UNIT I - MENTAL HEALTH MATTERS

Mental health is just as important to our lives as our physical health

Mental health is not the same thing as the absence of a mental illness. Mental health includes emotional, psychological, and
social well-being. It can influence:

 How you feel about yourself, the world, and your life
 Your ability to solve problems and overcome challenges
 Your ability to build relationships with others and contribute to your communities
 Your ability to achieve your goals

Many people take care of their physical health before they feel sick. They may eat well, exercise and try to get enough sleep to
help maintain wellness. You can take the same approach to mental health. Just as you may work to keep your body healthy,
you can also work to keep your mind healthy.

4 BASIC DIMENSIONS OF MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

1. Thoughts
The way you think about something has a big impact on your mental health. Changes in your thoughts often go along with
changes in your mental health. When you feel well, it's easier to see life in a more balanced and constructive way. When you
aren't well, it's easy to get stuck on negative things and ignore positive things.

Examples of helpful thoughts

 I know I can cope and get through these rough times

 There are things in my life that I feel excited about!
 I know my friends really care about me
 I feel good about the way my life is going these days
 I have some really cool talents and interests
 I want to do something that makes a positive difference
• I'm a good person even though I have some flaws
• I feel grateful for the good things in my life
Examples of negative thoughts

 It feels like something really bad is going to happen

 Nothing good ever seems to happen to me
 I'm never going to get through this
 My flaws are too big to overcome
 I feel like I’m losing my mind
 I'm ugly and stupid
 They think I’m a loser
 Life sucks!

2. Body reactions
Body reactions are changes in your body functions such as heart rate, breathing, digestion, brain chemicals, hormones and
more. Changes in your body reactions often go along with changes in your mental health.

Examples of body reactions

 Muscle tension, muscle aches or headaches

 Dry mouth
 Upset stomach or nausea
 Upset bowels or diarrhea
 Lack of appetite or increased appetite
 Sweating, hot flushes or cold chills
 Chest pain, shortness of breath or difficulty breathing
 Pounding, racing or abnormal heartbeat
 Feeling dizzy or light-headed
 Tingling in hands and/or feet
 Feeling that you're separated from things around you
 Aggravation of an existing health problem (e.g., acne, digestive disorders, migraines, chronic pain, etc.)
 Changes in sexual functioning, such as decreased sex drive

3. Emotions
A big part of emotions is the way you feel. Emotions can be pleasant, unpleasant, or blended, such as when you have two
emotions at the same time. Changes in emotions often accompany changes in mental health.

Examples of emotions/feelings

 Happiness or joy
 Contentment
 Calmness
  Excitement
 Feeling love or affection
 Confusion
 Boredom
 Relief
 Irritability or anger
 Frustration
 Anxiety or fear
 Sadness or feeling down
 Embarrassment
 Hopelessness
 Disgust

4. Behaviors
Behaviors are the ways you act and respond to your environment. Some behaviors are helpful, and some can be harmful.
Changes in behavior often go along with changes in mental health.

Examples of helpful behaviors

 Working on a solution to a problem one step at a time

 Reaching out to a friend or family member for support and understanding
 Practicing your spiritual activities
 Doing something relaxing like taking a bath or practicing yoga
 Exercising
 Engaging in hobbies or leisure activities

Examples of harmful behaviors

 Isolating yourself and pulling away from friends and family

 Using alcohol or drugs to make bad feelings go away
 Avoiding the things that upset you
 Overeating, not eating enough, or purging food (such as vomiting, over-exercising)
 Lashing out at other people (verbally or physically)
 Excessively depending on loved ones or clinging to loved ones

Mental health is determined by our overall patterns of thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and body reactions.

Each of the four mental health dimensions can influence all of the others. Here's an example.

Ups and downs are a normal part of life. We all feel a bit stressed out or struggle to cope with a problem from time to
time. We all get angry once in a while or find it hard to express our needs assertively. Most of us could use a little help finding
balance, getting enough sleep, and getting active.

You may notice that these kinds of problems can take a toll on the way you feel. When you feel a lot of stress, it can
be hard to feel optimistic about the future. When you feel overwhelmed by a problem, it’s easy to feel like nothing ever works
out. When you struggle to balance different needs and obligations, it’s easy to feel overwhelmed and frustrated. These
Wellness Modules aren’t about managing a mental illness or other concern (though they can certainly help!) They are simply
four short pages to help you maximize good mental health and well-being, so you feel your best.

Each Wellness Module breaks down a different factor related to mental health and well-being. You’ll explore different
evidence-based skills to help you work through common problems. Don’t be fooled—some of these skills aren’t as simple as
they appear! But if you’re willing to dedicate a bit of time and effort, you’ll find that good mental health is in everyone’s reach.
We encourage you to take advantage of the quizzes in some Wellness Modules to help you track your progress.

Mental Health Matters

Mental Health Matters...for everyone! Mental health is about more than not experiencing an illness. And it’s just an important
as physical health. Your mental health affects so much: how you feel about yourself, how you relate to others, how you see the
world, how you deal with problems, and so much more. Learn about the four dimensions of mental health and take a quiz to
check your wellness level.

1: Stress and Well-Being

Stress and Well-Being explores different kinds of stress and how it’s connected to mental and physical health. We can’t just
get rid of all stress in our lives, but we can learn to manage stress well! Learn different coping strategies to help you manage
stress and learn when you might need a bit of extra support to help you through a difficult time. Take a stress survey to help
you identify the different kinds of stress in your life and track your progress as you learn to manage stress well.

2: Social Support

Social Support is important! Our support networks can help us cope with problems, look at a situation from a different
perspective, learn new skills, and, of course, celebrate successes and have fun. Giving and receiving the right social support
can boost mental health and well-being. Different people can offer different kinds of support. Take a quiz to help you measure
the support you receive from family and friends and find tips to help you improve or make changes to your support networks if
you aren’t getting the support you need.
3: Problem-Solving

Problem-Solving skills can’t make difficult situations just go away, but they can certainly make difficult situations easier to
manage. We deal with problems every day. Some problems are easy to solve, but others a bit more complicated—and
ignoring problems can make us feel even worse in the end. We can start to feel stressed, depressed, helpless, and even a
little hopeless. Take charge and learn the steps to break big problems into manageable pieces and use the problem-solving
worksheet to practice your new problem-solving skills.

4: Anger Management

Anger Management isn’t about bottling up your feelings. It’s about problem-solving, getting to the cause of anger, and learning
skills to control anger. Anger isn’t necessarily a bad thing—it’s a normal feeling, and it can even be helpful. The problem is that
too much anger, very intense anger, anger that doesn’t match the situation, and anger that affects other people can be more
harmful that helpful. Find strategies to help you manage anger and learn when you might need to reach out for extra support.

5: Getting a Good Night’s Sleep

Getting a Good Night’s Sleep is not always an easy task. About one in four Canadians experience a sleep problem, and many
of us just simply prioritize other tasks oversleep. Sleep, however, is vital to all areas of health and well-being. It’s hard to feel
confident and capable when you’re tired! The good news is that small changes to your daily routine can make a big impact on
the quality of your sleep. Find 10 tips to help you sleep well and use the sleep diary to help you keep track your sleep skills
and monitor your progress.

6: Eating and Living Well

Eating and Living Well are just as important to mental health as they are to physical health! Good self-esteem, health body
image, and balance in the way we understand food and exercise are a big part of our overall mental health and well-being. It’s
hard to feel good about much when you don’t like the way you look, but drastic diets and disordered eating patterns can make
us feel worse. Most of us recognize that regular exercise is good for health—and it’s a great way to manage low mood, stress,
anxiety, and other mental health concerns. But too much or too little exercise can cause problems, too. Learn more about
finding good, healthy balance and find tips to help you make changes in your life.

7: Healthy Thinking

Healthy Thinking is a tool to help you look at problems or situations in a realistic and balanced way. Do you find yourself
thinking about what you "should" do or wonder why things never seem work out? Do you jump to conclusions before you have
solid evidence? These common thinking traps can really make us feel down or upset, but you can learn to challenge unhelpful
thoughts and look at things from a more balanced perspective. Find a step-by-step guide to help you challenge unhelpful
thoughts and practice your skills in our online worksheet.

8: Finding Balance

Finding Balance is about allocating time for things you must do and things you want to do…without changing the number of
hours in a day! We all feel pressure to spend more time at work or feel like we must prioritize chores or other obligations over
activities we enjoy. Without good balance, though, it’s easy to start to feel overwhelmed, run down, and stressed out. Many
people say they feel guilty about spending time on themselves, but you are an important person in your life! Learn why
balance matters, find strategies to help you evaluate your own needs and priorities, and take a quiz to see if you’ve found
health balance.

9: Staying Mentally Healthy with Technology

Staying Mentally Healthy with Technology looks at technology in mental health: how technology might help and how
technology might harm well-being. Computers, phones, apps, websites, and other technologies are part of daily life. But how
and why we use technologies can have a big impact on our own well-being and our relationships with others. Some
technologies can be a way to avoid problems or cope with difficult feelings. Some people feel pressure to act or look certain
ways. Some people forgo a good night’s sleep or other healthy habits. In this module, you can take a quiz to see if you might
benefit by rethinking your relationship with technologies like phones, computers, and tablets. You'll also find tips to help you
find balance in your technology use.

10: Mindfulness

Mindfulness is a tool that can help you slow down, look at situations in a more balanced way, and appreciate what you are
experiencing in the moment. Mindfulness can have a very positive impact on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors—all of which
are important parts of health and well-being. Learn how mindfulness works and what it might look like and find resources to
help you practice mindfulness skills and bring a little mindfulness into your life.

Devastating Effects of Mental Illness

The long-term effects of mental illness can have devastating consequences on the human body and spirit. An inability to deal
with daily life pressures can lead to issues with your job, relationships, and your overall health. Whether you realize it or not,
your mental capacity to deal with life can negatively impact others as well.

While your health and safety come first, it cannot be argued that we all have an impact on each other, and the health of one
can significantly impact the health of the other. Trained and registered health professionals such as counsellors can help you
in learning how to manage your emotions and feelings. Dr. Stephanie Baker (PhD, MSW) has over 25 years of experience in
mental health therapy. She says that 80% of your recovery must come from your commitment and willingness to get better.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a proven and effective method in helping people with anxiety and depression.
According to the American Psychological Association, we often do not recognize the acute effects of stress and pressure on
our bodies until we develop some physical symptoms of mental illness. Our mental state of mind takes its toll on our physical
health, our emotional well-being, and even our intellectual health as we begin to experience cracks in the foundation that bring
lasting consequences.
How can we safeguard our mental health and experience vibrance and wellness in all areas of life? Read on to discover the 7
components of good mental health, and why it is so essential to foster each element for total body wellness.

7 Components of Mental Health

1. In-person therapy

Few of us are completely equipped with the tools needed for mental health in daily living; we often need an objective sounding
board to bounce life experiences off of in order to see patterns and emotions that need further evaluation. The need for in
person therapy in 2021 is higher now than ever before. In general, we humans feel a need to decompress from the pressures
and stresses of life as we learn new techniques for self-care and regulation that can improve our quality of life.

2. Community

Treating mental illness in 2021 may look different from years past, but that is no excuse to isolate yourself and wallow in your
own unique set of issues. Building a solid community of support, love, and friendships around you will be an essential part of
your wellness journey. Surround yourself with like-minded people; those who wish to become healthier and happier, and be
uplifted by conversations, in-person meetings, virtual care services and exchanges with your circle of support. In doing so,
you'll realize that this journey is not a solo trip, and that you have people around you to improve the quality of your life.

3. Physical health

The body and the brain are intimately interconnected, and the health of one affects the health of the other. Your body is an
intricate network of systems all working together to help you navigate life successfully, and you have a responsibility to take
care of it. Eating well, getting adequate exercise, sleep, and hydration are valuable actions you can take to preserve your
physical well-being, which in turn will help you feel more positive about life in general.

4. Intellectual health

Exercising your mind and committing to being a lifelong learner is a valuable part of your mental health process as well. With
all aspects of health, intellectual health requires balance; learning new skills and acquiring new knowledge will open up doors
of opportunity that can improve your life significantly.

5. Environmental health

Your environment can significantly impact your mental state of mind; those who are subjected to daily stressors and living
conditions that are less than ideal can negatively impact your environmental health and cause mental illness. Doing what you
can to remove those aspects of your life that are stressing you out----relationships, living conditions, social situations, physical
health issues----will help to reduce the stress response in your brain that can contribute to poor cognitive function.

6. Boundaries

It is impossible to fulfill all of life's obligations and take care of yourself as well; setting boundaries and learning to say "no" to
those things that are not essential will allow you to carve out some time for safeguarding your mental health. You may initially
feel guilty if you haven't said no to friends and family before, but the more you stand up for yourself and take back your time,
the easier it will be to practice the daily habits that preserve your mental wellness.

7. Self-care

The gifts of the last few years include more time for many---people are learning the fine art of self-care as we sit inside our
homes, for we have no choice but to take an introspective look at what we need most. Doing those things that nurture body,
soul, and spirit will improve not only your life, but the lives of those around you.

Why should mental health matter to you and your family?

When your mental health suffers, it can become hard to enjoy life. You may start to feel run down, both mentally and
physically. Many of these changes can make it harder to enjoy a balanced and rewarding life. Everyone can benefit from
learning how to enhance and protect their mental health—whether or not they’ve experienced mental illness or a substance
use problem.

Why should mental health matter to you and your family?

