Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology

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Concrete anti-carbonation coatings: a review

Ahmed Merah

To cite this article: Ahmed Merah (2021) Concrete anti-carbonation coatings: a review, Journal of
Adhesion Science and Technology, 35:4, 337-356, DOI: 10.1080/01694243.2020.1803594

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2020.1803594

Published online: 10 Aug 2020.

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JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
2021, VOL. 35, NO. 4, 337–356
https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2020.1803594

Concrete anti-carbonation coatings: a review

Ahmed Merah
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Research Laboratory of Civil Engineering (LRGC),
University Ammar Telidji of Laghouat, Laghouat, Algeria

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Protective coatings of the concrete surface against aggressive Received 21 June 2020
environments are constantly evolving. Given their diversity, the Revised 26 July 2020
effectiveness of the latter becomes an important criterion for Accepted 28 July 2020
making the right among of a large commercialized variety, there-
KEYWORDS
fore, in recent years, several researchers have started research in Review; anti-carbonation
this area and have proposed solutions to protect the surface coating; organic coatings;
exterior of concrete with coatings, such as organic, inorganic, inorganic coatings; concrete
mortars and paints against environmental aggressions. Among durability; reinforce-
these aggressions, comes first the concrete carbonation, which is ment corrosion
a natural phenomenon which compromises the durability of rein-
forced concrete structures by causing the corrosion of the rein-
forcements and consequently reduces the service life of these
structures. This phenomenon cannot be avoided because CO2
exists in the atmosphere, the penetration path of this harmful gas
inside the concrete is the porosity of the cover concrete. This
paper is a review of published works on the effectiveness of anti-
carbonation coatings for the protection of reinforced concrete
structures against concrete carbonation, and it also consists to
presenting their classification according to the type and the selec-
tion criteria of these coatings and we end this work with conclu-
sions and perspectives for the study of certain characteristics of
these coatings, namely the durability and the adhesion
to support.

1. Introduction
Protective coatings of the concrete surface are increasingly used to prevent the penetra-
tion of aggressive agents such as carbon dioxide (CO2). These coatings are made from
various materials, organics, inorganics, mortars. Several researchers have been inter-
ested in studying the effectiveness and durability of these coatings.
Reinforced concrete as a composite material is the most used in the world, given its
low cost compared to other construction materials. Most of the constructions carried
out in the world are made in reinforced concrete, this extraordinary material offers to
the designers and engineers the possibility of realizing buildings of various forms. The

CONTACT Ahmed Merah [email protected], [email protected] Faculty of Civil Engineering and

Architecture, Research Laboratory of Civil Engineering (LRGC), University Ammar Telidji of Laghouat,
Laghouat, Algeria
ß 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
338 A. MERAH

durability of this material is affected by several substances that exist in its environment,
one can cite the penetration of aggressive substances through the porosity of the con-
crete cover, such as carbon dioxide, chloride ions, and water. These substances can
cause corrosion of reinforcements, thus leading to the deterioration of reinforced con-
crete structures.
In this review, we are interested in the carbon dioxide gas present in the environ-
ment air, which penetrates into the concrete through the porosity of the concrete cover.
Once inside the concrete, the carbon dioxide dissolves in the interstitial solution and
produces carbonic acid, which reacts with the product resulting from the hydration of
the cement (portlandite Ca(OH)2) which is responsible maintain a basic pH of
around 13.
This reaction of CO2 with portlandite (Ca(OH)2 form calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
which will consume as the reaction evolves the reserve of the portlandite (Ca(OH)2,
this decrease in the portlandite reserve lower the pH value from 13 to 9, this lead to
that the environment becomes acidic and the reinforcements are out of protection and
corrosion of rebars is initiated.
The idea of finding a way to protect the concrete surface from aggressive substances
that exist in the environment by anti-carbonation coatings appeared in the 80s.
The coating industry followed this need and began to manufacture paints and anti-
carbonation mortars, for this purpose, since that time, and in order to test the effective-
ness of these coatings against the phenomenon of carbonation several researchers have
been explored this field.
The aim of this paper was to make a review of the researches realized out in the
study of the effectiveness of anti-carbonation coatings for the protection of reinforced
concrete structures against the phenomena of concrete carbonation. The approach fol-
lowed in this work was to collect the previous researches in this area while synthetizing
the results obtained by researchers in this field. This review is terminated with recom-
mendations and perspectives.

2. Concrete carbonation depth

Studying the concrete carbonation needs the determination of the carbonation
depth in the concrete cover. this information is an important indicator of the dur-
ability of concrete because the value of this parameter can give an idea on the risk
of the corrosion of reinforced. This parameter can be determined by using Fick’s
first law. In order to evaluate this parameter, Klopfer et al. [1] studied the evolu-
tion of the carbonation depth (x) with the time (t) and Based on Fick’s 1st law,
they developed the relation (1) which allows determining the depth of carbonation
and they obtained relation (1):
pffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffi
x ¼ C t ð2ÞAvec C ¼ 2D: (1)

D: carbonations coefficient, C: carbonations rate.

