life. Though he retired in 1938, he remained at the University until 195l as Emeritus
Professor. Schluter thus worked as professor of geography in Halle for forty years.
Living at Halle, Schluter prepared an atlas of Central Europe in the thirties. He
also prepared three volumes on the settled areas of Central Europe in early historical
170 History of Geographical Thoughr
modern
times which were published in 1952, 1953, and 1958. Schluter founded
cultural geography on a base comparable to that of geomorphology. Schluter's
concept of landschaf (landscape) like that of Hettner, is a geographical portion of the
earth's surface that stands out from its surroundings. According to R.D. Dikshit
(2006, 82), "The concept of landscape and the related methodological principles of
Schluter had been widely used by German geographers before the Second World
War." In fact, most geographers in Germany followed Schluter in identifying the
study of landschaft as the central task of geography.
(7) Other German Geographers
() Hermann Wagner (1840-1920) : Wagner was a well known German
physiologist. He got appointment at a gymnasium in Gotha to teach geography,
mathematics and natural history where he worked from 1864 to 1876. He was called
to a new chair at the State University of Konigsberg where he established an institute
from scratch on his own. He brought out fourth and fifth revised editions of Guthe's
Geography in 1877-79 and 1883 respectively. He also undertook the editorship of the
Geographcishes Jahrbuch in 1879. In 1880Wagner accepted the chair at Gottingen
and remained there until 1820.
(ii) George Gerland (1833-1919) : George Gerland was professor of geography
at Strasbourg University from 1875 until his retirement in 1910. He taught in school
for many years and was appointed to the new chair of geography at Strasbourg in
1875. Alfred Hettner took his doctorate under Gerland. According to Hettner,
Gerland was a great Polyhistor, but never became a geographer. His lectures were
collections of information and his excursions were eclectic. He granted the need for a
study of the physics of the earth.
(iüi) Theobald Fischer (1846-1910) : Fischer was a physical geographer. In
1876 he took his habilitation in geography at the University of Bonn. He moved to
Kiel in 1879 and lastly reached Marburg in 1883 where he remained until his death
in 1910. He started his studies in history and shifted to geography. He became a
recognized authority on the Mediterranean lands. His first work was on the physical
geography of Mediterranean region particularly of Sicily (1877). Fischer is best
known for his monumental work on the Geography of the Mediterranean lands that
was published in 1893, in the Kirchhoff series on Landerkunde von Europa.
(iv) Alfred Kirchhoff (1833-1907) : Alfred Kirchhoff was the first
professor of
geography in the Prussian Universities. He held this post for more than thirty
He laid special emphasis on Landerkunde. He wrote several years.
books that were
dedicated mainly to the needs of the school students. He gave many lectures outside
the university. He edited 14 volumes ofa German
the Military Academy of Berlin. He was calledjournal.
He worked as lecturer at
to hold the
established institute of geography at the University of Halle in 1873.chair
in a newly
He was also the
co-editor of a large regional geography of Europe published in 1886.
followed the conceptual framework of Richthofen, based on the natural Kirchhoff
(v) Alexander Supan (1847-1920) : sciences.
Alexander Supan is regarded as one of the
great self-mode geographers of late nineteenth
century. He himself regarded as a
 PostClassical German Geography 171

