SECTION II-NATURAL SYSTEMS

1. Internal Structure of the Earth:

• Crust: Outermost layer, divided into continental and oceanic crust.

• Mantle: Beneath the crust, semi-molten layer extending to about 2900 km depth.
• Outer Core: Liquid iron-nickel alloy, generates Earth’s magnetic field.
• Inner Core: Solid iron-nickel alloy, high pressure, center of Earth.

2. Theory of Plate Tectonics:

• Earth’s lithosphere divided into tectonic plates.

• Plates move due to convection currents in the semi-molten asthenosphere.
• Types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform.

3. Distribution of Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Trenches:

• Earthquakes: Occur along plate boundaries (convergent, divergent, transform).

• Volcanoes: Form at convergent boundaries (subduction zones), divergent boundaries (mid-
ocean ridges), and hotspots.
• Island Arcs: Curved chains of volcanic islands formed at subduction zones.
• Fold Mountains: Created by plate collision (convergent boundaries).
• Major Faults: Fractures where rocks move past each other (e.g., San Andreas Fault).
• Ocean Trenches: Deep depressions at subduction zones.

4. Intrusive and Extrusive Volcanic Features:

• Intrusive (Plutonic):
▪ Sills: Horizontal intrusions between rock layers.
▪ Dykes: Vertical intrusions cutting across rock layers.
▪ Plugs: Magma solidifies in volcanic conduits.
▪ Batholiths: Large, deep-seated igneous bodies.
• Extrusive (Volcanic):
▪ Caldera: Large volcanic depression after explosive eruption.
▪ Shield Volcano: Broad, gently sloping, basaltic lava flows.
▪ Composite Cone (Stratovolcano): Layers of lava and pyroclastic material.
▪ Lava Plateau: Extensive, flat areas from repeated lava flows.

5. Rock Cycle:

• Igneous Rocks: Form from cooling magma/lava.

• Sedimentary Rocks: Accumulate from weathered particles.
• Metamorphic Rocks: Form from existing rocks under heat/pressure.

6. Weathering and Mass Movement:

• Weathering: Breakdown of rocks in place.

• Chemical Weathering: Carbonation, hydrolysis.
• Physical Weathering: Frost action, exfoliation.
• Biological Weathering: Plant roots, burrowing organisms.
• Mass Movement: Soil creep, landslides.

7. Limestone Features:

• Surface: Clints and grykes, surface depressions, swallow holes.

• Underground: Caves, stalactites, stalagmites, pillars, underground rivers.

8. Difference Between Weather and Climate:

 • Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions.
• Climate: Long-term average weather patterns.

9. Factors Influencing Weather and Climate:

• Latitude: Determines solar energy received.

• Altitude: Higher altitudes are cooler.
• Relief: Influence of mountains and valleys.
• Distance from the Sea: Maritime vs. continental climates.
• Winds: Land and sea breezes, prevailing winds.

10. Equatorial and Tropical Marine Climates:

• Equatorial: Hot, wet year-round (e.g., Amazon rainforest).

• Tropical Marine: Warm, wet with distinct wet/dry seasons (e.g., Caribbean).

11. Caribbean Weather Systems:

• Tropical Waves: Precursors to hurricanes.

• Hurricanes: Intense tropical cyclones.
• Cold Fronts: Boundary between warm and cold air masses.
• ITCZ: Zone of convergence near the equator.
• Anticyclones: High-pressure systems.

12. Human Activities Contributing to Global Warming and Climate Change:

• Deforestation: The removal of trees and forests contributes to increased carbon dioxide levels
in the atmosphere. Trees absorb CO₂ during photosynthesis, so their loss reduces this natural
process.
• Emissions of Greenhouse Gases: Activities like burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas)
release greenhouse gases (such as CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide) into the atmosphere,
trapping heat and causing global warming.

13. Consequences of Climate Change in the Caribbean:

• Sea Level Rise: Coastal areas experience higher sea levels, leading to increased coastal
flooding and erosion.
• Impacts on Coral Reefs: Warmer waters stress coral reefs, causing coral bleaching and
affecting marine biodiversity.
• Coastal Wetlands and Settlements: Rising sea levels threaten wetlands and coastal
communities.
• Changes in Weather Patterns: More intense hurricanes, altered rainfall patterns, and
extreme weather events affect ecosystems and livelihoods.

