WFM 6307: Water Control Structures

Lectures 5 and 6

Waves and wave transformations

Putting things in context

Water and Sediment discharge (from rivers)

Sand transport, Morphology, Sediments

bioturbation
nutrients

Coastal structures Waves and currents Biological ecosystems

Aeration/mixing

life Red tide

Water quality
Organic matter, nutrients, N,P,K, Si (urbanization)
How waves transform during their propagation toward the shore

Flow of the transformations and actions of sea waves with suggested methods for their calculation (contd.)
How waves transform during their propagation toward the shore

Continued from previous slide:

Flow of the transformations and actions of sea waves with suggested methods for their calculation
Waves and Wave-Induced Hydrodynamics

Waves are the prime movers for the littoral

(coastal or shore region) processes at the
shoreline. For the most part, they are
generated by the action of the wind over
water but also by moving objects such as
passing boats and ships. Waves are almost
always present at coastal sites owing to the
vastness of the ocean’s surface area, which
serves as a generating site for waves, and
the relative smallness of the surf zone, that
thin ribbon of area around the ocean basins Source: Terminology:
Winds Wind waves
where the waves break and the wind-derived
Earthquakes Tsunami
energy is dissipated.
Ships Ship waves
Atmospherics processes Storm surge
Gravitation Tide
Waves and coastal structures

Knowledge of the waves and the forces they generate is essential for
the design of coastal projects since they are the major factor that
determines the geometry of beaches, the planning and design of
marinas, waterways, shore protection measures, hydraulic structures
and other civil and military coastal works. Estimates of wave conditions
are needed in almost all coastal engineering studies.
Waves on the surface of the ocean with periods of 3 to 25 sec are
primarily generated by winds and are a fundamental feature of coastal
regions of the world.
Wave heights, wave periods and wave generating forces:

Capillary waves

Chop waves: rough sea

Swell and Seiche

Seiche
Swell Swell

A swell, in the context of an ocean, sea or lake, is a series of mechanical waves that propagate along the
interface between water and air. Swell are waves (usually with smooth tops) that have moved beyond the area
where they were generated.
A seiche occurs in an enclosed body of water such as a lake, bay or gulf. A seiche is a standing wave that
oscillates in a lake as a result of seismic or atmospheric disturbances creating huge fluctuations of water
levels.
Stages of waves:

waves
Basic terminology/ Definition of wave parameters

L= wave length
H= wave height
T= wave period
d=water depth
η=surface elevation

Crest = highest point

Trough = lowest point
T
SWL= still water level
For small amplitude waves
Wave amplitude a=H/2

Angular or radian frequency ω (or )=2π/T Wave steepness ε = H/L

Wave number k = 2π/L Relative depth = d/L
Phase velocity or wave celerity C= L/T= ω /k Relative wave height = H/d
Linear wave theory/ small amplitude wave theory
• The small-amplitude theory for two-dimensional, freely propagating,
periodic gravity waves is developed by linearizing the equations that define
the free surface boundary conditions.
• This is the simplest theory to describe the wave motion is also known as
the Airy wave theory or the linear wave theory, because of its simplifying
assumptions.
• This theory is predicated on the following conditions:
• an incompressible fluid (a good assumption),
• Irrotational fluid motion (implying that there is no viscosity in the water, which would
seem to be a bad assumption, but works out fairly well),
…… (1)
• an impermeable flat bottom (not too true in nature),
• Pressure at air-sea interface is constant, and
• very small amplitude waves (not a good assumption, but again it seems to work
pretty well unless the waves become large).
Linear wave theory/ small amplitude wave theory

Figure 1 Definition of progressive surface wave parameters.

Linear wave theory/ small amplitude wave theory
Figure 1 depicts a monochromatic wave traveling at a phase celerity C on
water of depth d in an x, z coordinate system. The x axis is the still water
position and the bottom is at z = -d. The wave surface profile is defined by
z = , where is a function of x and time t. The wavelength L and height
H are as shown in the figure. Since the wave travels a distance L in one
period T,
C = L/T ….(2)

The arrows at the wave crest, trough, and still water positions indicate
the directions of water particle motion at the surface. As the wave
propagates from left to right these motions cause a water particle to
move in a clockwise orbit. The water particle velocities and orbit
dimensions decrease in size with increasing depth below the still water
line.
Linear wave theory/ small amplitude wave theory
Water waves are considered oscillatory or nearly oscillatory if the motion described
by the water particles is circular orbits that are closed or nearly closed for each
wave period. The linear theory represents pure oscillatory waves.

