Societies and Cultures of the English-speaking world

Introduction
Colonialism
- the English language is pluricentric  it has multiple centers where new language standards have
emerged; the population of those areas are also native speakers
- English spread throughout the world through colonialism, which is why it is an official language of
many countries whose inhabitants are not native speakers of English; those places are also a part of the
English-speaking world
- colonialism started in 1492 with Columbus, who was in search of a new path to India
- language as an instrument  in many former colonies, English is used as the language of literature
because there is no culture of literature in their mother tongue, and also as the only possible medium
of instruction in education, politics, economy … people only use their mother tongue to talk to friends
and family
- colony  an area that is politically controlled by a certain state or country
- the colonizing nations might describe themselves as the “mother country”  the UK in the
English-speaking world, a loving, nurturing connotation given by colonialism apologists;
colonialists provided hospitals, education, infrastructure …
- overall, colonialism was negative, its main intention was to exploit colonies for resources or
strategic position, which is why the term has a negative connotation today  terms such as
dependencies, dependent territories or overseas territories are preferred
- protectorate  a formally autonomous area that was put under political or military protection of a
colonizing country (e.g. Egypt)
- mandate  a term used for former colonies of the countries defeated in WWI, placed under
protection of the Allied Powers by the League of Nations after WWI (e.g. Palestine, Togo)
- dominion  a former colony that acquired some degree of independence over time; above all the
Inner Circle Nations  post-colonialism
- colonialism  the process of extending the sovereignty beyond the borders of a state, but also an
ideology, a way of thinking that suggest a certain country has the right to change another country and
control its resources, people, economy and society
- colonialism can encompass political, economic and socio-cultural intervention
- post-colonialism  related to the societies and literature of the former colonies which acknowledge
the effect of colonialism on them; the current has close ties with postmodern literature and philosophy
- the term was invented by Edward Said, who was also the first to mention this issue
- neocolonialism  used e.g. for the effect American culture has on the world today; popular culture,
economy, capitalism …

The Anglosphere
Commonwealth
- the term means common well-being

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- in the post-colonial sense: the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of independent
states (former UK colonies, UK itself and a few other nations), none of which have control over the
other states
- its symbolic head is the British Monarch
- today: an international association that deals with culture, economy, but is also the successor of the
British Empire

The Anglosphere
- Anglophone  English-speaking; the term is not strictly defined as there are many people who fall
in-between
- Anglosphere  the English-speaking territory
- confusion, e.g.: is Canada part of the Anglosphere? Are Indian or Jamaican people Anglophones=

Kachu’s model

- the Anglosphere consists of three circles: the Inner, the

Outer and the Expanding circle
- a problem of this system is that not all countries fit into
it, e.g. Jamaica

- the Inner Circle

- English is the first language (L1) of the majority of the population
- UK, USA, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Canada
- the Outer Circle
- English is taught as the second language (L2)  ESL
- English may have a special status (e.g., it is one of the official languages, the language of
higher education, ...)
- former colonies (e.g., Singapore, India, Malawi, ...)
- the Expanding Circle
- English is taught as a foreign language  EFL
- not former colonies
- function: international communication (e.g., China, Slovenia, Greece, ...)

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The Spread of English
Beginnings
- the oldest languages of the British Isles are Celtic languages; some people still speak Welsh, Gaelic
or Scottish, but they are not monolingual
- English originates from the area that is today Denmark
- in the 12th century there were three Celtic-speaking areas: Ireland, Wales, and Scotland
- the Anglo-Saxons pushed the Celtic population away upon their arrival
- the expansion beyond the British Isles began relatively late – in the 17 th century with the colonization
of the Americas

The Americas
- 1584: the lost colony of Roanoke
- 1607: Jamestown
- 1620: the Mayflower, Massachusetts
- Newfoundland: first British colonies in Canada
- by 1763, Britain seized control of the French colonies in Canada
- 1623: first British Caribbean colony  Saint Kitts
- other islands (some seized from the French and the Spanish)
- a few colonies in Central and South America

South Asia
- the involvement in South Asia began in 1600 as strong trading  the British East India Company
- the company was granted a royal charter granting it a monopoly in trade
- the company gained political influence and effectively ruled the Indian Subcontinent
- 1857: the British Empire seized control of the territory

Australia
- 1770: James Cook explored the east Australian coast and claimed it for Britain
- 1788: beginning of British colonization of Australia (penal colony in New South Wales)
- expansion of British possessions
- 1868, transportation of British convicts to Australia ends

New Zealand
- 1769-70: James Cook circumnavigated and mapped the two main islands of the New Zealand
archipelago
- late 18th century: first European settlers began to arrive
- 1840: the Treaty of Waitangi

South East Asia and South Pacific

- expeditions of various explorers, most notably James Cook

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- late 18th century: the British began to exert their influence in certain areas of the South East Asia and
the South Pacific

Africa
- end of the 18th century: first British possession on the African continent: the Cape Colony, a former
Dutch colony gained by the UK during the Napoleonic wars
- the race for Africa
- the beginning of World War I: almost the whole continent was divided among the European colonial
powers
- after World War II: a repartitioning of the continent
- independent African countries emerged in the 1960s and 1970s

Ireland
- the term Ireland can mean either the island or one of the two countries on it: Northern Ireland
(capital: Belfast) and the Republic of Ireland (capital: Dublin)
- the island is surrounded by numerous small islands and separated from the island of Great Britain by
the Irish Sea to the east (the islands are connected by St. George’s Channel) and surrounded by the
Atlantic Ocean to the west
- the population is approximately 6 mio, only 1/6 of which is part of the UK under King Charles III’s
rule; this area is sometimes referred to as Alster (but this is not a synonym)

History
- the first population were the Celts, who spoke Gaelic or Irish; they called the island Éire
- in the 5th century they were converted to Christianity by St. Patrick (this religion only became
Catholicism in the 11th century; the island is now deeply religious)
- rebellions against the British protestant rule
- the Great Potato Famine in the 19th century  1 mio died, 1 mio emigrated, most to the US (which
was economically prosperous in comparison to poor and agricultural Ireland), which resulted in a
strong Irish population in the US
- many in the North were Protestants who identified as British, they demanded their own government
- 1916: the Easter Rising; the country was split in two soon afterwards, the Republic of Ireland
became independent
- tensions between Catholics and Protestants continues
- the Troubles in the 1970s: terrorist attacks, discrimination, the IRA (Irish Republican Army)
- this period ended with the Good Friday Agreement  the two countries agreed to coexist, but also
to the possibility that Northern Ireland might join the Republic at some point
- the matters complicated further with Brexit  the problem is the border between the two countries,
which should not be too restricted, but now it has become the outer border of the EU
- Ireland joined the EU in 1973, which helped it prosper economically