When your mental health suffers, it can become hard to enjoy life. You may start to feel run down, both mentally and
physically. Many of these changes can make it harder to enjoy a balanced and rewarding life. Everyone can benefit from
learning how to enhance and protect their mental health—whether or not they've experienced mental illness or a substance
use problem.

The 4Ms of Mental Health

How to manage high stress?

Psychiatrist Sue Varma suggest that during a time of high stress, it’s important to focus on “the four M’s of mental health –
mindfulness, mastery, movement and meaningful engagement.”

Seems apt right now.

It's a lovely, easy to remember, frame-up. The easy to remember bit is really important because in times of panic and anxiety
our ability to access our pre-frontal cortex (executive functioning) is limited.

This totally fits the bill:

1. Mindfulness - doesn't have to be sitting in a quiet room. You can practice being present to your mind (and to the
rhythm of the activity) in any routine activity. Sanding wood, washing hands (20 secs might go faster), playing guitar,
mowing lawns, cooking.
2. Mastery - getting better at something. Ideally at something that 'strengthens' you and you care about. Could be job-
related and/or out of work time.
3. Meaningful engagement - humans are social animals. We need to connect. Remember your community - we’re in this
together. Think about your connections, your wider community, your friends, workmates, family. And perhaps this
could also look like acts of kindness (like my client making something for his wider whanau).
Movement - yes, we have to move! Outside, go for walks, go to the bush, the beach, the garden, use a hammer, fix a car? Or
perhaps you exercise - cycle, run, walk, swim? And could include a more conceptual form of movement in time and space.

UNIT II - HISTORY, CONCEPT OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND HUMAN RIGHTS SITUATION IN THE COUNTRY

A Brief History of Human Rights

The Cyrus Cylinder (539 B.C)

In 539 B.C., the armies of Cyrus the Great, the first king of ancient Persia, conquered the city of Babylon. But it was his/her
next actions that marked a major advance for Man. He freed the slaves, declared that all people had the right to choose their
own religion, and established racial equality. These and other decrees were recorded on a baked-clay cylinder in the Akkadian
language with cuneiform script.

Known today as the Cyrus Cylinder, this ancient record has now been recognized as the world’s first charter of human rights. It
is translated into all six official languages of the United Nations and its provisions parallel the first four Articles of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.

The Concept of Human Rights

Human rights allow a person to live with dignity and in peace, away from the abuses can be inflicted by abusive institutions or
individuals. But the fact remains that there are rampant human rights violations around the world.

To further promote the importance of human rights in the Philippines, December 4 to 10 of each year is marked as National
Human Rights Consciousness Week via Republic Act No. 9201.

December 10 is also considered as the United Nations Human Rights Day. It commemorates the day the UN General
Assembly Adopted the United Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

What are human rights?

Human rights, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, refers to norms that aim to protect people from political,
legal, and social abuses. The United Nations (UN) defines human rights as universal and inalienable, interdependent, and
invisible, and equal and non-discriminatory.

Universal and inalienable:

Human rights belong to all and cannot be taken away unless specific situations call for it. However, the deprivation of a
person’s right is subject to due process.

Interdependent and indivisible:

Whatever happens to even one right-fulfillment or violation-can directly affect the others.

Equal and non-discriminatory:

Human rights protect all people regardless of race, nationality, gender, religion, and political learning, among others. They
should be respected without prejudice.
Human rights can also be classified under individual, collective, civil, political, economic, and social, and cultural.

What laws or legal documents ensure the human rights of Filipino Citizens?

The rights of Filipinos can be found in Article III of the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Also called the Bill of Rights, it includes 22
sections which declare a Filipino citizen’s rights and privileges that the Constitution has to protect, no matter what.

Aside from various local laws, human rights in the Philippines are also guided by the UN’s International Bill of Human Rights- a
consolidation of 3 legal documents including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and the International Covenant on Economic Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). As
one of the signatories of these legal documents, the Philippines is Obliged to recognize and apply appropriate laws to ensure
each right’s fulfillment. This is not always the case, however, as the Philippine Constitution lacks explicit laws to further cement
specific human rights in the local context. For example, the Right to Adequate Food may be included in the UDHR but it is not
explicitly indicated in the Philippine Constitution. Thus, the government cannot be held responsible if this not attained (READ:
Zero Hunger: Holding gov’t accountable)

Who oversees the fulfillment and protection of human rights in the Philippines?

Human rights are both rights and obligations, according to the UN. The state- or the government- is obliged to “respect,
protect, and fulfill” these rights.
Respect begets commitment from state that no law should be made to interfere or curtail the fulfillment of the stated human
rights. Protecting means that human rights violations should be prevented and if they exist, immediate action should be made.

In the Philippines the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) primarily handles the investigations of human rights violations.
However, it has no power to resolve issue as stated in the Supreme Court decision in 1991.

Established in 1986 during administration of President Corazon Aquino, CHR is an independent body which ensures the
protection of human rights guaranteed by the Bill of Rights.

Aside from investigations, it also aids and legal measures for the protection of human rights guided by Section 18 Article XIII of
the Philippine Constitution.

Do criminals or those who break the law still enjoy human rights?

Criminals or those in conflict with the aw are still protected by rights as indicated in many legal documents such as the
Philippines’ Criminal Code and UN’s Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners.

Specific human rights, however, may be removed, provided they go through due process beforehand.

BILL OF RIGHTS. According to the 1987 Philippine Constitutions defined as the declaration and enumeration of a
person’s rights and privileges which the Constitution is designed to protect against violations by the government or by
individuals or group of individuals. It is a charter of liberties for the individual and a limitation upon the power of state.

CLASSES OF RIGHTS

1. Natural
2. Constitutional
3. Statutory rights or those promulgated by the congress and may be abolished by the letter also

HUMAN RIGHTS UNDER ARTICLE 3, 1987 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION

1. The rights to life, liberty, and property

2. The right against unreasonable searches and seizures
3. Right to Privacy of Communication and Correspondence
4. Freedom of Expression and Assembly
5. Freedom of Religion
6. Liberty of Abode and Right to Travel
7. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern
8. Freedom of Association
9. Prohibition against Expropriation of Property without just compensation
10. Prohibition against Impairment of Contract
11. Free Access to the Court and Quasi-Judicial Bodies
12. Right to counsel and the right to remain silent
13. The right to bail
14. Right to presumption of innocence
15. Rights of the accused in criminal prosecution
16. Right to Habeas Corpus
17. Right to speedy disposition of cases
18. Right against self-incrimination
19. The right against excessive, cruel, or unusual punishment
20. Right against involuntary servitude
21. Right against double Jeopardy
22. Right against the bill of attainder and ex post facto law

UNIT III - GOVERNANCE

Getting to Definition

This is the first leg of the module on governance. In this module, the instructor provides a practical introduction in the
study of governance and development to analyze an array of definitions and meaning of the concept of governance. Later on,
the students will be asked to crystallize their own notion of governance and how it may be applied in the real world.
THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE
In most dictionaries “government” and “governance” are interchangeably used, both denoting the exercise of authority
in an organization, institution, or state. Government is the name given to the entity exercising that authority. Authority can
most simply define as legitimate power. Whereas power is the ability to influence the behavior of others, authority is the right to
do so. Authority is therefore the based on an acknowledged duty to obey rather than on any form of coercion or manipulation.
Weber distinguished between three kinds of authority, based on the different grounds upon obedience can be established;
traditional authority is rooted in history, charismatic authority stems from personality and legal authority is grounded in a set of
impersonal rules. To study government is to study the exercise of authority. (Heywood, 1997) Government is closely related to
politics.

To study politics is in essence to study government or more broadly, to study the exercise of authority. Politics is the
art of government, the exercise of control within the society through the making and enforcement of collective decisions.
(Heywood 1997) The realm of politics is restricted to state actors who are consciously motivated by ideological beliefs, and
who seek to advance them through membership of a formal organization such as a political organization. This is the sense in
which politicians are described as “political” whereas civil servants are seen as “nonpolitical”, the state as “public” and the civil
society as “private”. The institutions of the state (the apparatus of the government, the courts, the police, the army, the society-
security system and so forth) can be regarded as “public” in the sense that they are responsible for the collective organization
of the community life. Moreover, they are funded at the public’s
expense, out of taxation. In contrast, civil society consists of what Raymund Burke called the little platoons, institutions such as
the family and kinship groups, private businesses, trade unions, clubs, community groups and so on that are private in the
sense that they are set up and funded by individual citizens. On the basis of this public/private life division, government is
restricted to the activities of the state itself and the responsibilities which are properly exercised by public bodies. Although civil
society can be distinguished from the state, it nevertheless contains a range of institutions that are thought as “public” in a
wider access.

One of its crucial implications is that it broadens our notion of the government transferring the economy in particular
from the private to the public realm. Now, the conception of politics and government move beyond the narrow realm of
government to what is thought as “public life” or “public affairs.” Since, the government doesn’t only decide for all and the civil
society and the private sectors play vital role in the community, thus, the conception of the word “governance”. Governance is
a broader term than government. In its widest sense, it refers to the various ways in which social life is coordinated.
Government can therefore be seen as one of the institutions in governance; it is possible to have governance without
government. (Heywood, 1997)
Governance: Varying Definitions

Governance is:

“The traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised” – Kaufman et al

The way “ … power is exercised through a country’s economic, political, and social institutions.” – the World Bank’s PRSP
Handbook.

“The sound exercise of political, economic, and administrative authority to manage a country’s resources for development. It
involves the institutionalization of a system through which citizens, institutions, organizations, and groups in a society articulate
their interests, exercise their rights, and mediate their differences in pursuit of the collective good “(Country Governance
Assessment 2005).

“The exercise of economic, political, and administrative authority to manage a country’s affairs at all levels. It comprises
mechanisms, processes, and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights,
meet their obligations, and mediate their differences.” UNDP.

In governance, citizens are rightly concerned with a government’s responsiveness to their needs and protection of their rights.
In general, governance issues pertain to the ability of government to develop an efficient, effective, and accountable public
management process that is open to citizen participation and that strengthens rather than weakens a democratic system of
government. “ The USAID, Office of Democracy & Governance.

It refers to how any organization, including a nation, is run. It includes all the processes, systems, and controls that are used to
safeguard and grow assets.” (UNDP, 1997)

“The systems, processes and procedures put in place to steer the direction, management and accountability of an
organization.” Birmingham City Council.

When applied to organizations that operate commercially, governance is often termed "corporate governance"

"Promoting fairness, transparency and accountability" – World Bank

"a system by which business organizations are directed and controlled".- OECD

“The manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s social and economic resources for development. It
is referred to as the quality of the institutions to make, implement and enforce sound policies in an efficient, effective, equitable
and inclusive man The Asian Development Bank (ADB)

In broad terms, governance is about the institutional environment in which citizens interact among themselves and with
government agencies/officials. (ADB, 2005).

The process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented). Governance can
be used in several contexts such as corporate governance, international governance, national governance, and local
governance.
The interactions among structures, processes and traditions that determine how power and responsibilities are exercised, how
decisions are taken, and how citizens or other stakeholders have their say. Fundamentally, it is about power, relationships and
accountability: who has influence, who decides, and how decision-makers are held accountable. (IOG 2003)

“As the exercise of economic, political, and administrative authority to manage the nation’s affairs at all levels. It comprises of
mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights
and obligations, and mediate their differences. Governance is not the sole domain of government but transcends government
to encompass the business sector and the civil society. NEDA (2006) tentative, unpredictable, and fluid. Governance is
complicated by the fact that it involves multiple actors, not a single helmsman.

These multiple actors are the organization's stakeholders. They articulate their interests; influence how decisions are
made, who the decision-makers are and what decisions are taken.

Decision-makers must absorb this input into the decision-making process. Decision-makers are then accountable to
those same stakeholders for the organization's output and the process of producing it.

Governance According to UNDP

The challenge for all societies is to create a system of governance that promotes supports and sustains human
development - especially for the poorest and most marginal. But the search for a clearly articulated concept of governance has
just begun.
Good governance is, among other things, participatory, transparent, and accountable. It is also effective and
equitable. And it promotes the rule of law. Good governance ensures that political, social, and economic priorities are based
on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over
the allocation of development resources.
Governance has three legs: economic, political, and administrative. Economic governance includes decision-making
processes that affect a country's economic activities and its relationships with other economies. It clearly has major
implications for equity, poverty, and quality of life. Political governance is the process of decision-making to formulate policy.
Administrative governance is the system of policy implementation.
Encompassing all three, good governance defines the processes and structures that guide political and socio-
economic relationships.
Governance encompasses the state, but it transcends the state by including the private sector and civil society
organizations. What constitutes the state is widely debated. Here, the state is defined to include political and public sector
institutions. UNDP's primary interest lies in how effectively the state serves the needs of its people. The private sector covers
private enterprises (manufacturing, trade, banking, cooperatives and so on) and the informal sector in the marketplace. Some
say that the private sector is part of civil society. But the private sector is separate to the extent that private sector players
influence social, economic, and political policies in ways that create a more conducive environment for the marketplace and
enterprises.
Civil society, lying between the individual and the state, comprises individuals and groups (organized or unorganized)
interacting socially, politically, and economically - regulated by formal and informal rules and laws.

GOVERNANCE & SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:

UNDP believes that developing the capacity of good governance is the primordial way to eliminate poverty. Notions of
good governance and the link between governance and sustainable human development vary greatly, however, both in
academic literature and among development practitioners2. (UNDP, 1997)

So, what is sustainable human development?

