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LECTURE NOTES

ON
REFRIGERATION AND AIR
CONDITIONING

PREPARED BY
SUPRAVA BEHERA, LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
GOVT. POLYTECHNIC, JAJPUR-755019
1st Chapter
Air Refrigeration Cycle
In an air refrigeration cycle, the air is used as a refrigerant. The basic elements of an air cycle
refrigeration system are the compressor, the cooler or heat exchanger, the expander and the
refrigerator.
Units of Refrigeration
The practical unit of refrigeration is One tonne (1000 kg )of ice from and 00 in 24 hours.
expressed in terms of "tonne of refrigeration' (briefly written as TR). A tonne of refrigeration is
defined as the amount of refrigeration effect produced by the uniform melting of one tonne
(1000kg) of ice from and at OC in 24 hour.
Since the latent heat of ice is 335 kJ/kg, therefore one one of refrigeration=
1 TR= 1000x335 kJ/ in 24 hours= (1000x335)/ (24x60) =232.6 kJ/min
In actual practice, one tonne of refrigeration is equivalent to 210 kJ/min or 3.5Kw (3.5 kJ/s)
Coefficient of performance
The coefficient of performance (C.O.P) is the is the ratio of heat extracted in the refrigerator
to the work done on the refrigerant. It is also known as theoretical coefficient of performance.
Mathematically,
Theoretical C.OP. = Q/W
where Q=Amount of heat extracted in the refrigerator (of the amount of refrigeration produced,
or the capacity of a refrigerator and
W = Amount of work done.
* For per unit mass, C.O.P=q/w
Find the C.O.P. of a refrigeration system if the work input is 80kJ/kg and refrigeration
effect produced is 160 kJ/kg of refrigerant flowing
Solution. Given: w = 80 kJ/kg : q = 160 kJ/kg
C.O.P. = q/w = 160/80= 2
Air cycle refrigeration is one of the earliest methods used for cooling. The key features of
this method is that, the refrigerant air remain gaseous state throughout the refrigeration
cycle. Based on the operation, the air refrigeration system can be classified into

1. Open air refrigeration cycle


2. Closed refrigeration cycle
Open air refrigeration cycle
In an open refrigeration system, the air is directly passed over the space is to be cooled,
and allowed to circulate through the cooler. The pressure of open refrigeration cycle is
limited to the atmospheric pressure. A simple diagram of the open-air Refrigeration
system is given below.

Advantages and application


 It eliminates the need of a heat exchanger.
 It is used in aircraft because it helps to achieve cabin pressurization and air
conditioning at once
Disadvantages
One of the disadvantages of this system is that its large size. The air supplied to the
refrigeration system is at atmospheric pressure, so the volume of air handled by the
system is large. Thus the size of compressor and expander also should be large. Another
disadvantage of the open cycle system is that the moisture is regularly carried away by
the circulating air, this leads to the formation of frost at the end of the expansion process
and clogs the line, and hence a use of dryer is preferable to the open air refrigeration
system.

Closed refrigeration system / Dense air refrigeration cycle


In closed or dense air refrigeration cycle, air refrigerant is contained within pipes and
component part of the system at all time. The circulated air does not have to direct contact
with the space to be cooled. The air is used to cool another fluid (brine), and this fluid is
circulated into the space to be cooled. So the disadvantages listed in open air refrigeration
can be eliminated. The advantages of closed air refrigeration system are

Advantages

 The suction to the compressor may be at high pressure, therefore the volume of air handled by
the compressor and expander is low when compared to an open system. Hence the size of
compressor and expander is small compared to the open air system.
 The chance of freezing of moister and choke the valve is eliminated.
 In this system, higher coefficient of performance can be achieved by reducing operating
pressure ratio.
Bell Coleman Cycle
Bell Coleman Cycle also known as a Reversed Brayton Cycle or
the Joule cycle. The Bell Coleman Cycle is a refrigeration cycle where
the working fluid is air which is compressed and expanded but do not
change state. ... In this cycle, the process of compression and expansion
of gas is isentropic and heat absorption and rejection of heat takes place at
constant pressure i.e isobaric process
Closed Bell Coleman Air Cycle
Open Bell Coleman Air Cycle

P-V and T-S diagram of bell coleman refrigerator. Here P1,


V1, T1, S1 represents the pressure, volume, temperature,
entropy of air respectively at point 1. And so on. It
represents the corresponding condition of air when it
passed through the component.

1-2 Isentropic Compression: The Cold air from the


refrigerator is brought into the compressor and
compressed isentropically. During this procedure, the
pressure increments from P1 to P2. The specific
volume decreases from v1 to v2 and the temperature
increments from T1 to T2. During this procedure
Entropy ‘s’ stays steady (s1=s2). No heat is absorbed
or rejected by the air.
2-3 Constant Pressure Cooling Process: The warm air from
the compressor is then passed into the cooler where it is
cooled at constant pressure, reducing the temperature
from T3 to T2. The specific Volume reduces from v2 to
v3.

Heat rejected by the air: Qr = Cp (T2 — T3 )

3-4 Isentropic Expansion: Air from the cooler is presently


brought into the expander and is extended isentropically. The
pressure of the air stays steady during this process. Specific
volume changes from v3 to v4 and the temperature decreses
from T3 to T4. No heat transfer takes place.