14. Measures to Reduce Climate Change Effects in the Caribbean:

• Mitigation Measures: Reduce emissions by promoting cleaner energy sources, efficient

transportation, and sustainable practices.
• Sustainable Forestry: Protect existing forests and promote reforestation to sequester carbon.
• Education: Raise awareness about climate change and encourage responsible behavior.

15. Adaptations of Vegetation in the Tropical Rainforest Biome:

• Buttress Roots: Tall rainforest trees have wide buttress roots for stability and nutrient
absorption.
• Thin Bark: Tree bark is thin due to consistent warm temperatures; it sheds water efficiently.
• Drip Tips: Leaves have pointed tips to channel rainwater away, preventing fungal growth.
• Flexible Leaf Stems: Leaves move with the sun for optimal photosynthesis.
• Epiphytes: Plants growing on other plants, obtaining nutrients from air and rain.
16. Positive and Negative Impacts on Tropical Forests:

• Positive (Sustainable Management): Conservation efforts, medicinal discoveries, and

preservation of indigenous cultures.
• Negative (Deforestation): Loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, and depletion of natural
resources.

17. Major Soil Constituents:

• Organic Matter: Decomposed plant and animal material.

• Inorganic Matter: Minerals and rock particles.
• Bacteria: Soil microorganisms vital for nutrient cycling.
• Water and Air: Essential for soil health and plant growth.

18. Factors Influencing Latosol Formation:

• Climate: Rainfall and temperature affect soil development.

• Vegetation: Plant roots contribute to soil structure.
• Biota: Soil organisms influence nutrient cycling.
• Water: Interaction with other factors affects soil composition.

19. Hydrological Cycle Features:

• Evaporation: Water vapor rises from oceans and land.

• Condensation: Vapor forms clouds.
• Precipitation: Rainfall replenishes surface water.
• Transpiration: Plants release water vapor.
• Run-off: Surface water flows into rivers.
• Infiltration: Water enters soil.
• Groundwater Flow: Water moves through underground aquifers.

20. Drainage System and Fluvial Processes:

• Erosion: The removal of soil and rock material by flowing water, which shapes river
valleys and channels.
• Transportation: Movement of eroded material downstream by rivers.
• Deposition: Sediment settling and accumulating along riverbanks, forming features like
levees and floodplains.

21. Coastal System and Wave Processes:

• Erosion: Waves wear away coastlines, creating features like cliffs and sea caves.
• Transportation: Waves move sediment (sand, pebbles) along the coast.
• Deposition: Sediment accumulates in sheltered areas, forming beaches and spits.

22. Landforms:

• Rivers:
▪ River Valleys: V-shaped valleys carved by rivers.
▪ Waterfalls: Vertical drops where rivers flow over resistant rock layers.
▪ Meanders: Curving bends in rivers.
▪ Braided Channels: Multiple interconnected channels in a river.
▪ Ox-Bow Lakes: Crescent-shaped lakes formed when meanders are cut off.
▪ Levees: Raised banks along river channels.
▪ Flood Plains: Flat areas adjacent to rivers, prone to flooding.
▪ Deltas: Sediment deposits at river mouths.
• Coastal:
▪ Cliff: Steep rock face along the coast.
 ▪ Wave-Cut Platform: Flat area eroded by waves at the base of cliffs.
▪ Headland: Prominent coastal projection.
▪ Bay: Indentation in the coastline.
▪ Cave: Hollowed-out area in cliffs by wave action.
▪ Arch: Natural bridge formed by erosion.
▪ Stack: Isolated rock column in the sea.
▪ Spit: Narrow sandbar extending from the coast.
▪ Bay-Bar: Sandbar enclosing a bay.
▪ Tombolo: Sandbar connecting an island to the mainland.
▪ Beach: Accumulation of sand and pebbles along the shore.

23. Drainage Patterns:

• Dendritic: Tree-like pattern, common in uniform rock.