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Population
- in recent decades, the population has increased (unlike in other European countries); before 1950 it
was continually decreasing due to emigration
- 1960s: arrival of new immigrants from Slavic nations and returning emigrants
- high birth rates, good job opportunities
- almost 90% of the population are Roman Catholic
- remnants of ancient Christianity can be found on the island, e.g. St. Patrick’s Cathedral in Dublin
- Irish missionaries were the ones who peacefully converted many European nations in the Middle
Ages

Language
- two official languages:
- Irish (Gaelic)  a Celtic language, a national language and the first official language;
however, very few people speak Irish
- English  the second official language
- until the 16th century, Irish was the dominant language, but then English colonizers were sent to
Ireland to turn them into an English nation; this was particularly successful in today’s Northern
Ireland, but there were constant rebellions
- the Irish-speaking nobility was replaced by an English-speaking ruling class, the Irish culture was
repressed
- inheritance tradition: the land was split between the children, which led to the farms becoming so
small that it was impossible to survive from them  the Irish language became associated with
poverty and rural communities, if you wanted to succeed, you had to speak English
- in the 19th century, the Romantic movement became interested in the Irish language, scholars began
to study it, but the circumstances were no better for the actual Irish people
- the Independence leaders wanted to preserve the Irish language, so they changed it to the official
language, but the problem with that is that very few people speak it and they are all bilingual
- the result of suburbanization was that Irish became very rare as the first language (Irish speaking
communities or the Gaeltacht regions: isolated pockets along the western seaboard of Ireland)
- today, Irish is an obligatory subject in primary and secondary schools and sometimes the medium of
instruction; media in Irish is sponsored by the state; bilingual signs; Irish is also one of the languages
of the EU, the result of which is a strong translation practice
- approximately 40% of the Irish people claim to be able to speak Irish as well as English
- religion became the defining point of the nation, especially since no one spoke Irish; this makes
Northern Ireland stand out in the not-quite-as religious Britain; however, Ireland is a modern society
today, which led to Catholicism losing some of its importance

Politics
- Sinn Fein  the political wing of the IRA, which was never in power
- 1922: the Irish Free State was established  a dominion established by the Anglo-Irish Treaty

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- 1937: the Republic of Ireland replaced the Free State; The Constitution of Ireland, the supreme
political and legal document, came into effect  Ireland severed all ties with Britain and its monarchy
and became a separate political entity with a president
- the head of state: the President of Ireland, elected directly by the people for a period of seven years;
largely a ceremonial office – a representative role
- currently: Michael Higgins
- bicameral national parliament consisting of 3 parts: the President of Ireland, the House of
Representatives, the Senate; the sole and exclusive power of making laws for the State is vested in
Parliament
- the government:
- headed by the Prime Minister
- the Prime Minister is generally the leader of the political party which has won the most seats
in the national elections
- coalitions of various parties often form a government
- number of Government members is limited to fifteen
- the political system is similar to that of the US, which the Irish saw as a place where people are seen
as equal, unlike in Britain
- Ireland is the member of the EU since 1973 and adapted the Euro in 1999; it benefited greatly from
EU’s financial support
- not a member of NATO

Local government
- 26 counties (traditional division)
- 6 counties: Northern Ireland
- because some of the counties are more populated and urban, these have been subdivided (e.g.,
Dublin)

Economy
- traditionally, Ireland was an agricultural society which did not invest in industry and economy, which
led to poverty
- until the 1960s, most of the population lived in rural areas
- in the late 20th century, a strong service industry developed; the country skipped industrialization
- high-tech industry  the offices of huge internet companies are based in Dublin because it is
English-speaking and the taxes are low
- trade and investment, computer software exporter, flourishing tourism
- relatively high economic growth  the Celtic Tiger
- young, educated, English-speaking population, EU investments
- the environment is affected by industrialization, but to a limited degree since industrialization was
late due to extensive agriculture; today the industry is mostly clean and practices environmental
protection

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- low population density, high rainfall, winds from the Atlantic: cleaner environment

Canada
- second largest country in the world, has 6 times zones, but relatively sparsely populated  32 mio
people
- capital city: Ottawa
- a federation; it could not be anything else because of the different languages and cultures; it has 10
provinces and 3 territories (the powers of the provinces are greater than the powers of the territories)
- two official languages: English and French
- climate:
- north: subarctic, tundra
Prairie provinces: continental  harsh winters, hot summers, relatively dry
- south east: continental, humid
- south, coastal areas: mild, rainy (especially the West Coast)
- almost the entire population lives around 100 miles from the US border
- 3 of the most important cities are practically on the border
- the British lost the 13 colonies during the US war for independence

History
- first inhabitants: First Nations peoples (“Indians”) and the Inuit
- around 1000 AD: a colonization attempt by the Vikings; it is unknown what happened
- 1497: John Cabot  the first European to explore the continent and the one to discover North
America (Columbus found Central America)
- 1534: Jacques Cartier (French) explored and mapped the Canadian shores on behalf of King Francis I
of France
- 1605 and 1609: first permanent European settlements in Canada, Port Royal and Quebec City
- lengthy wars between the French and Native Americans in the 17 th and 18th centuries (Intercolonial
Wars)
- first British colonies established in Newfoundland
- 1763: Britain gains control of Canada with the Treaty of Paris
- 1783: USA is recognized as independent; loyalists flee to Canada, the French no longer had any say
in the politics, but they still influenced the culture
- 19th century: expansion of British colonies (west, north)
- 1867: Constitution Act  Canada becomes a dominion (Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick); new provinces and territories join the self-governing colony
- WWI: over half a million Canadian troops fought in the war, which gave the population a sense of
identity for the first time

