UNIT III

LESSON

6
INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING

CONTENTS
6.0 Aims and Objectives

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Types of Learning

6.3 Theories of Learning

6.3.1 Classical Conditioning

6.3.2 Operant Conditioning

6.3.3 Cognitive Learning Theory

6.3.4 Social Learning

6.3.5 Reinforcement, Punishment and Extinction

6.4 Learning Curves

6.5 Linkage of Learning with Training and Learning Organisation

6.6 Let us Sum up

6.7 Lesson End Activity

6.8 Keywords

6.9 Questions for Discussion

6.10 Suggested Readings

6.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
 Define learning, reinforcement, punishment and extinction
 Explain theories of learning
 Describe various learning curves
 Discuss linkage of learning with training and learning organisation.
78
Methodology of 6.1 INTRODUCTION
Training and Development
Learning as used here, refers to concerted activity that increases the capacity and
willingness of individuals, groups, organizations and communities to acquire and
productively apply new knowledge and skills, to grow and mature and to adapt successfully
to changes and challenges. Such learning empowers individuals and organizations to
make wise choices, solve problems and break new ground. In particular, it is sustainable,
it is a lifelong, renewable process for people and for the institutions that serves people.
Learning certainly includes academic studies and occupational training through high school
and beyond. But it also encompasses the physical, cognitive, emotional and social
development of children in the earliest years of their lives.
It includes the capacity of organizations to anticipate and adapt to evolving values,
technologies, performance standards and constituent expectations. And it includes the
capacity of geographic communities and communities of common interest to respond
with understanding and initiative to broad changes that represent threats or opportunities.

6.2 TYPES OF LEARNING

1. Perceptual learning: ability to learn to recognize stimuli that have been seen
before
 Primary function is to identify and categorize objects and situations
 Changes within the sensory systems of the brain
2. Stimulus-response learning: ability to learn to perform a particular behavior when
a certain stimulus is present:
 Establishment of connections between sensory systems and motor systems
 Classical conditioning: association between two stimuli:
 Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Unconditioned Response (UR),
Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Conditioned Response (CR)
 Hebb rule - if a synapse repeatedly becomes active at about the same
time that the postsynaptic neuron fires, changes will take place in the
structure or chemistry of the synapse that will strengthen it
 Rabbit experiment - tone paired with puff of air
 Instrumental conditioning: association between a response and a stimulus;
allows an organism to adjust its behavior according to the consequences of
that behavior:
 Reinforcement: positive and negative
 Punishment
3. Motor learning: establishment of changes within the motor system
4. Relational learning: involves connections between different areas of the
association cortex
5. Spatial learning: involves learning about the relations among many stimuli
6. Episodic learning: remembering sequences of events that we witness
7. Observational learning: learning by watching and imitation other people
 79
6.3 THEORIES OF LEARNING Introduction to Learning

A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping
us understand the inherently complex process of learning.
There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories
fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the
objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to
explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which
the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.
It is also important to take account of informal learning theories, and to consider the
philosophical anthropology implied by any theory.

6.3.1 Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is one of the simplest forms of learning, yet it has a powerful
effect on our attitudes, likes and dislikes, and emotional responses. We have all learned
to respond in specific ways to a variety of words and symbols. Our lives are profoundly
influenced by associations we learn through classical conditioning. Ivan Pavlov's research
on the conditioned reflex in dogs revealed much of what we know about the principles of
classical conditioning.
Classical Conditioning of Pavlov: Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936) organized and directed
research in physiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg, Russia
from 1891 until his death in 1936. His book "Conditioned Reflexes" is one of the classic
works in psychology.
Classical conditioning is modifying behaviour so that a conditioned stimulus is paired with
an unconditioned stimulus and elicits an unconditioned behaviour. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian
psychologist developed classical conditioning theory based on his experiments to teach a
dog to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. When Pavlov presented meat
(unconditioned stimulus) to the dog, he noticed a great deal of salivation (conditioned
response). But, when merely bell was rung, no salivation was noticed in the dog. What
Pavlov did next was to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. He did this several times.
Afterwards, he merely rang the bell without presenting the meat. Now, the dog began to
salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the
sound of the bell, even if no meat were presented. In effect, the dog had learned to
respond, i.e., to salivate at the sound of bell, since it was conditioned to link the sound of
the bell with the offering of meat.