student of Kirchhoff. He was born in 1847 in the Pusterthal. After early school
education he studied literature and history at the University of Graz. He got his
doctorate in History in 1870. He became a teacher in an elementary school in
Laibach. Now he began to take interest in geography and wrote a book ongeograpny
in 1873 for school students. In 1876 he wrote an article on the content of geography
in which he opposed to the School of Ritter and sought to establish geography as a
'pure natural sciernce'. He went to Halle to study under Kirchhoff and also continued
his geographical studies. In 1881l he took his habilitation in geography.
He published his work on the thermal zones of the world in 1879 and 1880. His
book on physical geography was published in 1884. Now he became the editor of a
reputed periodical, namely Miteilungen. He also undertook the editorship of the
Statistische Johrhuch of Gotha. He accepted the chair at Breslau in 1910 at the age of
62. He wrote a new book on political geography that was published in 1918.
(vi) Siegfried Passarge (1866-1958) : Born in 1866 in Konigsberg, Siegfried
Passage was a contemporary of Alfred Hettner and a pupil of Richthofen. He entered
the University of Berlin in 1886 where Richthofen advised him to train in the natural
sciences as a preliminary to becoming a geologist. He moved to Jena and then to
Freiburg. He took his doctorate in geology in 1891 and in medicine in l892. On
government's invitation he went to Cameroon in 1895. "After attending the
International Geographical Congress in London 1895, he returned in 1896 to
Ngamiland in Africa to report to a British company on prospects of diamonds and
gold. From here he moved to Kalahari, where he became particularly interested in the
geology, landforms and animal life" (Dickinson, 1969, 138).
Passarge published a book on the Kalahari in 1904, and on this work he gained
his habilitation. In 1901-02 he visited Venezuela and travelled far into the interior. In
1905 he accepted the chair of geography at Breslau. His work on Algeria was
published in 1909 which was devoted to the geographical study of landscape. In 1908
he accepted a post in the Colonial Institute in Hamburg where he remained until his
retirement in 1936.
Passarge was strongly opposed to the Davisian approach to the study of land
forms. He sought to establish the hierarchy of physical units. He grasped the validity
and importance of major natural regions presented by Herbertson in 1905. Major
works of Passarge is given below;
1. The Kalahari (1904).
2. Physilogische Morphologie (1912),
3. Die Grundlagen der Landschaftkunde (3 Vols, 1919-20).
4. Vergleichende Landschaftkunde (Svols. 1921-30),
5. Stadt landschaften der Erde (1930).
6. Geographische Volkerkunde( 1934).
(vii) Alfred Philippson (1864-1955) : Philippson was trained under Richthofen
at Leipzig, and was strongly founded in geology. He collected both geological and
172 History of Geographical Thought
geographical data during his travel in Greece between 1887 and 1904. His first
major Landeskunde namely 'Peloponnes' was published in 1891-92. He became
Professor at Bonn University in 1911 from where he retired in 1929. His major work
on general geography in 3volumes was published in 1921, 1923 and 1924, and a
major work on Europe in 1928. His book on Mediterranean Region was published
in 1904.