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- 1919: Canada joins the League of Nations as one of the founding countries
- the economy was devastated by the Great Depression  Canada became welfare state, which was an
attempt to redistribute wealth, to make sure nobody was living in poor conditions
- 1931: the Statute of Westminster  independence
- Canada participated in WWII
- 1995: the Quebec referendum on the independence of Canada

People and culture

- a mixture of British, French and indigenous cultures
- strong influence of American culture (however, the Americans think that Canadians are weird)
- quick to embrace immigration
- all this leads to strong multi-culturalism

Indigenous peoples
- First Nations
- the preferred term for “Indian” bands in Canada
- the term has been in use since the 1980s
- over 600 bands live in Canada
- the Inuit
- the preferred term for Eskimo
- Eskimo is a broader term that also refers to Alaskan and Siberian peoples; Inuit only refers to
peoples from Canada and Greenland
- the Métis
- the preferred term for “mixed-bloods”
- descendants of marriages between European men and women of indigenous descent

Language
- two official languages: English and French
- they have an equal status in the Parliament, federal courts, and all federal institutions
- official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories
- English is the first language of 60% of the population
- French is the first language of 24% of the population
- 85% of the Francophone population live in Quebec (where French is the only official language);
significant French-speaking minorities in other provinces
- status of the two languages varies, depending on the province: some have no official language,
Quebec only has French as the official language, New Brunswick is officially bilingual, etc.
- Northwest territories: several indigenous languages have official status
- Nunavut: three official languages, including Inuktitut, the language of the majority of the population

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- other important languages: Chinese, Italian, German

Politics
- Canada is a constitutional monarchy  the Constitution of Canada came into force in 1901
- head of state: the monarch of Canada, who is also the monarch of Great Britain (largely a ceremonial
office)
- the monarch is represented by the Governor General at the federal level, and by the lieutenant-
governors of each province at the provincial level
- a parliamentary system of government with three branches and a bicameral Parliament (the Senate
and the House of Commons)

Economy
- one of the wealthiest nations in the world
- G-8 member; G-20 member
- rich in natural resources: oil, natural gas, timber, uranium, gold, etc.
- agriculture: wheat (Prairie provinces)
- industry: automobile (branch plants to US and Japanese car makers), aircraft (southern Ontario and
Quebec)
- service industry

Australia
- Australia (as well as Canada) was colonized as a settler colony; the inhabitants today are
descendants of the colonizers and the country was sparsely populated beforehand, the native
population does not present a large percentage today, which is why Australia (and Canada) is not
usually considered among other colonized countries
- the native populations were wiped out, either on purpose or not  diseases, poor treatment
- the Aboriginals lived in isolation before the arrival of colonizers, they had underdeveloped tools,
were unable to use the land etc., which made them easier to subdue
- the ideas of replacing the native population and the destruction of the native cultures were present
- Australia is the world’s 6 th biggest country, located in the Southern hemisphere (which makes it
terribly remote to Britain)
- the word Australia can refer to either the (world’s smallest) continent, the country, or the
island/mainland
- the country of Australia: Australian mainland, Tasmania and a number of islands in the Indian and
Pacific Oceans
- the interior of Australia is called the outback; it is largely uninhabitable (though some Aboriginals
live there) and presents the largest part of Australia
- capital city: Canberra  handpicked as neutral territory
- larger cities: Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth

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Geography
Climate
- the driest and flattest continent on Earth
- the largest part of Australia (its central part) is desert or semi-arid grassland (steppe)
- climate in the northern part of Australia is tropical, in part covered by rainforest
- temperate, oceanic climate is only found in southeastern Australia
- recently, temperatures have been rising  global warming
- the few rivers (Murray, Darling) are of crucial importance

Biodiversity
- because of its isolation, the continent is very biodiverse; many species were able to survive and
develop because there were no natural predators
- marsupials (kangaroos, koalas)  probably resemble ancient types of mammals
- birds, e.g., the flightless emu, various cockatoo species, etc.
- amphibian, reptile, insect and fish species, etc.
- indigenous placental mammals (platypus)
- the variety of climate and landscape also contributes to the biodiversity; the continent has unique
ecosystems
- over 80% of the species are endemic to Australia; the rest were introduced by people
- feral animals: the Dingo (brought by the Aboriginals), foxes and rabbits, rodents
- many of the non-indigenous species have very few or no predators  a threat to many ecosystems
and indigenous species
- a number of indigenous species are endangered or even extinct

History
- the first inhabitants (the Aboriginals) reached the continent over 40,000 years ago from South East
Asia; the exact time is unknown, there is speculation that they arrived via a land bridge from Papua
New Guinea during the last ice age; before the Western colonization, there were between 300 and 700
thousand of them
- the first of the Europeans arrived in the 17 th century; ancient philosophers had always assumed there
must be land in the south, they had a name for it long before they discovered it (australis  southern)
- 1606: Willem Jansz/Janszoon
- 1770: Captain James Cook mapped the east coast of Australia and claimed the territory for the
British Crown
- 1788: the first of the permanent settlers arrive  the penal colony (a colony for convicts) of New
South Wales; the labor of prisoners was used to build cities, the colony functioned like a giant prison,
many of the ex-convicts opted to stay there as the journey back home would be extremely long,
dangerous and expensive
- other colonies: Tasmania (originally named Van Diemen's Land), South Australia, Victoria,
Queensland, etc.