Unconditional Unconditional
MEAT
Stimulus Response

Conditional
BELL Stimulus
Response

MEAT Unconditional
Stimulus

Conditional
Conditional
BELL Response
Stimulus

Source: Ricky W Griffin and Gregory Moorhead " Organizational Behaviour", Hougton Mifflin (1986) page 106

Figure 6.1: Classical Conditioning Theory

80 Classical conditioning introduces a simple cause-and-effect relationship between one
Methodology of
Training and Development stimulus and response. It also makes the response reflective or involuntary after the
stimulus-response relationship has been established. This leaves no ground for making
choices, which factor differentiates human beings from dogs. Under certain situations,
classical conditioning does explain human behaviour. For example, if a student is always
reprimanded by his Principal when he is summoned to the principal's office, he may
become nervous whenever asked to come to the principal's office because of this
association.
The Elements and Processes in Classical Conditioning:
Reflex: A reflex is an involuntary response to a particular stimulus. There are two kinds
of reflexes:
(i) Conditioned Reflex: This is a "learned" reflex rather than a naturally occurring
one.
(ii) Unconditioned Reflex: This is a "unlearned" reflex. Example, salivation in response
to food. Unconditioned reflexes are built into the nervous systems of most
vertebrates.
The Conditioned and Unconditioned Stimulus and Response: Pavlov continued to investigate
the circumstances under which a conditioned reflex is formed. Dogs do not need to be
conditioned to salivate to food, so salivation of food is an unlearned or unconditioned
response (UR). Any stimulus (such as food) that without learning will automatically elicit
(bring forth) an unconditioned response is called an unconditioned stimulus (US).

6.3.2 Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People
learn to behave to get something they want or avoid something they don't want. Operant
behaviour means voluntary or learned behaviour in contrast to reflexive or unlearned
behaviour. The tendency to repeat such behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or
lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour. Reinforcement
therefore strengthens behaviour and increases the likelihood that it will be repeated.
What Pavlov did for classical conditioning, the Harvard psychologist B.F Skinner did for
operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning induces a voluntary change in behaviour and learning occurs as a
"consequence" of such change. It is also known as reinforcement theory and it suggests
that behaviour is a function of its consequences. It is based upon the premise that behaviour
or job performance is not a function of inner thoughts, feelings, emotions or perceptions
but is keyed to the nature of the outcome of such behaviour. The consequences of a
given behaviour would determine whether the same behaviour is likely to occur in future
or not. Based upon this direct relationship between the consequences and behaviour, the
management can study and identify this relationship and try to modify and control behaviour.
Thus, the behaviour can be controlled by manipulating its consequences. This relationship
is built around two principles:
 The behaviour that results in positive rewards tends to be repeated and behaviour
with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
 Based upon such consequences, the behaviour can be predicted and controlled.
Hence, certain types of consequences can be used to increase the occurrence of a
desired behaviour and other types of consequences can be used to decrease the
occurrence of undesired behaviour. The consequences of behaviour are used to influence,
or shape behaviour through three strategies: reinforcement, punishment and extinction. 81
Introduction to Learning
Thus, operant conditioning is the process of modifying behaviour through the use of
positive or negative consequences following specific behaviours.
From an organizational point of view, any stimulus from the work environment will elicit
a response. The consequence of such a response will determine the nature of the future
response. For example, working hard and getting the promotion will probably cause the
person to keep working hard in the future.

Check Your Progress 1

Fill in the blanks:

1. ........................... involves connections between different areas of the
association cortex.
2. A ........................... is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn,
thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning.
3. ........................... argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences.