Human development as expanding the choices for all people in society. This means that men and women - particularly the
poor and vulnerable - are at the center of the development process. It also means "protection of the life opportunities of future
generations...and...the natural systems on which all life depends" (UNDP, Human Development Report 1996). This makes the
central purpose of development the creation of an enabling environment in which all can enjoy long, healthy, and creative
lives.

Economic growth is a means to sustainable human development - not an end in itself. Human Development Report 1996
showed that economic growth does not automatically lead to sustainable human development and the elimination of poverty.
For example, countries that do well when ranked by per capita income often slip down the ladder when ranked by the human
development index. There are, moreover, marked disparities within countries - rich and poor alike - and these become striking
when human development among indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities is evaluated separately.

There are five aspects to sustainable human development - all affecting the lives of the poor and vulnerable:

 Empowerment - The expansion of men and women's capabilities and choices increases their ability to exercise those
choices free of hunger, want and deprivation. It also increases their opportunity to participate in, or endorse,
decision-making affecting their lives.

 Co-operation - With a sense of belonging important for personal fulfillment, well- being and a sense of purpose and
meaning, human development is concerned with the ways in which people work together and interact.

 Equity - The expansion of capabilities and opportunities means more than income - it also means equity, such as an
educational system to which everybody should have access.

 Sustainability - The needs of this generation must be met without compromising the right of future generations to be free
of poverty and deprivation and to exercise their basic capabilities.

 Security - Particularly the security of livelihood. People need to be freed from threats, such as disease or repression and
from sudden harmful disruptions in their lives.

 UNDP focuses on four critical elements of sustainable human development: eliminating poverty, creating jobs, and
sustaining livelihoods, protecting, and regenerating the environment, and promoting the advancement of women.
Developing the capacities for good governance underpins all these objectives.

The Art of Governing

To govern is to exercise power and authority over a territory, system, or organization. This applies to both
government and governance3. The exercise of authority is uppermost in government and remains significance in governance
but is no longer the single focus. This is because the power in governance is not so much wielded as shared, and authority is
defined not so much by control of the ruler as by the
consent and participation of the governed. Is a state weak under a regime of governance? Not necessarily for it can be
stronger than ever before except that the acts expected of it are different from the role of the state as government.

In traditional parlance, government rules and controls, but in governance, it orchestrates and manages. These
contrasts may seem overdrawn, but we will flesh out and qualify them as the discussion proceeds.

Ruling and orchestrating rest on different bases. To rule is to be the sole authority, for which the appropriate
response is to obey. A government that rule relies on force to exact compliance, and we know from introductory from the
introductory political science that the state has the monopoly of legitimate violence. It enacts laws binding on all the inhabitants
and metes out sanctions according to these laws. It delivers services to passive recipients who have little influence in the
definition of the programs or their eligibility requirement and methods.

By contrast, to orchestrate is to call on everyone to play a part in moving the society. Power rests on the trust the
players have on the director and on each other. Because built on trust, transparency in the conduct of governing is essential.
Laws still bind all, but they are laws they had a part in bringing about. Accountability is shared, and they who have the greatest
power bear the greater responsibility.

To control is not to manage, as Landau and Stout maintained in a classic article. We have not found a definition of
governance that uses control instead of management.

To control is to direct what each part of the system must do. It assumes that the controller knows the goals and is
certain how an action it requires can lead to it. Deviation will be viewed as error in a context of full knowledge.

Controlling assumes a law (using the term in scientific sense) but to manage is to act on a hypothesis. The manager
works on incomplete information and tests if the hypothesis is borne out in a given situation. A manager then must be open to
inputs from outside him which might provide new information and to methods other than those originally promulgated that
could lead to the specified goal. Governance chooses management over control because its system is permeable, admits
outside the influences, assumes no omnipotence or omniscience on the part of the decision-maker, and subjects’ decisions to
the evaluation and critique of all those with a stake in them.

All governing is an act of leadership, of moving a society towards a preferred direction. While government can have a
connotation of being interested only in maintenance and in preserving peace and order, governance implies leadership toward
societal development. This is shown in the following passage from the International Institute of Administrative Sciences.
Governance is the process whereby elements in society wield power and authority, and influence and enact policies
and decisions concerning public life, economic and social development.”

This shows that the concept is indeed a product of the late twentieth century when development became a
preoccupation of societies and states. The definition of development shall be discussed on the succeeding modules.
The Need for Good Governance: Why Governance Matters

Good governance creates a strong future for an organization by continuously steering towards a vision and making
sure that day-to-day management is always lined up with the organization’s goals. At its core, governance is about
leadership.

An effective board will improve the organization’s results, both financial and social, and make sure the owners' assets
and funds are used appropriately. Poor governance can put organizations at risk of commercial failure, financial and legal
problems for directors/trustees or allow an organization to lose sight of its purpose and its responsibilities to its owners and
people who benefit from its success.

The Rights-Based Approach to governance implies that the holders of rights should also participate fully in deciding
how those rights are fulfilled, such as through participation and greater empowerment. And as the Millennium Declaration
emphasizes, one of the most important requirements for achieving this and the MDG is “governance” The report points out that
Asia and the Pacific has many diverse forms of democratic governments 4. In some cases, these have involved highly
centralized administrations that have offered a limited space for popular participation. Nevertheless, in recent years there
have been significant changes. One of the most dramatic examples has been in Indonesia, which for decades until the late
1990s had a strongly centralized administration. Now the democratic Government in Indonesia has not only offered free and
fair elections; it has also enacted a radical process of decentralization.

Another vital attribute of governance in MDGs is efficient and effective administration. The Government of India, for
example, is determined to be more responsive and accountable to the public. A further governance priority in Asia and the
Pacific is the fight against corruption, which degrades the quality of governance and hits hardest at the poorest. The
Government of China for example is among those taking firm measures to combat corruption and promote integrity in
governance.
Theories of Governance

If Max Weber and Woodrow Wilson were to suddenly appear on the landscape of modern public administration,
normative theories in hand, it is likely they would be unable to recognize the field of governance. The comprehensive,
functionally uniform, hierarchical organizations governed by strong leaders who are democratically responsible and staffed by
neutrally competent civil servants who deliver services to citizens – to the extent they ever existed – are long gone. They have
been replaced by an ‘organizational society’ in which many important services are provided through multi organizational
programs. These programs are essentially “interconnected clusters of firms, governments, and associations which come
together within the framework of these programs” (Hjern and Porter, 1981, pp. 212-213).

These implementation structures operate within a notion of governance about which a surprising level of consensus
has been reached. There is a pervasive, shared, global perception of governance as a topic far broader than ‘government’; the
governance approach is seen as a “new process of governing, or a changed condition of ordered rule; or the new method by
which society is governed” (Stoker, 1998, p. 17). Similarly, in the scholarship that has followed the ‘Reinventing Government’
themes of public effectiveness; much has been written of New Public Management practices by which governance theory is
put into action (Mathiasen, 1996; Lynn, 1996, 1998; Terry, 1998; Kelly, 1998; Peters and Pierre, 1998).

In this complex, devolved mode of service delivery, the unit of analysis for some students of policy implementation is
the network of nonprofit organizations, private firms and governments. As Milward and Provan note, in policy arenas such as
health, mental health, and welfare, "...joint production and having several degrees of separation between the source and the
user of government funds...combine to ensure that hierarchies and markets will not work and that networks are the only
alternative for collective action" (2000, p. 243).

The discussions below describe the relationship of governance and other Public Administration theories, the New Public
Management, in particular.

The (mostly European) literature on governance and the increasingly international scholarship on New Public
Management (NPM) describe two models of public service that reflect a ‘reinvented’ form of government which is better
managed, and which takes its objectives not from democratic theory but from market economics (Stoker, 1998). While some
use the terms interchangeably (for example, Hood, 1991), most of the research makes distinctions between the two.
Essentially, governance is a political theory while NPM is an organizational theory (Peters and Pierre, 1998). As Stoker
describes it,
 Governance refers to the development of governing styles in which boundaries between and within public
and private sectors have become blurred. The essence of governance is its focus on mechanisms that do not rest on
recourse to the authority and sanctions of government….Governance for (some) is about the potential for contracting,
franchising and new forms of regulation. In short, it is about what (some) refer to as the new public management. However,
governance …is more than a new set of managerial tools. It is also about more than achieving greater efficiency in the
production of public services (1998, p. 17-18). Peters and Pierre agree, saying that governance is about process, while NPM is
about outcomes (1998, p. 232).

Governance is ultimately concerned with creating the conditions for ordered rule and collective action
(Stoker, 1998; Peters and Pierre, 1998; Milward and Provan, 2000). As should be expected, all efforts to synthesize the
literature draw from theories found in the separate traditions. Berman owes debts to Van Meter and Van Horn (1975, 1976)
and Goggin, et al (1990), among others. See Kaboolian (1998) for a description of reform movements in the public sector that
collectively comprise “New Public Management” (NPM). I adopt her definition of NPM as a series of innovations that –
considered collectively – embody public choice approaches, transaction-cost relationships, and preferences for efficiency over
equity. notes, the outputs of governance are not different from those of government; it is instead a matter of a difference in
processes (1998, p. 17).

Governance refers to the development of governing styles in which boundaries between and within public and private
sectors have become blurred. The essence of governance, and its most troublesome aspect, according to its critics, is a focus
on mechanisms that do not rest on recourse to the authority and sanctions of government (Bekke, et al, 1995; Peters and
Pierre, 1998; Stoker, 1998; Rhodes, 1996, 1997). Stoker (1998, p. 18) draws five propositions to frame our understanding of
the critical questions that governance theory should help us answer. He acknowledges that each proposition implies a
dilemma or critical issue.

1. Governance refers to institutions and actors from within and beyond government. (But there is a divorce
between the complex reality of decision-making associated with governance and the normative codes used to explain
and justify government). The question, as it relates to policy implementation, is one of legitimacy. The extent to which
those with decision-making power are seen to be legitimate (in the normative sense) will directly impact their ability to
mobilize resources and promote cooperation and build and sustain partnerships. Thus, the normative dilemma has
pragmatic overtones. Beetham suggests that for power to be legitimate it must conform to established rules; these rules
must be justified by adherence to shared beliefs; and the power must be exercised with the express consent of
subordinates (1991, p. 19).

2. Governance identifies the blurring of boundaries and responsibilities for tackling social and economic issues .
This shift in responsibility goes beyond the public-private dimension to include notions of communitarianism and social
capital. (However, blurring of responsibilities can lead to blame avoidance or scapegoating). An interesting research
area that has grown in scope and importance following the implementation of welfare reform is the study of faith-based
organizations’ role and impact in service delivery. Public agencies have not merely endorsed or encouraged this
partnership, but in some cases have institutionalized these arrangements. This suggests a shift in responsibility beyond
the more traditional notions of contracting out and privatization. At the same time, all of these activities contribute to
uncertainties on the part of policy makers and the public about who is in charge and who can be held accountable for
performance outcomes. Implementation theory must attend to the nature and impact of responsibility and
accountability.

3. Governance identifies the power dependence involved in the relationships between institutions involved in
collective action. Organizations are dependent upon each other for the achievement of collective action, and thus
must exchange resources and negotiate shared understandings of ultimate program goals. The implementation
literature is replete with studies of coordination barriers and impacts (for example, Jennings and Ewalt, 1998).
(Nonetheless, power dependence exacerbates the problem of unintended consequences for government because of
the likelihood of principal-agent problems.) For implementation scholarship to contribute to a greater understanding of
governance relationships, arrangements for minimizing (and impacts of) game-playing, subversion, creaming and
opportunism must be explored.

4. Governance is about autonomous self-governing networks of actors. (The emergence of self-governing networks
raises difficulties over accountability). Governance networks, in Stoker’s terms, “involve not just influencing government
policy but taking over the business of government” (1998, p. 23). The “hollow state” that networks have triggered
(Milward, 1996; Milward and Provan, 2000) raises questions about how government can manage public programs
when they consist largely of entities outside the public domain. Network theory and governance issues overlap, and
they are both directly linked to questions of implementation.

5. Governance recognizes the capacity to get things done which does not rest on the power of government to
command or use its authority. (But even so, government failures may occur.) It is in this proposition that we find a
natural progression from the more encompassing theory of governance to the more prescriptive notions of New Public
Management. Stoker notes that within governance there is a concerted emphasis on new tools and techniques to steer
and guide. The language is taken directly from reinventing themes. The dilemma of governance in this context is that
there is a broader concern with the very real potential for leadership failure, differences among key partners in time
horizons and goal priorities, and social conflicts, all of which can result in governance failure. Stoker draws on Goodin
as he suggests that design challenges of public institutions can be addressed in part by “revisability, robustness,
sensitivity to motivational complexity, public dependability, and variability to encourage experimentation” (Stoker, 1998,
p. 26, quoting from Goodin, 1996, p. 39-43).

As Peters and Pierre note, “governance is about maintaining public-sector resources under some degree of political
control and developing strategies to sustain government’s capacity to act” in the face of management tools that replace highly
centralized, hierarchical structures with decentralized management environments where decisions on resource allocation and
service delivery are made closer to the point of delivery (1998, p. 232).
Wh at is good governance?

Like government, governance can be good or bad. Bad government and bad governance have similar
characteristics: Corruption, Whimsical and Expedient Decision-Making, Shortsightedness, disregard for the concern of the
many and decisions6. In the same vein, the criteria for good governance and would be the same as good governance. They
include accountability and ethics in decision-making and implementation, transparency and predictability, rule-bound
decision-making and action, responsiveness, a long-term view of the public interest. The public should therefore have a right
to expect laws, a fair judicial system, politically accountable lawmaking, and an effective and reform-minded bureaucracy.