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- not all the colonies were penal colonies (e.g., South Australia was a settler colony)
- 1868: convict transportation ends
- many of the Aboriginals died from smallpox
- 1850s: discovery of gold  gold rush
- many descendants of farmers who inherited no land left the barren British land, driven by
industrialization and hopes of getting rich with gold
- 19th century: Australians adopt nationalist ideas from elsewhere
- 1901: establishment of a federation of the six colonies  Commonwealth of Australia (Dominion
of the British Empire)
- cultural genocide towards the Aboriginals; their children were raised in white families (the stolen
generation)
- 1915-16: WWI  Defeat at Gallipoli: the birth of the Australian nation (1st major military action),
mixed up with soldiers from other countries, they started seeing their distinction from other countries
and seeing themselves as a nation
- 1931: Statute of Westminster ends most constitutional links between UK and Australia
- 1942: Australia adopts the Statute of Westminster (the path to independence took 11 years)
- first half of the 20th century: White Australia policy (only white settlers were allowed to
immigrate); abandoned in the 1970s

Language
- Australia has no official language
- English is the first language of the majority of the population and the language used in all spheres of
life
- a number of languages other than English are used by the ethnic minority groups
- Australian culture is based on the culture(s) of the British Isles
- multicultural and has a distinct character
- there is no state religion in Australia, but most Australians declare themselves Christians (above all
Catholics and Anglicans)
- National Sorry Day: a holiday for the Aboriginals who were mistreated by the colonizers, especially
the stolen generations

Population
- original inhabitants of Australia are indigenous Australians, i.e., Aboriginals and Torres Strait
Islanders
- European immigrants and descendants of European immigrants, most of them of British or Irish
descent, but also from Italy, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Poland, etc.
- Australians of non-European descent: Asian (e.g., Chinese, Filipino, Indian)

Aboriginal people
- diverse in terms of culture and language; rich religious and spiritual traditions, unique music and art

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- on the arrival of the first Europeans, over 200 Aboriginal languages were in use
- today only 70 Aboriginal languages exist, many of which are on the verge of death
- their history and knowledge were transmitted orally
- the Aboriginal population declined dramatically after the colonies were established
- the policy of forcibly removing Aboriginal children from their families and placing them into various
institutions  the stolen generations
- today, approximately one quarter of Aboriginal people live in remote locations; the rest live in urban
areas and the countryside
- they are severely affected by poverty and unemployment

Politics
- six states (former British colonies)  have more powers than the territories
- two major mainland territories  a limited right of self-government; eight offshore territories (e.g.,
Norfolk Island, Christmas Island, etc.)
- each state has its own Constitution and a state government, divided into the same three branches as
the federal government (legislative, executive, judicial)
- a constitutional monarchy  the monarch of Australia (who is also the monarch of Great Britain) is
the country's sovereign; head of state is largely a ceremonial office
- the monarch is represented by the Governor-General at the federal level, and by the state governors
of each state at the state level
- a parliamentary system of government; the Constitution of Australia came into force in 1901

Economy
- a wealthy country rich in natural resources, such as natural gas, coal, minerals
- agriculture  wheat, sheep farming
- industries  transport equipment, chemical, food processing
- strong service sector

New Zealand
- both New Zealand and Australia have the potential to become republics
- New Zealand comprises of two main islands (the North and South Islands), which are separated by
Cook Strait, and a number of smaller islands
- in size, it is similar to Japan or the British Isles
- active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes
- temperate climate
- a clear allegiance to the monarchy, also visible in their flag (which they are considering changing,
especially if they become a republic); they have the most pronounced ties with the UK of the three
nations in the Inner Circle, but nevertheless the country is gradually becoming a republic

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Geography
- the last part of the world to be “discovered” and populated by humans
- often left off maps of the world
- Aotearoa  the Māori name
- on its own tectonic plate, Zealandia

The South Island

- the larger of the two main islands
- Southern Alps  a mountain range running along the entire length of the island
- the climate is temperate and cooler
- largest city on the island: Christchurch (the architecture is similar to the one in England)

The North Island

- the more populous of the two islands  approximately 75% of the population lives there, more
densely populated due to the milder climate
- it has volcanic activity, e.g. Mount Ruapehu
- the climate is temperate and warmer; however, snow is not uncommon
- largest city: Auckland
- the nation’s capital: Wellington

Biodiversity
- the isolation of the islands has contributed to their biodiversity  many endemic species, e.g. emus
- no native nonmarine mammals, except for 3 now-extinct bat species
- many reptile (tuatara) and bird species (kakapo, moa, kiwi, seabirds), fish, insects, but no marsupials
- endemic plants, e.g. the silver fern
- human impact: introduction of non-native species  New Zealand is famous for its wool and sheep-
raising

History
- the first population: Eastern Polynesians called Māori who arrived fairly recently, only a few 100
years before Europeans
- 1642: Dutch explorer Abel Tasman (who also discovered Tasmania)
- 1768–71: British explorer James Cook mapped New Zealand
- Western colonization happened much later than in the Americas
- European and North American whalers  the whaling industry; sealers, traders, Christian
missionaries
- a strategic spot to get supplies and a trading post
- a period of lawlessness, interest of other European nations; the British government claimed
sovereignty fairly late
- 1840: Treaty of Waitangi (differences in the Māori and English versions)

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- 1841: New Zealand became an independent colony (before that part of New South Wales)
- 1856: the colony became effectively self-governing (unlike India and Canada); there were so few
Europeans and it was so far away that it was the only solution that made sense
- 1907: New Zealand became an independent dominion
- 1931: Statute of Westminster
- 1947: the Statute was adopted  New Zealand becomes an independent nation (not before because
of the ties the residents felt to Britain)

Population
- approximately 4 million people, the majority of whom are of European descent (mainly of British or
Irish descent)
- strong ties to British culture, which is why the republican tendencies there are not as strong
- immigrants from or descendants of immigrants from Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, etc.
- approximately 15%: Māori  treated better than most indigenous peoples and also present a larger
percentage; mixed marriages are not uncommon
- others: of Asian descent, of Pacific Island origin
- almost 25% of the population was born outside of New Zealand  the strong immigration trend is
among the reasons for the lack of a national feeling

Māori
- the indigenous population that arrived from Polynesia between the 9 th and 14th century; they were
colonizers to a degree
- they are a single nation and speak a single language; their language is close to Eastern Polynesian
languages, e.g. the ones in Tahiti
- rich cultural and religious traditions; a warrior-type culture; arts  wood carving, weaving,
performing – dance, music – singing
- the arrival of the Western colonizers (the Pākehā) had a strong effect on the Māori colonies 
intertribal conflicts, wars, diseases, marginalization; they were encouraged to assimilate and
considered lesser; communal land was taken from the tribal communities
- 1840: Treaty of Waitangi  some (but not all) Māori chiefs ceded Māori sovereignty to UK
- as the European settlement grew, Māori culture declined; the Māori became a minority in the second
half of the 19th century
- a political and cultural revival in the 20 th century  attempts to be present in the culture and politics,
compensation claims for the stolen land
- 1987: Māori Language Act  one of the official languages is Māori