To highlight this parameter, we generally use a PH indicator which is the solution of
Phenolphthalein according RILEM standard [2].
 JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 339

3. Types of anti-carbonation coatings

In literature, there are three types of coatings, metallic, organic and inorganic. The
most among the used of these coatings are organic coatings followed by inorganic coat-
ings [3].
In another definition based on the use of coatings, this classification can be
described into four categories: surface coating, hydrophobic impregnation, pore-block-
ing coatings and multifunctional coatings agents [4].

4. Anti-carbonation coatings effectiveness

4.1. Introduction
the two main parameters for measuring the effectiveness of anti-carbonation coatings
are the thickness of the coating and the coefficient of resistance to CO2 diffusion. in
this context, the coating thickness (S) and the resistance coefficient of CO2 diffusion
(l) of the anti-carbonation coating are bound by relationship (2). This relation gives a
coefficient R which makes it possible the measure of the coating effectiveness, for the
coating to be effective. it is necessary that R > 50 m [5].

R ¼ lS (2)

Where S: coating thickness

l: Resistance coefficient of CO2 diffusion.
The effectiveness of an anti-carbonation coating c at an instant t can be written also
according the relation (3) [6]:
xt
c¼1 (3)
xu

Where xt : carbonation depth for coated concrete

xu : carbonation depth for uncoated concrete
For c ¼ 1, a coating would be considered completely effective
For c ¼ 0, the coating is ineffective
These relationships were the first which gives us an idea of the effectiveness of the
anti-carbonation coatings by the determining of the values of coefficients R or c.
Nevertheless, these relationship does not take into account the influence of external
environmental conditions, such as the durability of these coatings against chemical
attacks, their adhesion to the support, as well as the ability of the coatings to allow the
support to breathe (prevent the gas from penetrating and allow steaming out).

4.2. Coating type effectiveness

An organic coating is a type of coating, the main compounds of which are extracted
from plant or animal materials or carbon-rich compounds. These coatings are used to
form a barrier against chemical attack in order to protect the concrete. Organic coat-
ings can consist of a single layer, two or more layers. The organic coatings act as
340 A. MERAH

protection against carbonation. they are applied to the support for their specific tech-
nical properties. Organic coatings mainly depend on their chemical inertness and their
waterproofing. The organic coatings are easy to apply to the supports using brushes,
sprays, rollers. this coating hardens by evaporation or loss of solvent, polymerization,
and oxidation.
The relationship (2) was used to determine the value of R (which represents an
imaginary layer of air having the same resistance to CO2 diffusion) for an industrial
mortar as an anti-carbonation organic coating. This coating shows excellent perform-
ance as protection against CO2 since the thickness of the equivalent layer R is equal to
50 m for concentrations of 5 and 20% of CO2 [7]. This value of R used in this research
is the same preconised by H. Klopfer [1] which can be a criterion to choose
the effectiveness coating against carbonation [7]. In addition, the permeability of anti-
carbonation coating to air and water can be also a criterion to decide of the effective-
ness of the coating against carbonation and penetration of chloride ions. The air
permeability and water absorption of the coated substrates can respectively be used to
estimate the resistance of surface coatings to carbonation and penetration of chloride
ions [8]. In this way, recommendations to standardize the test procedure for protective
coatings in order to choose the best must be initiated [8].
Using the relation (2) established by [7] based on R-value, T. Zafeiropoulou et al.
[9] have tested nine anti-carbonation organic coatings in order to classify them accord-
ing to their effectiveness. The results of this study show that the acrylic coating is best
suited to protect the concrete against carbonation, while the elastomeric coating can
protect the reinforced against the chloride corrosion [9].
Other parameters were used to test the effectiveness of polymer anti-carbonation
coatings such as oxygen and CO2 permeability. in this context, the polymers as anti-
carbonation coatings’ effectiveness were studied by the theory of diffusion of small
molecules through polymer layers. This study describes certain techniques for measur-
ing the permeability to steam, oxygen, and CO2 from polymers. The results of this
research shown that the ability of polymers to minimize the penetration of
gases, vapours and organic liquids is considerable importance. Nevertheless, the anti-
carbonation coatings must prevent the penetration of gas and water and at the same
time be permeable to water vapor to allow the support to breathe [10].
The penetration of a gas or a vapor through the surface of a polymer passes
through the following stages: Absorption of species; Solubility in the polymer
matrix; Diffusion through the polymer layer and desorption [10]. The permeability
of polymers to gases (oxygen or CO2) is dominated by diffusivity D, the perme-
ability to water of polymers is governed by the water solubility in polymers. The
permeability of the polymer coatings is governed by the solubility S and the diffu-
sivity D [10,11]. Table 1 reported by N. L. Thomas [10] show the values of S and
D for many polymer coatings.
From Table 1 [10], the effectiveness of a recycled poly (vinyl butyral) coating in
terms of protection against concrete carbonation increases with the increase in the
number of layers [12], this result is in accordance with Sanjuan and del Olmo and
Meares [7,11] in term of solubility and diffusion.
The polyvinyl CO2 diffusivity is around DCO2 ¼ 1.38 m2/d at 23  C [11]
 JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 341