6.3.3 Cognitive Learning Theory

Behaviourists such as Skinner and Watson believed that learning through operant and
classical conditioning would be explained without reference to internal mental processes.
Today, however, a growing number of psychologists stress the role of mental processes.
They choose to broaden the study of learning to include such cognitive processes as
thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering and forming mental representations.
According to cognitive theorists, these processes are critically important in a more
complete, more comprehensive view of learning.
1. Wolfang Kohler (1887-1967): Learning by insight: A German Psychologist studied
anthropoid apes and became convinced that they behave intelligently and were
capable of problem solving. In his book 'The Mentality of Apes' (1925), Kohler
describes experiments he conducted on chimpanzees confined in caged areas.
In one experiment, Kohler hung a bunch of bananas inside the caged area but
overhead, out of reach of the apes, boxes and sticks were left around the cage.
Kohler observed the chimp's unsuccessful attempts to reach the bananas by jumping
or swinging sticks at them. Eventually, the chimps solved the problem by piling the
boxes one on top of the other until they could reach the bananas.
In another experiment, Sultan, the brightest of the chimps, was given one short
stick; beyond reach outside the cage were a longer stick and a bunch of bananas.
After failing to reach the bananas with the short stick, Sultan used it to drag the
longer stick within reach. Then, finding that the long stick did not reach the bananas,
Sultan finally solved the problem by fitting the two sticks together to form one long
stick. With this stick, he successfully retrieved the bananas.
Kohler observed that the chimps sometimes appeared to give up in their attempts
to get the bananas. However, after an interval they returned and came up with the
solution to the problem as if it had come to them in a flash of insight. Kohler insisted
that insight, rather than trial-and-error learning, accounted for the chimps successes
because they could easily repeat the solution and transfer this learning to similar
problems.
82 Learning by insight occurs when there is a sudden realization of the relationship
Methodology of
Training and Development
between elements in a problem situation so that a solution becomes apparent.
Kohler's major contribution is his notion of learning by insight. In human terms, a
solution gained through insight is more easily learned, less likely to be forgotten,
and more readily transferred to new problems than a solution learned through rote
memorization.
2. Edward Tolman (1886 - 1959): Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps: Edward
Tolman differed with the prevailing ideas on learning:
(i) He believed that learning could take place without reinforcing.
(ii) He differentiated between learning and performance. He maintained that
latent learning could occur, i.e., learning could occur without apparent
reinforcement but not be demonstrated until the organism was motivated to
do so.
The following experiment by Tolman and Honzik (1930) supported this position.
The experiment consisted of three groups of rats that were placed in a maze daily
for 17 days. The first group always received a food reward at the end of the maze.
The second group never received a reward, and the third group did not receive a
food reward until the 11th day. The first group showed a steady improvement in
performance over the 17-day period. The second group showed gradual
improvement. The third group, after being rewarded on the 11th day showed a
marked improvement the next day and from then on outperformed the rats that had
been rewarded daily. The rapid improvement of the third group indicated to Tolman
that latent learning had occurred – that the rats had actually learned the maze
during the first 11 days.
In later studies, Tolman showed how rats quickly learned to rearrange learned
cognitive maps and find their way through increasingly complex mazes with ease.

6.3.4 Social Learning

Albert Bandura contends that many behaviours or responses are acquired through
observational learning. Observational learning, sometimes called modelling results when
we observe the behaviours of others and note the consequences of that behaviour. The
person who demonstrates the behaviour or whose behaviour is imitated is called a role
model. Parents, movie stars and sports personalities are often powerful models. The
effectiveness of a model is related to his or her status, competence and power. Other
important factors are the age, sex, attractiveness, and ethnicity of the model. Whether
learned behaviours are actually performed depends largely on whether the person expects
to be rewarded for the behaviour.
Social learning integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to learning. It recognizes
that learning does not take place only because of environmental stimuli (classical and
operant conditioning) or of individual determinism (cognitive approach) but is a blend of
both views. It also emphasizes that people acquire new behaviours by observing or
imitating others in a social setting. In addition, learning can also be gained by discipline
and self-control and an inner desire to acquire knowledge or skills irrespective of the
external rewards or consequences. This process of self-control is also partially a reflection
of societal and cultural influences on the development and growth of human beings.