One goal of good governance is to enable an organization to do its work and fulfill its mission. Good governance
results in organizational effectiveness.

A lot of attention has been focused on good governance practices in the private sector in Canada, the United
States, the United Kingdom, and elsewhere. In the corporate world of business, the “bottom line” provides a helpful focus
point, but even here there can be difficult questions of judgment as to what constitutes good governance. Current debate
about corporate governance is just starting to look at questions about the broader purposes of private corporations. The
private sectors are expected to provide corporate social responsibility which seeks to include sustainable development and
the need to address the social, economic and environmental impact of various operations.

In the public and non-profit sectors, the question of what constitutes good governance is often more complex. In
public purpose organizations, good governance is about more than getting the job done. Especially in non-profits,
government agencies and the like, where values typically play an important role in determining both organizational purpose
and style of operation, process is as important as product. Good governance becomes more than only a means to
organizational effectiveness and becomes an end in itself.
Good governance is about both achieving desired results and achieving them in the right way.
Since the "right way" is largely shaped by the cultural norms and values of the organization, there can be no universal
template for good governance. Each organization must tailor its own definition of good governance to suit its needs and
values.

6
The Concept of Governance, Ledivina V. Carino, From Government to Governance, Reflections on the 1999 World
Conference on Governance. 2

There is plenty of room for different traditions and values to be accommodated in the definition of good governance. At the
same time, all is not relative. There are some universal norms and values that apply across cultural boundaries.

A number of multilateral organizations and institutions (e.g., the United Nations Development Programmed (UNDP),
the Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development (OECD), the Asian Development Bank) have reflected on the
elements of good governance and on their relation to development. As the ethos and experience of these institutions vary, so,
to do their perception of what constitutes good governance.
The challenge for all societies is to create a system of governance that promotes, supports, and sustains human
development - especially for the poorest and most marginal. But the search for a clearly articulated concept of governance has
just begun.
Good governance is, among other things, participatory, transparent, and accountable. It is also effective and
equitable. And it promotes the rule of law. Good governance ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on
broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the
allocation of development resources.
THE EIGHT CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE BY UNDP

Good governance is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective, and efficient,
equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are
considered and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision- making. It is also responsive to the
present and future needs of society. Much has been written about the characteristics of efficient government, successful
businesses, and effective civil society organizations, but the characteristics of good governance defined in societal terms
remain elusive.

Interrelated, these core characteristics are mutually reinforcing and cannot stand alone. For example, accessible
information means more transparency, broader participation, and more effective decision-making. Broad participation
contributes both to the exchange of information needed for effective decision-making and for the legitimacy of those decisions.
Legitimacy, in turn, means effective implementation and encourages further participation. And responsive institutions must be
transparent and function according to the rule of law if they are to be equitable.

These core characteristics represent the ideal - and no society has them all. Even so, UNDP believes that societies
should aim, through broad-based consensus-building, to define which of the core features are most important to them, what
the best balance is between the state and the market, how each socio-cultural and economic setting can move from here to
there.

UNDP is faced increasingly with post-crisis situations and disintegrating societies. For them, the issue is not developing
good governance - it is building the basic institutions of governance. The first step is towards reconciliation - building society's
ability to carry on a dialogue on the meaning of governance and the needs of all citizens

Good governance has 8 major characteristics. It is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent,
responsive, effective, and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized,
the views of minorities are considered and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. It is
also responsive to the present and future needs of society.

Participation
Participation by both men and women is a key cornerstone of good governance All men and women should have a voice
in decision-making, either directly or through legitimate intermediate institutions that represent their interests. Such broad
participation is built on freedom of association and speech, as well as capacities to participate constructively. Participation
could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is important to point out that
representative democracy does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into
consideration in decision making. Participation needs to be informed and organized. This means freedom of association and
expression on the one hand and an organized civil society on the other hand.

Rule of law

Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced impartially, particularly the laws on human rights.
 Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires full protection of human
rights, particularly those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and
incorruptible police force.
Transparency
Transparency is built on the free flow of information. Processes, institutions, and information are directly accessible to those
concerned with them, and enough information is provided to understand and monitor them.

Transparency means that decisions taken, and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules and
regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly accessible to those who will be affected by such
decisions and their enforcement. It also means that enough information is provided and that it is provided in easily
understandable forms and media.
Responsiveness

Institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders. Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to
serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.
Consensus oriented

Good governance mediates differing interests to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interests of the group
and, where possible, on policies and procedures.

There are several actors and as many viewpoints in a given society. Good governance requires mediation of the
different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of the whole community and
how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human
development and how to achieve the goals of such development. This can only result from an understanding of the historical,
cultural, and social contexts of a given society or community.
Equity and inclusiveness

All men and women have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being.

A society’s well-being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel
excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires all groups, but particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to
improve or maintain their well-being.

Characteristics of good governance

1. Consensus oriented
2. Accountable
3. Participatory
4. Transparent
5. Follows the rule of law
6. Responsive
7. Effective and efficient
8. Equitable and inclusive
Effectiveness and efficiency
Processes and institutions produce results that meet needs while making the best use of resources.
Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making
the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the context of good governance also covers the
sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment.

Accountability

Decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil society organizations are accountable to the public, as well as
to institutional stakeholders. This accountability differs depending on the organization and whether the decision is internal or
external to an organization.

Accountability is a key requirement of good governance. Not only governmental institutions but also the private sector
and civil society organizations must be accountable to the public and to their institutional stakeholders. Who is accountable to
whom varies depending on whether decisions or actions taken are internal or external to an organization or institution? In
general, an organization or an institution is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions. Accountability
cannot be enforced without transparency and the rule of law.

Strategic vision

Leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance and human development, along
with a sense of what is needed for such development. There is also an understanding of the historical, cultural, and social
complexities in which that perspective is grounded.

The World Bank on the other hand, cites 4 dimensions of governance which are: Public Sector Management,
Accountability, and Legal Framework for Development and Transparency & Information

The World Bank’s interest in governance stems from its concern with the effectiveness of the development efforts it
supports. From this perspective, sound development management is critical in ensuring adequate returns and efficacy of the
programs and projects financed and for the World Bank’s underlying objectives of helping countries reduce poverty and
promoting sustainable development growth.

Four Basic Elements of Good Governance according to ADB

ADB likewise regards governance as synonymous with sound development management. It relates to governance to
the effectiveness with which development assistance is used, the impact of development programs and projects and the
absorptive capacity of borrowing countries. To address governance issues, the Asian Development bank has built upon the
approach of the World Bank and has identified four basic elements of good governance:

1. Accountability
 Accountability is imperative to make public officials answerable for government behavior and responsive to the entity
from which they derive their authority. This may be achieved differently in different countries or political structures, depending
on the history, cultural milieu, and value systems involved.

Accountability also means establishing criteria to measure the performance of public officials, as well as oversight
mechanisms to ensure that standards are met. The litmus test is whether private actors in the economy have procedurally
simple and swift recourse for redress of unfair actions or incompetence of the executive authority. Lack of accountability tends
in time to reduce the state’s credibility as an economic partner. It undermines the capacity of governments to sustain the long-
term business confidence essential for growth-enhancing private sector investment. Looked at from this angle, accountability
can help reduce sovereign risk.

The accountability of public sector institutions is facilitated by evaluation of their economic and financial performance.
Economic accountability relates to the effectiveness of policy formulation and implementation, and efficiency in resource use.
Financial accountability covers accounting systems for expenditure control, and internal and external audits.

2. Participation

The principle of participation derives from an acceptance that people at the heart of development. They are not only the
ultimate beneficiaries of development but are also the agents of development. In the latter capacity, they
act through groups or associations (e.g., trade unions, chambers of commerce, NGOs, political parties) and as
individuals. (e.g through letters to newspaper editors, participating in radio and television talk shows, voting) . Since
development is both for and by the people, they need to have access to the institutions that promote it.

Participation is often related to accountability but not necessarily so. In representative democracies, where citizens
participate in government through the electoral process, public officials are indeed accountable ultimately to the electorate.
This may not be the case however, in other political systems. For all economies though, the benefits of participatory
approaches can be considerable. These include improved performance and sustainability of policies, programs, and projects
as well as enhanced capacity and skills of stakeholders.

At the grassroots level, participation implies that government structures are flexible enough to offer beneficiaries and
others affected, the opportunity to improve the design and implementation of public programs and projects. This increases
“ownership” and enhances results. At a different level, the effectiveness of policies and institutions impinging on the economy
as a whole may require the broad support and cooperation of major economic actors concerned. To the extent that the
interface between the public agencies and the private sector is conducive to the latter’s participation in the economy, national
economic performance will be enhanced.

Participation in economic life by agents other than the state would cover not only the role of the private sector but also
the activities of NGOs. These elements of civil society offer an alternative means of channeling the energies of private citizens.
They can be helpful in identifying people’s interests, mobilizing public opinion in support of these interests, and organizing
action accordingly. Being close to their constituents, NGOs can provide governments with a useful ally in enhancing
participation at the community level and fostering a “bottom-up” approach to economic and social development.
3. Predictability
Predictability refers to the existence of laws, regulations, and policies to regulate society, and their fair and consistent
application. The importance of predictability cannot be overstated since, without it, the orderly existence of citizens and
institutions would be impossible. The rule of law encompasses both well-defined rights and duties, as well as mechanisms for
enforcing them, and settling disputes in an impartial manner. It requires the state and its subsidiary agencies to be as much
bound by and answerable to, the legal system as are private individuals and enterprises.

The importance of rules-based systems for economic life is obvious. They are essential component of the environment
within which economic actors plan and take investment decisions. To the extent, therefore, that legal frameworks help ensure
that 1. business risks can be assessed rationally, 2. transaction costs are lowered, and 3 governmental arbitrariness is
minimized, they should prove conducive to risk taking, growth and development. In an opposite scenario, the capricious
application of rules generates uncertainty and inhibits the growth of private sector initiatives. Regulatory uncertainty also tends
to raise the cost of capital by increasing the risk of investment.

Besides legal and regulatory frameworks, consistency of public policy is also important. Government policies affect the
investment climate directly and economic actors require reasonable assurance about the future behavior of key variables such
as prices, the exchange rates, and the employment levels. However, consistency does not mean rigidity. Governments do
need to respond flexibly to changing circumstances and to make midcourse corrections as necessary. Also, when
government’s change, the successor administration will, understandably, want public policy to reflect its priorities, rather those
of its predecessor.
4. Transparency
Transparency refers to the availability of information to the general public and clarity about government rules,
regulations, and decisions. Thus, it both complements and reinforces predictability. The difficulty with ensuring transparency is
that only the generator of information may know about it and may limit access to it. Hence, it may be useful to strengthen the
citizen’s right for information with a degree of legal enforceability, for similar reasons. Broadly restrictive laws that permit public
officials to deny information to citizens need to provide for independent review of claims that such denial is justified in the
greater public interest.

Transparency in government decision making and public policy implementation reduces uncertainty and can help inhibit
corruption among public officials. To this end, rules and procedures that are simple, straightforward, and easy to apply are
preferable to those that provide discretionary powers to government officials or that are susceptible to different interpretations.

In relation to the above-mentioned indicators/elements of good governance the Key Dimensions and specific areas of
actions are identified by ADB as provided on Table 2.

Basic Elements of Good Governance

 Basic Elements of Key Dimensions Specific Areas of
Good Governance Action
1. Accountability means making Establishing criteria to Public Sector Management
public officials answerable for measure performance of Public Enterprise Management
government behavior and public officials Institutionalizing Public Financial management
responsive to the entity from which mechanisms to ensure that Civil Service Reform
they derive authority standards are met
2. Participation refers to Undertaking development for Participation of beneficiaries and affected groups
enhancing people’s access to and and by the people Interface between government and the private
influence on public policy sector
processes Decentralization of public and service delivery
functions (empowerment of Local
Governments)
Cooperation with Non-Government Organizations
3. Predictability refers to the Establishing and sustaining Law and development Legal Frameworks for
existence of laws, regulations and appropriate legal and Private Sector Development
policies to regulate society and the institutional Arrangements
fair and consistent application of Observing and upholding the
these rule of law
Maintaining consistency of
public policies
4. Transparency refers to the Ensuring access to accurate Disclosure of Information
availability of Information to the and timely information about
general public and clear government the economy and government
rules, regulations, and decisions policies

Institute On Governance Five Principles of Good Governance

The Five Good Governance Principles. The UNDP Principles and related UNDP text on which they are based. The Institute on
Governance has identified five principles of governance, using as basis the UNDPs indicators of good governance.

1. Legitimacy and Voice

Participation – all men and women should have a voice in decision-making, either directly or through legitimate intermediate
institutions that represent their intention. Such broad participation is built on freedom of association and speech, as well as
capacities to participate constructively.
Consensus orientation – good governance mediates differing interests to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best
interest of the group and, where possible, on policies and procedures.
2. Direction
Strategic vision – leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance and human
development, along with a sense of what is needed for such development. There is also an understanding of the historical,
cultural, and social complexities in which that perspective is grounded.
3. Performance
Responsiveness – institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders.
Effectiveness and efficiency – processes and institutions produce results that meet needs while making the best use of
resources.

4. Accountability
Accountability – decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil society organizations are accountable to the
public, as well as to institutional stakeholders. This accountability differs depending on the organizations and whether the
decision is internal or external.