Table 1. Solubility (S) and diffusion coefficient (D) of oxygen in several

polymers at 43  C [10].
Oxygen
10 S (cm at STP/cm3
2 2

Polymer polymer  atm) (cm2 s1) 107D (cm2 s1)

Natural rubber 10.4 36
Nolyisobutylene 10.8 2.4
Nolybutadiene 9.7 30
Poly (dimethy1 butadiene) 11.7 4.1
Neoprene 7.8 10.0
Poly (viny1 acetate) 6.0 1.7

The Poly (ethylene-vinyl acetate) show the most protection of the concrete against
carbonation [12] compared with the coatings in Styrene-butadiene rubber and in
Polyacrylic ester, this result is also in accord with those obtained by N. L. Thomas [10].
The performance of organic coatings is based on the diffusion coefficient of carbon
dioxide, the values of diffusion for Polyvinyl chloride, polyurethane, epoxy and acrylic
are 0.19, 0.66, 0.72 and 6.15, respectively [13]. This result is in according with those
obtained by M. Tupy et al. [12] concerning the effectiveness of polyvinyl coating used
for the protection of concrete against carbonation.
From the above, it notes that the solubility and the diffusion are two parameters
which also allow the choice of the most effective and most durable coating against
environmental attacks.
As the coating will be applied to the concrete support, In general, this support
cracks in practice. The crack-bridging ability of coatings is an important factor that
needs to be analysed to assess their effectiveness and durability. Using this feature, the
effectiveness of four coatings against carbonation were analysed, the obtained results
show that the acrylic rubber coating protect completely the concrete against carbon-
ation for 5 years of exposure of samples to the atmosphere condition (carbonation
depth ¼ 0) [14].
in the way of the modelling, and in order to estimate the concrete carbonation depth
numerically D. C. Park [13] established a model of carbonation with diffusion reaction
through the coating using the finite element method. This model has been validated by
experimental results of accelerated carbonation on coated samples [13].
In order to assess the performance of ten organic coatings used to protect the con-
crete, in terms of adhesion, crack opposing, permeability to chloride ions and resist-
ance to humidity and thermal variations a study was performed. the results of this
research showed that the epoxy resin coating and polyurethane coatings were the most
efficient compared to other coatings. Moreover, the authors established rules for the
selection of concrete coatings for appropriate service conditions. This study notes that
the performance of these coatings is classed in this order: Epoxy resin coatings, polyur-
ethane coatings, acrylic coatings, chlorinated rubber coatings and the polymer emul-
sion coatings [15].
In an otherwise, the coatings types as polyurethane (PU), chlorinated rubber (CR)
and epoxy resin (EP) follow this order in terms of performance against concrete car-
bonation and their thicker can also improve the carbonation resistance [16]. This result
is in accordance with those obtained by [15].
342 A. MERAH

The degradation of these organic coating with time caused by aging time, porosity
and cracking can reduce the effectiveness of their protection of the concrete against
carbonation, on this main, regression models for the carbonation depth with an aging
time of the coated samples were established. The order of the performance of these
coatings is PU > EP > CR [16]. The results show that the polyurethane coating is the
best in terms of protection of concrete, durability, and in the increase in its service life.
In terms of chloride permeability, the chloride permeability of the epoxy resin and
chlorinated rubber coatings was negligible, while it was very low in the acrylic and
polymer emulsion coatings [17]. The same conclusions can be drawn, that the epoxy
and polyurethane coatings performed better than acrylic, polymer and chlorinated rub-
ber coatings [18], therefore, the choice of protective coatings should be made after per-
forming durability tests.
In the same way, M. H. Medeiros and P. Helene [17] also studied the effective-
ness of certain protective coatings such as hydrophobic agents, acrylic coatings,
polyurethane coatings and dual systems against the penetration of chloride ions
into concrete, the results obtained show that all coatings reduce the penetration of
chloride ions by more than 70%, however, polyurethane coatings reduce the chlor-
ide diffusion coefficient by more than 86% which is in accord with the results
obtained by [15,18].
In the same way, in their work [19–21] studied the effect of polymer coatings
on the protection of concrete against chemically aggressive environments such as
the carbonation phenomenon. To conduct this study, they use acrylic and epoxy
polymers which were applied on the concrete support, the results of this investiga-
tion indicate that the epoxy resin was the best in terms of protection compared
to other coatings, these results were in accordance with those obtained by [15,18].
In their study [9,22] evaluated the performance of new organic coatings produced
by the Greek industry as protection against corrosion of concrete reinforcements
caused by chloride ions and carbonation, the obtained results from this research
shown that acrylic coatings protect concrete against carbonation and elastomeric
coatings protect reinforcements against the penetration of chloride ions. This find
complete those obtained by [19–21] concerning that the acrylic coating can also
protect the concrete against carbonation, but it not the same protection provided
by the epoxy resin coating.
in the recent years, several composites coatings based on epoxy were developed, A
new epoxy coating with cross-linkable solvent has been developed with low viscosity to
allow it to penetrate pores down to 1.5 mm. the solvent with the resin improves the
resistance of the surface concrete and consequently increases its durability [23].
In the same way of composite epoxy coatings, nano-composites of epoxy resin
modified with graphene oxides have been applied to concrete surfaces. this coating
improves resistance to the penetration of chloride ions into the concrete. this improve-
ment is attributed to the formation of a crosslink in the composite coating [24].
In addition, an epoxy solution based on a carbonyl solvent was prepared, this solu-
tion can penetrate into the pores of the concrete. this coating increases the resistance
of concrete and improves its performance against environmental attacks such as corro-
sion caused by the penetration of chloride ions [25].
 JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 343

