Bio-cultural

Evolution of
humans
BY:-
Ishika Tyagi
 Introduction
Earliest primates
• . Monkeys, apes, and humans (and a few other animals like lemurs) belong to the order 'primate’

• The earliest primates evolved with features that enabled them to adapt to living efficiently on trees.
Primates have features that allow them to climb and move about on trees with great ease. They use their
forelimbs extensively.

• Primates possess what are called 'prehensile' hands and feet (hands and feet which are adapted for
grasping).
• All the living and extinct species of primates are classified into two subgroups, or suborders: the
'prosimii' and the 'Anthropoidea’.

• The prosimii ( or prosimians) are more primitive and were the earliest to evolve. The suborder
Anthropoidea includes more advanced primates, viz., monkeys, apes, and humans. The prosimii include
lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers.
The various species of prosimii are mainly found in Africa and South Asia. Lemurs are
confined only to Madagascar.
Apes and humans are placed in the superfamily 'Hominoidea' which is the third
superfamily of the suborder anthropoidea
the superfamily Hominoidea is divided into two families: (i) Pongidae (apes) and (ii)
Hominidae (human beings and extinct species of the closest ancestors of humans).
Fossil evidence has revealed the evolution of an ape that lived in Africa about 20 million
years ago and was very well adapted to living on the ground.
Ramapithecus
The first fossils of ramapithecus were discovered in India.
Subsequently, in the early 1960s, it was suggested that ramapithecus was the earliest
known species of Hominidae. In other words, ramapithecus represented the point at which
hominids (Hominidae) separated from apes (Pongidae).
Extensive work is still going on in the Siwalik hills to discover ramapithecus fossils, and
there have been some discoveries in the Rawalpindi area .. Ramapithecus was adapted to
environments in which forest growth was not very dense. But it is doubtful whether it could
walk upright.
Australopithecus
Australopithecus fossils were originally discovered and recognized in 1924 by Raymond
Dart in South Africa. It was Dart who labelled the fossil as 'Australopithecus' (southern
ape)
Unlike apes, Australopithecus cheek teeth were flat which suggests they were adapted to grinding tough
plant foods rather than soft fruit. It has been suggested that while Australopithecus robustus was
herbivorous, Australopithecus africanus was omnivorous (i.e., its diet included meat), but such
specialization is not fully established. Incidentally, males of Australopithecus species are much larger in
size than females (this is called 'sexual dimorphism'). This feature gradually disappeared with the evolution
of homo.
INCREASE IN BRAIN SIZE
Australopithecus brain size (450 c.c. to 550 c.c.) was not very different from that of the apes (470 c.c. for
chimpanzees). Increase in brain size occurred between 3 and 2 million years ago. The possibilities for this
had been created partly by changes in the teeth and jaws. The canines were reduced in size and the lower
jaw became lighter. Since the lower jaw was lighter, the bones of the upper part of the skull too could be
correspondingly lighter as they did not have to support a heavy mobile lower jaw. This in turn meant that
more room was available to the brain.

Human beings and their immediate ancestors are placed in the genus homo. The genus homo is
distinguished from Australopithecus by its larger brain size.
Homo habilis
One of the oldest fossils of the genus homo is that of the 'homo habilis'. Homo habilis was a toolmaker. This
was found near Lake Turkana in Kenya. Homo habilis lived 2 million years ago and had a brain that was
considerably larger than that of Australopithecus.
the ability to manufacture tools enabled habilis not only to compete better with other animal species while
exploiting limited natural food resources but also enabled later Homo species to move out of Africa and
settle in extreme climatic conditions in different parts of the old world.
• a careful analysis conclude that animal carcasses were brought to this place from a
distance and butchered for meat, and extraction of bone marrow with the help of variety of
tools that were also stored here. It has been argued, based on primitive tools and primitive
language that habilis possessed, that they were not big game hunters

'homo erectus’

• Apart from bipedal locomotion and well-developed hands, it had a large brain. It was much
taller than the Australopithecus. The homo erectus brain was about 1000 c.c., which is
nearly 70% the size of homo sapiens brains. Homo erectus made tools with great skill. The
fossils of homo erectus were first discovered in Indonesia.

• The opportunistic use of fire by erectus assured not only protection against extreme cold
climates and carnivores but also enabled them to add to their diet foods that were
uneatable (when raw) until now. An improved communication skill, besides facilitating big
game hunting, also helped in gathering activities, storage of food as well and shelter-
building activities.

• Natural selection eventually led to the extinction of Australopithecus and homo habilis.

• Homo sapiens ('wise man') definitely branched out of H. erectus line of descent but there is
no unanimity among scholars regarding the time period of this transition.

• The earliest fossils of archaic H. sapiens, found from Atapuerca in Spain, have been dated
300,000 years ago and are considered as intermediate between H. erectus and
Neanderthals to distinguish them from modern humans or H. sapiens sapiens. In view of
the limited fossil evidence, our knowledge about H. sapiens is largely dependent on the
fossil records related to Neanderthal species and cultural developments associated with
them.
• Meanwhile, a new species of homo had branched out.
These were the Neanderthals. Neanderthals were early
homo sapiens (they are named 'homo sapiens
neanderthalensis''). Their fossils were first discovered in
Germany in 1856 .
• . In Neanderthals, brain size saw further expansion, stone
tools became more efficient and what we recognize as
'culture' became more and more visible. But the
Neanderthal skulls were thicker and less rounded at the
top than those of modern humans.
• Their tool culture, known as Mousterian culture (from the
finds at Le Moustier rock shelter in Southwest France)
.The use of a variety of tools from flakes made
Neanderthals an expert and opportunistic hunter
• Another significant cultural aspect attributed to
Neanderthal species is their ability to make fire by
striking sparks from iron pyrites.
 Homo sapiens sapiens

• With the emergence of homo sapiens sapiens, the size of the brain increased to an average of 1350 c.c. A
larger brain when combined with well-developed hands which were free because they were not used for
locomotion .

• Augmentation of brain size had already reached a point where it was possible to make tools requiring a
high level of skill.

• In cultural terms too, the H. sapiens sapiens displayed remarkable variety and improvement over that of
the Neanderthals.
• To effectively exploit the vegetation and food resources in different climatic conditions in these continents
at different points of time, the early H. sapiens sapiens made extensive use of stone, bone, antler and
wood to manufacture tools with a new technology of making blades, thus, giving rise to distinct cultures.
the period of early H. sapiens sapiens has been termed as one of 'cultural explosion' by scholars such as
Steven Mithen (1996).

• . The technique and the new behavioral pattern of the early H. sapiens sapiens transformed the human
way of life and brought about explosive population growth. Endowed with superior intellectual
capabilities, they pushed earlier human species into extinction.