Transparency – transparency is built on the free flow of information. Processes, institutions, and information are directly
accessible to those concerned with them, and enough information is provided to understand and monitor them.
5.Fairness
Equity – all men and women have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being. Rule of Law – legal frameworks should
be fair and enforced impartially, particularly the laws on human rights.

As reflected on the discussions above, the different institutions and organizations have their own indicators or criteria
of good governance which they can apply in their own organizations or as useful tool of government as measures in good
governance.
UNIT IV - Public Health
Definition of terms:
Public Health involves policies and actions designed to promote the overall health of the people in community.
Hygiene refers to the practices aimed towards preventing diseases and maintenance of health through cleanliness and
healthy living.
Sanitation pertains to the hygienic practice of waste disposal and keeping the environment within hygienic standards.
Nutrition refers to the balanced intake of nutrients necessary to enable the human body or parts of the body to perform its
functions. Many health problems may be prevented with a healthy diet. Diet refers to what a person eats. There are seven
major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fiber, minerals, protein, vitamins, and water. These nutrients classes can be
categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The
macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, protein, and water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins. The
micronutrients provide energy. Vitamins, minerals, fifer, and water do not provide energy, but are necessary for other reasons.
Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals.

Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrients classes. Some nutrients are required regularly while others are needed
only occasionally.
Causes of Malnutrition
1. Lack of sufficient budget for food
2. Lack of knowledge on the nutritional values of food
3. Lack of knowledge on proper food preparation
 4. Incorrect feeding practice
5. Unavailability of nutritious food or food shortage
Effects of Malnutrition to Children
1. Weak body resistance
2. Weak mental capability
3. Derailed growth
Things to Know About Breast-Feeding
1. Breast milk is the most nutritious and complete food for infants.
2. Colostrum’s (first drop of milk from the mother) are rich in antibodies needed by the infants to strengthen their
resistance against infections.
3. Breast-feeding helps in fast recovery of mother’s health after giving birth.
4. It makes the infant closer to the mother.
5. Breast-feeding must begin immediately after the child is born.

COMMON HEALTH PROBLEMS

1. Sore Eyes. Caused by a virus in which the surface of the eyeball and the inside of the eyelids became inflamed. It
may be transferred by hand contacts.
2. Chicken Pox. Highly contagious disease which affects young ones during their early years but is more severe in
adults. Infection is easily spread via airborne droplets that are exhaled or expelled causing outbreaks in places where
there are person-to-person contacts. Health centers offer free vaccination against chicken pox.
3. Cholera or El Tor. Contagious and serious disease, which is an infection of the small intestine, characterized by
severe diarrhea that causes a person to lose up to half a liter of water an hour. It is caused by germs taken into the
body through food and drinks. Rats, cockroaches, flies, and ants are common carrier of cholera. Common symptoms
are pain in the back or in the legs and arms, frequent bowel movement, vomiting, and dehydration.
4. Tuberculosis (TB). A highly contagious bacterial infection usually affecting the lungs. This is a disease which is the
most common cause of death in the Philippines. Symptoms are fever, sweating especially at night, malaise,
weakness and poor appetite, chronic cough, blood in the sputum, chest pain, and shortness of breath and swelling in
the neck due to enlarged lymph nodes.
5. Typhoid Fever. A bacterial infection that first attacks the intestines, and then spreads to the liver, spleen, and gall
bladder. The disease is highly infectious, transmitted through contaminated water and food. Even after a person has
recovered from typhoid fever, he may remain a carrier of bacteria for years. Typhoid fever can be fatal if not treated
promptly. Symptoms are severe headache, cough, high fever, chills, loss of appetite, weakness, constipation, and
abdominal pain
6. Diarrhea. Is a loose, watery stool. A person with diarrhea typically passes stool more than three times a day. Acute
diarrhea is a common problem that usually lasts 1 or 2 days and goes away on its own without special treatment.
Prolonged diarrhea persisting for more than 2 days may be a sign of a more serious problem and poses the risk of
dehydration. Chronic diarrhea may be a feature of a chronic disease Diarrhea can cause dehydration, a state which
means that the body lacks enough fluid to function properly. Dehydration is particularly dangerous in children and
older people, and it must be treated promptly to avoid serious health problems. The fluid and electrolytes lost during
diarrhea need to be replaced promptly because the body cannot function without them. Electrolytes are the salts and
minerals that affect the amount of water in your body, muscle activity, and other important functions. Liquids like broth
and soup that contains sodium and fruits juices, soft fruits, or vegetable that contain potassium, help restore
electrolyte levels. Over-the-counter rehydration solution like Pedialyte is also a good electrolyte source and is
especially recommended for use in children.

Sexually Transmitted disease (STDs)

STDs are diseases or infections which are transmitted between humans by means of sexual contact. There are also instances
in which some sexually transmitted infections are transmitted through birth, needles, breastfeeding or even by using public
toilets.
Examples of STDs
Genital herpes. Caused by the herpes simplex viruses type 1 (HSV-1) and type (HSV-2). Signs typically appear as one or
more blisters on or around the genitals or rectum. The blisters break, leaving tender ulcers (sores) that may take two to four
weeks to heal the first time they occur. Typically, another outbreak can appear weeks or months after the first, but it almost
always is less severe and sorter that the first outbreak.
Syphilis. Caused by the bacterium Treponema palladium. Syphilis is passed from person to person through direct contact with
a syphilis sore. Sores occur mainly on the external genitals, vagina, anus, or in the rectum. Sores also can occur on the lips
and in the mouth. Pregnant women with disease can pass it to the babies they are carrying. Syphilis cannot be spread through
contact with toilet seats, doorknobs, swimming pools, hot tubs, bathtubs, shared clothing, or eating utensils.
Gonorrhea. Caused by Neisseria gonorrhea, a bacterium that can grow and multiply easily in the warm, moist areas of the
reproductive tract, including the vertex (opening the womb), uterus (womb), and fallopian tubes (egg canals) in women, and in
the urethra (urine canal) in women and men. The bacterium can also grow in the mouth, throat, eyes, and anus.
Non-gonococcal Urethritis (NGU). An inflammation of the urethra. The symptoms of which can include pain or a burning
sensation upon urination, a white/cloudy discharge, and a feeling that you need to pass urine frequently. There are instances
that the infected person develops no symptoms.
AIDS or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Acquired. The virus is acquired directly through sexual contact or through other body fluids from the person infected with HIV.
Immune. It attacks the immune system, the body’s defense against Illnesses.
Deficiency. The body’s immune system becomes defenseless and unable to fight infections once AIDS sets in.
Syndrome. Those sick with AIDS will develop a set of symptoms or diseases as a result of a weakened immune
system.

HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus, the virus that causes AIDs. HIV is found in the blood and other body fluids such
as semen, vaginal secretions and breast milk of mothers infected with the virus. A person can be infected with HIV for a long
time (even up to 10 years) and not know it. Some people only find out that they have HIV when it has already developed into
AIDS.
Because HIV attacks the immune system, people with HIV (or AIDS) can have several illnesses, illnesses that the immune
system could no longer fight that may lead to the patient’s death. Diseases that commonly afflict AIDS victims are pneumonia,
diarrhea, tuberculosis, herpes and many more.
SYMPTOMS OF AIDS
The symptoms of AIDS can be felt between two months to ten years. These can include:
1. Unexplained, continuous swelling of glands (For example, in the breast, neck, and armpits)
 2. Soaking night sweats
3. Fever
4. Chills
5. Paralyzing fatigue
6. More than ten pounds of weight less than two months
7. Diarrhea that lasts for several weeks
Although these signs and symptoms may also indicate many other illnesses, it is best to consult the doctor immediately once
they occur. There are blood tests that can determine if a person is infected with HIV.
1. Through sexual contact, primarily unprotected vaginal or anal intercourse. Transmission through oral sex is also
possible.
2. By sharing needles (used with syringes) such as those used as drug paraphernalia.
3. By receiving transfusion of HIV- infected blood.
4. Through transplant of an HIV- infected organ.
5. By using contaminated skin-piercing instruments like needles, syringes, razor blades, tattoo needles or circumcision
instruments.
6. Through injury by contaminated needles or another sharp object.
7. Through prenatal modes, which means passed from mother to infant during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
8. By getting the mucus membranes such as the eyes or opened wounds splashed with infected blood or other body
fluids.
Take note that materials and instruments like needles, razor blades and the like are only contaminated if they carry traces of
blood or body fluids from an infected HIV person.
STEPS IN PREVENTING AIDS
1. Maintain a high sense of moral values
2. Be faithful to the partner
3. Stay away from bad vices and influencers
4. Provide program that will strengthen the family
5. Provide adequate programs and facilities designed to uphold total development of young individuals.
6. Use other acceptable methods prescribed by the government.
DENGUE H-FEVER
Dengue Hemorrhagic-Fever is one of the common but serious infectious viral diseases found in sub-tropical countries like the
Philippines. It is an infection carried by the Aedes Aegypti mosquito.
AEDES AEGYPTI
Dengue fever is transmitted by the mosquito of the genus Aedes aegypti. Aedes comes from the Greek term meaning
unfriendly or unpleasant. True to its meaning, the mosquito is detested in anyone’s household.
Aedes aegypti bites during daytime and breeds in clear stagnant water. Possible breeding places included flower vases, old
rubber tries, discarded open tin cans and water pails. It is characterized by white stripes on its thorax (body) and is smaller in
size than the ordinary household mosquito.
The mosquito is usually found in tropics and subtropics. The adult mosquito rests in the dark places of the houses.