An epoxy-based composite coating containing polyaniline as pigments were tested

in order to use it as an anti-corrosion coating, the results obtained showed that the
epoxy coating with polyalanine protects the steel against corrosion [26].
In another hand, the corrosion resistance of epoxy coatings can be improved by
aminobenzoate intercalated layered double hydroxides [27].
From the above, the epoxy composite coatings can be an alternative that can be
used for the protection of steels against corrosion.
In order to improve the performance of coatings, the effectiveness of a coating
super-absorbent resin (SAR) synthesized in situ from poly (acrylic acid-co-acrylamide)
against concrete carbonation was investigated, the results showed that the carbonation
resistance is improved for the coated samples compared to uncoated samples. This
coating has a characteristic of swollen who can be clogging the pores of the substrate
and improve the resistance against the chemical’s attacks like carbonation [28].
Moreover, to predict the carbonation depth of concrete under real service conditions
combined model which depends on the aging time of the organic coatings was devel-
oped. This model involves the concrete equivalent thickness with the aging time, the
results of this study made it possible to establish a model which is a function of
the exposure time, the equivalent thickness of concrete, the carbonation depths of the
coated concrete and the aging of coatings. The repainting effects of the concrete sam-
ples were also studied [16,29]. In terms of abrasion resistance, the epoxy resin coating
show the best behaviour [30].
Mortar coating can be another solution for concrete protection against carbonation.
The effectiveness of lime-cement mortar as an anti-carbonation coating shows that the
carbonation rate of lime-cement mortar is a function of its composition [31,32]. The
anti-carbonation mortar coating can reduce the carbonation depth and that the latter is
inversely proportional to its thickness [33].
In the same sense, lime-based mortars reinforced with polypropylene fibres and
with natural pozzolan can be used as exterior coatings to restore the old buildings and
increase the tensile strength of these mortars [34]. The improvement of the tensile
strength of these mortars with the addition of fibres reduces shrinkage and increases
consequently the resistance to carbonation in the case where these mortars are used as
an anti-carbonation coating.
In the same way, modified mortars can also be an alternative that can be used in the
protection of concrete against carbonation, their effects were studied. This study was
carried out by the presentation of a numerical procedure to assess the carbonation of
the coating-concrete system, this hydration model takes into account both Portland
cement and the pozzolanic reaction. the quantity of hydration products is sensitive to
carbonation and the porosity. the porosity is expressed as a function of age in order to
predict the diffusion of CO2 and the carbonation depth [33]. Mortars based on recycled
aggregates can also be an alternative for the protection of concrete against carbonation
since these mortars have a high capacity to absorb CO2 (up to 170 g/m2 of coating).
This feature prevents the penetration of CO2 into the coated concrete with this mor-
tar [35].
In another hand, the mortar of sand-cement plaster as an anti-carbonation coating
can also reduce the carbonation of columns and beams. The depth of carbonation is
344 A. MERAH

almost zero for the structural elements with a plaster thickness coating greater than
50 mm [36,37].
Moreover, the effectiveness of four concrete coatings based on cement mortar-
modified with polymer and three elastomeric coatings against corrosion caused by the
penetration of chloride ions into concrete were studied, this study shows that the coat-
ings cement mortar -modified with polymer minimize the penetration of chloride ions
into concrete and their effectiveness increases with their thickness compared to elasto-
meric coatings. In addition, these coatings based on cement mortar -modified with
polymer keep their protective efficacy even after corrosion of the reinforcements is ini-
tiated [38,39].
The effectiveness of protective coatings for concrete with light aggregates [40] com-
bined with polymers was studied, the obtained results showed that the light aggregate
coating with water-repellent agent reduced carbonation depth up to 6%, while the light
aggregate coating with polymer waterproof agent reduced carbonation depth up to 12%.
An anti-carbonation coating in the mortar of cement and sand in two proportion,
cement/sand equal to 0.33 and 0.5 was tested, the obtained results show that the mortar
coating with the rate cement/sand equal to 0.5 can reduce the depth of carbonation
and that the latter is inversely proportional to the thickness surface coating[33]. This is
can be explained that the mortar confectioned with this rate (0.5) has a great reserve of
portlandite. In addition, cement mortar thicker than 8 mm can protect concrete struc-
tures up to 25 years age [41].
Inorganic coatings are produced by chemical action, with or without electrical assist-
ance. these coatings can be also used as a protective coating. This solution can be also
another alternative to protect concrete against carbonation, because these coatings are
easy to manufacture and generated no pollution in their manufactured process, in this
way, several researchers have been interested to study their effectiveness against
this phenomenon.
in this investigation, the effectiveness of inorganic coatings type Calcium-silicate
compound (which has a composition similar to cement against the concrete carbon-
ation) was studied, the obtained results show that the resistance to accelerated and nat-
ural carbonation is improved for coated concrete [42]. In another hand, the use of
geopolymers as inorganic coatings in the protection of marine concrete was studied,
the results showed that layers more than 5 mm thick protect the concrete except that
there is a shrinkage problem which can be solved by using aggregates in the cement
paste and adding shrinkage reduction agents with a specific hardening procedures.
This type of coating can bond strongly with concrete which is an advantage [43].
Moreover, the effect of an inorganic concrete coating on the compressive strength and
the carbonation depth of concrete damaged by fire was studied, the results of this study
shown that concretes coated with inorganic coatings perform better than uncoated
concretes in terms of carbonation resistance caused by fire [44].
An inorganic coating type ethyl silicate as surface protection of reinforced concrete
structures against carbonation was also tested, this material was compared to other
inorganic coatings based on sodium silicate and nano-silica, the results of this study
show that the ethyl silicate coating is the most efficient for protecting concrete against
carbonation [45].
 JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 345