Language
- New Zealand has three official languages: English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language
- official institutions now have bilingual names, but the Māori language is rarely used in official
procedures; most Māori are native speakers of English

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- television channels and schools in Māori; it is a community language in a small number of
settlements

Politics
- a constitutional monarchy  the monarch does not have absolute power
- the constitution is not codified
- the Constitution Act of 1986 broke all ties with the UK Parliament and specified the New Zealand
constitutional framework
- the monarch of New Zealand is the country's sovereign; head of state is largely a ceremonial office
- the monarch is represented by the Governor-General
- a parliamentary system of government; three branches of government with a unicameral Parliament
(the House of Representatives)

The role of women in politics

- women got political rights very early  1893: New Zealand gave women the right to vote in the
national election (NZ was not a country at the time)
- many visible female politicians
- 2005-2006: all the highest offices were occupied by women:
- Monarch: Queen Elizabeth II
- Governor-General: Dame Silvia Cartwright
- Prime Minister: Helen Clark (PM from 1999-2008)
- Speaker of the House of Representatives: Margaret Wilson
- Chief Justice: Dame Sian Elias

Economy
- a relatively wealthy country
- agriculture  wool, meat, dairy products, fruit, vegetables
- industries  food processing; wood, paper products
- strong service sector  tourism
- international trade

Africa
- the colonization of the African continent happened in the 19 th century; it was different than the
colonization of other continents as it had a different pattern and happened later
- Southern Africa was different from other parts of Africa because it was a kind of settler colony
- the colonial powers: Great Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal
- Africa was colonized over a couple of decades, the borders were made by pen by the colonizers
(which is why they are so straight)

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- a number of Sub-Saharan African countries are English-speaking former British colonies: Egypt,
Sudan, Gambia, Ghana, Nigeria, Liberia, Cambodia, Sierra Leone, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda,
Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Eswatini, Lesotho, South Africa

The English language in Africa

- the status of English in the former colonies varies; it is either:
1) the official language
2) one of the official languages
3) no official status, used as a lingua franca
- there were no instances of using the local languages in formal settings; they were only used in
everyday life
- many documents, such as declarations of independence, were translated with major changes
- areas where English is important:
- North Africa: Egypt
- North East Africa: Sudan and a part of present-day Somalia (Somaliland)
- West Africa: the Gambia, Ghana (former British Togoland and Gold Coast), Nigeria
(including former Northern Cameroons), Sierra Leone and a part of Cameroon (Southern
Cameroons)
- East Africa: Kenya, Malawi (former Nyasaland), Tanzania (former Tanganyika and
Zanzibar), Uganda, Zambia (former Northern Rhodesia), and Zimbabwe (former Southern
Rhodesia) and the island of Mauritius
- Southern Africa: Botswana (former Bechuanaland), Lesotho (former Basutoland), Namibia
(former South West Africa), South Africa and Eswatini (former Swaziland)

West Africa
- explored by the Europeans as early as the 15 th and 16th centuries; the first European colonies were
here
- 17th and 18th centuries  slave trade
- the end of slave trade in the first half of the 19th century marked the beginning of colonization
- two main colonial powers: Britain and France
- English is a lingua franca widely used in the region, especially its varieties  pidgin and creole,
e.g., Krio
- six West African countries give English the status of an/the official language today:
- Cameroon: divided between England and France in 1919; today, both French and English
are official languages, but a number of indigenous languages are spoken as well
- the Gambia: the smallest state in Africa; English is the official language, but not the first
language of most
- Ghana: the first West African colony to become independent (1957); former colony Gold
Coast and former territory Togoland; English is the official language and a second language to
most

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 - Liberia: founded in 1874 (the oldest republic in Africa) by the American Colonization
Society as a home for freed American slaves  Americo-Liberians; it was never a colony, but
maintained strong ties with the US  American English, different culture; English is the
official language, but a number of African languages are also spoken
- Nigeria: the most populous country in Africa; became a single colony in 1914 and
independent in 1960; over 400 African languages, but English is the official language  a
form of pidgin English is used as a lingua franca
- Sierra Leone: founded in the late 18th century by British abolitionists as a home for freed
slaves; later a British colony, gained independence in 1961; English is the official language,
but the most important language is the West African English-based creole Krio (developed in
Sierra Leone) – it is used in all spheres of public life; first language for 10% and second for
90%; also a number of African languages

East Africa
- colonial powers: Britain, Germany and Portugal
- English has an important role in the former British colonial territories; it is the/an official language,
the language of politics, business, writing, the media, the medium of instruction; it is found especially
in urban areas, and is understood by a minority of the population
- Swahili or Kiswahili (a Bantu language) is widely used in the region as a lingua franca; it originates
from Zanzibar
- the six counties where English is spoken:
- Kenya: a British colony 1920-63; a number of different ethnic groups; the official languages
are English and Swahili, but over 60 East African languages are also present
- Malawi: a former protectorate that became independent in 1964; the official languages are
English and Chewa; a number of indigenous languages
- Tanzania: consists of the former colonies Tanganyika and Zanzibar; the official languages
are Swahili and English
- Uganda: received its final shape as a protectorate in 1914; became independent in 1962 and
went through a period of political unrest, civil rights, human rights abuse and economic
disaster (the regime of Idi Amin); relatively stable and successful in its fight against poverty
today; English as the official language, Swahili as a lingua franca, plus a number of
indigenous languages
- Zambia: achieved independence in 1964; English is the official language; several regional
languages are used in communication
- Zimbabwe: turbulent fight for independence, which was first declared by a minority white
ruling class as Rhodesia  a system of racial segregation; resistance, civil war; the power was
transferred to the black majority in 1980; land distribution scheme of 2000 led to accusations
of human rights abuse; English is the official language, Shona and Ndebele are national
languages, many other languages are also used

Southern Africa
- important: the distinction between the region of Southern Africa and the country of South Africa

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- English has an important role in five countries of Southern Africa, all of which are former British
colonial territories
- Botswana: English is the sole official language; Setswana is the national language
- Namibia: English is the sole official language; Afrikaans (a version of Dutch) is the lingua
franca; the Kalahari Desert in the south
- Lesotho: English is one of the two official languages
- Eswatini: formerly known as Swaziland; English is one of the two official languages
- South Africa  see below