Pure oscillatory waves, particles in circular orbits

Linear wave theory/ small amplitude wave theory
Applying boundary conditions and rearranging we have:
…… (12)

Equation (12) indicates that for small-amplitude waves, the wave celerity is
independent of the wave height.
Equation (12) can also be written as:

…… (13) …… (14)

From Eq. (14), if the water depth and the wave period are known, the
wavelength can be calculated by trial and error. Then the celerity can be
determined from C = L/T.
Equations (12) to (14) collectively are commonly known as the dispersion
equation.
Linear wave theory/ small amplitude wave theory
Important:
• For a spectrum of waves having different periods (or lengths), the longer
waves will propagate at a higher celerity and move ahead while the
shorter waves will lag behind.
• It can be demonstrated that as a wave propagates from deep water into
the shore, the wave period will remain constant because the number of
waves passing sequential points in a given interval of time must be
constant.
• Other wave characteristics including the celerity, length, height, surface
profile, particle velocity and acceleration, pressure field, and energy will
all vary during passage from deep water to the nearshore area.
Small amplitude wave theory: wave classification
An important classification of surface waves is based on the relative
depth (d/L). When a wave propagates from deep water offshore into
shallower water nearshore the wavelength decreases [see Eq. (14)], but
at a slower rate than that at which the depth decreases.
Thus, the relative depth decreases as a wave approaches the shore.
When d/L is greater than approximately 0.5, tanh (2Пd/L) is essentially
unity and Eqs. (12) to (14) reduce to:
…… (15)
Waves in this region (d/L>0.5) are called
deep water waves and this condition …… (16)
is commonly denoted by the
subscript zero.
…… (17)
Small amplitude wave theory: wave classification
Wave particle velocities and orbit dimensions decrease with increasing
distance below the free surface. In deep water at a depth of –z/L > 0.5
the particle velocities and orbit dimensions are close to zero. Since for d/L
> 0.5 the waves do not interact with the bottom, wave characteristics are
thus independent of the water depth.
Small amplitude wave theory: wave classification
When the relative depth is less than 0.5 the waves interact with the
bottom. Wave characteristics depend on both the water depth and the
wave period, and continually change as the depth decreases. The full
dispersion equations must be used to calculate wave celerity or length for
any given water depth and wave period. Dividing Eq. (13) by Eq. (16) or
Eq. (14) by Eq. (17) yields

…… (18)

Waves propagating in the range of relative depths from 0.5 to 0.05 are
called intermediate or transitional water waves.
Small amplitude wave theory: wave classification
When the relative depth is less than approximately 0.05, tanh (2Пd/L)
approximately equals 2Пd/L and the dispersion equation yields

…… (19) …… (20)

Waves in this region of relative depths are called shallow water waves. In
shallow water the small-amplitude wave theory gives a wave celerity that
is independent of wave period and dependent only on the water depth
(i.e., the waves are not period dispersive).
Small amplitude wave theory: wave classification

Deep and shallow water surface

profiles and particle orbits
Wave transformations
Wave transformation

When the waves approach the shoreline, they are affected by the
seabed through processes such as shoaling, refraction, bottom
friction and wave-breaking. However, wave-breaking also occurs in
deep water when the waves are too steep. If the waves meet major
structures or abrupt changes in the coastline, they will be
transformed by diffraction. If waves meet a submerged reef or
structure, they will overtop the reef. If the waves meet a permeable
structure, partial transmission will take place.

Wave transformations are related to wave phenomena occurring in

the natural as well as intervened environment.
Wave transformation

Coastal engineering considers problems near the shoreline normally in

water depths of less than 20 m. Project designs usually require
knowledge of the wave field over an area of 1-10 km2 in which the depth
may vary significantly. Additionally, study of shoreline changes and
beach protection frequently requires analysis of coastal processes over
entire littoral cells, which may span 10-100 km in length.