In another way, conducting polymer coatings that use nanocomposites and carbon-
based materials provides a barrier against corrosion of metals, this is also valid for rein-
forced concrete [46].
In the same scope, the coatings based on silicate can prevent the loss of strength
caused by the temperature elevation. these types of coating can also reduce water
absorption [30].
The effectiveness of protective coatings of water-repellent silicone concrete, the
results of these tests showed that the coating improves resistance to penetration of
chloride ions and resistance to concrete carbonation [47,48].
Inorganic coatings based on Magnesium fluorosilicate, water glass, and sodium fluo-
rosilicates and the combination between water glass and sodium fluorosilicate were
tested as concrete protection against carbonation, the obtained results show that
Magnesium fluorosilicate and water glass decrease the carbonation depth and harden
the concrete surface. A great reduction in the carbonation depth was noted for the
coatings of sodium fluorosilicate [49].
Some inorganic coatings increase abrasion resistance, and their effect has the follow-
ing order: sodium silicate > ethyl silicate > nano-silica [30].

5. Other concrete coatings alternatives

In order to improve the durability of anti-carbonation coatings, several researchers
have carried out research on other types of coatings. In this aim, an ecological tech-
nique as an alternative to traditional solutions for protecting concrete surfaces against
concrete carbonation was developed, this new solution is based on bacterial precipita-
tion of carbonate (bio deposition) in order to increase the durability of concrete. The
results of this work shown that the deposition on the samples’ surface of calcium car-
bonate crystals reduces water absorption between 65 and 90% depending on the poros-
ity of the samples. The rate of carbonation was reduced to 30%, these results can
confirm that this solution can replace traditional anti-carbonation coatings [50,51].
Moreover, crystalline coating material as a hydrophilic waterproofing material is a
synthetic cementitious material that contains reactive silica and some crystalline cata-
lysts. This coating was tested in an experimental study to check its effectiveness against
accelerated carbonation of concrete with different W/C ratios (0.4,0.5,0.6), the results
of this work showed that the resistance to carbonation was improved for coatings in
crystalline materials. The advantage of this coating is the ability of its chemical compo-
nents to react with the portlandite to form crystalline structures that clogging pores
and fill cracks in the concrete. Coating with crystalline coating material can increase
the pH value of carbonated concrete (alkalisation) and reduce the short-term carbon-
ation depth (8 weeks of exposure) [52]. To assess the carbon dioxide permeability of
several coatings, the box method can quickly assess the CO2 permeability, and conse-
quently, the performance of the coatings as a barrier against carbonation of concrete
[53]. Another type of coating called silk wallpaper was tested in order to reduce the
carbonation depth of concrete, the obtained results showed a reduction in the carbon-
ation depth up to 50% compared to uncoated concrete [54].
346 A. MERAH

Another alternative can be considered, this one consists of the application of a film
of mineralized calcium oxalate on a surface of cementitious material in order to protect
it against the penetration of water as well as for the repair of cracks. This inorganic
coating film improves the microstructure of concrete cover and the durability of con-
crete structures by its hydrophilicity [55].
A review of intelligent anti-corrosion coatings has been drawn up in order to pro-
pose the prospects of possible applications. these coatings are based on the self-healing
of defects that appear on metals [27].
A new organic-inorganic nanostructured coating without solvent has been devel-
oped, this coating acts as an excellent hydrophobic protector, which leads to a reduc-
tion in the quantity of water that penetrates into the concrete. This coating can be used
to improve other characteristics against environmental aggressions [56].