4-1 Constant Pressure expansion process: The cold


air from the expander is then passed into
the refrigerator and extended at a constant
pressure. The temperature of the air increases
from T4 to T1. The specific volume of the air
changes from v4 to v1.
Heat absorbed by the air: Qa = Cp( T1 — T4)
Work done during the cycle per kg of air = Heat rejected — Heat
absorbed

= Cp(T2 — T3 ) — Cp( T1 — T4)

C.O.P during the cycle per kg of air = Heat absorbed / work


done

= Cp( T1 — T4 ) / Cp(T2 — T3 ) — Cp( T1 — T4)

Equation of Coefficient of performance (COP) of Bell


Coleman cycle:
Heat absorbed during cycle per kg of air q 4-1 = Cp(T1-T4)

Heat rejected during cycle per kg of air q 2-3 = Cp(T2-T3)

Then the work done per kg of air during the cycle is = Heat rejected – Heat absorbed
= Cp(T2-T3) - Cp(T1-T4)

Coefficient of performance;

For isentropic compression process 1-2


For isentropic expansion process 3-4

Since, P2 = P3 and P1 = P4, therefore from equation (ii) and (iii)


Substitute equation (iv) in (i)
2nd Chapter
Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
A vapour compression refrigeration system is an improved type of air refrigeration system in
which a suitable working substance, termed as refrigerant, is used. It condenses and
evaporates at temperatures and pressures close to the atmospheric conditions. The
refrigerants, usually, used for this purpose are ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
sulphur dioxide (SO2).
The refrigerant used, does. not leave the system, but is circulated throughout the system
alternately condensing and evaporating. In evaporating, the refrigerant absorbs its latent heat
from the brine (salt water) which is used for circulating it around the cold chamber. While
condensing, it gives out its latent heat to the circulating water of the cooler. The vapour
compression refrigeration system is, therefore a latent heat pump, as it pumps its latent heat
from the brine and delivers it to the cooler.
The vapour compression refrigeration system is now-a-days used for all purpose refrigeration. It
is generally used for all industrial purposes from a small domestic refrigerator to a big air
conditioning plant.
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of the vapour compression refrigeration
system over air refrigeration system:
Advantages

1. It has smaller size for the given capacity of refrigeration.


2. It has less running cost.
3. It can be employed over a large range of temperatures.
4. The coefficient of performance is quite high.

Disadvantages

1. The initial cost is high.


2. The prevention of leakage of the refrigerant is the major problem in vapour compression
system.
Mechanism of a Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration
System

A simple vapour compression refrigeration system consists of the following five essential parts:
 Compressor: The low pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from evaporator is
drawn into the compressor through the inlet or suction valve A, where it is compressed
to a high pressure and temperature. This high pressure and temperature vapour
refrigerant is discharged into the condenser through the delivery valve B.
 Condenser: The condenser or cooler consists of coils of pipe in which the high pressure
and temperature vapour refrigerant is cooled and condensed. the refrigerant, while,
passing through the condenser, gives up its latent heat to the surrounding condensing
medium which is normally air or water.
 Receiver: The condensed liquid refrigerant from the condenser is stored in a vessel
known as receiver from where it is supplied to the evaporator through the expansion
valve or refrigerant control valve.
 Expansion valve: It is also called throttle valve or refrigerant control valve. The function
of the expansion valve is to allow the liquid refrigerant under high pressure and
temperature to pass at a controlled rate after reducing its pressure and temperature.
Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through the expansion valve, but
the greater portion is vaporised in the evaporator at the low pressure and temperature.
 Evaporator: An evaporator consists of coils of pipe in which the liquid-vapour refrigerant
at low pressure and temperature is evaporated and changed into vapour refrigerant at
low pressure and temperature. In evaporating, the liquid vapour refrigerant absorbs its
latent heat of vaporisation from the medium (air, water or brine) which is to be cooled.
In any compression, refrigeration system, there are two different pressure conditions. One is
called the high pressure side and other is known as low pressure side. The high pressure
side includes the discharge line ( i.e. piping from delivery valve B to the condenser),
condenser, receiver and expansion valve. The low pressure side includes the evaporator,
piping from the expansion valve to the evaporator and the suction line (i.e. piping from the
evaporator to the suction valve A).

Pressure-Enthalpy (p-h) Chart

1. The most convenient chart for studying the behaviour of a refrigerant is the p-h chart, in which
the vertical ordinates represent pressure and horizontal ordinates represent enthalpy (i.e. total
heat).
2. A typical chart is shown above. in which a few important lines of the complete chart are
drawn. The saturated liquid line and the saturated vapour line merge into one another at the
critical point. A saturated liquid is one which has a temperature equal to the saturation
temperature corresponding to its pressure.
3. The space to the left of the saturated liquid line will, therefore, be sub-cooled liquid region.
The space between the liquid and the vapour lines is called wet vapour region and to the right of
the saturated vapour line is a superheated vapour region.
Consider the chart below which is typical of the refrigerant R22, a common refrigerant in small
refrigeration systems.
 A closer analysis of the chart shows that there are distinct regions separated by three
“boundary lines”. The region on the left is sub cooled liquid. This is the refrigerant liquid
at a temperature lower than the equivalent boiling point for the pressure noted.
 The region inside the “dome” is a liquid-vapor mixture. If the liquid is at the boiling point,
but just hasn't begun to boil, it is defined as saturated liquid. Adding any heat to this
liquid will vaporize a portion of it. Adding more heat to the liquid-vapor mixture eventually
evaporates all of the liquid. At some precise point (G), the vapor is fully saturated.
Adding any more heat to the vapor will cause it to rise in temperature further; this is
referred to as superheated vapor which are above the corresponding saturated vapor
point
 Similarly, sub cooled liquid can be generally warm. It just means that the liquid is cooler
than the saturation line at that pressure.
Consider the refrigerant to be initially at point A. To reach this point after leaving the
evaporator at G, the refrigerant is heated slightly and crosses the compressor suction
valve to point A. The compressor elevates the refrigerant's pressure to a point at which it
can push the discharge valve open and flow into the condenser. The refrigerant vapor
leaves the compressor at point B, de-superheats to point C, and then begins to
condense. After the vapor is completely condensed at point D, it is sub cooled a bit
further (E), at which time it is still at a much higher pressure than the evaporator.
Controlling the flow to the evaporator and throttling to the pressure of the evaporator is
performed by the expansion device, a capillary tube or a throttling valve in small
refrigeration systems. This pressure reduction step vaporizes a portion of the liquid
which cools (called flash gas) the remaining liquid going to point F. The "average"
mixture of vapor and liquid crossing the valve doesn't change in energy content. It simply
separates into liquid and vapor at the reduced temperature and pressure according to its
precise thermodynamic properties. The liquid at point F is then ready to pick up heat in
the evaporator and form vapor at point G where the cycle repeats itself.
Types of Vapour Compression Cycles