(vii) Robert Gradmann (1865-1950) : Gradmann was basically a scientist

who came to geography through botany. He on the basis of botanical evidences,
developed a theory of the distribution of a steppe heath formation at the beginning of
the period of significant sedentary occupance in the Neolithic period. His two
volume work on South Germany entitled Sud-Deutschland published in 1931 is
regarded his greatest achievement. He also edited a German research series in
geography and made valuable contributions to it on the rural and urban settlements.
(ix) Hugo Hassinger (1877-1945) : Hassinger was one of the great geographers
in the fist half of twentieth century. He hold the chair of geography in Vienna
University. Allhis work was on Central Europe and was published in German. He
was bom in 1877 in Venna and studied geology, geography and history at the
University of Vienna. He took his habilitation in 1915 on the cultural geography of
the Moravian Gate area. Hassinger, throughout his academic life was dedicated to the
problems of human geography in Central Europe. He directed many regional studies
and himself continued work on the eastern part of Austria from the standpoint of
human occupance. He also paid much attention to the production of regional atlases
and in 1917 he published an excellent geographical portrayal of Mitteleuropa. His
other major work includes the Geographical Foundation of History, published in
1931.
(x) Alfred Ruhl (1882-1935): Alfred Ruhl was
professor of geography in the
University of Berlin. His major work is in the field of economic and social
geography. Born in 1882 in Konigsberg, he studied geography and natural science in
the universities of Konigsberg, Leipzig and Berlin. In 1914
Ruhl became the second
professor of geography in the University in Berlin alongside A. Penk. He published
his monograph on the foreign trade of German ports in
1920.
(xi) Hermann Lautensach (born in 1886):
in regional geography. He took his Lautensach was master of research
morphology of the Ticino. He became adoctorate
in 1910 with a work on glacial
teacher in 1911 at a gymnasium in Hanover
where he taught until 1927. He worked for his habilitation on the coastal
of Portugal (1928). Lautensach had
researched in fields of both physical morphology
and human
geography, and encouraged to this end by his pursuit of regional
devoted much thought to the theory andpractice of geography. He had
theory of regional geography which he first geography. He had developed a
(xii) Karl Troll (born in 1899) : Karl expounded full in 1951.
in
(Germany). He entered the University ef MunichTrollin 1919
was born in 1899 in Bavaria
sciences, botany and geography. He completed his and studied there natural
doctoral thesis inBotany in 1921.
Post Classical German
Geography 173
His first rescarch work on the glaciology of the
1924. In 1926 he published his monograph on Alpine
the
Foreland was published in
young
periphery of the German Alps. The field researches of Karlglacial gravels on the
morphology of the Bavarian Foreland of the Alps appeared aroundTroll1930.on the glacial
In May 1926 Troll
moved for
overseas research expedition and wenthisto first
the
tropical Andes where he remained for three
years and pursued both
morphological and
botanical studies. In September 1929 he
returned to Germany. He joined as professor of
colonial geography in the University of Berlin.
While Berlin he published a number of research
papers on the Andean areas, in which he dealt
with geomorphological, economic and cultural
matters. Most important among these papers
was that on the vegetation of the tropical Andes.
According to Dickinson (1969, 165), throughout
his life Troll has been deeply concerned with the
relations of vegetation to altitude and climate in
the mountains of the tropical Andes. Karl TrolI

Troll undertook research travel for one year (September 1933 to August 1934)
in East Africa from Eritrea to the Cape, where he examined conditions of climate,
vegetation and colonial settlement. In 1937, he visited Nanga Parvat in the
Himalayas as scientistwith aGerman mountaineering expedition led by K. Wein.
In 1937 Karl Troll became professor at Bonn University and continued to work
on problems of climatology. He retired from Bonn in 1966. One of Troll's great
achievements was the foundation of the periodical 'Erdkunde' in 1947 at Bonn.
2. GERMAN GEOGRAPHIC THOUGHTS
German geographers of nineteenth and early twentieth century such as
Humboldt, Ritter Ratzel, Richthofen, Hettner etc. are regarded as principal makers of
modern geography. Fundamental thoughts and concepts founded and developed by
German geographers are scientific geography, systematic geography, regional
geography, determinism, chorological science, landschaft (landscape), geopolitics,
location theories etc.
(1) Scientific Geography
Foundation of scientific geography was laid down by Reinhold Forster and his
son George Forster in eightenth century. They pioneered empirical explanation and
approach geography from a practical standpoint. Humboldt and Riter both adopted
empirical method in the geographical studies. Both scholars conceived geography as
an empirical science rather than one based on deduction from rational principles or a
priori theory. Explaining the geographical facts, Humboldt always used empirical
and inductive methods. His descriptions were based on observation, testing and
174

