Communication System 2

PRACTICAL WORK BOOK
For Academic Session 2009
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS II
(TC-492)
For
BE (EL/EE)
Name:
Roll Number:
Batch:
Department:
Year:
Department of Electronic Engineering

NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi
LABORATORY WORK BOOK
For The Course
TC-492 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS II
Prepared By:
Mr. Tahir Malik (Lecturer)
Reviewed By:
Mr. Tahir Malik (Lecturer)
Approved By:
The Board of Studies of Department of Electronic Engineering

INTRODUCTION
Communication Systems II Practical Workbook covers a variety of

experiments that are designed to aid the student in his profession and theory.
The workbook is designed to reinforce the basic philosophies, processes and
other building blocks of communications systems.
Most of the practicals covered here give the students more then a basic
introduction to Communication systems. The practicals start gradually from
the basics of modulation schemes in communication and move on to
advance topics like telephone systems.
The practicals are based on modern trainers that incorporate a variety of

functions to demonstrate to students the principles of Communication
Systems techniques. The students will develop a profound interest in this
course which will facilitate them whether it is in professional work or higher
studies.
Contents
NED University of Engineering & Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering
Telecommunications Laboratory
CONTENTS
Page
Lab Dated List of Experiments Remarks
No.
No.
-To perform Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
modulation and demodulation.
1 -To examine the effect of noise and attenuation 6-10
on ASK systems.
-To observe Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

modulation and demodulation.
2 -To examine the effect of noise and attenuation 11-15
on FSK systems.
To observe 2-PSK (Phase shift Keying)

3 modulation and demodulation. 16-18
To plot the characteristic modulation curve of

FM Modulator & calculate Sensitivity And 19-21
4
Non linearity
To observe the characteristics of a Frequency

Modulated wave in Time domain and 22-26
5
Frequency Domain.
To observe FM modulation using Sine wave,

6 Square wave and Triangular wave. 27-28
To observe the normal operation of pulse

7 amplitude modulator and demodulator 29-32
To observe the normal operation of a 2-Channel

PAM time-division multiplex system 33-34
8
(PAM-TDM) system.
By use of slotted line:

-To determine the unknown frequency.
9 -To determine the Voltage Standing Wave 35-37
Ratio (VSWR) and Reflection Coefficient
4
Contents
Telecommunications Laboratory
CONTENTS
Page
Lab Dated List of Experiments Remarks
No.
No.
By use of slotted waveguide
-To observe how the load impedance affects the
VSWR.
10 38-41
-To determine when a waveguide is properly
terminated.
To measure unknown load impedance attached

11 to a waveguide using the smith chart. 42-47
To investigate the properties a dipole antenna in

12 free space. 48-50
-To observe the working of a Yagi Uda

13 Antenna. 51-53
To become familiar with the use of 4

telephones connected to the local switching
14 54-56
centre.
To become familiar with Time Switching in

15 digital telephone system. 57-59
5
Communication Systems II
LAB SESSION 01
OBJECT:-
• To perform Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) modulation and demodulation.

• To examine the effect of noise and attenuation on ASK systems.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:-
• Power unit PSU

• Module holder base
• Experiment module MCM3 1
• Oscilloscope.
THEORY:-
Amplitude shift keying -ASK
In this form of modulation the sine carrier takes 2 amplitude values, determined by the binary
data signal. Usually the modulator transmits the carrier when the data bit is “1”. It completely
removes when the bit is”0”. There are also ASK shapes called multi-level where the amplitude
of the modulated signal takes more then 2 values.
The demodulation can be coherent or non coherent. In the first case, more complex as concern
the circuit but more effective as against the noise effect, a product demodulator multiplies the
ASK signal by the locally generated carrier. In the second case the envelope of the ASK signal is
detected via diode. In both cases the detector is followed by a low pass filter which removes the
residual carrier component and a threshold circuit which squares the data signal.
Bit Error rate- B.E.R
The B.E.R is the ratio of the error bits to the total received bits. Practically it tells the user how
accurate the received data is.
BER = (No. of error Bits) / (Total No of received bits)
PROCEDURE:
Modulation
• Power on module. See Figure 1.