The vapour compression cycle essentially consists of compression, condensation, throttling and
evaporation.

1. Cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression,

2. Cycle with wet vapour after compression,

3. Cycle with superheated vapour after compression,

4. Cycle with superheated vapour before compression, and

5. Cycle with undercooling or subcooling of refrigerant.

1. Theoretical Vapour Compression Cycle with Dry Saturated Vapour after Compression

A vapour compression cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression is shown on T-s and
p-h diagrams in Fig. (a) and (b) respectively. At point 1, let T1, p1, and s1, be the temperature,
pressure and entropy of the vapour refrigerant respectively. The four processes of the cycle are
as follows:

1. Compression process: The vapour refrigerant at low pressure p1, and temperature T1, is
compressed isentropically to dry saturated vapour as shown by the vertical line 1-2 on T-s
diagram and by the curve 1-2 on p-h diagram. The pressure and temperature rises from p1, to p2
and T1, to T2, respectively.

The work done during isentropic compression per kg of refrigerant is given by W = = h₂ - h1

Where h1= Enthaply of vapour refrigerant at temperature at T1 (at suction of the compressor)
h2= Enthaply of vapour refrigerant at temperature at T2 (at discharge of the compressor)

2. Condensing process: The high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from the
compressor is passed through the condenser where it is completely condensed at constant
pressure p2 and temperature T2, as shown by the horizontal line 2-3 on T-s and p-h diagrams.
The vapour refrigerant is changed into liquid refrigerant. The refrigerant, while passing through
the condenser. gives its latent heat to the surrounding condensing medium.

3. Expansion process: The liquid refrigerant at pressure p3=p2, and temperature T3 = T2 is


expanded by throttling process through the expansion valve to a low pressure p4 = p3, and
temperature T4= T₁, as shown by the curve 3-4 on T-s diagram and by the vertical line 3-4 on ph
diagram. Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through the expansion valve, but
the greater portion is vaporised in the evaporator. During the throttling process, no heat is
absorbed or rejected by the liquid refrigerant.

4. Vaparising process: The liquid-vapour mixture of the refrigerant at pressure p4 =p1, and
temperature T4, = T1, is evaporated and changed into vapour refrigerant at constant pressure
and temperature, as shown by the horizontal line 4-1 on T-s and p-h diagrams. During
evaporation, the liquid-vapour refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporisation from the
medium (air, water or brine) which is to be cooled. This heat which is absorbed by the
refrigerant is called refrigerating effect (RE) and it is briefly written as R. The process of
vaporisation continues upto point 1 which is the starting point and thus the cycle is completed.

RE= h1-h4= h1-hf3

Where hf3= Sensible heat at temperature T3

C.O.P= Refrigearting effect / Workdone = (h1-h4)/ ((h2-h1)


Problems:

A vapour compression cycle with wet vapour after compression is shown on T-s and p-h
diagrams. In this cycle, the enthalpy at point 2 is found out with the help of dryness fraction at
this point. The dryness fraction at points 1 and 2 may be obtained by equating entropies at
points 1 and 2.

The coefficient of performance (C.O.P.)= Refrigearting effect / Workdone = (h1-h4)/ ((h2-h1)


Theoretical C.O.P. = Refrigerating effect / Workdone = (h1-h4)/ ((h2-h1)= (h1-hf3)/ ((h2-h1)

=(221.83-164.77)/(237.83-221.83) =3.57

A vapour compression cycle with superheated vapour after compression is shown on T-s and

p-h diagrams respectively. In this cycle, the enthalpy at point 2 is found out with the help of
degree of superheat. The degree of superheat may is found out by equating the entropies at
points 1 and 2.

The coefficient of performance( C.O.P.) = Refrigerating effect / Workdone = (h1-h4)/ ((h2-h1)=


(h1-hf3)/ ((h2-h1)

Problem:
A vapour compression cycle with superheated vapour before compression is shown on T-s and
p-h diagrams respectively. In this cycle, the evaporation starts at point 4 and continues upto
point 1', when it is dry saturated. The vapour is now superheated before entering the
compressor upto the point 1.

The coefficient of performance( C.O.P.) = Refrigerating effect / Workdone = (h1-h4)/ ((h2-h1)=


(h1-hf3)/ ((h2-h1)

Problems:
The refrigerant, after condensation process 2’-3’, is cooled below the saturation temperature
(T3’,) before expansion by throttling this process is called undercooling or subcooling of the
refrigerant and is generally done along the liquid line.The effect of the undercooling is to
increase the value of coefficient of performance under the same set of conditions.

The process of undercooling is done by circulating more quantity of cooling water through the
condenser or by using water colder than the main circulating water. The refrigerating effect is
increased by adopting both the superheating and undercooling process which is shown by
dotted lines in Fig (a).