emphasized the importance of empirical method of

measurement of the facts. He collected, classified and interpreted data
research in geography. He himself, respect to their
and other physical aspects with
pertaining to plants, animals, rocks
origins and geographical distribution.
(2) Systematie Geography
Humboldt is regarded as the founder of systematic geography
Alexander von geognosia by him. He adopted
physical geography called
particularly systematic As a systematic science geography is
systematic approach in geographical studies.
Humboldt's great contribution is
concerned with topical studies of the earth's surface. interested in the systematic
systenmatic physical geography. Ritter was
in the field of importance of systematic studies of
studies of regional geography which implies the
individual features and phenomena.
(3) Regional Geography Regional
Germany is considered the place of beginning of regional geography.
of parts
geography in Germany was founded by Carl Ritter. It focuses on the study
(regions or segments) of the earth surface. The study of a geographical area as a
spatial unit (region) was the main theme of Ritter's geography which is best
illustrated in his books of Africa and Asia. He recognized major physical division of
each content on a deductive basis.
For further sub-division he arrived at district units demarcated by physical
features like mountain range, river, natural vegetation etc. Thus, Ritter was a great
pioneer of the regional approach in geography which he conceptualized as the study
of areas of the earth as organic units. A number of German geographers followed
Ritter and stressed on the regional geography including Otto Schluter, Theobald
Fischer, Alfred Kirchhoff, Siegfried Passarge, Robert Gradmann, Hugo Hassinger
and many others. In short, regional geography or Landerkunde has been the core of
German geographical work.
(4) Determinism or Environmental Determinism
Determinism or environmental determinism is one of the fundamental concepts
developed in Germany. The first volume of Ratzel's Anthropogeographie published
in 1882 was devoted to seek the causes of human phenomena in the natural
environment. This approach was based on Darwinian theory of evolution, which is
associated with the theme of survival of the fittest in aphysical environment. This
concept dictates that the physical environment played an active role not only in the
evolution of life forms but also in the cultural development of human groups. Ratzel
reckoned man as the end product of evolution.
(5) Chorological Science
Richthofen was the first who considered geography as a chorological science.
To him, it is concerned not only with registering the facts of
it attempts to explain the areal distribution of these the area that exist there,
introduction of causative and changing inter-relationships ofphenomena through the
the phenomena on every
single portion of the earth's surface. He pointed out that
geography is a science that is
Post Classical German Geography 175

distinguished by its chorological or spatial distributional perspective. Under the