South Africa
- the southernmost country in Africa
- three capital cities: Pretoria (executive), Cape Town (legislative) and Bloemfontein (judicial)
- 1652: Dutch colonists reached Cape Town
- gradual expansion of colonial territories; British colonization began during the Napoleonic Wars
- Britain seized control of the Cape Colony in 1806
- discovery of diamonds and gold in the second half of the 19 th century, after which the numbers of
European immigrants increased; the discovery was a game changer
- today, the country is very ethnically mixed: native African peoples, Europeans, people from various
Asian nations (Malaysia, India, ...)
- the Boers: Afrikaans-speaking migrating farmers in eastern South Africa who attempted to gain
independence from the British colonialists but were defeated in the second Anglo-Boer war (1899-
1902); their independent Boer Republics ceased to exist
- Apartheid: a system of racial segregation introduced after WWII (the word means separateness in
Afrikaans)  the races were officially separated in most spheres of life; the political, legal and
economic power was in the hands of the white minority; Africans were not considered citizens of the
country; white people claimed the black Africans were living according to their traditions, but in fact
they were forced to work for white people in cities, where they were living in poor conditions (in
shacks without water and electricity) and being discriminated against
- Nelson Mandela: ended apartheid and became the first black African president in the first multi-
racial elections 1994 as the leader of the African National Congress
- today South Africa is an independent country with 11 official languages and 11 others being
officially promoted; English has always been a minority language, but it still dominates politics and
business
- current problems: HIV, crime, emigration

The Caribbean
- islands located in the Caribbean Sea (south of Florida, east of Mexico, northwest of Venezuela)
- two groups of islands:
- the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), Jamaica, Puerto
Rico

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 - the Lesser Antilles: a chain of smaller islands in the eastern Caribbean Sea
- the coastal areas of Central and South America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, with close cultural ties
with the Caribbean Islands
- former British colonies: Belize (Central America) and Guyana (South America)
- the Bahamas are not part of the Caribbean technically speaking but are sometimes included (not in
the Caribbean Sea)

The English-speaking Caribbean

- independent countries: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica,
Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago
- dependencies  countries that are no longer colonies but are not independent: Anguilla, British
Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos Islands, U.S. Virgin Islands
- Puerto Rico: a territory under US jurisdiction; they want to become the 51 st US state, but that is
unlikely to happen

History
- the Caribbean are the first part of the Americas that Columbus reached, which resulted in a strong
colonial presence
- he referred to the indigenous people as “Indians” (because he was looking for a route to India; he
died thinking he had succeeded); today they are referred to as Amerindian tribes  the Arawak, the
Caribs and the Ciboney
- initially, the islands were called the “West Indies”, but the term is not politically correct
- the Spanish colonists claimed the territories for the Spanish monarchy and brought some of the
natives with them to convert them to Christianity; the first plan was to use them as labor force
- the Spanish were concerned with “saving the souls” of the natives and did not realize they were
doing anything wrong
- on most islands, the population died out completely from western diseases (especially smallpox) and
wars that happened because they were unwilling to become slaves; their cultures and languages also
disappeared
- some individual words were imported into European languages  canoe, tobacco, cannibal,
hurricane
- transatlantic slavery  West African slaves were brought to the Caribbean to work on the
plantations owned by wealthy Europeans
- the hot and humid tropical climate enabled crops that grew nowhere else, such as tobacco, cotton,
and sugar, which changed the world and became widely available due to extensive plantations
- plantation economy  based on growing a single crop – a very vulnerable economy, which is why
they didn’t want to deal with the price of labor; the economy in the Caribbean was based especially on
the sugar cane
- slavery in the British colonies in the Caribbean was officially abolished in 1834, which is before it
was abolished in the US, but in reality, it still went on for more than 2 centuries (indentured workers
from Asia)

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- triangular trade  manufactured goods were taken to West Africa from Europe, from there they
would then bring slaves to the Caribbean, the same ship would then load sugar, cotton and tobacco and
bring it back to Europe
- the journey from Africa was horrible and very crowded; the slaves were treated as cargo, not people;
up to 2 mio are estimated to have died
- African countries might only now receive compensation from the Caribbean
- resentment towards Britain and the Crown has appeared in the Caribbean
- Spain, France and the Netherlands were also involved in the colonization of the area  the
population is very ethnically mixed, none of the languages spoken there originate from the area
- the languages of the colonizers became the official languages of the country; the slaves were unable
to learn the colonizing languages properly and great care was taken to make sure slaves of the same
origin were not working together to make it impossible for them to communicate

The Caribbean Today

- tourism  in full bloom and the most important source of income, but almost no money stays there;
also carefully separated from the actual population because of poverty and the crime rate; it is
impossible to actually experience the culture of the population
- there was practically no investment in the Caribbean in the colonial period – all the fortune went
back to Britain, which is why the excuse that they were helping develop the area falls short
- main crops today: sugar, tobacco, bananas
- banana republics
- tax havens  taking advantage of the tax rate, a source of profit for the European upper class
- hurricanes  devastate the crops and the homes of the population on a yearly basis; the houses are
not built in a way to enable surviving hurricanes

Language
- English is used in many of the islands of the Caribbean Sea; Standard English is used as (one of) the
official language in the former colonies
- the first languages for many of the Caribbean residents are Creoles, which is a result of contact
between colonial languages (English, French, Spanish, Dutch), local Amerindian languages and the
languages of African slaves and Asian immigrants
- in some areas, English-based Creoles are widely used, but another language (e.g., Spanish) is the
official language

Pidgin
- a system of communication, not a native language; fragments of a language, elementary features
used purely for communication
- emerges among people who do not share a common language out of the need to communicate
(usually for reasons of trade)
- typically: a limited vocabulary, a reduced grammatical structure, and a narrow range of functions
(compared to the languages from which it derives)

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Creole
- from the Spanish word criollo  people born in the colonies (lower class; European-born
immigrants: upper class)
- a pidgin language which has developed into the mother tongue of a community and has developed
new features
- found in the Caribbean, West Africa, Pacific Ocean; can be based on English, French, etc.