The coefficient of performance( C.O.P.) = Refrigerating effect / Workdone = (h1-h4)/ ((h2-h1)=


(h1-hf3)/ ((h2-h1)

The value of hf3 = hf3’xDegree of under cooling

Problem:

A vapour compression refrigerator uses R-12 as refrigerant and the liquid evaporates in the
evaporator at -150C. The temperature of this refrigerant at the delivery from the compressor is
150C when the vapour is condensed at 100C. Find the co-efficient of performance if (i) there is
no undercooling and 9ii) the liquid is cooled by 50C before expansion by throttling.

Take specific heat at constant pressure for the superheated vapour as 0.64 kJ/kgK and that for
liquid as 0.94 kJ/kgK. The other properties of refrigerant are as follows:
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
The vapour absorption refrigeration system is one of the oldest methods of producing
refrigerating effect. This system uses heat energy instead of mechanical energy as in vapour
compression system to change the conditions of the refrigerant required for the operation of the
refrigeration cycle. It is used in both the domestic and large industrial refrigerating plants.

In the vapour absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber, a pump, a


generator, and a pressure reducing valve. The refrigerant used in a vapour absorption system is
ammonia.

Simple Vapour Absorption System:

The simple vapour absorption system consists of an absorber, a pump a generator and a
pressure reducing valve to replace the compressor of vapour compression system. The other
components of the system are condenser, receiver, expansion valve and evaporator as in the
vapour compression system.

 In this system, the low pressure ammonia vapour leaving the evaporator enters the
absorber where it is absorbed by the cold water in the absorber. The water has the
ability to absorb large quantities of ammonia vapour and the solution, thus formed, is
known as aqua-ammonia absorption of ammonia vapour in water lowers the pressure in
the absorber which draws more ammonia vapour from the evaporator and thus raises
the temperature of solution. Some form of water cooling arrangement is employed in the
absorber to remove the heat of solution. This is necessary in order to increase the
absorption capacity of water because at higher temperature water absorbs less
ammonia vapour.
 The strong solution formed in the absorber is pumped to the generator by the liquid
pump. The pump increases the pressure of the solution upto 10 bar. Then the strong
solution of ammonia in the generator is heated by some external source.
 During the heating process, the ammonia vapour is driven off the solution at high
pressure and leaves the hot weak solution which flows back to the absorber at low
pressure after passing through pressure reducing valve.
 The high pressure ammonia vapour from the generator is condensed in the condenser to
a high pressure liquid ammonia.
 This liquid ammonia is passed to the extension valve through the receiver and then to
the evaporator.

This completes the simple vapour absorption cycle.

Practical Vapour Absorption System:


The simple absorption system is not very economical in order to make the system more
practical, it is fitted with an analyser, a rectifier and two heat exchangers. These accessories
help to improve the performance and working of the plant.

1. Analyser:
 When ammonia is vaporised in the generator, some water is also vaporised and will flow
into the condenser along with the ammonia vapours in the simple system. If these
unwanted water particles are not removed before entering into the condenser, they will
enter ime the expansion valve where they freeze and choke the pipeline.
 In order to remove these unwanted particles flowing to the condenser, an analyser is
used. The analyser may be built as an integral en of the generator or made as a
separate piece of equipment. It consists of a series of trays mounted above the
generator.
 The strong solution from the absorber and the aqua from the rectifier are introduced at
the top of the analyser and flow downward over the trays and into the generator.

2. Rectifier:
 In case the water vapours are not completely removed in the analyser, a closed type
vapour cooler called rectifier also known as dehydrator) is used. It is generally water
cooled may be of the double pipe, shell and coil or shell and cube type .
 Its function is to cool further the ammonia vapours leaving the analyser so that the
remaining water vapours are condensed.
 Thus, only dry or anhydrous ammonia vapours flow to the condenser.
 The condensate from the rectifier to the top of the analyser by a drip return pipe
3. Heat exchangers:
 The heat exchanger provided between the pump and the generator is used to cool the
weak hot solution returning from the generator to the absorber. The heat removed from the
weak solution raises the temperature of the strong solution leaving the pump and going to
analyser and generator.
 This operation reduces the heat supplied to the generator and the amount of cooling
required for the absorber. Thus the economy of the plant increases.
 The heat exchanger provided between the condenser and the evaporator is also called
liquid sub-cooler. In this heat exchanger, the liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser is sub-
cooled by the low temperature ammonia vapour from the evaporator .
 This sub-cooled liquid is passed to the expansion valve and then to the evaporator.
 In this system, the net refrigerating effect is the heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the
evaporator. The total energy supplied to the system is the sum of work done by the pump
and the heat supplied in the generator. Therefore, the

Coefficient of performance of the system = Heat absorbed in evaporator C.O.P.


Work done by pump + Heat supplied in generator
Coefficient of Performance of an Ideal Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System

An ideal vapour absorption refrigeration system,

(a) the heat (QG) is given to the refrigerant in the generator,

(b) the heat (QC) is discharged to the atmosphere or cooling water from the condenser and
absorber,

(c) the heat (QE) is absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator, and

d) the heat (Qp) is added to the refrigerant due to pumpwork.

Neglecting the heat due to pump work (Qp), according to First Law of Thermodynamics,

QC =QG+QE ……………….(i)

Let TG = Temperature at which heat (QG) is given to the generator,

Tc = Temperature at which heat (QC) is discharged to atmosphere or cooling water from the
condenser and absorber, and

TE = Temperature at which heat (QE) is absorbed in the evaporator.