SYMPTOMS OF DENGUE H-FEVER

1. The patient experiences a sudden onset of a high and prolonged fever. The fever may last up to seven days.
2. Joint and muscle pains usually come during the initial stage of infection.
3. Pain behind the eyes, of which pain is especially evident when the patient moves his eyes.
4. Feebleness or weakness is felt by the patient, and the movement of the entire or parts of the body will be very
difficult.
5. Appearance of tiny red spots called petechiae, also known as maculopapular, on the skin. A dengue case usually
reveals 20 or more red spots in one cubic inch of the skin.
6. Nose bleeding after fever starts to wane.
7. Enlargement of the liver which will be evident at the abdominal area.
8. Vomiting of brownish to blackish discharge.
9. Dark-stained stools. Blood may also accompany the stools.
PREVENTING DENGUE THROUGH THE FOUR O’CLOCK HABIT
1. Keep drums, pails and other water containers covered to avoid becoming breeding grounds for mosquitos.
2. Replace water in the flower vase regularly.
3. Clean all the side portions of water storage at least once a week.
4. Roof gutters must be maintained in such a way that train water can fall freely towards the down spout.
5. Old tires used as weight to support roofs must be disposed or punctured.
6. Dispose all empty tin cans, bottles and other things that can hold water that may be serve as breeding ground for
mosquitoes.
7. Say no to indiscriminate fogging.
PANDEMIC
A pandemic (from Greek πᾶν, pan, "all" and δῆμος, demos, "people”) is an epidemic of an infectious disease that has spread
across a large region, for instance, multiple continents or worldwide, affecting a substantial number of people. A widespread
endemic disease with a stable number of infected people is not a pandemic.
PANDEMIC VS EPIDEMIC
What is a pandemic?
A pandemic is a type of epidemic that relates to geographic spread and describes a disease that affects an entire country or
the whole world.
An epidemic becomes a pandemic when it spreads over significant geographical areas and affects a large percent of the
population.
In short, a pandemic is an epidemic on a national or global level.
What is an epidemic?
An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease that spreads quickly and affects many people at the same time. An outbreak occurs
when there is a sudden increase in the number of cases of a disease, like COVID-19. It generally describes an increase that
was not anticipated. An outbreak can occur in a community, geographical area, or several countries.
An epidemic is often used broadly to describe any problem that has grown out of control. During an epidemic, the disease is
actively spreading.
10 OF THE WORST PANDEMICS IN HISTORY
1. HIV/AIDS PANDEMIC (AT ITS PEAK, 2005-2012)
Death Toll: 36 million
Cause: HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS has truly proven itself as a global pandemic, killing more than 36 million people since 1981 when it was first
discovered in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1976. Among the 31 to 35 million people who are currently living with
HIV, most of them are those who live in Sub-Saharan Africa, 5% of their population is infected which is around 21 million
people. As awareness has grown, new treatments have been developed that make HIV far more manageable, and many of
those infected go on to lead productive lives. Between 2005 and 2012 the annual global deaths from HIV/AIDS dropped from
2.2 million to 1.6 million.
2. FLU PANDEMIC (1968)
Death Toll: 1 million
Cause: Influenza
“The Hong Kong Flu”, also referred to as category 2 Flu. The flu pandemic of 1968 was caused by the H3N2 stain of the
Influenza. A virus, a genetic offshoot of the H2N2 subtype. It only took the virus 17 days, from the first reported case on July
13, 1968, before the outbreaks of the virus were reported to have reached Singapore and Vietnam, and only three months to
reach the Philippines, India, Australia, Europe, and United States. This pandemic still caused the death of more than a million
people even though the mortality rate of the virus was only .5%. This pandemic caused the death of more than a million
people, which includes the 500,000 residents of Hong Kong which comprises 15% of their population at that time.
3. ASIAN FLU (1956-1958)
Death Toll: 2 million
Cause: Influenza
From 1956 to 1958, the Asian Flu was a pandemic outbreak of Influenza A of the H2N2 subtype that originated in China. In its
two-year spree, Asian Flu traveled from the Chinese province of Guizhou to Singapore, Hong Kong, and the United States.
Depending on the source, estimates for the death toll of the Asian Flu vary, but the World Health Organization places the final
tally at approximately 2 million deaths, 69,800 of those in the US alone.
4. FLU PANDEMIC (1918)
Death Toll:20 -50 million
Cause: Influenza
A disturbingly deadly outbreak of influenza tore across the globe between the years 1928 and 1920, infecting over a third of
the world’s population and ending the lives of 20 – 50 million people. Of the 500 million people infected in the 1918 pandemic,
the mortality rate was estimated at 10% to 20%, with up to 25 million deaths in the first 25 weeks alone. The victims are what
separated the 1918 flu pandemic from other influenza outbreaks; compared to another influenza, which killed the juveniles and
the elderly or the already weakened patients, the 1918 flu pandemic attacks the completely healthy young adults and leaving
the children and other people with weak immune system alive.
5. SIXTH CHOLERA PANDEMIC (1910-1911)
Death Toll: 800,000+
Cause: Cholera
Like its five previous incarnations, the Sixth Cholera Pandemic originated in India where it killed over 800,000, before
spreading to the Middle East, North Africa, Eastern Europe, and Russia. The Sixth Cholera Pandemic was also the source of
the last American outbreak of Cholera (1910–1911). American health authorities, having learned from the past, quickly sought
to isolate the infected, and in the end, only 11 deaths occurred in the U.S. By 1923 Cholera cases had been cut down
dramatically, although it was still a constant in India.
6. FLU PANDEMIC (1889-1890)
Death Toll: 1 million
Cause: Influenza
Originally the “Asiatic Flu” or “Russian Flu”, this strain was thought to be an outbreak of the Influenza A virus subtype H2N2,
though recent discoveries have instead found the cause to be the Influenza A virus subtype H3N8. The first cases were
observed in May 1889 in three separate and distant locations, Bukhara in Central Asia (Turkestan), Athabasca in northwestern
Canada, and Greenland. Rapid population growth of the 19th century, specifically in urban areas, only helped the flu spread,
and before long the outbreak had spread across the globe. Though it was the first true epidemic in the era of bacteriology and
much was learned from it. In the end, the 1889-1890 Flu Pandemic claimed the lives of over a million individuals.
7. THIRD CHOLERA PANDEMIC (1852–1860)
Death Toll: 1 million
Cause: Cholera
Generally considered the deadliest of the seven cholera pandemics, the third major outbreak of Cholera in the 19th century
lasted from 1852 to 1860. The Third Cholera also originated in India, like the first and second pandemics, spreading from the
Ganges River Delta, before it started spreading through Asia, Europe, North America, and Africa. This pandemic ended over a
million people’s lives. John Snow, a British physician, tracked the cases of cholera, while he was working in the poor area in
London, and was able to successfully identify the means of transmitting the disease; through contaminated water.
Unfortunately, the worst year of the pandemic was the same year (1854) that he had his discovery, 23, 000 people still died in
Great Britain.
8. THE BLACK DEATH (1346-1353)
Death Toll:75 – 200 million
Cause: Bubonic Plague
An outbreak of Plague, from 1346 to 1353, ravaged Europe, Africa, and Asia with an estimated death toll of 75 to 200 million
people. The Plague is suspected to have originated from Asia and jumped continents through the fleas living on rates that
often board merchant ships. During that time, ports are considered to be the major urban centers which make it the perfect
breeding grounds for rats and fleas, which made the bacterium flourish, devastating three continents with it.
9. PLAGUE OF JUSTINIAN (541-542)
Death Toll: 25 million
Cause: Bubonic Plague
The Plague of Justinian was a bubonic plague outbreak that afflicted the Byzantine Empire and Mediterranean port cities. This
plague was estimated to have killed up to 25 million people, around half of the population of Europe at that time, in its year-
long reign of terror. The Plague of Justinian, regarded as the first recorded incident of Bubonic Plague, made its mark on the
world. This killed a quarter of the population in the Eastern Mediterranean, devastating the city of Constantinople. At its peak,
the plague was killing an estimated 5,000 people per day which eventually resulted in the deaths of 40% of the population of
the city.
10. ANTONINE PLAGUE (165 AD)
Death Toll: 5 million
Cause: Unknown
The Antonine Plague, also known as the Plague of Galen, was an ancient pandemic that affected Asia Minor, Egypt, Greece,
and Italy. The true cause of this plague is still unknown but it is thought to have been either Smallpox or Measles. The disease
was spread by the Roman soldiers coming back from Mesopotamia around 165 A.D. This disease caused them 5 million
people and it decimated the Roman army.
What about COVID-19 (the novel coronavirus)?

In the region of Wuhan, China, a new (“novel”) coronavirus has begun showing itself in human beings at the beginning of
December 2019. They have named the virus “coronavirus disease of 2019” or COVID-19 for short. Because it is a new virus,
no one on earth has immunity against this virus, thus the quick spread of the virus among people. Originally, it was considered
as an epidemic in China, however, within a few months, the virus managed to spread worldwide. By March 2020, WHO
declared COVID-19 as a pandemic. By the end of that same month, more than half a million was already infected and the
death nearly reached 30, 000. The infection rate in the US and other countries was still spiking.
As a result of this pandemic, people have become more aware of the best practices during the pandemic, from careful hand-
washing to social distancing. Countries across the world declared mandatory stay-at-home measures, closing schools,
businesses, and public places. Dozens of companies and many more independent researchers began working on tests,
treatments, and vaccines. The push for the human race to survive the pandemic became the primary concern in the world.
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered coronavirus. Most people who fall
sick with COVID-19 will experience mild to moderate symptoms and recover without special treatment.
How It Spreads?
The virus that causes COVID-19 is mainly transmitted through droplets generated when an infected person coughs, sneezes,
or exhales. These droplets are too heavy to hang in the air and quickly fall on floors or surfaces. You can be infected by
breathing in the virus if you are within proximity of someone who has COVID-19, or by touching a contaminated surface and
then your eyes, nose, or mouth.

COVID-19 affects different people in different ways. Most infected people will develop mild to moderate illness and recover
without hospitalization.
Most common symptoms:
1. fever
2. dry cough
3. tiredness
Less common symptoms:
1. aches and pains
2. sore throat
3. diarrhea
4. conjunctivitis
5. headache
6. loss of taste or smell
7. a rash on the skin, or discoloration of fingers or toes
Masks can help prevent the spread of the virus from the person wearing the mask to others. Masks alone do not protect
against COVID-19 and should be combined with physical distancing and hand hygiene. Follow the advice provided by your
local health authority.
To date, there are no specific vaccines or medicines for COVID-19. Treatments are under investigation and will be tested
through clinical trials. World Health Organization
1. Self-care
If you feel sick you should rest, drink plenty of fluid, and eat nutritious food. Stay in a separate room from other family
members, and use a dedicated bathroom if possible. Clean and disinfect frequently touched surfaces.
Everyone should keep a healthy lifestyle at home. Maintain a healthy diet, sleep, stay active, and make social contact with
loved ones through the phone or the internet. Children need extra love and attention from adults during difficult times. Keep to
regular routines and schedules as much as possible.
It is normal to feel sad, stressed, or confused during a crisis. Talking to people you trust, such as friends and family can help. If
you feel overwhelmed, talk to a health worker or counselor.
2. Medical treatments
If you have mild symptoms and are otherwise healthy, self-isolate and contact your medical provider or a COVID-19
information line for advice. Seek medical care if you have a fever, a cough, and difficulty breathing. Call in advance.
What to do Before and During Pandemic
Before a Pandemic
1. Store additional supplies of food and water
2. Check your regular prescription drug supplies.
3. Have any nonprescription drugs and other health supplies on hand, including pain relievers, stomach remedies,
cough, and cold medicines, fluids with electrolytes, and vitamins.
4. Get copies and maintain electric versions of health records
5. Talk with family members and loved ones about how they would be cared for if they got sick, or what will be needed
to care for them in your home.
During Pandemic
Main goal: limit the spread of germs and prevent infection
1. Avoid close contact with people who are sick
2. When you are sick, keep your distance from others to protect them from getting sick too
3. Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing or sneezing
4. Washing your hands often will help protect you from germs
5. Avoid touching your eyes, nose or mouth
6. Practice good health habits. Get plenty of sleep, be physically active, manage your stress, drink plenty of fluids, and
eat nutritious food.
Virus prevention suggestions
1. Preventing viruses – practice social distancing
2. Preventing viruses – wash hands often and avoid touching your face
3. How to avoid viruses – wear disposable gloves when going in public places and wash hands as soon as possible
4. Don’t panic-buy or hoard supplies until experts determine what cause coronavirus
5. Keep prescriptions current & non-prescription medicines available
6. Keep your health records accessible on paper or online
How to Avoid Viruses & Maintain One’s Psychological Well-Being
1. Maintain a regular sleep pattern
2. Keep to everyday routines as much as possible
3. Maintain physical activity & keep your immune system boosted
4. Do not panic

UNIT V - DEVELOPING AND MAINTANING THE VIABILITY OF SOCIAL

ORGANIZATIONS FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Definition and Nature of Social Organization. If a number of men have a common aim but simply proceed to work toward it
as they see fit in disregard to the rest, they are likely to work cross purposes. Sooner or later, one of them will probably seek to
improve the situation by suggesting Let’s get organized.
Social organization has grown out of the needs, drives and interests of the group. It is the integration of social norms and
social acts as persons or as groups behave in a given social system. As Blan and Scott define social organization, it refers to
the “ways in which human conduct becomes socially arranged, that is, to the observes regularities in the behavior of people
that are due to the social conditions in which they find themselves, rather than to their psychological or physiological
characteristics as individual.
On a more specific level, some view social organization as a system of division of labor, and specialization of activities. As
a result of establishing procedures for working together through implicit agreements, particularly when large numbers are
involved, they established explicit procedures for coordinating their activities in the interest of achieving specific objectives.
The defining criteria of an organization are the existence of procedures for mobilizing and coordinating the efforts of various,
usually specialized, subgroups in the pursuit of join objectives.

Types of Social Organization. Organizations may be classified into various types depending upon the nature or objectives
they wanted to achieve. But generally, they can be classified as:
Formal Organization. Refers to the organizational pattern designed by the management. These are explicit procedures as to
the division of labor and power of control, the rules and regulations about wages, fines, etc. which govern the relations among
members, and which should be conformed with. We usually associate bureaucracies as a formal organization
Informal Organization. Refers to the social interactions that develop among the workers above and beyond the formal one
determined by the organization (i.e., they not only work as a team but also as friends) or to the actual organizational relations
as they evolved as a consequence of the interaction between the organization’s design or rules and pressures of interpersonal
relations among the participants.
Role of Social Organization in Community Development

Modern society depends largely on social organizations as the most rational and efficient form of bringing in social grouping
known to effect positive changes. By coordinating a large number of human actions, the organization creates a powerful social
tool. It combines its personnel with its resources, weaving together leaders, experts, workers, machines, and raw materials. At
the same time, it continually evaluates how well it is performing and tries to achieve its goal. All these allow the organization to
serve the various needs of the society and its citizens more effectively than smaller and more natural human groupings such
as families and friendship groupings.

A community development worker, therefore, can utilize these organizations to achieve the development goals. The various
fields of specialization and expertise in the organization can be tapped, and with the use of existing in the organization can be
tapped, and with the use of existing raw material and available capital, benefits can be achieved, and thus improved the
conditions of the community.

ELEMENTS AND/OR ATTRIBUTES NECESSARY TO DEVELOP AND MAINTAIN VIABILITY OF SOCIAL

ORGANIZATIONS

1. Effective program for recruitment and development of talent. It is essential for social organizations to have the
kind of recruitment that will bring a steady flow of able and highly motivated individuals. Recruitment policy allows the selection
of active local leaders and members. If the members of any organization are active and skillful, the organization can be viable.
It is important that leaders of organizations should be tactful in selecting the skillful members. In the village, however, the
problem lies in the shortage and skilled, qualified, trained, and motivated people which handicap proper functioning of social
organizations in relation to community development programs. Community development programs demand a large number of
active and efficient local leaders and members to successfully attain their objectives and goals.

Sound recruitment depends upon the chairman or the officers/members (of the concerned organization) who are responsible
for the said function. As mentioned earlier, it is hard to find highly trained skilled and motivated people in the village. There are
varieties of training techniques employed to develop skills and attributes of the people. Successful implementation of a
community development program requires re-orientation of all local leaders and members of social organizations as to what
their roles and responsibilities in the development of their communities. Any training program should focus on increasing
responsibilities and be trained in the basic skill of group work.

2. Establishing hospitable environment for the individual and making clear to him his responsibilities. There
must be a hospitable environment for the individual and his responsibilities should be made clear to him. Organizations that
have killed the spark of individuality in their members will have greatly diminished their capacity for change. It is through the
activation of social organizations that people could be changed, because there is a tendency for the individual to conform
with the will of the group.

In any organization, the members play a very important role; the success of failure of an organization rest on the hands of the
members. However, many individuals in the organization are not aware of their importance in the maintenance and
enhancement of their organization. Knowing their responsibilities is a factor that can contribute to the existence of viable
organizations.