Europe
- three areas are considered part of the outer circle today: Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus

Gibraltar
- a British overseas territory since 1704; an issue of dispute between Britain and Spain ever since
- a tiny town on the tip of a peninsula in the south of the Iberian Peninsula
- strategic position  gives the ability to control the nautical traffic and trade between Europe and
Africa
- the population is Spanish-speaking, which is one of the reasons why Spain wants Gibraltar back
- the referendum in the town in 2002 showed that the vast majority of the population voted to remain a
British dependency
- English is the official language, but a local Spanish dialect is also spoken

Malta
- an island nation in the Mediterranean Sea
- a British colony from 1814 to 1964
- today an independent state, but English still has a strong influence
- many people visit Malta to learn English because of the climate
- Maltese  the only Semitic language written in the Latin alphabet
- official languages: English and Maltese

Cyprus
- a larger island nation in the Mediterranean Sea with a strategic location; its closest neighbor is
Turkey
- under British control from 1878 to 1960; today a member of the EU
- the nation is not proud of its history as a colonized country
- after independence was declared, Turkey invaded Cyprus and declared the Turkish Cypriot State,
which is only recognized by Turkey
- conflicts between the two main ethnic groups, the Greeks and the Turks, remain a problem today
- official languages: English, Turkish, Greek

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India and South Asia
- South Asia  a synonym for the Indian Subcontinent (called a subcontinent because it’s so big and
populous)
- with over 1 billion inhabitants, India is the second most populous country on Earth
- former British dependencies: Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
- territories with some degree of British control: Bhutan, Nepal

India
- the greater part of the Indian Subcontinent
- the area was not called India at the time of colonization
- religiously diverse: Hinduism, Islam, Sikh religion, Christianity, Buddhism

History
- early attempts to colonize parts of India by the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British
- initially, the goal was not to colonize India but to establish trade posts there, as it is strategically
important both because of its location and its exports, such as spices and textiles, both very valuable
and considered luxurious at the time; especially the spices made it possible to acquire wealth with
small quantities; tea was also brought from India and sold to America
- exoticizing  the idea of people living in exotic luxury very far away
- Britain gained influence through the British East India Company (BEIC)  granted a royal charter
giving it monopoly in trade by Elizabeth I in 1600; originally a commercial company but gradually
became a powerful political force which ruled India; this coincided with the decline of the Mughal
Empire in the 18th century  the emperor became a symbol and local rulers were put in their
positions by the colonizers
- 1857: the official colonization of India  after the First War of Indian Independence (Indian
expression)/the Indian Mutiny (British expression), the local power went to the British Crown 
India as the jewel in the crown
- first half of the 20th century: a non-violent struggle for independence under the leadership of
Mahatma Gandhi, considered the father of the nation by many Indians; assassinated about a year after
independence was declared in 1947
- India became a republic in 1950

Present day
- democracy
- military power, disputes over Kashmir with Bangladesh
- multiculturalism, religious diversity
- poverty, the caste system, violence
- significant economic growth, a swiftly developing IT industry
- culture: Bollywood

Language
- the linguistic situation in India is very complex

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- over 1500 languages used by different ethnic groups, 23 of which are official; all the official
languages have equal status but are not treated equally
- Hindi and English are the main languages of politics
- English is considered a language of prestige and educated classes, associated with colonization; there
are not many people to whom it is the first language

Pakistan and Bangladesh

- 1947: the Partition of British India  decided by Lord Mountbatten
- fear that Muslims in India would face discrimination because the leaders of the independence
movement were Hindu led to separating the country in two:
-Pakistan with a Muslim majority
- India with a Hindu majority
- the consequences of decolonization were often disastrous and had many casualties, let to violence,
riots, forced migrations and even wars; the countries were unprepared and Britain was not concerned
with the wellbeing of the population
- tensions over Kashmir between India and Pakistan continue today
- initially, Pakistan was separated into two regions, West and East Pakistan, which were also
geographically separated by India
- the insurmountable internal economic and political differences between the two regions led to the:
Pakistan Civil War/Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971  East Pakistan became Bangladesh,
which is one of the most populous and also poorest countries in the world today

Pakistan
- among the most populous countries in the world
- developing country
- recently experienced some growth in the economy
- two official languages, Urdu and English

Bangladesh
- among the most densely populated countries in the world
- one of the poorest counties in the world
- yearly monsoon floods
- the official language is Bengali; English is the second language, often used in politics and higher
education

Sri Lanka
- an island nation in the Indian Ocean near India
- the British East India Company seized control of the island, then called Ceylon, in 1796
- it became a British colony in 1802 and experienced a gradual transition to autonomy; the first free
elections were held in 1983
- multi-ethnic; the major ethnic groups are the Tamils and the Sinhalese  conflicts

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- two official languages: Sinhala and Tamil; English is also widely spoken

South East Asia

- located north of Australia, east of India and south of China
- 3 areas are part of the Anglosphere: Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia; the Philippines are also
sometimes considered a part

Hong Kong
- located on the south eastern coast of China
- today: a special administrative region of the People’s Republic of China, but has a separate history
and its own flag and currency
- the last “important” British colony in Asia  returned to China in 1997 with an agreement for a “one
country, two systems” policy that was made for 50 years
- Hong Kong retained a high degree of autonomy and its own legal system; it also has a different
political and economic system (China is a communist country with a one-party system and a raw
capitalist economic system); it has one of the most competitive and liberal economies in the world
- freedom of expression is protected and the country is much easier to access than China
- however, China and Hong Kong unnegotiably share foreign affairs and armed forces
- Hong Kong is proud of its colonial ties to Britain; it has developed into a blend of both countries and
their cultures

History
- originally, Hong Kong was an important port used in international trade with China; its strategic
position played an important role in it being colonized; it was used as a gateway to China
- after China lost the Opium War mid-19th century, Britain got Hong Kong for 99 years
- Hong Kong became a prominent international trade and financial center with a blend of Eastern and
Western cultures
- before it became part of China, it possessed 97% of Chinese economy, but China has flourished
economically since, which led to Hong Kong losing much of its importance
- China initiated the process of getting Hong Kong back in the 1980s; it came under China for 50 years
in 1997, but no one knows what will happen in 2047 (or earlier)