Since the vapour absorption system is considered as a perfectly reversible system, therefore
the initial entropy of the system must be equal to the entropy of the system after the change in
its condition.
Advantages of Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System over Vapour Compression
Refrigeration System Following are the advantages of vapour absorption system over
vapour compression systems

1. In the vapour absorption system, the only moving part of the entire system is a pump
which has a small motor. Thus, the operation of this system is essentially quiet and is subjected
to little wear. The vapour compression system of the same capacity has more wear, tear and
noise due tomoving parts of the compressor.

2. The vapour absorption system uses heat energy to change the condition of the refrigerant
from the evaporator The vapour compression system uses mechanical energy to change the
condition of the refrigerant from the evaporator.

3. The vapour absorption systems are usually designed use steam, either at high pressure or
low pressure. The exhaust steam from furnaces and solar energy may also be used. Thus this
system can be used where the electric power is difficult to obtain or is very expensive.

4. The vapour absorption systems can operate at reduced evaporator pressure and
temperature by increasing the steam pressure to the generator, with little decrease in capacity
But the capacity of vapour compression system drops rapidly with lowered evaporator
pressure.

5. The load variations do not affect the performance of a vapour absorption system. The load
variations are met by controlling the quantity of aqua circulated and the quantity of steam
supplied to the generator. The performance of a vapour compression system at partial loads
is poor.

6. In the vapour absorption system, the liquid refrigerant leaving the evaporator has no bad
effect on the system except that of reducing the refrigerating effect. In the vapour compression
system, it is essential to superheat the vapour refrigerant leaving the evaporator so that no
liquid may enter the compressor.

7. The vapour absorption systems can be built in capacities well above 1000 tonnes of
refrigeration cach, which is the largest size for single compressor units.

8. The space requirements and automatic control requirements favour the absorption system
more and more as the desired evaporator temperature drops.
Problems-1

In an absorption type refrigerator, the heat is supplied to NH3 generator by condensing


steam at 2 bar and 90% dry. The temperature in the refrigerator is to be maintained at -5°
C. Find the maximum C.O.P. possible.

If the refrigeration load is 20 tonnes and actual C.O.P. is 70% of the maximum C.O.P., find
the mass of steam required per hour. Take temperature of the atmosphere as 30° C.

Solution.

Given : p = 2 bar ; x = 90% = 0.9 ; T = -5° C = - 5 + 273 = 268 K : Q = 20 TR

Actual C.O.P. = 70% of maximum C.O.P. ; Tc = 30° C = 30 + 273 = 303 K

Maximum C.O.P.

From steam tables, the saturation temperature of steam at a pressure of 2 bar is T G = 120.2° C
= 120.2 + 273 = 393.2 K

Mass of steam requires per hour

= 70% of maximum C.O.P. = 0.7 x 1.756 = 1.229

Actual heat supplied= Refrigeration load / Actual C.O.P.= (20x210)/1.229 =3417.4 kJ/min

From steam tables, the latent heat of steam at 2 bar is hfg = 2201.6 kJ/kg .

Mass of steam required per hour= Actual heat supplied / hfg =3417.4 / 2201.6 = 1.552 kg/min

=1.552 x 60 = 93.12 kg/h

Problems-2
5th Chapter
REFRIGERANTS
The refrigerant is a heat carrying medium which during the cycle in the refrigeration system
absorbs heat from a low temperature system and rejects the heat to a higher temperature
system.
Refrigerant Classification
Refrigerants are working substances or heat- carrying medium in refrigeration system, during a
refrigeration cycle heat is absorbed from a low temperature system and rejects the heat to a
high
temperature system.

Refrigerants can be classified as follows:

(I) On the basis of working principle:

(A) Primary refrigerants and (B) Secondary refrigerants

(A) Primary refrigerants


The refrigerant which directly participate in the refrigeration system and cools the products or
substances are called Primary refrigerants. These refrigerants undergo change of phase during
heat absorption or heat rejection in the evaporator and condenser.
(B) Secondary refrigerants
This refrigerant does not directly participate in the refrigeration cycle, but is used only as a
medium for cooling. This refrigerant first cooled by primary refrigerants and then cools the
substance which is to be maintained at lower temperatures.
Examples are H2O, Brine and calcium chloride solutions.

Qualities of secondary refrigerants:


 Remain liquid state under all working conditions
 Non corrosive when in contact with metal
 High specific heat and
 Undergo no change when in contact with refrigerants or other gases.
(II) On the basis of nature of the refrigerants:

(A) Natural Refrigerants and (B) Artificial or synthetic refrigerants


(III) On the basis of safety:
(A) Safety refrigerants and (B) Flammable refrigerants

(IV) On the basis of chemical composition


(A)Halocarbon refrigerants, (B) Hydrocarbon refrigerants,
(C)Inorganic refrigerants and (D) Azetropic refrigerants
1. R-11, Trichloro-monofluoro-methane (CCl3F) -The R-11 ia a synthetic chemical product
which can be used as a refrigerant. It is stable, non-flammable and non-toxic. It is considered to
be a low-pressure refrigerant. Due to its low operating pressure, this refrigerant is used in large
centrifugal compressor system of 200 TR and above..

2. R-12, Dichloro-difluoro-methane (CCl2F2)- The R-12 is a colourless, odourless liquid with


boiling point of - 290C at atmospheric pressure. It is non-toxic, non-corrosive, non-irritating and
non-flammable. Itazze iw Dell 152 which is an advantage in small refrigerating mastices. The
izoztu ziza will permit the use of less sensitive and more positive opening and naring teams
operates at a low but positive head and back pressure and a winners BV refrigerant is used in
many different types of industrial concer refrigerators, freezers, water coolers, room and windon
osoite on rice is found in reciprocating and rotary compressors. but is use is a compresi
commercial air-conditioning is increasing

3. R-13, Monochloro-trifluoro-methane (CClF3)- The R-13 has a boiling temperature of -


81.4°C at atmospheric pressure and a critical temperature of + 28.8°C. This refrigerant is used
for the low-temperature side of cascade systems. It is suitable with reciprocating compressors.

