KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY

Lesson Objectives
 State the main points of the kinetic molecular theory, and describe how it relates to the properties of an ideal gas.
 Define pressure and describe how gases exert pressure.
 Understand the barometer and how it measures atmospheric pressure. Convert between units of gas pressure.
 Relate temperature to average kinetic energy.

Recalling Prior Knowledge

1. How are gases different from solids and liquids in terms of the arrangement of the particles?

2. What are kinetic energy and temperature?

3. What is the Kelvin temperature scale?

Matter commonly exists in three forms or states: solid, liquid, or gas. In earlier chapters, you learned about the study of
matter at the atomic and molecular level. In this chapter, we will be concerned with the macroscopic properties of matter.
In other words, we will study the properties and behavior of large quantities of matter. This lesson focuses on a general
conception of matter called the kinetic-molecular theory, with special attention focused on its application to gases.

The Kinetic-Molecular Theory

The kinetic-molecular theory is a theory that explains the states of matter and is based on the idea that matter is
composed of tiny particles that are always in motion. The theory helps explain observable properties and behaviors of
solids, liquids, and gases. However, the theory is most easily understood as it applies to gases, and it is with gases that
we will begin our detailed study. The theory applies specifically to a model of a gas called an ideal gas. An ideal gas is an
imaginary gas whose behavior perfectly fits all the assumptions of the kinetic-molecular theory. In reality, gases are not
ideal, but they are very close to being so under most everyday conditions.

The kinetic-molecular theory, as it applies to gases, has five basic assumptions.

1. Gases consist of very large numbers of tiny spherical particles that are far apart from one another
compared to their size. The particles of a gas may be either atoms or molecules. The distance between the
particles of a gas is much, much greater than the distances between the particles of a liquid or a solid. Most of the
volume of a gas, therefore, is composed of the empty space between the particles. In fact, the volume of the
particles themselves is considered to be insignificant compared to the volume of the empty space.

2. Gas particles are in constant rapid motion in random directions. The

fast motion of gas particles gives them a relatively large amount of kinetic
energy. Recall that kinetic energy is the energy that an object possesses
because of its motion. The particles of a gas move in a straight line until
they collide with another particle or with one of the walls of their container

3. Collisions between gas particles and between particles and the

container walls are elastic collisions. An elastic collision is one in which
 there is no overall loss of kinetic energy. Kinetic energy may be transferred from one particle to another during an
elastic collision, but there is no change in the total energy of the colliding particles.

4. There are no forces of attraction or repulsion between gas particles. Attractive forces are responsible for
particles of a real gas condensing together to form a liquid. It is assumed that the particles of an ideal gas have no
such attractive forces. The motion of each particle is completely independent of the motion of all other particles.

5. The average kinetic energy of gas particles is dependent upon the temperature of the gas. As the
temperature of a gas is increased, its component particles begin to move faster, resulting in an increase in their
kinetic energies. Not all particles in a given sample have the same speed, so the sample will contain particles with
a range of different kinetic energies. However, the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample is
proportional to its temperature.

Gas Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area on a surface.

Pressure=force/area
When a person stands on the floor, his feet exert pressure on the
surface. That pressure is related to both the mass of the person and the
surface area of his feet. If the person were holding a heavy object, the
pressure would increase because of a greater force. Alternatively, if the
person stands on his toes, the pressure also increases because of a
decrease in the surface area.

Gas molecules also exert pressure. Earth’s atmosphere exerts pressure

because gravity acts on the huge number of gas particles contained in
the atmosphere, holding it in place. Pressure is also exerted by small
samples of gas, such as the outward pressure exerted by the gas inside
a balloon. Gas pressure is the pressure that results from collisions of
gas particles with an object. Inside the balloon, the gas particles collide
with the balloon’s inner walls. It is those collisions that keep the balloon
inflated. If the gas particles were to suddenly stop moving, the balloon
would instantly deflate. The figure below (Figure below) is an
illustration of gas particles exerting pressure inside a container.

Units of Gas Pressure

As seen above, a barometer measures gas pressure by the height of the column of mercury. One unit of gas pressure is
the millimeter of mercury (mmHg). An equivalent unit to the mmHg is called the torr, in honor of the inventor of the
barometer, Evangelista Torricelli. The pascal (Pa) is the standard unit of pressure. A pascal is a very small amount of
pressure, so a more useful unit for everyday gas pressures is the kilopascal (kPa). A kilopascal is equal to 1000 pascals.
Another commonly used unit of pressure is the atmosphere (atm). Standard atmospheric pressure is called 1 atm of
pressure and is equal to 760 mmHg and 101.3 kPa.