Wave data are generally not available at the site or depths required.
Often a coastal engineer will find that data have been collected or
hindcast at sites offshore in deeper water or nearby in similar water
depths. Present discussion provides procedures for transforming waves
from offshore or nearby locations to nearshore locations needed by the
engineer.
Wave transformation
Processes that can affect a wave as it propagates from deep into shallow
water include:
1. Shoaling
2. Refraction
3. Diffraction Additionally, the following phenomena
may occur, but not due to shallow
4. Bottom friction
water effect:
5. Depth-induced wave-breaking 11. Dissipation due to friction.
6. Wave set-up, set-down 12. Dissipation due to percolation.
7. Wave swash 13. Additional growth due to the wind.
8. Wave run-up 14. Wave-current interaction.
15. Wave-wave interactions
9. White-capping
10. Wave overtopping
Wave Shoaling
Shoaling is the deformation of the waves, which starts when the water
depth becomes less than about half the wavelength, i.e. intermediate
waves. The shoaling causes a reduction in the wave propagation
velocity as well as shortening and steeping of the waves.

Due to wave shoaling surface

waves entering shallower water change
in wave height. It is caused by the fact
that the wave-energy transport
velocity changes with water depth.
 Wave Shoaling
Equating wave power (wave energy per unit time
transmitted in the direction of wave propagation).

n is the fraction of mechanical energy that is

transmitted forward in each wave period. n increases
from 0.5 at deep water to 1.0 at shallow water

Eq. (2’)]
Wave Shoaling

Ks is shoaling coefficient and Kr is refraction coefficient

If we ignore the refraction (i.e. waves approaching the
coast perpendicularly) B0/B=1

If 2 is deep water condition

and 1 is unknown:
prime denotes the change in wave height from
deep water to the point of interest considering only
two-dimensional shoaling effects. So,
 Wave Shoaling

Shoaling coefficient:

Shoaling of long waves: for very shallow water

, ,

‘Green’s Law’

Theoretically according to Green’s Law wave height

will reach infinity but in reality breaking occurs.
Wave Shoaling

# Apply Green’s Law to determine Tsunami height at 1 m depth, if Tsunami height

was 1.0 m at 10 m depth.

This increase in wave height is only due to shoaling.

Wave Refraction
Wave refraction is the turning of the direction of wave propagation
when the wave fronts travel at an angle with the depth contours at
shallow water. The refraction is caused by the fact that the waves
propagate more slowly in shallow water than in deep water. A
consequence of this is that the wave fronts tend to become aligned
with the depth contours. Currents can also result in refraction and this
is termed current refraction. For constant depth there is no refraction.

Wave refraction occurs in transitional and shallow water depths

because wave celerity decreases with decreasing water depths to cause
the portion of the wave crest that is in shallower water to propagate
forward at a slower speed than the portion that is in deeper water. The
result is a bending of the wave crests so that they approach the
orientation of the bottom contours
Wave refraction and shoaling

In order to understand wave refraction, consider the case

of a steady-state, monochromatic wave propagating across
a region in which there is a straight shoreline with all depth
contours evenly spaced and parallel to the shoreline. In
addition, no current is present. If a wave crest initially has
some angle of approach to the shore other than 0 deg,
part of the wave (point A) will be in shallower water than
another part (point B). Because the depth at A, hA, is less
than the depth at B, hB, the speed of the wave at A will be
slower than that at B because

The speed differential along the wave crest causes the crest to turn more parallel to shore. The propagation
problem becomes one of plotting the direction of wave approach and calculating its height as the wave
propagates from deep to shallow water.
Wave refraction and shoaling

Wave shoaling is the effect by which surface

Refraction is the change in direction of waves that waves entering shallower water change in
occurs when waves travel from one medium to wave height. It is caused by the fact that the
another. Refraction is always accompanied by a group velocity, which is also the wave-energy
wavelength and speed change. transport velocity, changes with water depth.
Wave Refraction

For a straight coast with parallel contours:

Snell’s Law

Refraction coefficient:

This means: wave height H will be always

smaller than incident wave height H0
KR as a function of relative depth h/L0 for a typical wind wave
state and different predominant wave incident angles α0
Wave Refraction
 Idealized plots of wave rays for several typical types of bathymetry