6.3.5 Reinforcement, Punishment and Extinction

Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive
(delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response). This
creates a total of four basic consequences, with the addition of a fifth procedure known
as extinction (i.e. no change in consequences following a response).
It's important to note that organisms are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished, or 83
Introduction to Learning
extinguished; it is the response that is reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Additionally,
reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the
laboratory. Naturally occurring consequences can also be said to reinforce, punish, or
extinguish behavior and are not always delivered by people.
 Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater
frequency.
 Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency.
 Extinction is the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a behavior
is inconsequential, producing neither favorable nor unfavorable consequences, it
will occur with less frequency.
Four contexts of operant conditioning: Here the terms "positive" and "negative" are not
used in their popular sense, but rather: "positive" refers to addition, and "negative" refers
to subtraction. What is added or subtracted may be either reinforcement or punishment.
Hence positive punishment is sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes the addition of
punishment (such as spanking or an electric shock), a context that may seem very negative
in the lay sense. The four procedures are:
1. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a
favorable stimulus (commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of
that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar
solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing
a lever.
2. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the
removal of an aversive stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing
that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement
can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in
the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.
3. Positive punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs
when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as introducing
a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
4. Negative punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs
when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus,
such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a
decrease in that behavior.

Check Your Progress 2

State whether the following statements are true or false:

1. Classical conditioning is modifying behaviour so that a conditioned stimulus is
paired with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits an unconditioned behaviour.
2. Operant behaviour means voluntary or learned behaviour in contrast to
reflexive or unlearned behaviour.
3. Behaviorists such as Skinner and Watson believed that learning through operant
and classical conditioning would be explained without reference to internal
mental processes.
4. Social learning integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to learning.
84
Methodology of 6.4 LEARNING CURVES
Training and Development
The term learning curve refers to a relationship between the duration of learning or
experience and the resulting progress. It is a graph that depicts rate of learning, especially
a graph of progress in the mastery of a skill against the time required for such mastery.
In the immediate context of learning, "steep learning curve" is used in two opposite
contexts. Originally it referred to quick progress in learning during the initial stages followed
by gradually lesser improvements with further practice.
Another specific context of the term "learning curve" involves the effort required to
acquire a new skill (e.g., expertise with a new tool) over a specific period of time. In this
context, expressions such as "fast learning curve", "short learning curve", and "steep
learning curve" are used. In this sense, "steep learning curve" represents the need to
make significant progress in the initial stages so that a person may start using the new
skill with reasonable efficiency, a need often associated with increased efforts in learning.
Conversely, the expressions gradual or flat learning curve imply that the acquisition of a
skill may be gradual, so that a reasonable use of the new skill is possible at early stages
with a relatively light amount of training.
The concept of the learning curve was introduced by the 19th-century German psychologist
Hermann Ebbinghaus in his study of the efficiency of memorization. Ebbinghaus tested
his long-term memory by attempting to memorize a series of nonsense syllables. He
found that the more he repeated the series, the more of it he could remember, until finally
he could recall the whole list.
It is a cliché today to refer to a "steep learning curve" to indicate that something is
difficult to learn. In practice, a curve of the amount learned against the number of trials
(in experiments) or over time (in reality) is just the opposite: if something is difficult, the
line rises slowly or shallowly. So the steep curve refers to the demands of the task rather
than a description of the process.
As the figure of a fairly typical learning "curve" shows, it does not proceed smoothly: the
plateaux and troughs are normal features of the process.