6. Required characteristics of anti-carbonation coating

6.1. Adhesion
The adhesion of coatings to the support is an important parameter for their durability,
for this purpose, several researchers have established requirements regarding the adhe-
sion of coatings to the support.
The epoxy resin coating has high adhesion to the support varying from 2.52 to
2.81 MPa followed by the polybutadiene rubber coating (1.62 to 2.2 MPa) and the
acrylic rubber coating (1.18 to 1.63 MPa). the bad adhesion is attributed to the polyur-
ethane rubber coating (0.63 to 0.94 MPa) [14]. The criterion of choice of coatings is
according to their capacity for adhesion to the support, only the two coatings (epoxy
resin and polybutadiene coating) are accepted for use as an anti-carbonation coat-
ing [15].
Based on adhesion to the concrete support, the ability to opposing to cracks and the
chloride permeability of concrete coated, Table 2 gives a criterion to choose
the coatings,
In addition, the crack-bridging capacity is the mechanical behaviour of organic coat-
ings in the event of a crack opening below the concrete. This important characteristic
of a coating was studied, the results of this study showed that the coating shows high
stability against the concrete cracking due to bending compared to the cracking due to
traction. The coating thickness follows a power law with the resistance to cracking. The
water permeability of the coatings is also an important characteristic of their durability.
The temperature has no change in the adhesion of the coating to the sub-
strate [26,57–60].

Table 2. Performance criteria recommended for the selection of

coatings [15].
Test item Performance criteria
Adhesion to concrete >1.5 MPa
Crack-bridging ability >0.5 mm
Chloride permeability of coated concrete <500 Coulombs
 JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 347

Figure 1. Diagram of the system after the peel of the coating from HPC samples (previously cured
in humid conditions): (a) HPC (POM): partial tearing of efflorescence from the HPC surface; and (b)
HPC (PVC): some CaCO3 residues were transferred from HPC to the coating [62]. HPC: high perform-
ance concrete.

Furthermore, the crack-bridging capacity is influenced by four parameters: the way

in which the crack opens and develops in the concrete, the support/coating interface
(adhesion), the thickness of the coating and its mechanical properties and the external
conditions. an analysis of the 3rd parameter shows that the crack-bridging capacity
increases with the thickness of the coating [61].
In terms of coatings adhesion to the concrete substrate from the highest to low
adhesion, the following order is adopted: the epoxy resin coatings, chlorinated
rubber, and polyurethane coatings [15]. The coatings that have low adhesion to
the concrete are the acrylic and polymer emulsion coatings [15].
In order to quantify the adhesion between the coating and substrate of concrete,
another test was performed, this test is called a peel test that has been developed to
measure the energy of rupture [62]. The properties of the concrete substrate have an
influence on the adhesion of the coating, such as the polyurethane coatings of concrete
that are influenced by the long-term humidity and aging conditions, these parameters
decrease the adhesion of the coating sharply to substrate. This decrease in adhesion
(Figure 1) is due to the formation of calcite due to carbonation which closes the poros-
ity of the surface by reducing its roughness [62].
The open porosity of the substrate is an important parameter for the measure of
adhesion to substrate.
In the same aim, four types of protective coating for concrete against aggressive
environments were tested. This study was focused on the knowledge of their inter-
action mechanisms with the cementitious support, the advantages and disadvantages of
each coating as well as the factors of influence on these coatings such as air permeabil-
ity, the force of adhesion and resistance to cracking. This study concluded that the
parameters cited below influence also the effect of the performance of coatings such as
348 A. MERAH

Air permeability, Bonding strength, Penetration depth/coating thickness, Cracking

resistance, Substrate properties and application method. The surface preparation of the
substrate before the coating is an important parameter for its performance [62].
Within the framework of the evaluation tests of the strength of adhesion of the poly-
mer coatings (epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester) reinforced with fibres (glass, carbon) to
the support, several procedures were developed. among these tests, a test based on frac-
ture resistance, this one allows to choose the most effective coating against environ-
mental attacks [63].
Furthermore, the strength of adhesion of a coating on a concrete surface depends
on its resistance, which also depends on the curing time. the bond strength of an
acrylic coating is slightly greater than the strength of the concrete substrate [64], this
poses a problem of compatibility between the strength of the concrete support and the
adhesion strength of the anti-carbonation coatings.
In addition, the adhesion of hydraulic mortars with low water permeability to con-
crete is an important feature in the study of their durability. It has been shown that the
adhesion force decreases with the increase of the permeability-reducing admixture, this
finding is due to the increase in the porosity of the mortar. the dosage of the admixture
has an influence on the bond strength on the mortars [65].