4. R-14, Carbontetrafluoride (CF4) -The R-14 has a boiling temperature of - 128°C at


atmospheric pressure and critical temperature of – 45.5°C. It serves as an ultra-low temperature
refrigerant for use in cascade systems.

5. R-21, Dichloro-monofluoro-methane (CHCI2F)- The R-21 has a boiling temperature of


+9°C at atmospheric pressure. It is used in centrifugal compressor systems .

6. R-22, Monochloro-difluoro-methane (CHCIF2)- The R-22 is a man-made refrigerant


developed for refrigeration installations that need a low evaporating temperature. It is used with
reciprocating and centrifugal compressors.
7.

Methane Series:
CHFC ------------------R22 -------------------------------Monochlore difluoro methane
HFC ------------------R32 ------------------------------Difluoro methane
Ethane Series:
CHFC-------------------R123 (CHCL2 – CF3) -------------Dichloro trifluro ethane
HFC -------------------R125 (CHF2 –CF3) ----------------Pentafluoro ethane
HFC---------------------R134a (CH2F-CF3) ----------------Tetrafluoro ethane
HFC --------------------R143a (CH3 –CF3) ------------------Trifluro ehane
HFC---------------------R152a (CH3-CHF2) -----------------Difluro ethane

Propane Series:
HFC--------------------R245fa (C3H3F3) ------------------Pentafluoro propane
HC-------------------------R290 (C3H8) ------------------Propane
Butane Series:
HC --------------------------R600a---- (C4H10) --------------Isobutane
Zeotropic Blends:
HFC ------------------------R407A [R125/143a/134a (44/52/4)]
HFC ------------------------R407C [R32/125/134a (23/25/52)]
HFC -------------------------R410A [R32/125(50/50)]
Azeotropic Blends:
HFC ------------------------R507A [R125/143a (50/50)]
Inorganic refrigerants:
(NH3) -----------------------R717----------------------------Ammonia
(H2O) -----------------------R718----------------------------Water
(CO2) ---------------------- R744--------------------------- Carbon dioxide.
Properties of Refrigerants
An ideal refrigerant should give a good coefficient of performance and also safe to use while
operating between the pressures. There is no ideal refrigerant which can be used under all
operating conditions. The characteristics of some refrigerants make them suitable for use with
reciprocating compressor and other refrigerants are best suited to centrifugal compressor or
rotary compressor. Therefore in order to select a correct refrigerant, it is necessary that it should
satisfy those properties which make it ideal to use for the particular application.
The properties of refrigerants are essential in determining its use for a particular
application.

There are three groups of properties,


(I). Thermodynamic properties of refrigerants,
(II). Chemical properties of refrigerants and
(III). Physical properties of refrigerants

(I) Thermodynamic properties of refrigerants:


1. Boiling point temperature:
 Low boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure is desirable. It
increases the capacity of plant

2. Freezing point temperature:


 The freezing point should be low to prevent the refrigerant which will leads to
choking of valves etc.
3. Evaporator and condenser pressures:
 The evaporative pressure and condenser pressure should be positive i.e., above
the atmospheric pressure in order to avoid air leakage into the system.
4. Critical temperature and pressure:
 Critical temperature for a refrigerant should be high to prevent
excessive power consumption
 Critical pressure should be low so as to give low pressure
5. Latent heat of vaporisation:
 Latent heat of vaporization should be large to minimize the quantity of refrigerant
Used.
6. Coefficient of performance:
 High COP is desirable to reduce the running cost
7. Specific volume:
 Low specific volume reduces the size of the compressor
8. Power requirement:
 Power require should be low as possible
 Increases the system coefficient of performance.
(II) Chemical properties of refrigerants:
 Non flammable and non-explosive
 Non-poisonous, non-toxic and no effecting food stuffs
 Should not have any disagreeable odor
 Should not have any corrosion action on the parts of the system
(III) Physical properties of refrigerants:
1. Stability and inertness:
 An ideal refrigerant should not decompose at any temperature of refrigeration
system.
 It should not form higher boiling point liquids or solid substance through
polymerization
2. Corrosive property:
 An ideal refrigerant should not corrode with metals
3. Viscosity:
 Low viscosity is desirable for better heat transfer and low pumping
Power
4. Leakage tendency:
 Leakage tendency of a refrigerant should be low to prevent loss of
Refrigerant
5. Dielectric strength:
 Dielectric strength for a refrigerant is desirable to prevent electric
motor directly exposed to the refrigerant
6. Thermal conductivity:
 High thermal conductivity of a refrigerant is desirable because it
reduces the flow rate of refrigerant for a given capacity
7. Cost:
 The cost of the refrigerant should be low
 It vary depending upon the capacity of refrigerating system
The characteristics of some refrigerants make them suitable for use with reciprocating
compressor and other refrigerants are best suited to rotary or centrifugal compressor. Therefore
in order to select a correct refrigerant, it is necessary that it should satisfy those properties
which
make it ideal to be used for the particular application. High flammable refrigerants have bigger
risk, the refrigerant R-410A, Non-Flammable refrigerant and R-32.