The following are some important responsibilities of a member of an organization:

a. Respect for his fellows. Willingness to recognize that the importance of every individual is a primal requisite for
the maintenance of the social organization. Respecting what other people say and also understanding what they
mean would not only contribute for the enrichment of the group ideas, especially during decision-making
process, but would consequently encourage active participation from other members of the organization.
b. Help build harmonious relationship. The relationships of the members, to a great extent, determine the
viability of the organization. When the members of the organization are in good terms with one another that is,
they have common desires, they feel more at ease to share ideas with others, they have satisfactory
interpersonal contact and/or communications, and the like, success will not be a farfetched reality.
c. Express his ideas/feeling openly and clearly. The proper functioning of the organization toward the realization
of its goals, suggestions, comments, etc. from the members are very important. Ideas and information given by
the members will, to a great extent, enhance and speed decision-making, consequently resulting to a swift
accomplishment of the goals of the organization.

3. Sound System of Evaluation

a. Organizational Level. The organizational must have a built-in system of evaluating its performance in relation to its
goals. Regular meetings of officers, committees or mass membership are very important as they provide a venue,
whereby members could give their feedback and discuss how far their organization has gone. The organization must
not only be particular in knowing the problems net and how they were dealt with or solved. In this connection, proper
documentation/recording of activities. Records like minutes of the meetings, list of members and officers, plan of
action, etc. are useful materials that could be referred to for evaluation purposes.

b. Individual Level. The organization must encourage criticism and self-criticism to minimize misunderstanding among
members. It must have an atmosphere in which uncomfortable questions can be asked. It is the responsibility of
every individual to understand the questions and ask for clarification or definition, if necessary. Questions should not
be left unanswered during the process of discussions. Unanswered questions could lead to difficulty and many result
to erroneous results or discontentment.
There are good reasons for criticism as in other social relationships. Some forms of disagreements, owing to the
differences among individuals, could be solved through open exchanges of ideas or opinions. An individual may not
know that he’s hurting someone else if no one will caution or tell him such.
Moreover, it is not enough that one could pinpoint shortcomings or failure of another; he too should do his best to
examine his own self how he relates himself to others and how he performs based on what is expected of him by the
rest of the members of the organization.

4. Adaptability of Internal Structure. Of course, the organization must be manned with people. The activity groupings
and authority provision of an organization structure must consider people’s limitations and customs. This is not to say
that the structure must be designed around individuals but instead around goals and accompanying activities. But an
important consideration- often a constraining factor for the organization architect- is the kind of people who are to
man it. Just as the engineer considers the performances, strengths and weaknesses of materials going into his
projects, so must the organizer consider his material-people.

a. Division of Labor. The activities of the organization should be divided and grouped so as to contribute
effectively to its objectives.
Why divide work?

 Because men differ in nature, capacity, skill and can gain greatly in dexterity by specialization
 Because the same man cannot be at two places at the same time
 Because one man cannot do two things at the same time
 Because the range of knowledge and skill is so great that a man cannot, within his life span, know more than
a small fraction of it. In other words, it is a question of human nature, time, and space in the division of work
among the skilled specialists; however, a specialist in planning and coordination must be sought as well.
Otherwise, a great deal of time may be lost, members may get in other’s way, and there may even be a
difference in opinion as to where the various doors and window are to go.

b. Specialization. The work of every individual in the organization should be combined as far as possible to the
performance of a single leading function. This is the principle of specialization. It applies to departments and
divisions as well as to individuals. It concerns delegation of authority horizontally, rather than vertically, as in the
case of scalar principle
The total duties in the organization are divided according to function.
c. Coordination. Coordination means that an organization manifests a spirit of cooperation and goodwill and
integrates themselves into teams in order to produce good results. By good results, we mean progress and
development.
Most organizations fail due to lack of coordination among the leaders and members. Sometimes, jealousy and
destructive competition prevail. Projects are hampered or discontinued due to failure to work together for the
common welfare. Competition of honors and awards of recognition become foremost than honors of service.
It is evident, especially in social organizations where work is more subdivided, that the greater is the danger of
confusions, thus the greater is the need of overall supervision and coordination.

5. Leadership. The selection of a leader is an important factor for an organization to develop. It lies in the leaders’ the
success or failure of the implementation of a program or project. It is also influenced by the degree to which the
available resources are used in the most efficient way. It should be emphasized, however, that the cooperation of the
members with the leadership toward the attainment of the organization’s objectives is very crucial.

6. Effective Internal and External Communication. Communication is a process by which in information, decisions
and directives pass through a social system and the ways in which knowledge, opinions and attitudes are formed or
modifies. Social organizations become what they are, due to the ability of members within them to relate with each
other. The synchronization of efforts by many specialized units and by different individuals within a social organization
can be affected through the process of communication.
7. Flexibility. Flexibility is the ability to adjust, adopt or change to new situations. To maintain the viability of social
organizations, the element of flexibility should be taken into consideration.
Flexibility could be affected by the following:

a. Flexibility of Policies and Procedures. The success of an organization is dependent upon its policies and operating
procedures. Clear understanding of these policies can facilitate the smooth functioning of the organization’s plans
and objectives.

Social organizations operate with some element of flexibility in procedure to give the members option to do things that
do not hinder with their own personal plans and activities. Many organizations remain stagnant because they fail to
recognize the element of flexibility. So, the organization should be flexible in its organizational procedures without
disrupting its regular decision making routines. The importance of accepted rule of orders and which as they become
established, create a sense of security in the operation of its business.

These rules make coordination efforts also sometimes lead to rigidity and neglect of the social and psychological
needs of organizational participants. In such case, members of the organization feel that they are bound by certain
regulations and so feel pressured. This will lead to resentment and later waning of the interest of members. To
counteract such feelings, the organization should rather allow freedom for members to operate as an open group,
where the members are free to participate in a group. Meetings and other activities should be scheduled in such a
way that the regular activities of the members are not altered.
 b. Flexibility of Objectives. Objectives are said to direct the activities of the organization toward the achievement of
goals.

Objectives can be flexible to suit new innovations or new thrusts which the organization’s members think can redirect
the organization’s activities towards a more fruitful realizations of goals.

Members of organizations should feel that the objectives are directed toward their needs so that fruitful realization of
goals.

c. Flexibility of Plans. A plan is a guide to an activity but does not function like a road map. The direction provided in a
plan must always be understudied, especially if the plan is being implemented. No one, especially planners can
always be perfect in their ideas.
As the plan is implemented, the group may find shortcomings or errors in the original ideas. The organization must be
ready to modify part of
the original plan to ensure success of the project.

UNIT II. MATTER, ATOMS AND PERIODIC TABLE

MATTER
Chemists study the structures, physical properties, and chemical properties of material
substances. These consist of matter, which is anything that occupies space and has mass.

A. Properties of Matter
Each type of matter has its own unique set of properties. Thus, different types of matter are
distinguished by their properties, as people are distinguished by their physical appearance and
personality traits.
1. Physical Properties
-
are characteristics of an individual substance that can be determined without changing the composition
of the substance.
Examples of physical properties
color physical state
hardness electrical conductivity
heat conductivity physical state
melting point boiling point
Physical properties of matter are categorized as;
A. Intensive Properties. These are properties that do not depend on the amount of the matter present.
Examples of Intensive Properties
 Color
 Odor
 Luster - How shiny a substance is.
 Malleability - The ability of a substance to be beaten into thin sheets.
 Ductility - The ability of a substance to be drawn into thin wires.
 Conductivity - The ability of a substance to allow the flow of energy or electricity.
 Hardness - How easily a substance can be scratched.
 Melting/Freezing Point - The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are
in equilibrium at atmospheric pressure.
 Boiling Point - The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the pressure on
the liquid (generally atmospheric pressure).
 Density - The mass of a substance divided by its volume
B . Extensive Properties. These are properties that do depend on the amount of matter present.

Examples of Extensive Properties

 Weight - A measurement of the gravitational force of attraction of the earth acting on an
object.
 Volume - A measurement of the amount of space a substance occupies.
 Length
 Mass - A measurement of the amount of matter in a object (grams).

2. Chemical Properties
- describe how the composition of a substance changes or does not change when it interacts with other
substances or energy forms. Terms used to describe chemical properties are "reactive," "inert,"
"unstable," and "combustible." Chemical properties are observed when a substance changes
composition.

Examples of Chemical Properties

paper burns in air iron rusts
 silver tarnishes reactivity with water
TNT explodes
In each of these examples, a new substance forms after the chemical change

B. Changes in Matter

1. Physical Change. A physical change occurs when the physical properties of a substance are altered, but
the composition remains the same. No new substance forms in a physical change.
Examples of Physical Changes
Changes in state Chewing of food
Shape change magnetic properties
crystallization of sugar from a sugar solution
Ice melting, water freezing, water evaporating, and
steam condensing are all examples of a state
change.
Diluting a solution is a physical change, even if the color becomes faint

Phase change: The physical change of matter from one phase to another. A phase change takes place
because the particles of a substance gain or lose energy, causing them to change their motion.

When a state of matter gains or looses heat it undergoes a change.

A gain in heat is called an endothermic change. A loss in heat is called an exothermic change.

The table below summarizes the six changes of states that matter can undergo and tells
you if heat is added or removed for the change to take place.

Change From To Heat Examples

solid Gas or Added = Moth crystals disappear when left
Sublimation vapor endothermic in a closet for several days
Gas or solid Frost forms on a car’s windshield
Removed=
Sublimation vapor
exothermic
liquid gas Rain dries up when the sun comes
Evaporation or Added=
out
vaporization endothermic
Melting or solid liquid Added = An ice cube turns into water when
liquefaction endothermic left out of the freezer

Freezing or liquid solid Removed= A bottle of water will turn into ice if
solidification exothermic left in the freezer
condensation Gas or liquid Removed= Drops of water form on the mirror
vapor exothermic when taking a hot shower

2. Chemical Changes. Changes that do alter the identity of a substance.

- Chemical changes, also called chemical reactions, are the result of the chemical properties of matter. After
a chemical change, the composition is no longer the same.

- Chemical changes are monitored by first observing the physical properties of the reactants, and then
considering the physical properties of the products. If a chemical change has truly taken place, some or all
the physical properties of the products are different from those of the reactants.

Examples of everyday chemical changes

rusting iron cooking foods
ignition of gasoline explosion of dynamite
burning wood. Iron rusting
Evidences of A Chemical Change
1. The process involves the production of heat and light. Example: burning of wood
2. A gaseous product is evolved. Example: oxygen in the process photosynthesis
3. A precipitate is formed. Example: curdling of milk
4. Mechanical energy or electrical energy is produced. Example: dynamite explosion and
 battery usage
Methods of Changing Matter
Matter can be changes or combined in three different ways, by:
 Physical mixture – in which the molecules remain unchanged but are moved around to form
mixtures, solutions and colloids.
 Chemical reactions- which rearrange the atoms to form different molecules (for example, molecules of
gaseous hydrogen can be combined with molecules of gaseous oxygen to form liquid water)
 Nuclear reactions – which rearrange and possibly transform subatomic particles to create different
atoms (for example, fusion in the Sun’s core, in which hydrogen nuclei are crushed together to
form helium nuclei)

C. Phases or States of Matter

THE THREE STATES/PHASES OF MATTER

Liquid Solid
• high density
• low density • high density
• hard to
• easy to expand/compress • hard to
expand/compress expand/compress
• takes shape of
container • rigid shape
• fills container

Gases - both volume and shape Liquids - fairly fixed Solids - fixed shape
are variable volume, but shape varies and volume
with container
Particles – far apart Particles-close
Particles- clustered together
close together

Considered as the 4th State of Matter

Plasma - ionized gas – it is a gas that is composed of free-floating ions and free
electrons. It conducts electrical current. It was discovered by William Crookes in 1879.
There are many different types of plasma, a plasma in the stars , including our Sun and
the solar wind in our Solar System is made of plasma.

D. Classification of Matter

Matter can be divided into two categories:

1. Substances. Substances cannot be separated into different types of matter by any physical means. Atoms in a
pure substance can be separated only by chemical changes.

a. Elements
- are pure substances that are made of only one type of matter. The smallest possible particle of an element
is called an atom.

Writing Symbols of Elements

– first 1-2 distinguishing letters in name used for symbol
– only the first letter is uppercase!
– symbols derived from ancient names
Element Symbols Derived from Greek names.