• Set the circuit in ASK mode, with 24-data bit source and without data coding (connect
J1c-J3d-J4-J5-J6a ; set SW2=normal, SW3=24 bit, SW4=1200 ,SW6=ASK, SW8=BIT
and ATT=min, NOISE=min
• Set an alternate data sequence 00/11 and push START
6
Figure 1
7
Figure 2
• Connect the oscilloscope to TP6 and TP16 so to display the data signal and ASK signal
wave form. See Figure 2.
• Adjust the phase of the carrier to make the zero of sine wave correspond to the starting of
the bit intervals.
8
De-modulation
• Keep the last condition (J1c-J3d-J4-J5-J6a; SW2=normal, SW3=24 bit SW4=1200,

SW6=ASK, SW8=BIT and ATT=min, NOISE=min
• Connect the oscilloscope to TP16 and TP20 to examine the ASK signal before and after
the communication channel. Note the readings at TP23, TP24, TP29
• Note the effect of the communication channel on the ASK signal.
Bit Error Rate
• Set the jumpers as follows: J1d-J3d-J4-J5-J6a.

• Set Switches as per the following SW2=Normal, SW3=64 bit, SW4=1200Hz,
SW6=ASK, SW8=BIT, SW9=STOP.
• Set NOISE at 50 % of maximum value. Set SW9=READ and Push RESET (to initialize
counter to zero). Let the counter progress for 60 seconds after which set SW9=STOP and
note counter reading.
• Repeat steps and note error reading for NOISE at 100 %.
• The received bits are 18000 per minute. (300 bits/s times 60 seconds).
OBSERVATION:-
TP 6
TP 16
TP 20
TP 23
9
TP 24
TP 29
RESULT:-
• Effect of Attenuation
• Effect of Noise
• Bit Error Rate readings
At 50 % of maximum Noise
At 100 % Noise
10
LAB SESSION 02
OBJECT:-
• To observe Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) modulation and demodulation.

• To examine the effect of noise and attenuation on FSK systems.
• Power unit PSU

• Experiment module MCM3 1
• Oscilloscope
THEORY:-
Frequency shift keying -FSK

In this modulation the sine carrier takes 2 frequency values, determined by the binary data signal.
The modulator can be carried out in different ways among the most used we can mention.
• A voltage controlled oscillator (VCO)
• A system transmitting one of the 2 frequencies as function of the data signal.
• A frequency divider controlled by the data signal.
The most used demodulation techniques are the one using a PLL circuit. The FSK signal across
the PLL input takes two frequency values. The error voltages supplied by the phase comparator
follows such variations, and so, it constitutes the NRZ binary representation (high and low level)
of the FSK input signal. The PLL demodulator is followed by a low pass filter, which removes
the residual carrier components and a squarer circuit which forms the proper data signal.
Bit Error rate- B.E.R

The B.E.R is the ratio of the error bits to the total received bits. Practically it tells the user how
accurate the received data is.
BER = (No. of error Bits) / (Total No of received bits)
PROCEDURE:-
Modulation
• Power the module
• Set the circuit in FSK mode, with 24-bit data source and with out data coding (connect
J1c-J3a-J5-J6b; set SW2=normal, SW3=24bit, SW4=1 800, SW5=1200/0o, SW6=FSK,
SW8=BIT , ATT=min, NOISE=min )
11
FSK Modulation
FSK Modulation
FSK Demodulation
FSK modulator
12
FSK modulator
• Connect the oscilloscope to TP6, TP 14, TP 15, TP16 and examine the data signal and
FSK signal, adjust the phase (PHASE) of the 1200-Hz carrier to get continuity of FSK
signal in the passage between the two frequencies (this kind of modulation is known as
minimum frequency shift keying)
Demodulation
• Keep the last condition (J1c –J3a-J4-J5-J6b; SW2=Normal ,SW3= 24bit, SW4=1 800,
SW=5=1200/00 , SW6=FSK, SW8=BIT , ATT=Min, NOISE =Min
• Set a alternated data sequence 00/11 and push START
• Connect the oscilloscope to TP16 and TP20, to examine the FSK signal before and after
the communication channel. Connect oscilloscope to TP23, TP24 and TP29. Note down
observations.
• Increase noise & note result then increase attenuation and note result.
Bit Error Rate
• Set the jumpers as follows: J1d-J3d-J4-J5-J6a.