Designation System for Refrigerants:

The refrigerants are internationally designated as 'R' followed by certain numbers such as
R-11, R-12. R-114 etc. A refrigerant followed by a two-digit number indicates that a refrigerant is
derived from methane base while three-digit number respresents ethane base. The first digit on
the right is the number of fluorine (F) atoms in the refrigerant. The second digit from the right is
one more than the number of hydrogen (H) atoms present. The third digit from the right is one
less than the number of carbon (C) atoms, but when this digit is zero, it is omitted. The general
chemical formula for the refrigerant, either for methane or ethane base, is given as CmHnCIpFq in
which n+p+q= 2m + 2

where

m = Number of carbon atoms.

n= Number of hydrogen atoms,

p= Number of chlorine atoms, and

q= Number of fluorine atoms.

the number of the refrigerant is given by R (m-1)(n+1) (q).

Let us consider the following refrigerants to find its chemical formula and the number.

1. Dichloro-difluoro-methane

In this refrigerant Number of chlorine atoms,

p=2

Number of fluorine atoms, q=2

and number of hydrogen atoms.

n=0

n+p+q = 2m +2

0+2+2 = 2m +2

or
m=1
Number of carbon atoms =1 Thus the chemical formula for dichloro-difluoro-methane becomes
CCI2F2, and the number of refrigerant becomes R (1-1) (0+1)(2) or R-012 i.e R-12

2. Dichloro-tetrafluoro-ethane

In this refrigerant

Number of chlorine atoms, p=2

Number of fluorine atoms, q=4

and number of hydrogen atoms, n=0

We know that n + p + q =2m+2

0+2+4=2m +2

or

m=2

Number of carbon atoms 2

Thus the chemical formula for dichloro-tetrafluoro ethane becomes C2Cl2,F4, and the number

of refrigerant becomes R(2-1) (0+1) (4) or R-114.

3. Dichlore-trifluoro-ethane

In this refrigerant

Number of chlorine atoms, p=2

Number of fluorine atoms, q=3

and number of hydrogen atoms, n=1

We know that n + p + q =2m+2

1+2+3=2m +2

or

m=2

Number of carbon atoms 2


Thus the chemical formula for dichloro triflouro-ethane becomes CHCI2CF3, and the number of
refrigerant becomes R(2-1)(1+1)(3) or R-123

Substitutes for Chloro-fluoro-Carbon (CFC) Refrigerants:

The most commonly used halo-carbon or organic refrigerants are the chloro-fluoro derivatives of
methane (CH4) and ethane( C2H6.). The fully halogenated refrigerants with chlorine (CI) atom in
their molecules are referred to as chloro-fluoro-carbon (CFC) refrigerants. The refrigerants
such as R-11, R-12, R-13, R-113, R-114 and R-115 are CFC refrigerants

.The refrigerants which contain hydrogen (H) atoms in their molecule along with chlorine (CI)
and fluorine (F) atoms are referred to as hydro-chloro-fluoro-carbon (HCFC) refrigerants.
The refrigerants such as R-22, R-123 are HCFC refrigerants.

The refrigerants which contain no chlorine atom in their molecules are referred to as hydro
fluoro carbon (HFC) refrigerants. The refrigerants such as R-134a, R-152a are HFC
refrigerants. The refrigerants which contain no chlorine and fluorine atoms in their molecule
are referred to as hydrocarbon (HC) refrigerants. The refrigerants such as R-290, R-600a are
HC refrigerants.

The fluorine (F) atom in the molecule of the refrigerants makes them physiologically more
favourable. The chlorine (CI) atom in the molecule of the refrigerants is considered to be
responsible for the depletion of ozone layer in the upper atmosphere which allows harmful ultra-
violet rays from the sun to penetrate through the atmosphere and reach the earth's surface
causing skin cancer.

At present, the following substitutes are available


1. The HCFC refrigerant R-123a (CF3CHCl2) in place of R-11 (CCl3F)
2. The HFC refrigerant R-134a (CF3CH2F) and R-152a (CH3CHF2) in place of R12

3 The HFC refrigerant R-143a (CH3CF3) and R-125 (CHF2CF3) in place of R-502 (a mixture of
R-22 and R-115)

4 The HC refrigerants propane R--290 (C3,H8) and isobutene R-600a (C4H10)


in place of R-12

Applications of refrigeration

cold storage: The storages which are used for short-term storage purposes are known
as cold storages.
 The period of short term cold storages ranges from one to two days or to a week.
 The maximum period of long term cold storages ranges from seven to ten days for some
sensitive products.
 Most of the foods for short-term storages are stored at a temperature slightly above the
freezing point and the relative humidity and air motion should be controlled to prevent
excessive loss of moisture from fruits and vegetables.
 When different types of food products are stored , then it is called mixed storage to
minimise the chances of damaging the more sensitive products.
 The condition of the products at the time of entering the storage is one of the important
factors for determining storage life of a refrigerated products.
dairy refrigeration: Pasteurization method is used on large scale to protect milk
against bacterial infection.
 The milk used for the preparation of milk products like cheese, butter and ice
cream is pasteurized.
 Refrigeration is the most important utility required for dairy plants for low
temperature storage of different food and dairy products. It is also very essential for
cold chain of handling of milk and other perishable food products.
 ammonia based vapour compression refrigeration systems are the most
preferred mode for cooling in milk processing plants. Ammonia based systems
are low pressure systems with very less sophistication. They have good heat
transfer properties, low cost and high efficiency.

Ice plant:
 The function of an ice plant or ice factory is to make or form ice in large quantity and
in large size . An ice plant which is a huge commercial factory, it uses separate ice
making or ice freezing circuit. The cold is produced in one circuit and it is transferred
to the water cans by another circuit.