The amount of reduction

or amplification will
depend not only on
bathymetry, but on the
initial angle of approach
and period of the waves.
Simple parallel contours tend to reduce the energy
of waves inshore if they approach at an angle
Submarine canyons tend to spread the
energy away from it

Ridges or shoals and headlands tend to focus rays

onto it and spread energy out to either side.
Wave Refraction
When waves propagate shoreward over bottom
contours that are essentially straight and
parallel as shown in Figure

Where,
Wave Refraction
Consider the wave with deep water height of 2 m and a period of 10 s. Assume the
wave crests in deep water are oriented at an angle of 350 with the shoreline and that
the nearshore bottom contours are essentially straight and parallel to the shoreline.
Determine the wave height and crest orientation with respect to the shoreline when
the wave propagates into water 2.3 m deep. Given at 2.3m depth, C = 4.75m/s.

Solution:
L0 = 156m, C0 = 15.6m/s, and at d=2.3 m C= 4.75m/s
.
For offshore angle 350, 0
.

As
Wave Refraction
Solution: (cntd.)

Thus, wave refraction decreases the wave height, but the height increase
caused by wave shoaling is greater, so there is a net increase in the wave
height from deep water to the point where the depth is 2.3 m.
Wave Diffraction

Diffraction can be seen when there are sheltering structures such as

breakwaters. Diffraction is the process by which the waves propagate
into the lee zone behind the structures by energy transmittance
laterally along the wave crests.
Wave diffraction

The classical introduction to diffraction treats a wave propagating past the tip of a breakwater.

Consider a long-crested wave that has a variable height along its crest.
As this wave propagates forward, there will be a lateral transfer of
wave energy along the crest (perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation). The energy transfer will be from points of greater to
lesser wave height. This process is known as wave diffraction.
Wave Diffraction

Mathematical solutions for wave diffraction

have been developed for the case of constant
water depth using linear wave theory. The basic
differential equation for wave diffraction is
known as the Helmholtz equation.

A solution to the Helmholtz equation was

first found by Sommerfeld in 1896 who
applied it to the diffraction of light.
 Wave Diffraction

Semi-infinite Barrier

Wave crest pattern and related Kd values for normal wave

incidence. (Wiegel, 1962.)
Wave Diffraction

# Consider a train of 6 s period waves approaching a breakwater so that the angle of

approach at the breakwater head (𝜃) is 600. The water depth in the lee of the
breakwater is 10 m. Determine the wave height at an angle ( ) of 300 from the
breakwater and a distance of 96.6 m (=r) from the breakwater head if the incident
wave height at the head is 2.2 m.

Solution: for T=6s and d=10m, we get L = 48.3m through trial.

So r/L= 96.6/48.3= 2
From Table for =600 and =300, diffraction coefficient Kd=0.28 (see table 4.1 next )
So, the wave height at the point of interest would be 0.28*2.2 = 0.62 m.
At the point of interest the wave would be propagating in the direction of the 300
radial line.
Wave Diffraction
Wave Diffraction
 Combined Refraction-Diffraction

Refraction and diffraction often occur together. For example: around offshore
breakwaters; here diffraction is often predominant close to the structure with refraction
becoming more important further away from the structure.

Photograph of real wave diffraction Physical model study in the UK Aerial photograph of wave
at the Elmer breakwater scheme, Coastal Research Facility at HR diffraction at the Happisburgh to
Sussex, England. Wallingford. Winterton scheme, Norfolk,
England
Bottom friction

Bottom friction causes energy dissipation and thereby wave height

reduction as the water depth becomes more and more shallow. Friction
is of special importance over large areas with shallow water.
Wave Breaking
Wave breaking is one of the most important phenomena to coastal engineers since it
greatly influences both the behavior of sediments on beaches and the magnitudes of the
forces experienced by coastal structures. At the same time, breaking is possibly the most
difficult wave phenomenon to describe mathematically.
Wave Breaking
Why do waves break?
As a wave enters shallower water, its wavelength
shortens and its height and steepness increase
due to interaction with the bottom. The lower part
of the wave slows through frictional drag along the
bottom, while the top of the wave continues to
propagate at a higher rate of speed. The top of the
wave eventually outruns the slower moving base
and it begins to spill over, breaking down the front
of the wave.
Wave Breaking
Breaking of water surface waves may
occur anywhere that the amplitude is
sufficient, including in mid-ocean.
However, it is particularly common on
beaches because wave heights are
amplified in the region of shallower
water (because the group velocity is
lower there).