1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101.3 kPa

It is important to be able to convert between different units of pressure. To do so, we will use the equivalent standard
pressures shown above.

Sample Problem 13.1: Pressure Unit Conversions

The atmospheric pressure in a mountainous location is measured to be 613 mmHg. What is this pressure in atm and in
kPa?
Step 1: List the known quantities and plan the problem.

Known Unknown

 given: 613 mmHg  pressure = ? atm

 1 atm = 760 mmHg  pressure = ? kPa

 101.3 kPa = 760 mmHg

Use conversion factors from the equivalent pressure units to convert from mmHg to atm and from mmHg to kPa.

Step 2: Solve.

613 mmHg×1 atm/760 mmHg=0.807 atm

613 mmHg×101.3 kPa/760 mmHg=81.7 kPa
Step 3: Think about your result.

The air pressure is about 80% of the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level. The standard pressure of 760 mmHg
can be considered to have three significant figures.

Practice Problem
1. Convert the pressure of 535 kPa to mmHg and to atm.

Kinetic Energy and Temperature

As stated in the kinetic-molecular theory, the temperature of a substance is related to the average kinetic energy of the
particles of that substance. When a substance is heated, some of the absorbed energy is stored within the particles, while
some of the energy increases the speeds at which the particles are moving. This is observed as an increase in the
temperature of the substance.

Average Kinetic Energy

At any given temperature, not all of the particles in a sample
of matter have the same kinetic energy. Instead, the
particles display a wide range of kinetic energies. Most of
the particles have a kinetic energy near the middle of the
range. However, some of the particles have kinetic energies
a great deal lower or a great deal higher than the average
(Figure below).

A distribution of molecular kinetic energies as a function of temperature. The blue curve is for a low temperature, while the red curve
is for a high temperature.
The blue curve shown above (Figure above) is for a sample of matter at a relatively low temperature, while the red curve
is for a sample at a relatively high temperature. In both cases, most of the particles have intermediate kinetic energies,
close to the average. Notice that as temperature increases, the range of kinetic energies increases and the distribution
curve “flattens out.”

At a given temperature, the particles of any substance have the same average kinetic energy. At room temperature, the
molecules in a sample of liquid water have the same average kinetic energy as the molecules in a sample of oxygen gas
or the ions in a sample of sodium chloride.
Absolute Zero
As a sample of matter is continually cooled, the average kinetic energy of its particles decreases. Eventually, one would
expect the particles to stop moving completely. Absolute zero is the temperature at which the motion of particles
theoretically ceases. Absolute zero has never been attained in the laboratory, but temperatures on the order of 1 × 10 −10 K
have been achieved. The Kelvin temperature scale is based on this theoretical limit, so absolute zero is equal to 0 K. The
Kelvin temperature of a substance is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles of the substance.
For example, the particles in a sample of hydrogen gas at 200 K have twice the average kinetic energy as the particles in
a hydrogen sample at 100 K.

Lesson Summary
 The kinetic-molecular theory describes all matter, but it is especially useful for explaining the behavior of gases.
Gas particles are assumed to occupy an insignificant volume compared to the space between particles. Particles
undergo random linear motion and collide elastically with one another and with their container.

 Gas pressure results from the collisions of gas particles with an object. Pressure is measured with a barometer or
a manometer. Conversions between pressure units can be performed by using dimensional analysis.

 The temperature of a substance in Kelvin is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles in
that substance.

Lesson Review Questions

1. How are gases different from liquids and solids in terms of the distance between the particles?

2. Which of the following are behaviors of a gas that can be explained by the kinetic-molecular theory?

a. Gases are compressible.

b. Gases exert pressure.

c. All particles of a gas sample move at the same speed.

d. Gas particles can exchange kinetic energy when they collide.

e. Gas particles move in a curved-line path.

3. What is an elastic collision?

4. List several common units of gas pressure.

5. Describe the motion of gas particles.

6. What kind of collisions occurs?

7. What is the relationship between the kinetic energy of gas particles and the temperature of the gas?