Progress faster or slower)

Competence

Start Plateau Trough Decline Trials/Time

Figure 6.2: A learning “Curve” is far from a Straight Progress

In the acquisition of skills, a major issue is the reliability of the performance. Any novice 85
Introduction to Learning
can get it right occasionally (beginner's luck), but it is consistency which counts, and the
progress of learning is often assessed on this basis. The following stages are an adaptation
of Reynolds' (1965) model. She also points out that learning skills is largely a matter of
them "soaking in", so that performance becomes less self-conscious as learning progresses,
and that the transition from one phase to another is marked by a release of energy, in the
form of the freedom to concentrate on other things. (The horizontal line represents a
notional threshold of "competence")

Figure 6.3

Check Your Progress 3

1. Define learning.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. Mention the four theories of learning.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
3. What is reinforcement?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

6.5 LINKAGE OF LEARNING WITH TRAINING AND

LEARNING ORGANISATION
In simple terms education provides a knowledge base that underpins any other activities
the individual may engage in at a later stage. Training is not as general and tends to
concentrate on skills development. "Development" allows both activities to be integrated.
It has been described as "the general enhancement and growth of an individual's skills
and abilities through conscious and unconscious learning".
Development therefore includes both education and training as well as a range of other
activities such as coaching, looking, listening and mentoring. Learning is the outcome of
both training-led and education-led approaches to development, yet learning itself is
complex. It is far more than the shifting of knowledge or information from educator/
trainer to the learner.
86 The words learning and training can often be used interchangeably, but for a training
Methodology of
Training and Development
professional it is important to be able to describe the similarities and differences. Looking
at these can help training professionals define their roles and assess their priorities. The
words learning and training have six letters in common and touch the same field of
interest - education. Often the words are used interchangeably, but some say there is a
subtle distinction between the two. Training is the conscious and planned process of
transferring knowledge, skills and attitudes to others. Learning is the processing and
assimilation of what we hear, see or experience that alters or improves our knowledge,
skills and attitudes.
Training is something you do. Learning is something that happens. Learning should be
the major outcome of training. Sometimes having a trainer speeds up the learning process.
Training is successful if learning occurs. Changed behaviour in the workplace is essential
if organisations are going to grow and develop. Planned training that relates to the current
organisational direction can make a real difference because, the level of performance
and improvement needed today requires learning, lots of learning. In most industries and
government, there is no clear path to success and no clear path to follow.
At the heart of a learning organization lies the belief that enormous human potential lies
locked and undeveloped in our organizations. Central to this belief is the conviction that
when all members of an organization fully develop and exercise their essential human
capacities, the resulting congruence between personal and organizational visions, goals
and objectives will release this potential. According to Senge, a learning organization is
one that is structured in a manner consistent with the essence(s) of human nature.
Senge is concerned with what he calls the "higher" human essences, and believes that
learning gets to the heart of what it means to be human.
Real learning is not just limited to understanding what is necessary to survive ("adaptive
learning"), but also includes what he calls "generative learning." Generative learning
expands a human being's capacity to create the results he or she truly desires.
Though learning may be a fundamental human essence, the process of learning is quite
complex. Learning itself includes three different activities: thinking, communicating and
cooperating. When our capacities to think, communicate and cooperate are enhanced,
so is our ability to learn. Thus, a learning organization is one which fosters and enhances
these activities for its members and members of the community in which it exists.
Traditional organizations change by reacting to events. Their "reference points" are
external and often based in the past or on the competition. They are often change-
averse. Learning organizations, by contrast, are vision-led and creative. Their reference
points are internal and anchored in the future they intend to create. They embrace change
rather than merely react to it.
In a work setting, learning occurs as part of the job. A fellow employee will show you
how to complete a certain task, for example, how to log on and use a computer program.
You may wish to learn about a specific company policy, so you will look it up on the
corporate intranet site (the internal website for viewing by company employees only).
Many leading companies are providing just-in-time learning modules. These brief (two
or three minute) e-learning (online) programs cover a specific issue. They are designed
to be available 24/7, precisely at the time an employee needs to know something specific.
The modules cover specific topics - how to fill in a form, company policy, 'what to do'
scenarios, etc.
Wherever possible, all of us should engage in both formal and informal learning,
remembering that each make a contribution to our enjoyment of life and our ability to
grow and adapt in our personal and business spheres.
Given that the success of any organization is founded on the knowledge of the people 87
Introduction to Learning
who work for it, these activities will and, indeed, must continue. However, individual
learning is only a prerequisite to organizational learning.
Simply summing individual learning is inadequate to model organizational learning. The
following definition outlines the essential difference between the two: A learning
organization actively creates, captures, transfers, and mobilizes knowledge to enable it
to adapt to a changing environment. Thus, the key aspect of organizational learning is the
interaction that takes place among individuals.
A learning organization does not rely on passive or ad hoc process in the hope that
organizational learning will take place through serendipity or as a by-product of normal
work. A learning organization actively promotes, facilitates, and rewards collective learning.
Capturing individual learning is the first step to making it useful to an organization. There
are many methods for capturing knowledge and experience, such as publications, activity
reports, lessons learned, interviews, and presentations. Capturing includes organizing
knowledge in ways that people can find it; multiple structures facilitate searches regardless
of the user's perspective (e.g., who, what, when, where, why,and how). Capturing also
includes storage in repositories, databases, or libraries to insure that the knowledge will
be available when and as needed.