• Set Switches as per the following SW2=Normal, SW3=64 bit, SW4=1200Hz,
SW6=ASK, SW8=BIT, SW9=STOP.
• Set NOISE at 50 % of maximum value. Set SW9=READ and Push RESET (to initialize
counter to zero). Let the counter progress for 60 seconds after which set SW9=STOP and
note counter reading.
• Repeat steps and note error reading for NOISE at 100 %.
• The received bits are 18000 per minute. (300 bits/s times 60 seconds).
13
OBSERVATION:-
TP 6
TP 16
TP 20
TP 23
TP 24
TP 25
14
RESULT:-
• Effect of Noise
• Bit Error Rate readings
At 50 % of maximum Noise
At 100 % Noise
15
LAB SESSION 03
OBJECT:-
• To observe the 2 PSK (Phase Shift Keying) modulation and demodulation.
• Power unit PSU or PS1

• Experiment module MCM 31
• Oscilloscope
THEORY:-
Phase shift keying -PSK
In this kind of modulation the sine carrier takes 2 or more phase values, directly determined by
the binary data signal (2-phase modulation) or by the combination of certain number of bits of
the same data signal (n-phase modulation ) 2 phase PSK modulation is also called 2 PSK or
binary PSK (BPSK) or phase reversal keying (PRK). The sine carrier takes 2 Phase valued
determined by the binary data signal, modulation techniques is the one using a balanced
modulator is the direct or inverted input carrier as function of the data signal. The main aspects
characterizing the 2 PSK are:
• Use of digital data radio transmission.
• It required circuit of average high complexity
• High possibility of error but lower than the FSK
• If Fb is the bit transmission speed, the minimum spectrum Bw of the modulated signal is
higher than Fb.
• The transmission efficiency defined as the Fb and Bw is lower than 1
• The Baud or Baud rate, defined as the modulation speed or symbol speed, is equal to the
transmission speed Fb
2PSK Modulator
The sine carrier (1200 Hz) is applied to an input of the balanced modulator 1;a data signal (
indicated with I) is applied to the other input. The circuit operates as balanced modulator, and
multiplies the two signal applied to the inputs.
Across the output, the sine carrier is direct when the data signal is to low level (bit”0”), inverted
(shift 180°) when the bit is “1” The 2-PSK signal then enters the adder used for
FSK/QPSK/QAM modulation and exits via separator stage.
The 6db attenuator makes the signal amplitude half, and is activated only by QAM to block the
operation of the balanced modulator 2 is 2-PSK mode the data input of the modulator 2 must be
set to J3=b
16
2PSK Demodulator
The demodulator is carried out via a product demodulator which is reached by the PSK signal
and locally regenerated carrier. This must have the same frequency and the phase of the one used
in transmission (it must be coherent with the received signal),and is taken from the PSK signal
PROCEDURE:-
• Power on module
• Set the circuit in PSK mode, to get wave form of the PSK modulator and demodulator,
with 24-bit data source and with out data coding (connect J1c-J3b-J4-J5-J6c; set
SW2=normal, SW3=24_bit, SW4= 1800, SW5=1200/0o, SW6=PSK, SW8=BIT,
ATT=min, NOISE=min) as in fig.
• Connect the oscilloscope to TP6 and TP16, and examine the data signal and PSK signal.
Adjust the phase (PHASE) to invert the phase of carrier in correspondence to 0.
• Connect the oscilloscope to TP24 and TP29. to examine the PSK signal before and after
the communication channel.
• Observe the effect of the communication channel one PSK signal. As the communication
channel is limited band, the phase transition of the output PSK signal is slightly beveled.
OBSERVATION:-
TP 6
TP 12
TP 16
17
TP 20
TP 24
TP 31
RESULT:-
• Effect of Noise
18
LAB SESSION 04
OBJECT:-
To plot the characteristic modulation curve of FM Modulator & calculate Sensitivity