6.2. Durability of coatings

The coatings are submitted to aggressive environments such as weather conditions, these
conditions can compromise their durability. The temperature influences the efficiency
and the durability of the anti-carbonation coatings, in this study the acrylic rubber coat-
ing presents cracking stability in the temperature range from 20  C to þ60  C. The
adaptation of coating to cracking in the substrate, for a coating thickness of 0.5 and
1.0 mm, the crack width bridged was, respectively, approximately 2.0 and 3.5 mm, with a
thickness of 2.5 mm coating, the maximum crack width bridged was 10 mm [14].
In addition, a review on the concrete coatings was carried out in 2016 led to the fol-
lowing conclusion:
The surface treatment is affected by air permeability, bond strength, depth of penetra-
tion, resistance to cracking, properties of the substrate, and method of application [4].
The titanium dioxide (TiO2) ultrafine particles as a coating for concrete pavement
was studied. The result of this study shows that the use of TiO2 coating as a photocata-
lytic compound would provide acceptable durability and wear resistance [66].
In the same way, under the temperature effect variation, the coatings in chlorinated
rubber show a better resistance compared to the coating in polyurethane [15].
Moreover, under real climatic conditions, organic coatings deteriorate under the
effect of temperature, humidity, and ultraviolet radiation. in this objective, a validated
model established by D. C. Park [13], based on the carbonation diffusion reaction can
predict the deterioration of organic coatings in the long term (over a period of
30 years) and he concludes that the renewal of organic coatings every 5 years maintains
this performance in terms of protection against carbonation [13]. When we specify the
organic coatings, the water absorption of the concrete support is reduced when we use
the epoxy resin coatings [15].
 JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 349

Fluorinated organic coatings have been characterized by studying their perme-

ability to water and by the effect of the concentration of pigments on the diffu-
sion coefficient of water vapor, on the tensile strength. the results of this study
showed that the concentration of pigments has no effect on these properties [67].
In order to test the durability of the among of the elastomeric coatings, three coat-
ings (A: Acrylic modified siloxane primer/water-based acrylic elastomeric coating; B:
Low-viscosity water bases acrylic primer/water-based acrylic elastomeric coating; C:
Water-based epoxy primer/water-based acrylic) were applied to naturally carbonated
concrete extracted from corroded buildings, the results of this study showed that the
three surface coatings protected well the concrete from water penetration for a period
of 2 years, however, only one of them (B: Low-viscosity water bases acrylic primer/
water-based acrylic elastomeric coating) was able to maintain this performance for a
period of 5 years in an urban environment. In addition, this elastomeric coating is able
to maintain its properties for a required exposure period and over a wide range of
operating temperatures, and it also had an ability to adapt to the supporting move-
ment. This coating has shown a high performance, this is due to the fact that the force
of adhesion of the latter to the support is uniform and relatively modest, which has
allowed this coating to remain intact and to prevent the penetration of water into the
support. These coatings can extend the life of reinforced concrete structures. All the
coatings have the best ability to reduce the water permeability, silane, and siloxane, can
reduce water ingress in the concrete [68,69].
The polymeric coatings based on acrylic polyol-aromatic isocyanate, polyester polyo-
l-aromatic isocyanate, acrylic resin, and epoxy silicone–polyamide containing
ordinary Portland cement or fly ash as extenders and titanium dioxide and zinc phos-
phate as main pigments can improve the durability of the rebar against the corro-
sion [70].
In addition, PVA-siloxane mixed emulsion coatings have been developed for hydro-
phobic cement mortars. this cement mortar treated with this coating finds its resistance
to water improved, which leads to a reduction in efflorescence on the facades of build-
ings [71].
In the same way, with the aim of improving the durability, the silane-based coatings
were tested in order to evaluate their long-term effectiveness, the obtained results show
that these coatings have a high hydrophobicity which accelerates the degradation of
concrete [72].
Moreover, the durability, the effect of the polymer coatings to strengthening the
concrete surface, on the shrinkage, on the mechanical properties, on the carbonation,
on the capillary absorption and on the diffusion of chloride ions was studied, the
obtained results show that polymer coating styrene-acrylic emulsion reduce the mortar
shrinkage of the concrete surface and improve resistance to carbonation. This result
also shows that the polymer anti-carbonation coatings can be used to improve the
quality of the concrete surface and therefore increase its service life. The increase in the
thickness of the coating improve also the resistance to shrinkage of the substrate [73].
In the same way and in order to assess the carbonation in the cracked surface of the
concrete support in terms of durability an experimental and numerical study on the
protective performance of the polyurethane was realized.
350 A. MERAH

The waterproofing membrane was studied, the results of this study shown that the
membrane degrades in cracked surfaces more than uncracked surfaces and the resist-
ance to carbonation is weakened when the thickness of the membrane decreases [74].
The ability of cement and acrylic coatings to protect concrete against carbonation
(using the oxygen permeability index in order to correlate carbonation and oxygen per-
meability) was investigated, the obtained results showed that the cement mortar-based
on fibre leads to better protection against the concrete carbonation compared to the
acrylic coating, but the coating should be chosen according to the desired service life.
The used coatings showed no deterioration after accelerated weathering cycles, suggest-
ing that UV exposure has no high effect on the durability of the tested coatings [75].
In the durability aim, four coatings applied to concrete and then aged in natural out-
door climatic conditions and indoor artificial accelerated experiments using ultraviolet
light radiation and wetting/drying cycle in order to test their resistance to penetration
of chlorides, the obtained results showed that the resistance to chlorides was improved
by using organic coatings and their degradations are affected by the solar radiation at
service environments [76].
In the same way, and to establish a relationship between coating aging and reduc-
tion of resistance to carbonation, Three organic coatings (polyurethane (PU), epoxy
resin (EP) and chlorinated rubber (CR) were tested, the obtained results shown that
the increase in the thickness of the organic coating improves the carbonation resist-
ance, this study made it possible to classify these coatings in terms of carbonation
resistance according to the following order: PU > CR > EP. Moreover, the aging of
organic coatings reduces their carbonation resistance according to the following order:
PU > EP > CR [76].
Tommy Y. Lo et al. [77] conducted a study to assess the carbonation resistance of
concrete coated with paint, by studying the effect of the resistance class and the hard-
ening conditions of the support in concrete on the carbonation resistance of concrete
coated with paint (exterior and interior). The results of this study shown that the car-
bonation resistance increases with the concrete compressive strength, the carbonation
depth of C35 concrete is reduced by 56% compared with C25 concrete. In addition, the
accelerated method of hardening concrete weakens its resistance to carbonation com-
pared with normally hardened concrete [77].
In order to improve the durability of organic coatings, a study of the effect of nano-
SiO2 with concentrations of 0.5, 1.5 and 3% was conducted to test the effectiveness on
carbonation resistance in long-term of three organic coatings (polyurethane, epoxy
resin, and chlorinated rubber), the results show that Nano-SiO2 particles can reduce
micro-defects in organic coatings and improve their compactness and their carbon-
ation resistance and these Nano-SiO2 particles increase the life of organic coatings up
to 78% [78].

