Lesson 7

ANGULAR MODULATION

 A modulation technique wherein the amplitude of the carrier is kept

constant while the angle or the argument of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the intelligence signal.

Kinds of Angular Modulation

 Frequency Modulation
 Phase Modulation

7.1 Frequency Modulation

 a form of angle modulation where the frequency of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the intelligence signal.

(a) Carrier Signal (b) Modulating Signal (c) FM Signal

114
 Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

Mathematically,

eFM  E c sin 

Where,

  c t  mf sin mt

which gives an FM equation of

eFM  E c sin c t  mf sin mt 

Where:

eFM = instantaneous value of the FM signal, (V)

c = angular velocity of the carrier, (rad/s)

m = angular velocity of the intelligence, (rad/s)

mf = modulation index
Ec = peak amplitude of the carrier, (V)

Frequency Deviation
 the amount of change in the carrier frequency produced by the
modulating signal.
f f 

115
Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

 is directly proportional to the peak intelligence amplitude

  kE m

Where:
 = frequency deviation (Hz)
k = deviation sensitivity (Hz/V)
Em = peak intelligence signal amplitude (V)

 In FM, the intelligence amplitude, Em, determines the amount of carrier

frequency change while the intelligence frequency, fm, determines the rate of
change of the carrier frequency.

Modulation Index

 Ratio of the frequency deviation over modulating frequency.


mf 
fm

Where:
 = maximum frequency shift caused by the intelligence signal, (Hz)
fm = intelligence frequency, (fm)
mf = modulation index

FM Percent Modulation
 actual
%m f  x 100
 max
Where:
max = maximum carrier deviation, (Hz)
actual = actual carrier deviation, (Hz)
%mf = FM percent modulation

116
 Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

Deviation Ratio
 Whenever the maximum allowable frequency deviation and the maximum
modulating frequency are used in computing the modulation index.
 Expression of the worst case modulation index.

 max
DR 
f m max

Where:
max = maximum carrier deviation, (Hz)
fmmax = maximum allowable intelligence frequency, (Hz)
DR = deviation ratio

FCC Rules

FM max = 75 kHz
fm(max) = 15 kHz

TV Sound max = 25 kHz

fm(max) = 15 kHz

Public Safety Services max = 5 kHz

fm(max) = 3 kHz

Amateur Band Radio max = 3 kHz

fm(max) = 3 kHz

eFM can be rewritten using Bessel function

eFM = Ec  J n mF  sin C t  nmt 



n  

eFM  E c J 0 mf  sin c t  J 1 mf sin c  m t  sin c  m t 

117
Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

 J 2 mf sin c  2 m t  sin c  2 m t 

 J 3 mf sin c  3 m t  sin c  3 m t 
 ....  J N mf sin c  Nm t  sin c  Nm t 

Where:

J0 (mF) = carrier component

J1 (mF) = 1st set of side frequencies displaced from the carrier by fm.
J2 (mf) = 2nd set of side frequencies displaced from the carrier by 2fm.
JN (mf) = nth set of side frequencies displaced from the carrier by nfm.

 The amplitude of the side frequencies, Jn, is given by the equation:

 m F   1 m F / 2  mF / 2  mF / 2 
n 2 4 6

j n m F          .... 
 2   n 1! n  1 ! 2 ! n  2 ! 3 ! n  1 ! 

 It is seen that the FM signal consists of a carrier and theoretically an

infinite number of pairs of sidebands, each preceded by J coefficients, but
only those sidebands with significant amplitudes are transmitted.

FM Spectrum

118
 Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

Bessel Function Table

Bandwidth of FM
 Practical Bandwidth using Bessel Functions
BW  f USB  f LSB  f c  Nf m   f c  Nf m 
BW  2 f m  Number of Sidebands

 Carson’s Formula

BW  2(f m   )  2 ( 1  mF ) f m

 The number of sidebands selected should be the minimum number

that will result in the transmission of no less than 98% of the total
power.
 Significant sidebands considered are greater than 2% of the
carrier.