English name S y m b o l Greek name

• Antimony • Sb • Stibium
• Copper • Cu • Cuprum
• Gold • Au • Aurum
• Iron • Fe • Ferrum
• Lead • Pb • Plumbum
• Mercury • Hg • Hydrargyrum
• Potassium • K • kalium
• Silver • Ag • Argentum
• Sodium • Na • Natrium
• Tin • Sn • Stannum
• tungsten • W • wolfram
Classification of Elements

Classes of Elements Description Examples

Possesses metallic luster Gold, silver, tin, zinc,

metals mercury- the only liquid
Good conductor of heat and metal
electricity

Malleable and ductile

2.nonmetals Do not possess luster Iodine, sulfur

Poor conductors of heat and Bromine- the only liquid

electricity nonmetal
O, N, Cl, H are nonmetal
Brittle and non-ductile which are gases
3. metalloids Both possesses some of the Arsenic, silicon, boron,
properties of metals and germanium
nonmetals

4.Noble or Inert Gases Stable and unreactive Argon, krypton, neon

b. Compounds
- are composed of more than one type of matter.
- The different substances cannot be separated without changing the substance.
- The smallest possible particle of a compound that retains the properties of a compound is called a
molecule
Example of Compounds
a) Table salt (sodium chloride). Salt is composed of two elements, sodium and chlorine. If you could separate
salt into its two elements, it would no longer be salt.
b) Pure water (H2O).
c) Pure sucrose or sugar (C6H12O6).
d) Quartz (SiO2).
2. Mixtures
- is a material made up of two or more substances.
- Mixtures are composed of more than one kind of matter, or more than one pure substance. - - -
- Composition can vary between different samples.
- Pure substances in the mixture can be physically separated from each other by physical changes.
Two Types of Mixtures
1. Homogeneous mixtures - A homogeneous mixture has two or more substances in it, but you cannot see
them. They appear to be the same throughout. They may not look like mixtures, but if tested, they can
be determined to be composed of more than one type of substance.
Examples

• Cake (which is a mixture of butter, eggs, sugar, and flour),

• soft drinks
• salt water
• sugar water
• tap water
• brass (which is a mixture of copper and zinc).
2. Heterogeneous Mixtures - A heterogeneous mixture has two or more substances in it, and you can see
what is inside of it.
- They are clearly composed of more than one type of matter, and contain regions with different
properties.
Examples

• Trail mix (which is a mixture of raisins, peanuts, and chocolate candy m & m's)
• crunchy peanut butter
• chocolate chip cookies
• vegetable soup
• spaghetti sauce
• concrete Granite
 • raisin bran.
Heterogeneous mixtures that are liquids can be subdivided into two types:
1. Colloid

a. A colloid is consists of solid particles in a liquid.

b. These particles are usually very small, often less than
0.01 mm in diameter.
c. A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which the
contents do not settle over a long time.
d. They tend to stay combined together.
Examples of Colloid
• Paint
• orange juice
• Ketchup
• salad dressings

2. Suspension
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the contents settle over a
short period of time. Some examples of this may be muddy water or Italian salad dressing.
Methods of Separating Components of Mixtures
1. Filtration
- The process of separating the insoluble solid from the liquid substance by allowing the liquid to
pass through a porous material.
Residue – is the solid particles which are retained in the filter paper
Filtrate – is the clear liquid which passes through the filter paper
2. Decantation
- Settling heavy solids and pouring off the supernatant liquid
3. Mechanical Separation
- It involves the use of forceps, sieves, and other similar tools. Gravel and sand are separated by picking
the gravel or passing the mixture over a wire screen.
4. Flotation
- It is a method in which some solids of a suspension mixture are allowed to settle and less material is
poured off. Example is panning of gold.
3. Centrifugation
- It speeds up the settling of the precipitate. The centrifuge is a motor driven apparatus.The centripetal
force developed during the rotation brings the precipitate to the bottom of the tube then the
supernatant liquid or centrifugate is poured off
6. Distillation
- It is a process that involves the evaporation and condensation of volatile liquid. The more volatile
liquid in the mixture boils first, evaporates, then condenses.
Distillate is the liquid formed from the condensation of the vapor. Example of this is the production of
distilled water
Fractional distillation - Is a process used to separate a liquid mixture with a small range of boiling points.
The volatile components are separated one after another in a decreasing order of boiling points. Crude oil
is separated into fractions of gasoline, kerosene, lubricating oil, etc.
7. Fractional Crystallization
- It employs the lowering of temperature so that the more insoluble component crystallizes out first. The
solid is removed by filtration. The remaining mother liquor is subjected to a further lowering of
temperature. This lowering of temperature and consequent filtration are repeated until no more solid
crystallizes.
8. Chromatography
- It uses the difference in degree to which substances are absorbed on the surface of an inert substance

I. Gas Laws
These are generalization which describes in mathematical term the relationships
among the pressure, temperature and volume of a specific quantity of a gas.
Four Variables of Gases

Amount of Gas (n) – this is also known as mole

Volume
Temperature
Pressure

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) Standard

Temperature is 00C
All calculations involving gas temperature must use Kelvin temperature (Kelvins, K not degrees
Kelvin,0K)
Standard Pressure is 1 atmosphere (at sea level)
- Pressure can be defined as an amount of force exerted per unit of time
- Pressure can be expresses in units of atmosphere(atm), millimeters of mercury(mm.Hg), torr, in,Hg,
lb/in2 or kiloPascals(kPa)

1. Boyle’s Law

“The volume of a definite amount of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure, provided the
temperature remains constant”

As pressure increases volume decreases, as pressure decreaeses, volume increases.

Formula: P1V1 = P2V2

Examples of Boyle’s Law

Syringe, Lungs, Bicycle pumps, Scuba diver, Underwater fish,
Sample Problem # 1
A sample of helium gas has a volume of 0.250 L at 800 torr. If the volume is changed to 500 mL, what is
the new pressure, assuming no change in temperature?

Given: V1 = 0.250L V2 = 500 mL = .5L P1 Always remember that units for

= 800 torr P2 = ? the variable must be the same,
if not do conversions

So: convert 500mL to L or0.250 L to ml Cancel out the same units in

Let us convert 500 mL to L your calculations
Thus: 500mL x 1L = .5L
1000mL
Solution:
Formula: P2 = P1V1
V2
P2 = (800 torr)(0.250L) Boyle’s Law states that as
volume increases pressure
.5L
decreases and vice-versa, thus
P2 = 200 torr in the problem, V2 increases so
.5 P2 decreases as computed.
P2 = 400 torr

Sample Problem # 2

A sample of gas has a volume of 171 mL at 332 torr.

What volume will the gas have if its pressure is changed to The units for P
(pressure) are not
.877 atm?
the same, so do
Given: V1 = 171 mL V2 = ?
conversions
P1 = 332 torr P2 = .877 atm =666torr
Converting P (.877 atm to torr)
CF: 1atm = 760 torr .877atm x 760torr = 666 torr
1 atm
Solution:
Formula: V2 = P1V1
P2
Boyle’s Law states that as
V2 = (332 torr)(171mL) pressure increases volume
666torr V2 decreases and vice-versa, thus
= 56,777mL in the problem, P2 increases so
V2 decreases from 171Ml to 94.6
666
mL computed.
V2 = 94.6 mL

2. Charles’ Law
“The volume of a definite quantity of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at
constant pressure”

As temperature increases, volume increases; as temperature decreases, volume decreases.

 Formula: V1T2 = V2T1

Example of Charles law

Lungs, Tires, Ping Pong balls, floats, hot-air ballon, bread and helium ballon
Sample Problem # 1
Compute the volume of the gas from the temperature changes indicated assuming P is constant. 5.94 L at
44oC to 17oC
Given: V1 = 5.94L V2 = ? Using temperature (T) in the
T1 = 44oC T2 = 17oC computation, always expressed
Converting C temperature to K it in K. Thus, always convert the
T1 44+273 = 317K given unit Celsius (C) or
Fahrenheit (F) to Kelvin(K)
T2 17 + 273= 290K
Solution:
Formula: V2 = V1T2
T1 Charles’ Law states that as
temperature decreases, volume
V2 = 5.94L ( 290 K) decreases, thus from the problem, the
317 K V2 given T2 decreases from 44oC to 17oC
= 1722.6 L so our V2 must also decrease, from
317 5.94 L to 5.43 L
V2 = 5.43 L

Sample Problem # 2
Calculate the final volume of a gas at STP if it has a volume of 7.16 L at 280 K.
STP means Standard Temperature and Pressure

Standard Temperature = 0oC or 273 K

Standard Pressure = 1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mm.Hg = 14.7 psi

Given: V1 = 7.16 L V2 = ?
T1 = 280 K T2 = 273 K

Formula: V2 = V1T2
T1 Charles’ Law states that as
V2 = 7.16 L ( 273 K) temperature decreases, volume
280 K decreases, thus from the problem, the
V2 = 1954.68 L given T2 decreases from 280 K to 272 K
so our V2 must also decrease, from
280
V2 = 6.98 L 7.16 L to 6.98 L

3. Gay-Lussac’s Law
“At constant volume, the pressure of a given sample of gas is directly proportional to
the absolute temperature”
An increase in temperature increases the pressure os the gas; a decrease in temperature
decreases the pressure of the gas

Formula: P1T2 = P2T1

Examples of Gay-Lussac’s law

Pressure cooker, heater, tyre and aerosol can

Sample Problem # 1
At 32.5 atm the temperature of a gas is -245 oF. Calculate its final +
Given:
P1 = 32.5 atm P2 = standard P = 1 atm T1 = -245oF T2 = ?
= oF -32 + 273
1.8 Express T to Kelvin
= -245 + 273
1.8
= -136 + 273
 = 137 K
Solution:
Formula T2 = P2T1 Charles’ Law states that as P decreases,
P1 T decreases, thus from the problem,
the given P2 decreases then T2 also
T2 = 1 atm (137 K) decreases

32.5 atm
= 137 K
32.5
= 4.22 K
Convert 4.22 K to oF = 1.8 (K − 273) + 32
= 1.8 (4.22-273) + 32 If the unknown in the problem is
= 1.8 (- 269) + 32 temperature ( T), the answer must
= -484 + 32 have to be converted to the original
unit of temperature
T2 = -452 oF

Sample Problem # 2
Aerosol cans can be dangerous when they are heated because they can explode. Suppose a can of
insecticide with a pressure of 4.0 atm at room temperarure (280C) is thrown into a fire, and the
temperature inside the can reaches 4000C, what will be its pressure?
Given: P1 = 4 atm P2 = ?
T1 = 28oC T2 = 400oC
= 28 + 273 = 400 + 273
= 301 K = 673K
Solution:
Formula P2 = P1T2
T1
P2 = 4atm (673 K) Charles’ Law states that as T increases,
301 K P increases, thus from the problem, the
P2 = 2692 atm given T2 increases then P2 also will
301 increase

P2 = 9 atm

4. Combined Gas Law

“For a given mass of gas volume is inversely proportional to the
pressure and directly proportional to the absolute temperature”
Formula: V1P1T2 = V2 P2T1
Sample Problem # 1
A 30 mL bubble is released from a diver’s air tank at a pressure of 4.5 atm and
a temperature of 15oC. What is the volume of the bubble when it reaches the ocean
surface, where the pressure is 760 torr and the temperature is 20oC?
Given:
V1 = 30 mL V2 = ?
P1 = 4.5 atm P2 = 760 torr = 1 atm T1 Convert 760 tor to atm
= 15oC T2 = 20oC
= 15 + 273 = 20 + 273
= 288 K = 293 K
Solution:
Formula:
V2 = V1P1T2
P2T1
V2 = (30mL)(4.5 atm)(293 K)
(1 atm)(288 K) V2
= 39,555 mL
288
V2 = 137 mL
 Sample Problem # 2
A gas occupies 750ml at STP. What will be its volume at 500
mmHg and 300K?

Given: Convert 500mmHg to atm

V1 = 750 mL V2 = ?
= 500mmHg x 1 atm
P1 = (SP) 1 atm P2 = 500mmHg = .658 atm
T1 = (ST) 273K T2 = 300 K 760 mmHg
Solution:
Formula:
V2 = V1P1T2
P2T1
V2 = (750mL)(1 atm)(300 K)
(.658 atm)(273 K) V
2
= 225000 mL
180
V2 = 1,250 mL
5. Avogadro’s Law- volume and moles
States that the volume of a gas is directly related to the number of moles of a gas when the temperature
and pressure are not changed. Thus, one mole of any ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure
occupies a constant volume of 22.4 L.
The volume of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the amount
of gas expressed in moles, n.
V 𝖺nV
𝖺 kn
V /n = k
Formula: V 1 = V 2 n1
n2

Sample Problem#1
If 0.25 mole of argon gas occupies a volume of 76.2 mL at a particular temperature and pressure, what
volume would .43 mole argon have under the same conditions?
Given: V1 = 76.2mL V2 = ?
n1 = 0.25 mole n2 = .43 mole
Solution:
Formula V2 = V1n2
n1
= 76.2mL (.43 mole)
.25 mole
= 32.766mL
.25
= 131 mL
Sample Problem # 2
A balloon containing 2 moles of helium has a volume of 880 ml. What is the new volume after 4 moles of
helium is added to the balloon at the same temperature and pressure?
Given: V1 = 880mL V2 = ?
n1 = 2 moles n2 = 2moles+4 moles = 6 moles
Solution:
Formula V2 = V1n2
n1
= 880mL (6 moles)
2 moles
= 5280mL 2
= 2640 mL
6. Ideal Gas Equation
Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, and Gay-Lussac’s Law- describes ideal gas behaviour. The equations
representing these laws may be integrated to arrive at one equation which interrelates pressure,
volume, temperature and number of moles of a gas.

Boyle’s Law: V 𝖺 1/P (n and T constant)

Charles’ Law: V 𝖺 T (n and P constant)
Avogadro’s Law: V 𝖺 n (P and T constant)
Combining the three gas laws will yield a more general equation:
V 𝖺 nT
P
Changing the sign of proportionality to the sign of equality
RnT
V = or PV = nRT P
Where: V = volume in liter
P = pressure in atmosphere n
= moles
R = proportionality constant
0.0821 L.atm
Mole . K
Sample Problem # 1
What volume will 1.27 mol of helium gas occupy at STP
Given: n = 1.27 moles
P = 1 atm (at STP) T
= 273 K
R = 0.0821 L.atm
Mole . K
V=?
Solution:
Formula: PV = nRT
V = nRT = 1.27 moles x 0.0821 L.atm x 273K P
Mole.K
1 atm
= 26.46 L
Sample Problem # 2
Calculate the pressure exerted by .300 mole of gas contained in 8 liter vessel at 180C.
Given: n = .300 moles V
=8L
T = 180C = 18 +273 = 291 K R
= 0.0821 L.atm
Mole . K
P=?
Solution:
Formula: PV = nRT
P = nRT = .300 moles x 0.0821 L.atm x 291 K V
Mole.K
8L
= 7.16733 atm
8
= .8959 atm
= .9 atm