6.3. Interface zone between substrate and coatings

The interaction between the coating and the cementitious support is an important par-
ameter in the durability and adhesion of the coatings to the substrate. In this scope,
several researchers are interested in exploring this field.
 JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 351

In this axes of research, the molecular interactions between the hydrated compo-
nents of cement and the epoxy resin coating were investigated using several approaches
based on XPS and FTIR spectroscopies, DSC, and inverse gas chromatography, the
obtained results show evidence of crosslinking of the epoxy resin at the surface of hard-
ened cement components and FTIR study of the interactions between the epoxy and
the hydrated components (C–S–H, ettringite and portlandite) lead to better understand
the cement–adhesive interfacial system [79].
It was found that interactions between the cross-linked epoxy resin and the concrete
substrate lead to an increase in the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the polymer
adhesive [80].
Moreover, the interaction between epoxy coatings and cement hydrates (calcium
silicate hydrate CSH, ettringite, and portlandite) was characterized by X-ray spectros-
copy. This study showed the existence of an interaction between the OH hydroxide
groups of the epoxy and portlandite from cement paste [81].
On the other hand, the durability of the adhesive bond was studied, the obtained
results show a decrease in adhesive bond strength caused by the surface preparation of
concrete, the layer of carbonated concrete and surface moisture [82].

7. Conclusions and perspectives

The coatings industry offers a wide variety of anti-carbonation coatings, which is con-
stantly evolving, requiring researchers in this field to test their performance, their dur-
ability and their interaction with concrete support. The main conclusions that can be
described from this paper are as follows:

A. Organic coatings are more efficient in terms of protection against carbonation

B. the criteria to select the efficient coatings against concrete carbonation
 Adhesion to support must be superior to 1.5 MPa
C. This criterion was developed by A. Almusallam et al, using ten types of coatings
and concluded that the epoxy resin and polybutadiene coating were the only
ones who verify this criterion, this result is in accordance with those obtained by
R. N. Swamy and S. Tanikawa [14].
D. In order to have the adhesion on the concrete, this criterion must be extending
to the other types of coatings.

From this review, the adopted order of organic coatings performance against carbon-
ation is:
Polyvinyl chloride, Poly coating (viny1 acetate), polyurethane, Epoxy resin, acrylic.
A composite coating based on epoxy developed in recent years can be an effective
solution for concrete protection against aggressive environments.
From this review, the adopted order of inorganic coatings performance against car-
bonation is:
sodium silicate, ethyl silicate, nano-silica
To be an effective coating against carbonation, the coefficient R must be greater
than 50 m.
352 A. MERAH

The penetration of a gas or a vapor through the surface of a polymer passes through
the following stages: Absorption of species; Solubility in the polymer matrix;
Diffusion through the polymer layer and desorption [8].
The gas permeability of polymers is governed by the diffusion, the water permeability
is dominated by the solubility of water in polymers. These two parameters can be
used to choose the efficient coating against carbonation.
The plaster mortar coating is effective if his thickness is greater than 50 mm, cement
mortar -modified with polymer and concrete with light aggregates can be an alter-
native solution for concrete protection against carbonation. This alternative must be
investigated in the future in terms of durability, thickness and mortar composition.
An ecological technique as an alternative solution to traditional solutions for protect-
ing concrete surfaces against concrete carbonation was proposed by some research-
ers, this new solution is based on bacterial precipitation of carbonate (bio
deposition), we noted that there are not many pieces of research in this field
To be effective and durable, anti-carbonation coatings must have the following three
characteristics:
 Prevent the penetration of carbon dioxide into concrete;
Allow free water evaporation;
Have sufficient flexibility to adapt to the movement of the support.
The effectiveness of the anti-carbonation coating is a function of the number of layers
applied to the surface of the concrete.
There are a few types of research in exploring the interface zone between substrate
and coatings. this field must be investigated in the future.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

ORCID
Ahmed Merah http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3910-7326

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