RESEARCH IN TEACHER EDUCATION 1

LECTURE 5 (March 25, 2024)

Population and Sample

• Population (denoted by 𝑁) is a finite or infinite collection of objects, events or individuals with specified class or
characteristics under consideration.
• A sample (denoted by 𝑛) is a finite collection of objects, events or individuals selected from a population which is
expected to possess characteristics identical to those of the population.
• Representative refers to the selection of individuals from a sample of a population such that the individuals selected
are typical of the population under study, enabling you to draw conclusions from the sample about the population as
a whole.

Sampling Calculation
• Recent developments in research and statistics invalidate the use of Slovin’s formula.
• More appropriate formula can be used to calculate the sample 𝑛 given the population size 𝑁 and level of significance
𝛼. This is the Lynch formula.
𝑵𝒛𝟐 𝒑(𝟏 − 𝒑)
𝒏=
𝑵𝜶𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 𝒑(𝟏 − 𝒑)
where 𝒏 is the sample size that will be calculated given the following information:
𝑵 refers to the population size
𝜶 refers to the level of significance or the allowable sampling error
𝒛 refers to the value of the normal variables based on the confidence level
𝒑 refers to the largest possible proportion (use 50% if not sure)
• The probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis is called the level of significance denoted by 𝛼.
• The counterpart of the level of significance is the level of confidence. A 𝛼 = 0.05 implies a 95% level of confidence.
• Examples: For 𝑁 = 10,000, if 𝑛 = 4899, 𝑛 = 370 and 𝑛 = 95 for 𝛼 = 0.01, 𝛼 = 0.05, and 𝛼 = 0.10 respectively.

Random Sampling Techniques

• Fair sampling is the most commonly used sampling technique in which each member in the population is given an
equal chance of being selected as a sample.
o Equi-probability means that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected and included in the
sample.
o Independence means that the chance of one member being drawn does not affect the chance of the other member.
• The following sampling techniques are considered as random sampling:
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster random sampling

Non-Random Sampling Techniques

• Bias sampling is a method of collecting a small portion of the population by which not all the members in the population
are given the chance to be included as a sample.
o Do not consider equi-probability and independence.
o Usually used when using qualitative research designs where smaller number of samples is required
• The following sampling techniques are considered as non-random sampling:
1. Convenience sampling
2. Purposive sampling
3. Quota sampling
4. Snowball sampling

Data Gathering Tools

1. Questionnaires
a. Profile Survey Questionnaires
b. Inventory Questionnaires (Rating Scales)
2. Rubrics
3. Table of Specifications and Tests
4. Interview Protocols
5. Observation Sheets

Data Analysis or Statistical Treatments

• Descriptive Statistics is concerned with the methods of collecting, organizing and presenting data appropriately and
creatively to describe or assess group characteristics.
o Frequencies, Percentages, Ranks
o Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Mode, Median)

1|Research in Teacher Education (BEEd 3B) Utanes, N. C.

 o Measures of Variability (Variance, Standard Deviation, Quartile Deviation, Range)
o Coefficient of Variation
o Rating Scales and Weighted Means
• Inferential Statistics is concerned with the inferring or drawing conclusions about the population based from the
samples taken from it (comparison of variables or groups and investigating relationship between variables).
o Tests for Comparison of Groups
▪ T-test for independent samples
▪ One-way analysis of variance
o Tests of Comparison of Paired Observations
▪ T-test for paired samples
o Tests of Correlation
▪ Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r)
▪ Spearman rho (𝜌)
▪ Point-biserial (𝑟𝑝𝑏 )
▪ Chi-square test of independence (𝜒 2 )
• Qualitative Data Analysis
o There is no single, accepted approach to analyzing qualitative data, although several guidelines exist for this process
(Creswell, 2012)
o It is an eclectic process. Qualitative research is “interpretive” research, in which you make a personal assessment as to a
description that fits the situation or themes that capture the major categories of information.
o It is inductive in form, going from the particular or the detailed data (e.g., transcriptions or typed notes from interviews) to
the general codes and themes. These steps are not always taken in sequence, but they represent
a) preparing and organizing the data for analysis;
b) engaging in an initial exploration of the data through the process of coding it;
c) using the codes to develop a more general picture of the data— descriptions and themes;
d) representing the findings through narratives and visuals;
e) making an interpretation of the meaning of the results by reflecting personally on the impact of the findings and
on the literature that might inform the findings; and,
f) conducting strategies to validate the accuracy of the findings

APPLICATION IN THESIS WRITING

One of the chapters of a research report is dedicated to the description of the research design, participants of the study,
instrumentation and analysis of data. This chapter is commonly called the Methodology. In the proposal paper, it lays out the
plan for the conduct of the study. On the other hand, it narrates what transpired during the course of the study in the final
research paper.
• Research Design
o What research method are you going to use? Quantitative, qualitative or mixed-method?
o What particular research design will be used?
o On what part of the research study is the research design/s applicable? How are they being applied?
• Participants of the Study
o The place where the study is situated called the locale of the study like the school where the study is conducted. You
describe the location, population and other noticeable characteristics of the place where the study will be conducted.
Present a map if possible.
o The general characteristic of the participants such as their grade level, course or field of specialization.
o For quantitative research, the sampling technique to be used. There are cases where all the members of the population
are considered as the participant of the study called total enumeration. However, if the population is too large that collecting
data from all of them is impractical, sampling must be done.
o For qualitative research, the sampling technique and the criteria for inclusion as participant must be describe.
o The number of population and required sample as calculated using Lynch formula. Present a table is the participants will
come from different groups or strata.
• Instrumentation
o Whom will you ask permission for the conduct of the study?
o How are you going to collect the data?
o What is the mode of distribution and retrieval of data?
o What data gathering tool will you use? What are the parts of the tool?
o What special equipment and facilities were used?
o What measures will you observe to ensure reliability and validity of the data collected?
o Will you have other modes of verification of the data such as triangulation through direct observation, documentary
analysis, focus group discussion and others?
• Analysis of Data
o Descriptive statistical tools used to describe each of the variables involved in the study
o Statistical limits and descriptive values or adjectival interpretations of the rating scales
o Formula or special equations used for calculations
o Inferential statistical tools used to compare groups or variables
o Inferential statistical tools used to correlate variables
o Level of significance used to test the hypotheses

2|Research in Teacher Education (BEEd 3B) Utanes, N. C.