Language
- over 95% of the population is Cantonese (Chinese)  Cantonese is the language spoken by the
majority and in public life
- the importance of Mandarin Chinese has grown significantly since 1997; other Chinese languages
are also spoken
- English also plays an important role as the language of international business and science
- official languages: English, Cantonese Chinese, Mandarin Chinese

Singapore
- a city state located on the tip of the Malay Peninsula; it has a strategic location, making it one of
Asia’s largest ports

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- a British colony from 1867 to 1963; it was part of the Federation of Malaysia from 1963 to 1965 and
became independent in 1965
- an important international trade and industry center; it became colonized because of its strategic
position despite having no natural resources
- very densely populated and multicultural; 75% of the population is Mandarin Chinese
- 4 official languages:
- Malay  the national language for historical reasons
- English  the language of trade and politics (Singlish  formally known as Singapore
Colloquial English)
- Tamil  the language of the largest of the Indian ethnic groups
- Mandarin Chinese  the language of the largest ethnic group
- the city kept close ties with Britain even after gaining independence
- it is often referred to as the “Asian tiger”  flourishing economy, high exports

Malaysia
- former British colonial territories
- a multi-cultural society
- the largest ethnic groups: the Malays (over half of the population), Chinese and Indians
- sole official language: Bahasa Melayu
- the role of English is diminishing gradually

The Philippines
- an archipelago ( group of islands) located in Southeast Asia between the Philippine Sea and the
South China Sea
- it was a Spanish colony for over 300 years; it came under US control in an attempt to gain
independence in the 1890s; it finally became an independent country in 1946
- a number of indigenous languages
- two official languages:
- Filipino  the national language
- English  the language of government, business and education (their English leans more
towards American English)

The Pacific Islands

- the area consists of 20,000 to 30,000 islands, which are traditionally divided into three main groups:
Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia
- they belong to the geographical region of Oceania, which contains the Pacific Islands, Australia and
New Zealand
- there is archeological evidence that some of the islands were already settled 30,000 years ago; many
were, however, never settled

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- Europeans first arrived in the 16th century and encountered mostly neolithic societies
- British exploration: 18th century  James Cook made 3 expeditions to the Pacific Islands, the 3 rd
one ending with his death; he discovered a number of islands, including the Cook Islands, Fiji, New
Caledonia, Norfolk Islands, New Hebrides; he also explored a number od territories, such as New
Zealand, Tonga, Easter Island
- the indigenous people of the Pacific Islands were incredible navigators in spite of their lack of
technology; they traveled to the Easter Island and used up all its resources (which can be seen as a
metaphor for what humanity is doing to the planet), building magnificent statues in the process
- the Europeans (especially France, Germany and Britain) colonized some of the islands, taking
advantage of goods such as sandalwood, pearl shell and coconuts, but the colonization did not reach
the degree it did elsewhere
- conflicts appeared between the natives and the Europeans
- the US annexed some of the islands; after WWI Australia and New Zealand acquired some of the
German territories in the Pacific
- after WWII the islands became independent

Melanesia
- northeast of Australia, south of the Equator
- English-speaking areas: Fiji and Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu
- English is the official language/one of the official languages in addition to various indigenous
languages

Micronesia
- north of the Equator, in the West Pacific
- English-speaking areas: the Northern Mariana Islands and Guam, the Federated States of Micronesia,
Palau and the Marshall Islands, Kiribati, Nauru
- English is the official language/one of the official languages in addition to various indigenous
languages

Polynesia
- in the east-central Pacific Ocean
- English-speaking areas: American Samoa, Tokelau, the Pitcairn Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Samoa, the
Cook Islands and Niue
- English is one of the official languages (along with various indigenous languages)

English as a Lingua Franca

- lingua franca  the word comes from Italian; it literally means the language of the Francs; today
the expression means a language of communication between people who do not have the same first
language; in most cases, the lingua franca is also not their first language
- pidgins and (to some degree) creoles are a type of lingua franca, but not all lingua francas are
pidgins

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- Esperanto  a planned international auxiliary language created in order to get rid of the native
speaker bias; its advantage is that it has no native speakers, but it has not caught on because it also has
no culture
- some examples of natural lingua francas:
- Greek in the Hellenic world
- Latin in the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages
- Arabic in the Islamic world
- Hebrew in the Jewish Diaspora
- German, Spanish, Swahili, Krio, English
- English can be used as a lingua franca in any field; it is different from other lingua francas because it
has evolved into a global lingua franca
- approximately a quarter of users of English are native speakers
- the majority of interactions in English take place between non-native speakers who do not share a
first language or a common culture; it is important to be aware that non-native speakers also shape the
use of English
- communication in English as a lingua franca is usually very successful
- language learners usually aim for the very specific standard set by native speakers, even though
learners of English will not necessarily communicate with native speakers (unlike e.g. learners of
Italian)  this is why learning English as a foreign language is different than learning it as a lingua
franca; in case of the former, the intention is communication with native speakers
- EFL  English as a foreign language
- ELF  English as a lingua franca
- LFE  lingua franca English
- EIL  English as an International Language
- International English(es)/Global English(es)  all varieties of English worldwide
- World English  International English
- World Englishes  Nativised Englishes (ESL, Outer Circle Englishes, new Englishes)
- simple English  a version of English used e.g. for international editions of magazines to cated to
non-native speakers of English
- second language  a language with a specific status, used either as an official language, a language
of education, etc.
- foreign language  a language you learn to communicate with people of a certain country
- new questions have appeared since the vast majority of English users are non-native speakers
- it is no longer clear who owns the English language and what is appropriate or corrects
- two norm options: native speaker norms or ELF norms

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 - cultural neutrality: English can be used without referencing the cultures where English is the
first language
- what is Standard English

The English Today debate

- a debate between Randolph Quirk and Braj Kachru in the 1990s  which variant of English is
appropriate: standard English or other varieties as well?
- Quirk’s position:
- native and non-native speakers have different intuitions about a language
- defense of Standard English
- non-native varieties of English are inadequate and deficit
- non-native speakers need to learn Standard English
- Kachru’s position:
- English is not studied primarily to interact with native speakers
- English is not studied primarily to understand British, American cultural values
- non-native varieties are not interlanguages
- who owns the English language?  everyone who uses it
- even native speakers of English adjust their language when using it as a lingua franca

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