leadership of Hettner in Gemany, this idea became the guiding principle of
geography. After the publication of Hartshorne's Nature of Geography (1939), this
idea of Hettner spread shortly all over the English speaking world. "As
such,
rather than Richthofen has come to be remembered as the father figureHettner, in the
contemporary revival of the concept of geography as a chorological science":
(Dikshit, 2006, 74-75). Hartshorne attenmpted to explain this concept in the form of
areal differentiation.
(6) Landschaft Geography
Landschaft is a major and most popular concept of German geography.
Landschaft is a German term which is used to denote both landscape and region.
"The term Landschaftsgeographie was coined by Passarge in 1913 but he was not
clear as to what this meant, especially vis-a-vis the concept of land. The German
word landschaft or landscape is a thousand year old. Geography has taken it over to
express a scientific concept. The geographers refers to a unit area as a landschaft or
region, when it has a distinctive physiognomy and a distinctive assembly of 'spatially
arranged things!. This has a physiognomic (formal) and a physiological (functional)
aspect "(Dickinson, 1969, 180).
The term Landschaft' had two distinct meanings in the German language: () a
distinct territory with a generally uniform aspect, and (i) the aspect of the earth as
seen in perspective (as in a photograph or painting). Interchangeable use of the term
Landschaft in both the sense by the landschaft geographers had led to a lot of
confusion. Lack of a clear definition as to the scope of geography as a landschaft
science became also the source of confusion.
Schluter's concept of Landschaftsgeographie implied that each small unit of
areal association constitutes a physiographic unit in which all the perceptible
phenomena together constitute distinct association. As far as cultural landscapes are
concerned, the association is rooted in similarities of function or common origin. The
concept of Landschaft and the related methodological principles of schluter had been
widely used by German geographers before the Second World War (Dikshit, 2006).
(7) Geopolitics
Geopolitics is related with the study of the influence of geographical factors on
political system particularly on international politics. Friedrich Ratzel is credited
with the introduction of the concept of geopolitics in the late nineteenth century.
Ratzel in his Politische Geographie (1897) described that state as an organism
attached to the land, which like other organisms in nature has to pass through a
development cycle. Like many natural organisms, the state also must grow or die
since they cannot standstill. According to R..D, Dikhit (2006), "Like other natural
organisms, states were conceptualized to be involved in an ongoing struggle for
survival. This struggle was manifested in the states' exertion to acquire larger and
larger territories as living spaces to support to their growing population". On the
basis of this idea there developed the concept of Lebensraum (living space) that
became very popular in Germany between the inter-war years.
176 History of Geographical Thought
It was the developing philosophy of Lebensraum (living space) which created
the controversy of superior and inferior races by claiming that the superior peoples
(nations) have a right to expand their territory (kingdom) - living space - at the
expense of inferior neighbours (Husain, M. 2002). Thus, a superior nation like
Germany, ruling over the inferior peoples fulfil a natural orgarnic necessity.
The concept of geopolitik developed in Germany by Karl Hausofer in the 1920s
was primarily based on the ideas of Swedish political scientist Rodolf Kjellen and
German geographer Ratzel. The ideas of Hausofer were used frequently by Nazi
Government during Second World War.
(8) Location Theories
Some location theories and models were postulated in Germany by economists
and economic geographers, during nineteenth and early twentieth century related
with the location of agriculture, settlements and manufacturing industries. Most
important of these are as under:
() Von Thunen's Agricultural Location Theory : This theory was postulated
by Von Thunen (1783-1850), a German economist in early nineteenth century.
According to this theory (model) various concentric belts (zones) of agricultural land
use develop around a town or city.
(ii) Christaller's Central Place Theory : German economist and economic
geographer Walter Christaller (1893-1940) introduced his Central Place Theory in
1933, studying the central places in southern Germany. In this theory he has
systematically analysed the size, spacing, hierarchy, size and shape of tributary areas.
etc. This theory was later revised by Losch and many other scholars.
(iii) Weber's Industrial Location Theory : Alfred Weber had
formulated his
industrial location theory in 1909. According to him, transport cost is the
factor determining optimum location of an industry. Optimum major
industry is the point where the costs of the transport of raw materialslocation for an
to the factory
and of supplying goods to the market are at their lowest.
3. BRANCHES OF
GEOGRAPHY DEVELOPED BY
GERMAN GEOGRAPHERS
The branches of geography developed by German
and twentieth centuries include physical geographers in nineteenth
geography, human geography, political
geography, settlement geography and regional geography. A brief
sub-fields of geography is given here. account of these
(1) PhysicalGeography
A number of German geographers including Oscar
Albrecht Penk, Walther Penk, Hettner etc. made Peschel, Richthofen.
valuable
development of physical geography. Peschel (1826-1875) contribution in the
geography in Germany as science and laid the foundation establisthed
of
physical
geography. He discovered distributions of landforms, modern physical
explained the origin of specific landforms. classified them and then
Post Classical German Geography 177