 Ammonia: It is the primary refrigerant which takes heat from brine. This ammonia
changes phase while moving in the circuit and Brine: It is the secondary refrigerant
which takes heat from the water and produces ice.
 There are three main circuits of working medium in ice plant:

a. Refrigeration circuit: Ammonia as working medium which actually produces the cold
by changes its phase at different location
b. Cooling water circuit: Cooling water as working medium to remove the heat of
condenser
c. Brine circuit: Brine solution as working medium which transfers the cold from
ammonia to water filled cans where ice is to be formed.

water cooler:
There are two types of Water Cooler as follows:
1. Storage type water cooler.
2. Instantaneous type water cooler.

1. Storage type water cooler: In this type of water cooler, the basic cycle is vapour
compression cycle consisting of compressor, condenser, fan with motor, expansion
device, filter or strainer, thermostatic switch and evaporator coil.
 Temperature is control by thermostatic switch as per our desired temperature.
 Compressor compresses the Refrigerant R12 vapour to high temperature high
pressure vapour is then condensed in condenser by fan motor unit. High pressure
high temperature vapour converted into High pressure high temperature liquid in
condenser.
 Liquid refrigerant passes through strainer or filter which removes moisture and
impurities
 The liquid refrigerant is throttled through expansion device (generally capillary tube).
In throttling pressure and temperature of liquid drops down. This low-pressure low
temperature refrigerant then extracts heat of water from the evaporator. By taking
heat from water refrigerant evaporates and this vapour refrigerant sucked by
compressor and process continues.

2. Instantaneous type water cooler:


 This storage type cooler has evaporated coils solders on the wall of storage tank.
The tank is either of stainless steel or galvanized steel.
 The Evaporator in instantaneous type consist of two separate coils made of either
copper or stainless steel. Copper pipe carries R12 while stainless steel pipe carries
water. The two pipe or coils are bound together by soldering.
 Thermostatic filler bulb is clamped on the water coil just at outlet end in case of
instantaneous type, while in storage type it is emerged in the water in the tank.

Frost free refrigerator:

A frost-free freezer has three basic parts:

 A timer
 A heating coil
 A temperature sensor

 After every six hours or so, the timer turns on the heating coil. The heating coil is
wrapped among the freezer coils. The heater melts the ice frosted on it and after a
certain level of heat, the temperature sensor senses the rise in temperature above 32
degrees F (0 degrees C) and turns off the heater.
 Because of the frost-free refrigeration, it is much easier to see the food packaging and
keeps the food fresh for up to 14 days with minimal effort and more comfort.
 the power consumption will not increase.

 Heating the coils every six hours takes energy, and it also cycles the food in the freezer
through temperature changes. the food lasts longer and the freezer uses less power.
Due to constant air circulation in frost-free refrigerators, the probability of experiencing
bad odours in the fridge remains less.
 The frost-free freezer offers uniform cooling any time, delivers a more precise
temperature control to help reduce internal fluctuations.
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AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
Air conditioning is the process of removing heat and moisture from the interior of an
occupied space to improve the comfort of occupants. Air conditioning can be used in both
domestic and commercial environments. This process is most commonly used to achieve a
more comfortable interior environment, typically for humans

Factors affecting comfort air conditioning:

Following are the Factors affecting Comfort Air conditioning:

1. Temperature
2. Humidity
3. Purity of air
4. Motion of air.
Winter Air Conditioning System:
In winter AC System, the inlet is heated by the heater, and in
winter season due to less present in the air, we also need to add the
moisture particle to the air, generally, a humidification system is
added to maintain the moisture quantity.

Working of Winter Air Conditioning System:


In winter air conditioning, the air is heated and is accompanied by
humidification.
1. The outside air flows through a damper and mixes up with the
recirculated air which is obtained from the conditioned space.

2. The mixture here passes through a filter to remove dirt, dust,


and other impurities.

3. The air now passes through a preheat coil to prevent possible


freezing of water due to which dry bulb temperature increases to a
very high value and the relative humidity drops to a low value.

4. This air is being pumped into the humidifier.

So, humidification of air (addition of moisture) is done and then


the air is made to pass through a reheat coil to bring the air to the
designed dry bulb temperature.

5. Now the conditioned air is supplied to the conditioned space by


mea fan. From the conditioned space, a part of the used air is
exhausted to the atmosphere by the exhaust fans or ventilators.

The remaining part of the air known as recirculated air is again


conditioned

6. Initially, the relative humidity is 60% in the winter season, so to


reduce it, a process of reheating is done where it is reduced to
20%.

So it is again humidified due to which it reaches a point of 80% or


100% RH where the DBT is very low.

So in order to get the desired dry bulb temperature, again the


process of reheating is done where the desired percentage 40%
RH is also obtained.
7.A damper is used in order to control the area and have an intake
of the required amount of air.

Summer Air Conditioning System:


Initially, during summer, the dry bulb temperature is high and the
relative humidity of air is low.

Relative humidity should not be less than 60% according to the


comfort conditions for summer air conditioning.
Working of Summer air conditioning system:
1. The outside air(atmospheric air) flows through the air filter to
remove impurities or dust particles present in the air. The air now
passes through a cooling coil.

2. The coil has a temperature much below the required dry bulb
temperature of the air and very high relative humidity in the
conditioned space.

So the cooled air is pumped into a dehumidifier, where it loses its


moisture in the conditioned space.

3. After that, the air is made to pass through a heating coil which
heats the air slightly.

This is done to bring the air to the designed DBT and relative
humidity(RH).

4. Now the conditioned air is supplied to the conditioned space by


a fan.

From the conditioned space, a part of the used air is exhausted to


the atmosphere by the exhaust fans or ventilators.

The remaining part of the used air is again conditioned.

5. The outside air is sucked and it is made to mix with the


recirculated air to make up for the loss of conditioned air through
exhaust fans or ventilation from the conditioned space.

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