Incipient wave breaking: As a wave approaches a beach, its length L

decreases and its height H may increase, causing wave steepness H/L to
increase. Waves break as they reach a limiting steepness, which is a
function of relative depth d/L and the beach slope tan .
Breaker Types
• Breaker type: it refers to the form of the wave at breaking.
• The manner in which a wave breaks depends on the wave’s (water)
depth with respect to the bathymetry. Understanding this
dependency helps to identify locations where hazardous breakers
and significant beach erosion could be expected for a given wave
period and tidal phase.
• There are four basic types of breaking waves:
1. Spilling
2. Plunging
3. Collapsing , and
4. Surging
• Since breaker types are dependent on the depth of the water, tidal
variations must be taken into consideration when anticipating
breaker type.
Breaker Types
Breaker type may be correlated to the surf similarity parameter ξo or ξb, defined as:

or
Hb
SWL
the subscript o denotes the deep water condition.
• On a uniformly sloping beach, breaker type is estimated by:
 Spilling ξo < 0.5; ξb < 0.4 d

 Plunging 0.5 < ξo < 2.3; 0.4 < ξb < 1.5

β
 Collapsing 2.3 < ξo < 3.2; 1.5 < ξb < 2
 Surging ξo > 3.2; ξb > 2

Note that, in reality, there are no precise boundaries separating the values of ξo
associated with the different types of wave action (in much the same way in which
there are no precise boundaries between the colors in a rainbow). Furthermore,
the values are somewhat modified for slopes which are rough and permeable.
Breaker Types
Four types of wave breaking (Galvin 1968):
1. Spilling breakers: Spilling breakers occur in areas with gradual, gently
sloped bathymetry. They are characterized by their gentle slope and the way
the breaking water spills directly down along the forward slope of the wave
producing a foamy water surface. The depth at which a spilling wave will
begin to break is approximately 1.67H, where H is the wave height at
breaking.
Breaker Types
2. Plunging breakers: They occur when the wave encounters an abrupt
transition from deep to shallow water. The base of the wave decelerates
rapidly, while the top of the wave continues moving at a higher speed. With
this large speed differential, the top of the wave pitches out in front, forming
a curl or tube and resulting in a high splash.
Plunging breakers can be more dangerous for beachgoers because the
breaking action is much more sudden and concentrated. This type of breaker
can also cause much more beach erosion than other types because it breaks
with such concentrated force in shallow water, scouring sand away.
Breaker Types
3. Collapsing breakers: For this breaker type the crest remains
unbroken while the lower part of the shoreward face steepens and
then falls, producing an irregular turbulent water surface.
Collapsing breakers occur with very small, short-period waves, which
shoal and collapse right onto the beach. These breakers are
operationally insignificant because they are so small and pose
negligible hazard.
Breaker Types
4. Surging breakers: Here also the crest remains unbroken and the
front face of the wave advances up the beach with minor breaking.
Surging breakers occur along stretches of coastline where there is no
shoaling zone due to extremely rapid drop-offs. If this is the case, the
deep water waves never break before reaching land. Instead, the water
just pushes or surges up onto the beach. Since surging breakers do not
break off shore, they do not lose energy and therefore may run up the
beach with force and distance.
Breaker Types
Breaker
Types
Exercise:

• Spilling
• Plunging
• Collapsing
• Surging
Breaker Criteria

• Many studies have been performed to develop relationships to

predict the wave height at incipient breaking Hb. The term breaker
index is used to describe non-dimensional breaker height.
• Two common indices are :
the breaker depth index

the breaker height index

• Hb refers to wave height at breaking, db refers to water depth at
breaking, H0 is deep water wave height.
Breaking wave height and breaker depth
Breaking wave height and breaker depth
Wave Breaking Exercise:
1. (a) A wave measured to be 4.5 m in height in deep water with a
period of 8 s propagates from deep to shallow water over a slope of m
= 0.05. Estimate at what depth the wave will break and the breaking
wave height. What sort of breaker will it be? (Spilling, plunging or
surging).
(b) Repeat (a) for a wave of 10 s period. What do the results indicate
about the relationship between wave period and wave breaking?
Solution: (a)
Deep water wave length, L0 = gT2/2pi = 1.56 T2 = 1.56*(8)2 = 99.84 m