• Trellis: Parallel main rivers with shorter tributaries, often in folded landscapes.
• Radial: Rivers diverge from a central point (like spokes on a wheel).
• Relationship to Rock Type and Geology: Drainage patterns influenced by underlying
rock structures.

24. Types of Coral Reefs:

• Fringing: Close to shore, directly attached to land.

• Barrier: Parallel to the coast, separated by a lagoon.
• Atoll: Circular reef surrounding a lagoon, often on submerged volcanic islands.

25. Conditions for Successful Coral Reef Formation:

• Water Depth: Shallow, sunlit waters.

• Salinity: Stable salt levels.
• Temperature: Warm tropical waters.
• Turbidity: Clear water for photosynthesis.
• Beneficial Algae and Fish: Symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) and herbivorous fish.

26. Importance of Coral Reefs:

• Coastal Protection: Reefs reduce wave energy, protecting shorelines.

• Raw Material for Beaches: Coral fragments contribute to sandy beaches.
• Ecological Benefits: Biodiversity, habitat for marine life.
• Economic Benefits: Tourism, fisheries.

27. Importance of Mangrove Wetlands:

• Coastal Protection: Mangroves act as natural buffers against storms and erosion.
• Ecological: Biodiversity, nursery for fish and other species.
• Socio-Economic Benefits: Livelihoods, carbon sequestration.

28. Difference Between Natural Hazard and Natural Disaster:

• Natural Hazard: A natural hazard refers to the risk resulting from processes associated
with the lithosphere (earth’s crust), biosphere (living organisms), and atmosphere
(weather and climate). It encompasses events like earthquakes, hurricanes, and
volcanic eruptions.
• Natural Disaster: A natural disaster, on the other hand, represents the effects of a
hazard on the physical and human landscapes, especially in densely populated areas. It
includes the actual impact of events like floods, earthquakes, or storms.

29. Areas at High Risk in Caribbean Countries:

 • Earthquakes: Caribbean countries near tectonic plate boundaries are vulnerable to
seismic activity.
• Hurricanes: Coastal regions face the risk of powerful tropical cyclones.
• Volcanoes: Islands with active volcanoes are at risk of eruptions.
• Landslides: Hilly terrain and heavy rainfall contribute to landslide hazards.
• Flooding: Low-lying coastal areas and river basins are prone to floods.

30. Effects of Natural Hazards and Disasters:

• Short-Term Effects: Immediate consequences include loss of life, property damage,

and disruption of essential services.
• Long-Term Effects: These persist beyond the initial impact, affecting economic growth,
infrastructure, and community well-being.

31. Responses to Hazards and Disasters in the Caribbean:

• Individuals: Preparedness, evacuation plans, and awareness.

• National Agencies: Early warning systems, disaster relief, and infrastructure resilience.
• Regional Agencies: Coordination, resource allocation, and capacity building.
• Hazard/Disaster Management Cycle Stages: Preparedness, response, recovery, and
mitigation.
SECTION B

32. Factors Influencing Distribution and Density of Population:

• Historical Factors: Past events, colonization, and migration patterns shape where
people live today.
• Cultural Factors: Language, religion, traditions, and ethnicity influence settlement
patterns.
• Physical Factors: Geography (mountains, rivers, coastlines) affects where people
settle.
• Socio-Economic Factors: Economic opportunities, job availability, and quality of life
impact population distribution.

33. Dot and Choropleth Maps and Population Pyramids:

• Dot Maps: Use dots to represent data points (e.g., population) in specific locations.
• Choropleth Maps: Use color gradients to show data variations across regions (e.g.,
population density).
• Population Pyramids: Graphically display age and gender distribution in a population.

34. Factors Influencing Population Growth in the Caribbean (Compared with India, China, or
Nigeria):

• Birth Rate: The number of births per 1,000 people per year.
• Death Rate: The number of deaths per 1,000 people per year.
• Natural Increase: Birth rate minus death rate.
• Migration: Movement of people in and out of the region.
• Fertility Rate: Average number of children per woman.
• Life Expectancy: How long people live on average.
• Government Policies: Population control measures implemented by authorities.

35. Definitions:

• Urbanization: The process of population growth in cities and towns.