 Narrowband
BW  2 f m

119
Lesson 7 Angular Modulation


 For an FM signal where mf 
2

 Wideband
BW  2 

 For an FM signal where mf 
2

Observations on FM
 Unlike AM, where there are only three frequencies (the carrier, and the
first two sidebands), FM has an infinite number of sidebands, as well as
the carrier. They are separated from the carrier by fm, 2fm, 3fm… and thus
have a recurrence frequency of fm.
 The J coefficients eventually decrease in value as n increases.
 The modulation index determines how many sideband components have
significant amplitudes.
 The sidebands at equal distances from fC have equal amplitudes, so that
the sideband distribution is symmetrical about the carrier frequency. The
J coefficients occasionally have negative values, signifying a 180 O phase
change for that particular pair of sidebands.
 As mF increases, so does the value of a particular J coefficient. mF is
inversely proportional to the modulating frequency, we see that the
relative amplitude of distant sidebands increases when the modulation
frequency is lowered.
 In AM, increased depth of modulation increases the sideband power and
therefore the total transmitted power. In FM, the total transmitted power
always remains constant, but with increased depth of modulation the
required bandwidth is increased. To be quite specific, what increases is
the bandwidth required to transmit a relatively undistorted signal. This is
true because increase depth of modulation means increased deviation,

120
 Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

and therefore an increased modulation index. So that more distant

sidebands acquire significant amplitudes.
 The theoretical bandwidth required in FM is infinite. In practice, the
bandwidth used is one that has been calculated to allow for all significant
amplitudes of sideband components under the most exacting conditions.
This really means ensuring that, with maximum deviation by the highest
modulating frequency, no significant sideband components are lopped off.
 In FM, unlike in AM, the amplitude of the carrier component does not
remain constant. Its J coefficient is J0, which is a function of mF. Keeping
the overall amplitude of the FM wave constant would be very difficult if
the amplitude of the carrier were not reduced when the amplitude of the
various sidebands increased.
 It is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave to disappear
completely. This happens for certain values of the modulation index,
called eigen values. The graph shows that these are approximately 2.4,
5.5, 8.6, 11.8, and so on. These disappearances of the carrier for specific
values of mF form a handy basis for measuring deviation.

Advantages of FM over AM
 better noise immunity
 rejection of interfering signals because of “capture effect”
 better transmitter efficiency

Disadvantages of FM over AM
 large bandwidth
 more complex and expensive circuits
 reception is limited

121
Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

FM Varactor Modulator
+V

R1

C3 RFC C2 Vo
AF Amp
R2

L1
C1
VD

FM Receiver Circuit

Pre-Emphasis Circuit

 circuit that boosts the high audio frequencies in modulation at the

transmitter, used to improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

R1

Audio in Audio out

C R2

122
 Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

  R1C  75 s

1 1  R1  R 2 
f1   2122 Hz f2     15 kHz
2 R1C 2  R1R 2 C 

De-Emphasis Circuit

 circuit that attenuates the high audio frequencies (at the receiver) by the
same amount that they were boosted to compensate for the effect of the
pre-emphasis.

R
Pre-emphasized
Audio out
Audio

  RC  75 s

1
f   2122 Hz
2 RC

7.2 Phase Modulation

 a form of angle modulation where the phase of the carrier is varied in

accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.

PHASE ePM
em
MODULATOR

ec

123
Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

(a) Carrier Signal (b) Modulating Signal (c) FM Signal (d) PM Signal

Mathematically,
e PM  E c sin c t  mP sin m t 

where
ePM = instantaneous value of the PM signal, (V)
Ec = peak amplitude of the carrier, (V)
c = carrier angular velocity, (rad/s)
mp = modulation index for PM, also, the maximum phase shift caused
by the intelligence signal
m = intelligence signal angular velocity, (rad/s)

124
 Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

Comparison between FM and PM

Relationship between modulation index, frequency deviation, and phase

deviation in respect to modulations signal amplitude and frequency

125
Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

7.3 Practice Problems

1) Determine the peak frequency deviation and modulation index for a

frequency modulator with a deviation sensitivity of 10 kHz/V and a
modulating signal of 5cos(2(2500)t).
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

2) An FM signal is defined by the equation

eFM  50 sin 95  10 6 t  10 sin 5000 t  V.
a. Find the carrier frequency.
b. Find the modulation frequency.
c. Find the modulation index.
d. Calculate the frequency deviation
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

3) What is the modulation index of an FM transmitter whose frequency

deviation is 50 kHz while its audio frequency is 10 kHz?