Deep water wave steepness: H0/L0 = 4.5/99.84 = 0.045

From Nomogram 1, for slope = 0.05, Shoaling factor = 1.16

So, estimated shoaling breaker height, Hb = 4.5*1.16 = 5.22m

 Wave Breaking Exercise:
Solution: (a) continued
Breaker steepness = Hb/gT2 = 5.22/(9.81*82) = 0.0083
From Nomogram 2, for slope =0.05, breaking depth coefficient = 1.09
So, approximate breaking depth = 1.09*5.22 = 5.7m BREAKER TYPE: Spilling (SS Parameter = 0.23)
Solution: (b)
Deep water wave length, L0 = gT2/2pi = 1.56 T2 = 1.56*(10)2 = 156 m
Deep water wave steepness: H0/L0 = 4.5/156 = 0.0288
From Nomogram 1, for slope = 0.05, Shoaling factor = 1.26
So, estimated shoaling breaker height, Hb = 4.5*1.26 = 5.67m
Breaker steepness = Hb/gT2 = 5.67/(9.81*102) = 0.00578
From Nomogram 2, for slope =0.05, breaking depth coefficient = 1.03
So, approximate breaking depth = 1.03*5.67 = 5.84m BREAKER TYPE: Spilling (SS Parameter = 0.29)
T= 8s 10s
Breaking height 5.22m 5.67m
Breaking depth 5.7m 5.84m
Wave Breaking Exercise:
2. A wave approaches a beach which has a bottom slope of 1:20. The
deep water wave height is 3.0 m. As it approaches the beach to the
point of breaking, the refraction coefficient is Kr = 1.05. The wave
period is 10 s. Calculate the breaking wave height and the depth at
which breaking occurs.
Solution:
Deep water wave length, L0 = gT2/2pi = 1.56 T2 = 1.56*(10)2 = 156 m
Deep water wave steepness: H0/L0 = 3/156 = 0.019
From Nomogram 1, for slope = 0.05, Shoaling factor = 1.4, given that refraction coefficient Kr = 1.05
So, Refracted shoaling breaker height, Hb = H0* Kr * Ks = 3*1.05*1.4 = 4.41m
Breaker steepness = Hb/gT2 = 4.41/(9.81*102) = 0.0045
From Nomogram 2, for slope =0.05, breaking depth coefficient = 1.0
So, approximate breaking depth = 1.0*4.41 = 4.41 m
Radiation Stress // Wave setup and set-down
In fluid flow problems, some analyses are best carried out by energy
considerations (e.g., head loss along a length of pipe) and some by
momentum considerations (e.g., force exerted by a water jet hitting a wall).

Similarly, for waves it is better to consider the flux of momentum for some
problem analyses. For wave analyses, the flux of momentum is commonly
referred to as the wave ‘‘radiation stress’’.
Radiation Stress // Wave setup and set-down
Radiation stress can be defined as ‘‘the excess flow of momentum due to
the presence of waves which is exerted on the mean flow.”
The radiation stress describes the additional forcing due to the presence
of the waves, which changes the mean depth-integrated horizontal
momentum in the fluid layer. (Longuet-Higgins and Stewart, 1964)

Problems commonly addressed by the application of radiation stress

include the lowering (setdown) and raising (setup) of the mean water
level that is induced by waves as they propagate into the nearshore zone,
the interaction of waves and currents, and the alongshore current in the
surf zone induced by waves obliquely approaching the shore.
Radiation Stress // Wave setup and set-down
For unidirectional wave propagation – say in the x-coordinate direction –
the component of the radiation stress tensor of dynamical importance is
Sxx. It is defined as:

(the static pressure must be subtracted to

obtain the radiation stress for only the wave)
where p(x,z,t) is the fluid pressure, u(x,z,t) is the horizontal x-component
of the oscillatory part of the flow velocity vector, z is the vertical
coordinate, t is me, z = −h(x) is the bed eleva on of the fluid layer, and z
= η(x,t) is the surface elevation. Further ρ is the fluid density and g is the
acceleration by gravity, while an overbar denotes phase averaging. The
last term on the right-hand side, ½ρg(h+η)2, is the integral of the
hydrostatic pressure over the still-water depth. Subscript xx denotes the
x-directed momentum flux across a plane defined by x = constant.
Radiation Stress // Wave setup and set-down
Inserting the pressure and the particle velocity leads to: (Longuet-Higgins
and Stewart, 1964)

n=0.5 at deep ~ n=1.0 at shallow. So, Sxx=E/2 at deep ~ Sxx=3E/2 at shallow

So, like wave energy, the radiation stress changes as a wave propagates
through water of changing depth.
Wave setup and set-down

Wave set-down ηd occurs in

the shoaling zone where the
wave amplitude increases;
wave set-up ηu occurs in the
surf zone where the wave
amplitude decreases.
Wave setup and set-down
When a train of waves propagates toward the shore, at some point,
depending on the wave characteristics and nearshore bottom slope, the
waves will break. Landward of the point of wave breaking a surf zone will
form where the waves dissipate their energy as they decay across the surf
zone.
As the waves approach the breaking point there will be a small progressive
set down of the mean water level below the still water level. This set down is
caused by an increase in the radiation stress owing to the decreasing water
depth as the waves propagate toward the shore. The set down is maximum
just seaward of the breaking point.
Set down just prior to breaking: ηd = - H2/16d
Wave setup and set-down
In the surf zone, there is a decrease in radiation stress as wave energy is
dissipated. This effect is stronger than the radiation stress increase owing to
continued decrease in the water depth. The result is a progressive increase or
setup of the mean water level above the still water level in the direction of
the shore. This surf zone setup typically is significantly larger than the set
down that occurs seaward of the breaking point.
In the surf zone, the rate of energy dissipation by wave breaking will depend
on the type of breaker that occurs. This rate of energy dissipation is complex
and typically nonuniform. The following equation gives the slope of the mean
water level as a function of the bottom slope in the surf zone from which
wave set up can be calculated:

Bottom slope
Wave setup and set-down
Wave set-up
• Significance: Wave set-up contributes significantly to coastal water rise and can cause
coastal flooding in high surf. Also, since wave set-up is breaker-depth dependent, it is an
independent factor from storm surge, which is wind-driven. When combined, the effects
of wave set-up and storm surge can have devastating impacts.
• For example, the storm surge for Hurricane Opal in 1995 was estimated to be about eight
feet, but the actual water rise at the coast was measured to be between 21 and 25 feet.
The 14+ foot difference between storm surge and actual water rise was caused by wave
set-up. Therefore, it is essential to include wave set-up in any forecast for coastal impacts
from large storms.
• Example Exercise: What set-up would be expected for 20-second, 4.5 m swell? Ignore
refraction effects for this example. Assume 1:20 beach slope. Choose the best answer:
a) 0.6-1.2 m
b) 1.8-2.7 m
c) 3-4 m
Wave setup and set-down
# Consider a wave that has a height of 2 m in water 2.2 m deep (below the
mean water level) as it is about to break. The nearshore bottom slope through
the surf zone is 0.02. Find the setdown at the breaker point and the setup
(above the still water line) at the still water line contour of the shore. Assume
shallow water wave conditions throughout.
Solution: Set down at the breaker line: ηd = - H2/16d = - (2)2/(16*2.2) = - 0.11m

Slope of mean water level in the surf zone:

=0.0047
.
Wave setup and set-down
X
Solution: Y
SWL
0.11

2.31 2.2

X= 2.31/ 0.02=115.7m
(Y+0.11)=115.7*0.0047; Y = 0.425 m; ie Set up = 0.425m
Wave swash
Wave swash or Wave uprush is the
propagation of the waves onto the beach
slope. The swash consists of an onshore
phase with decelerating upwards flow
(uprush or swash) and an offshore phase
with accelerating downwards flow (down
rush or backwash)

Animation:
https://www.istockphoto.com/video/aerial-
view-of-clear-turquoise-sea-and-waves-
gm1194337503-
340040318?irgwc=1&cid=IS&utm_medium
=affiliate&utm_source=Oxford%20Media%
20Solutions&clickid=2epQbaUFYxyIWHm3t
7TLPT4mUkGUElUdq1%3Ayxg0&utm_term
=&utm_campaign=cat_sponsored_all&utm
_content=1020582&irpid=51471
Wave run-up
Wave run-up is the sum of the wave set-up and the wave swash. The
wave run-up is this the maximum level the waves reach on the beach
relative to the still water level.
 Wave run-up