• Urban Growth: The increase in the number of people living in urban areas.
• Urban Sprawl: Unplanned, low-density development spreading outward from cities.

36. Causes of Population Growth in Urban Areas:

• Natural Increase: More births than deaths.

• Migration:
▪ Benefits: Labor supply, economic growth.
▪ Problems: Overcrowding, crime, housing issues, environmental impact.

37. Attempts to Control Urbanization:

• Zoning: Regulate land use and prevent haphazard development.

• Decentralization of Services: Distribute amenities to reduce urban concentration.
• Housing Schemes: Planned housing projects to accommodate population growth.
• Rural Area Upgrades: Improve infrastructure and services in rural regions.
• Agricultural Diversification: Encourage non-farm activities to reduce urban migration.

38. Migration Definitions and Consequences:

• In-Migration: People moving into an area.

• Out-Migration: People leaving an area.
 • Reasons for Migration:
▪ Push Factors: Economic hardship, conflict, political instability.
▪ Pull Factors: Job opportunities, better living conditions.
• Consequences: Economic impacts (labor force changes) and social effects (cultural
shifts).

39. Economic Activity Definitions:

• Primary Activities: Direct use of natural resources (farming, mining, fishing).

• Secondary Activities: Manufacturing and processing (factories, construction).
• Tertiary Activities: Services (retail, education, healthcare).

40. Importance of Economic Activities in the Caribbean:

• Primary: Agriculture, fishing, and mining.

• Secondary: Light manufacturing and construction.
• Tertiary: Tourism, finance, and education.

Certainly! Let’s delve into each objective, providing concise explanations and definitions for easy
memorization:

41. Renewable and Non-Renewable Industries:

• Renewable Industries: These rely on resources that replenish naturally within a

relatively short timeframe. They can be used indefinitely without depletion if managed
responsibly.
▪ Examples: Forestry (wood from trees) and Fisheries (harvesting fish from
oceans and rivers).
• Non-Renewable Industries: These depend on finite or very slowly replenishing
resources, often over geological time spans.
▪ Examples: Oil and Natural Gas (fossil fuels) and Bauxite (used for aluminum
production).

42. Resources in Caribbean Countries:

• Forests: Found in areas like the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil and Tropical Rainforests
in countries like Guyana and Suriname.
• Fish: Abundant in the Caribbean Sea, with Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and The
Bahamas having significant fishing industries.
• Limestone: Found in Jamaica, Cuba, and other islands, used for construction and
cement production.
• Bauxite: Mined in countries like Jamaica, Guyana, and Suriname, a key source of
aluminum.
• Petroleum and Natural Gas: Exploited in Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, and
Mexico.
• Gold: Mined in Guyana, Suriname, and other countries.

43. Factors Influencing Industry Location:

• Fishing Industry:
▪ Raw Materials: Proximity to fishing grounds.
▪ Energy: Access to refrigeration and processing facilities.
▪ Transport: Ports for shipping seafood.
• Forestry Industry:
▪ Raw Materials: Availability of timber.
▪ Energy: Power for sawmills.
▪ Transport: Access to markets.
• Oil and Natural Gas Industry:
 ▪ Raw Materials: Oil and gas reserves.
▪ Energy: Refineries and pipelines.
▪ Transport: Ports for exports.
• Bauxite Industry:
▪ Raw Materials: Bauxite deposits.
▪ Energy: Electricity for aluminum smelting.
▪ Transport: Ports for shipping.
• Food Processing Industry:
▪ Markets: Proximity to consumers.
▪ Labour: Skilled workforce.
▪ Government Role: Supportive policies.

44. Tourism Industry Development Factors:

• Physical: Beautiful beaches, warm climate, and natural attractions.

• Historical: Cultural heritage, colonial history, and landmarks.
• Cultural: Music, festivals, and local traditions.
• Man-Made Attractions: Resorts, theme parks, and infrastructure.
• Government Role: Policies, marketing, and infrastructure investment.