6.6 LET US SUM UP

Learning as used here, refers to concerted activity that increases the capacity and
willingness of individuals, groups, organizations and communities to acquire and
productively apply new knowledge and skills, to grow and mature and to adapt successfully
to changes and challenges.
There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories
fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the
objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to
explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which
the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.
Classical conditioning is one of the simplest forms of learning, yet it has a powerful
effect on our attitudes, likes and dislikes, and emotional responses.
Classical conditioning is modifying behaviour so that a conditioned stimulus is paired with
an unconditioned stimulus and elicits an unconditioned behaviour.
Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People
learn to behave to get something they want or avoid something they don't want.Operant
conditioning induces a voluntary change in behaviour and learning occurs as a
"consequence" of such change.
Today, however, a growing number of psychologists stress the role of mental processes.
They choose to broaden the study of learning to include such cognitive processes as
thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering and forming mental representations.
According to cognitive theorists, these processes are critically important in a more
complete, more comprehensive view of learning.Social learning integrates the cognitive
and operant approaches to learning.
The term learning curve refers to a relationship between the duration of learning or
experience and the resulting progress. It is a graph that depicts rate of learning, especially
a graph of progress in the mastery of a skill against the time required for such mastery.
88
Methodology of 6.7 LESSON END ACTIVITY
Training and Development
Explain the concept of learning in detail with examples. How does learning differ from
the change in behaviour that occurs due to natural growing up?

6.8 KEYWORDS
Learning: A permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience.
Classical Conditioning: It is modifying behaviour so that a conditioned stimulus is paired
with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits and unconditioned behaviour.
Operant Conditioning: It induces a voluntary change in behaviour and learning occurs
as a consequence of such change.
Social Learning: It integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to learning.
Reinforcement: The process by which certain types of behaviours are strengthened.

6.9 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What is learning? How does it take place?
2. Define the terms learning, reinforcement, punishment and extinction.
3. What are positive and negative consequences in shaping behaviour and how should
they be managed?
4. Discuss the nature of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. How do they
differ from each other?
5. Contrast Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning and Social learning.
6. What are the major dimensions of social learning theory?

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. Relational learning
2. learning theory
3. Operant conditioning
CYP 2
1. T, 2. T, 3. T, 4. T
CYP 3
1. Learning: It is the process of having one’s behaviour modified, more or less
permanently, by what he does and the consequences of his action, or by what
he observes.
2. Theories of Learning:
(i) Classical Conditioning
(ii) Operant Conditioning

Contd....
 89
(iii) Cognitive Learning Introduction to Learning

(iv) Social Learning

3. Reinforcement: It is the process by which certain types of behaviours are
strengthened. It is the attempt to develop or strengthen desirable behaviour
by either bestowing positive consequences or withholding negative
consequences.

6.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Rao VSP, Human Resource Management, Excel Books, New Delhi, 2005
Rao PL, Comprehensive HRM, Excel Books, New Delhi, 2004
Bhattacharyya D K, Human Resource Management, Excel Books, New Delhi, 2006
Rao PL, Training and Development, Excel Books, New Delhi, 2007
Sahu RK, Training for Development, Excel Books, New Delhi, 2005
Naik G. Pandu, Training and Development, Excel Books, New Delhi, 2007