• On any beach at a given time, crashing waves

will run up the slope generally about the
same distance. Periodically, however, a wave
will crash and run up the beach much higher
than the average waves. This is called
breaker run-up and results from the fact that
waves represent a spectrum of heights and
periods.
• Approximately: vertical water rise for the
highest 2% of waves is estimated to be one
half the predicted breaking wave height plus
50 cm:
• R(2%) = 0.5(HB) + 0.5 m
Wave run-up
• We calculate 2% because approximately 2 out of every 100 waves during a
particular high surf event will be large enough to pose a significant threat to beach
goers or cause beach erosion. But, how far this water rise will travel up a given
beach depends on beach composition, water saturation levels, and slope of the
foreshore, or shore area that lies between the high and low water marks. Run-up is
reduced during the period of rising tide because the dry sand over which incoming
waves travel absorbs more water, reducing the overall water volume and energy of
incoming waves.
• Breaker run-up is a very difficult factor to account for in an operational setting
because there is so much natural variability in foreshore slope, both horizontally
and between sections of beach exposed during high and low tides. However, in
some situations, where specific forecasts are required for a beach that has very
even slope, breaker run-up calculations may be operationally useful, especially
when you consider that significant wave run-up can sometimes knock beachgoers
off their feet, pull them into the surf, and drown them.
Wave run-up and wave set-up
Wave runup is the maximum
vertical extent of wave uprush
on a beach or structure above
the still water level (SWL).

Wave setup is the increase in

mean water level due to the
presence of breaking waves.
So, Wave setup is a component
in wave runup.

The SWL is defined as the water

level in the absence
of waves but with all other
processes present.
Wave run-up

Dimensionless runup on smooth

impermeable slopes versus
bottom slope and incident deep
water wave steepness; 1 < ds/H0
< 3. (Modified from U.S. Army
Coastal Engineering Research
Center, 1984.)
Wave run-up
 Wave run-up
# Consider a deep-water wave with height of 2 m and period of 10 s propagating toward the
shore without refracting. The wave breaks and runs up on a 1:10 grass covered slope having a
toe depth of 4 m. Breaking wave height is 3.2 m, Determine the wave runup elevation on the
grass-covered slope.

Solution: From figure, since ds/H0=4/2 = 2, cot a =1/m = 1/0.1=10

H0/gT2= 0.002 cot a = 10

From figure R/H0 = 0.85; uncorrected smooth slope run up R= 0.85*2 = 1.7 m

From table, correction factor is 0.875, Run up R= 1.7*0.875 = 1.5m on a grass covered slope.
White-capping

White-capping or top-breaking is steepness-induced wave-breaking,

which occurs in deeper water when the wave height becomes too large
compared to the wavelength. (see Fig.)
Wave overtopping
Wave-overtopping takes place when waves meet a submerged reef or structure,
but also when waves meet an emerged reef or structure lower than the
approximate wave height. During over-topping, two processes important to the
coastal processes take place: wave transmission and the passing of water over the
structure. (see Fig. )
Wave overtopping

The principal formula used for wave overtopping is:

It is an exponential function with the dimensionless overtopping discharge

q/(gHm03)½ and the relative crest freeboard Rc/Hm0. This type of equation shown
in a log-linear graph gives a straight line, which makes it easy to compare the
formulae for various structures. Specific equations are given for smooth and
rubble mound structures and sometimes include a berm, oblique wave attack,
wave walls and the slope angle and wave period or wave steepness.
Wave reflection

Waves that propagate into a solid object such as a breakwater, a seawall, a cliff, or a sloping
beach may reflect. In the case of a vertical, hard structure, the fraction of wave energy
reflected can be large. For permeable structures or gentle slopes, the reflection will be
much less. For nearshore wave propagation problems, reflections are usually ignored
because the reflected wave may often be less than 10 percent of the incident wave.
Reflected waves may sometimes cause standing waves after superposition upon incident
waves.

Permeable structure
Solid structure
Combined wave diffraction, refraction, shoaling and reflection
Thank You