Richthofen's most valuable contribution is in physical geography. He was an

eminent geologist and his keen interest was in the study of geological structure and
the origins of landforms. In his book on Central Asia, he described the structure of
mountains and their influence on the movement of people. He recognized the Ioess
deposits of northem China as wind blown dust from the steppe region. Alfred Hettner
had completed his work on the geomorphology of the Saxony highlands.
Albrecht Penk's fundamental and first of its kind work was on the morphology
of the earth's surface that was published in two volumes in 1894. He was the first
who used the term 'geomophology. He gave special emphasis to the description of
the forms of the earth's surface as well to the process of formation and to the
grouping of similar landforms into distinctive regions. After Second World War,
physical geography, especially geomorphology became an essential area of study in
all geographical institutes in Germany.
(2) Human Geography
Friedrich Ratzel was the first German scholar who attempted to develop human
geography as an independent scientific discipline. He has been the greatest single
contributor to the development of the geography of man. Anthropogeographie is
Ratzel's classical book on human geography which was published in 2 volumes, first
volume in 1882 and second volume in 1891. He was the first geographer who
provided a framework for a systematic study of human geography. Ratzel published
his Volkerkunde (The History of Mankind) in three volumes in 1885, 1886 and 1888.
He was the first geographer to clearly formulate the concept of cultural landscape,
which he often referred to as historical landscape. Schulter also took keen interest on
the scope and method of human geography.
(3) Political Geography
Ratzel published his Political Geography in two volumes in 1897 and 1903 and
introduced his 'organic theory of states' He emphasized the fact that a state like
simple organism, must either grow or die and can never stand still. For this reason
Ratzel is regarded as founder of political geography in Germany. Supan's famous
book Guiding Principles of General Political Geography' was published in 1922.
Supan published many articles related to political geography. The concept of
geopolitik developed in Germany by Karl Hausofer in the 1920s was frequently used
by Nazi Party in Second World War.
(4) Settlement Geography
Schluter made significant contribution in the development of settlement
geography in Germany. He was Director of the Geographical Institute in the
University of Halle from 191| to 1951 where he carried out his major part of
researches on the geography of settlement in Central Europe. He presented 'Remarks
on the Geography of Settlement in 1899, and his habilitation on the Settlement of
North-Eastern Thuringia in 1903. The Geography of Settlement in Central Europe
which was prepared by Schluter was published in three volumes after his death in
1952, 1953, and 1958. On the basis of these pioneer works, schluter is recognized as
the father of settlement geography'.
178 History of Geographical Thought

(5) Regional Geography

Carl Ritter was pioneer geographer who attempted to develop regional
geography inGermany in nineteenth century. His early geographical works were two
volumes on Europe which appeared in 1804 and 1807. Riter's most important and
reputed works which were published in 19 volumes in Erdkunde from 1817 to l859
were basically regional studies. Various volumes of Erdkunde were deputed to
different parts of Africa and Asia continents. Through these volumes Ritter had
succeeded in laying afirm foundation for writing of anew style regional geography
presenting a complete picture of the area under study.
Richthofen's five volumes on geography of China were published from 1877 to
1912. First three volumes were devoted to Central, North and South China
respectively and were published in his time. Last two volumes were published after
his death. Hettner wrote many books and articles on regional geography, important of
them are Geography of Russia (1905), Regional Geography of Europe (1907), Bases
of Regional Geography (1924) and Comparative Regional Geography (1933-35). In
the development of regional geography in Germany, contribution of Siegfried
Passarge (South America, Cameroon, Togo), Philipson (Asia Miner, Mediterranean
region), Hassinger (Austria), Seper (South and Central America), Lautensach (Korea
and Portugal), Tukermen (Netherlands) are of much importance.
REFERENCES
Dickinson, R.E. (1969) : The Makers of Modern Geography, Routledge & Kegan Paul,
London.
Dikshit, R.D. (2006): Geographical Thought :A Contextual History of ldeas, Prentice
Hell of India, New Delhi.
Hartshorne, R. (1939) : Nature of Geography, Association of American Geographers,
Lancaster (PA).
Husain, M. (2002) : Evolution of Geographical Thought, Rawat Publications, Jaipur and
New Delhi.
James P.E. and Martin, (1981) : AllPossible World : AHistory of
The Odessy Press, Indianapolis. Geographical ldeas,
Livingstone, D.N.(1992): The Geographical Tradition, Basil Backwell, Oxford.
Ratzel F. (1882) Anthropogeographie, Vol, I,
Ratzel F.(1891) Anthropogeographie, Vol, II,J.Engethorn Stuttgart.
Ratzel F. (1897) Politische Geographie, R. J.Engethorn Stuttgart.
Oldenburg, Berlin.