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

126
 Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

4) Determine the practical bandwidth of an FM signal modulated by a 15-kHz

tone whose frequency deviation is 45 kHz. What is the approximate
bandwidth for this system using Carson’s formula?
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

5) When the modulating frequency in an FM system is 500 Hz and the

modulating voltage is 2.6 V, the modulation index is 40. Find the
maximum deviation. What is the modulation index when the modulating
frequency is raised to 800 Hz and the modulating voltage is
simultaneously reduced to 1.3 V?
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

6) What is the approximate frequency of the modulating signal having a

bandwidth of 15 kHz and a frequency deviation of 6 kHz?
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

7) What is the deviation ratio of an FM signal if the maximum allowable

deviation is 12 kHz and the maximum intelligence frequency is 4 kHz?
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

127
Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

8) The audio section of a TV transmission employs frequency modulation

with a maximum allowable deviation of 25 kHz. Find the deviation ratio if
the highest intelligence frequency it can handle is 15 kHz.
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

9) An FM broadcast station operates with a peak-to-peak deviation of 120

kHz. Calculate the percentage modulation.
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

10)What is the amount of carrier swing necessary to produce an 80%

modulation for FM broadcasting?
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

11)A modulating frequency range from 30 Hz to 15 kHz is permitted in an FM

system together with a maximum deviation of 50 kHz. What will be the
minimum and maximum possible values of the modulation index?

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

12)What is the BW required for an FM signal in which the modulating

frequency is 2 kHz and the maximum deviation is 10 kHz? 8 pairs of
sidebands are included.

128
 Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

13)For a modulation index of 1.5, find the power at the sidebands if the total
power dissipated is 20 kW.

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

14)In an FM system, when the audio frequency is 500 Hz and the AF voltage
is 2.4 V, the deviation is 4.8 kHz. If the AF voltage is now increased to
7.2 V, what is the new deviation? If the AF is dropped to 200 Hz and AF
voltage is raised to 10 V what is the new deviation? Find the modulation
index in each case.
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

15)A frequency modulated signal which is modulated by a 3-kHz sine wave

reaches a maximum frequency of 100.02 MHz and minimum frequency of
99.98MHz. (a) Determine the carrier swing, (b) Find the carrier
frequency, (c) Calculate the frequency deviation of the signal, (d) What is
the modulation index of the signal.
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

129
Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

7.4 Multiple Choice Questions

1) On an FM signal, maximum deviation occurs at what point on the
modulating signal?
a. positive peak amplitude
b. negative peak amplitude
c. both positive and negative peak amplitude
d. none of the above
2) In PM, a frequency shift occurs while what characteristic of the
modulating signal is changing?
a. Amplitude
b. Frequency
c. Phase angle
d. Angle
3) Maximum frequency deviation of a PM signal occurs at
a. positive peak points
b. negative peak points
c. Zero crossing points
d. none of the above
4) In PM, carrier frequency deviation is not proportional to:
a. carrier amplitude
b. carrier frequency
c. carrier amplitude and frequency
d. intelligence amplitude
5) To compensate for increases in carrier frequency deviation with an
increase in modulating signal frequency, what circuit is used between the
modulating signal and the phase modulator?
a. Low-pass filter
b. High-pass filter
c. Band-stop filter
d. Band-pass filter

130
 Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

6) The FM produced by PM is called

a. direct FM
b. indirect FM
c. direct PM
d. indirect AM
7) If the amplitude of the modulating signal applied to a phase modulator is
constant, the output signal will be
a. the modulating frequency
b. the carrier frequency
c. the intelligence amplitude
d. the carrier amplitude
8) A 100MHz carrier is deviated 50kHz by a 4kHz signal. The modulation
index is
a. 250
b. 0.08
c. 2
d. 12.5
9) The maximum deviation of an FM carrier is 2 kHz by a maximum
modulating signal of 400 Hz. The deviation ratio is
a. 5
b. 0.2
c. 800
d. none of the above
10) A 70 kHz carrier has a frequency deviation of 4kHz with a 1000Hz signal.
How many significant sideband pairs are produced?
a. 17.5
b. 0.25
c. 7
d. None of the above

131
Lesson 7 Angular Modulation

5. The instantaneous value of the modulating signal to an FM modulator is 2V,

sensitivity of 25kHz/V and operating at a carrier frequency of 88MHz. Determine
the output frequency of the modulator.
6. Suppose the total power of an FM signal is 7W. What is the power of the
second sideband if the modulation index is 3?
7. The maximum instantaneous frequency of the modulated signal is 95.05MHz.
If a 5kHz signal modulates a 95MHz carrier, calculate the modulation index of the
signal.
8. Calculate the frequency deviation of an FM modulator that has a deviation
sensitivity of 20kHz/V and operates at a carrier frequency of 99.1 MHz modulated
by a 2.5Vrms sinewave.

132