45. Benefits and Problems of Selected Industries in the Caribbean:

• Benefits:
▪ Employment: Creates jobs for locals.
▪ Revenue: Tourism generates income.
▪ Improved Standard of Living: Economic growth.
• Problems:
▪ Declining Raw Material Sources: Depletion of resources.
▪ High Exploration Costs: Expensive to find new deposits.
▪ Competition: Global market challenges.
▪ Pollution: Environmental impact.
▪ Accessibility and Transportation: Remote locations.
▪ Sustainability: Balancing growth with conservation.

46. Solutions to Industry Problems:

• Exploration of New Raw Material Sources: Invest in research and development.

• Alternative Raw Materials: Diversify inputs.
• Diversification: Explore new industries.

47. Agriculture Factors:

• Historical: Colonial legacies, land use patterns.

• Physical: Climate, soil quality.
• Human: Farming practices, labor availability.
• Economic: Market demand, technology.

48. Commercial and Subsistence Farming Areas:

• Commercial: Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.

• Subsistence: Haiti, Jamaica, and Grenada.

49. Characteristics of Commercial Farming:

• Size: Large-scale operations.

• Ownership: Corporate or private.
• Labour: Mechanized and skilled workers.
 • Products: Export-oriented crops.
• Markets: International trade.

50. Characteristics of Sugar Cane Farming:

• Acreage: Sugar cane is a perennial tropical grass that grows in tall, jointed, fibrous stalks. It
thrives in warm temperate and tropical regions, such as India, Southeast Asia, and New
Guinea.
• Farming Practices: Sugar cane exhibits a unique growth pattern with lateral shoots emerging
at its base, leading to the development of multiple stems. It requires well-drained soil and
warm temperatures for optimal growth.
• Labour: Cultivating sugar cane involves labor-intensive tasks such as planting, harvesting,
and processing.
• Technology: Modern technologies, including machinery for planting and harvesting, are used
to improve productivity.
• Markets: Sugar cane is primarily grown for sugar production, but other products like ethanol
for biofuel are also emerging1.

51. Changes in Commercial Farming:

• Government Policies: Policies promoting agribusiness participation in crop markets can

impact commercial farming. These policies may include land legislation, tax incentives, and
regulations to ease consolidation and operation of large commercial farms.
• Biofuels: The shift towards biofuel production affects land use and crop choices, potentially
diverting resources from food crops to fuel crops.
• Value-Added Products: Diversification into value-added products (e.g., processed foods) can
enhance profitability.
• Technology: Adoption of modern agricultural technologies improves efficiency and output.
• New Markets: Access to global markets and consumer preferences influence commercial
farming strategies.
• Impact on Economic Development:
▪ Cost and Availability: Changes in production costs and availability of traditional
products.
▪ Income: Commercial farming can boost rural incomes.
▪ Government Revenue: Tax revenues from agribusiness contribute to economic
growth.
▪ Job Opportunities: Employment generated by commercial farming.
▪ Diversification: Commercial farming encourages diversification beyond staple
crops.

52. Environmental Degradation:

• Agriculture:
▪ Deforestation: Clearing forests for agriculture reduces biodiversity and habitat.
▪ Soil Erosion and Exhaustion: Intensive farming practices lead to soil loss and
reduced fertility.
▪ Flooding: Altered landscapes affect natural drainage patterns.
▪ Pollution: Chemical runoff impacts water quality.
• Quarrying, Mining, and Secondary Industries:
▪ Deforestation: Land clearance for mining and quarrying.
▪ Pollution: Industrial activities release pollutants into the environment.
▪ Land Degradation: Soil disturbance and loss of vegetation.
• Tourism:
▪ Coral Reef Destruction: Coastal tourism can harm fragile coral ecosystems.
▪ Pollution: Tourism-related waste affects coastal areas.
▪ Mangrove Destruction: Coastal development impacts mangrove habitats.

53. Measures for Sustainable Resource Management:

• Education: Promote awareness of sustainable practices.

• Organic Farming: Reduce chemical inputs and enhance soil health.
• Forest and Soil Conservation: Implement measures to prevent erosion and maintain
ecosystem balance.
• Fisheries Management: Sustainable fishing practices to protect marine resources.
• Improved Mining and Manufacturing Techniques: Minimize environmental impact.
•
Ecotourism: Encourage responsible tourism that conserves natural habitats and benefits local
communities.