And Non linearity
EQUIPMENT:-
• Modules T10A-T10B
• +/- 12-V dc power supply
• Oscilloscope
• Frequency meter
• Voltmeter.
THEORY:-
Frequency modulation generation

The circuits used to generate a frequency modulation must vary the frequency of a high
frequency signal (carrier) as function of the amplitude of a low frequency signal (modulating
signal).In practice there are two main methods used to generate the FM:
• Direct method: an oscilloscope is used in which the reactance of one of the elements of
the resonant circuit depends on the modulating voltage. The most common device with
variable reactance is the Varactor or Varicap, which is a particular diode which reactance
is the Varactor or Varicap, which is a particular which capacity varies as of the reverse
bias voltage ( the varicap is described in the next chapter). The frequency of the carrier is
established with AFC circuits (Automatic Frequency Control) or PLL (Phase Locked
Loop)
• Indirect method: the FM is obtained in this case by a Phase Modulation, after the
modulating signal has been integrated. In the phase modulator the carrier can be
generated by a quartz oscillator, and so its frequency stabilization is easier.
In the circuit used for the exercises, the frequency modulation is generated by a Hartley
oscillator, which frequency is determined by a fixed inductance and by the capacity (variable)
supplied by Varicap diodes.
Characteristic modulation curve. Sensitivity and Non linearity

The Characteristic modulation curve is given by the output frequency of the modulator as
function of the input modulating voltage. It is possible to statistically simulate an amplitude
variation of the modulating signal, by using a potentiometer and measuring the corresponding
output frequency of the modulator.
19
PROCEDURE:-
1. Power the module T10A with +/-12V and carry out the following presetting:
VCO1: LEVEL about 2VPP: FREQ. to the minimum;
switch on 1500 kHz
2. Connect the oscilloscope and frequency meter to the output of the modulator (RF/FM
OUT, point 19)
3. Connect the voltmeter to the cursor of the frequency regulation potentiometer (Point 17)
4. Vary the Voltage at steps of 0.5 Volt and fill a table with the voltage values and the
corresponding frequencies
5. Plot a graph with the measured voltage and frequency values. You will obtain a curve.
6. From the analysis of the curve you can note the some segments have not a linear
behavior, while if you consider the whole characteristic you find a high non-linearity.
7. Consider the make the modulator operate in the segment of curve within 700 and 1300
kHz, with central frequency of 1000 kHz. By analysis of the curve it is possible to
calculate the modulation sensitivity and the non-linearity of the modulation sensitivity
and the non-linearity of the modulator.
8. The modulation sensitivity S is defined as:
S = dF(v) / dV
Where F (v) is the instantaneous frequency function of the modulating voltage the last relation
can be approximated writing the incremental ratio:
S = ∆F / ∆V
The non-linearity N.L. of the modulator is defined ad percentage relative shift of the sensibility S
from the so value corresponding to the central frequency:
N.L = [(S- SO) / SO] x 100
Considering for example the point around 1300 kHz, the calculation is carried out as follows:
F’= 50 kHz, V’ = 175 mV
From which:
S’ = 50/175 = 0.29 kHz/mV
0.4-0.29
N.L = ------------ .100=27.5%
0.4
20
RESULT:-
21
LAB SESSION 05
OBJECTIVE:-
To observe the characteristics of a Frequency Modulated wave in Time domain and Frequency
Domain.
EQUIPMENT:-
Feedback-Teknikit Console 92-300.
Pentium 4 or equivalent computer available in lab.
THEORY:-
Frequency Modulation Generation:

The circuits used to generate a frequency modulation must vary the frequency of a high frequency
carrier signal as a function of the amplitude of low frequency signal (modulation signal). In
practice there are two main methods used to generate FM:
• Direct method: a tank circuit is used in which the reactance of one of the elements of the
resonant circuit depends on the modulating voltage. The most common device with
variable reactance is the Varactor or Varicap. This is a particular diode and its capacitance
varies according to the reverse bias voltage applied across it. The frequency of the carrier is
established with Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) circuits or Phase Lock Loop (PLL).
• Indirect method: The FM is obtained in this case by a Phase modulation, after the
modulating signal has been integrated. In the phase modulator the carrier can be generated
by a quartz oscillator, and so its frequency stabilization is easier.
PROCEDURE:-
Begin by powering up the PC and trainer board. After that click on the Discovery II IMS
window and scroll to the required practical as shown in figure 1.
Click on the green icon named ‘Practical’ (its folder titled ‘Practical 1: Concepts of Frequency
Modulation’ -see above). Accept the pop up that appears after clicking on the ‘Practical’ link to
start the in built oscilloscope interface.
22
Figure 1
You have available an oscilloscope and a spectrum analyzer. Using this configuration you can
see how the oscillator frequency can be controlled by an external signal.
Set Carrier level to about half scale (0.8 Vp-p). Monitor point 16 shows us the DC input voltage
and monitor point 4 shows the output carrier which is frequency modulated.
Figure 2 shows the output signal when input voltage is 0 V. you can measure the frequency in
the time domain using the oscilloscope and also in the frequency domain using the spectrum
analyzer.
23
Figure 2
The Frequency corresponding to a zero input voltage is best observed by the spectrum analyzer
as shown in figure 3. The left marker of the spectrum analyzer is utilized to measure the signal
frequency.
A tedious way to measure the output signal frequency is by observing the signal in time domain.
We take the inverse of the pulse time duration which is measured with the help of the left and
right scope markers-Figure 4. Note, that the spectrum analyzer method is a bit more accurate.
24
Figure 3: Spectrum analyzer output
Figure 4: Oscilloscope output
25
OBSERVATION:-
Set the carrier amplitude such that it is 2 divisions above and below the x-axis (approximately 0.8
Vp-p). Fill in the table below for DC input voltage vs. output carrier frequency. Plot a graph using
the values you recorded in the table.
Input Voltage Output Frequency Output Frequency

(V) (Oscilloscope) Hz (Spectrum Analyzer) Hz
RESULT:-
What conclusion can you deduce from this exercise?
26
LAB SESSION 06
OBJECT:-
To observe FM modulation using Sine wave, Square wave and Triangular wave.
EQUIPMENT:-
Modules T10A-T10B
+/- 12-V dc power supply
Oscilloscope
Voltmeter.
THEORY:-
Frequency Modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept
constant, while its frequency is varied by the modulating signal. Unlike Amplitude Modulation,
FM is, or can be made, relatively immune to noise. The effect of noise depends on the noise
sideband frequency. Processes of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis plays an important part in
making FM immune to noise.
The first practical FM system was put forward in 1936 as an alternative to AM to make radio
transmissions more resistant to noise.
A comparison of FM and AM reveals:
• The amplitude of an exponential modulated wave is constant.
• The message resides in the zero-crossings alone, provided the carrier frequency is large.
• The modulated wave is not at all like the message waveform.
OBSERVATION:-
It has been observed that as the voltage level of baseband signal increases the frequency of the
signal after modulation also increases for all types of signals as shown.
Sine Wave
As voltage of sine wave increases the frequency increases as well.
27
Square Wave
At high level the frequency increases and at the low level the frequency of FM decreases.
Triangular Wave
As voltage increases the frequency of carrier increases and as voltage decreases the frequency of
carrier decreases.
RESULT:-
28
LAB SESSION 07
OBJECT:-
To observe the normal operation of pulse amplitude modulator and demodulator.
PAM Modulator module 736061
PAM demodulator module 736071
Function generator module 72695
Power supply module 72686
Frequency counter module 72699
Oscilloscope
Bridging plugs & cable pairs
THEORY:-
It is a modulation technique in which analog signal is sampled and sampled values arte used to
modify certain parameters of a periodic pulse train to convert information into a form for
transferring pulses from a source to a destination. There are two categories of pulse modulation:
• Digital pulse modulation

• Analog pulse modulation
PAM is analog pulse modulation in which amplitude of a constant width and constant position
pulse train is varied according to the amplitude of the analog signal. This process is termed as
sampling of the analog signal. PAM signal is time discrete and value continuous. PAM signal is
neither digital nor analog and it is not suitable for transmission. We are dealing with bipolar
PAM as both positive and negative value arises. To avoid aliasing sampling theorem must be
followed. PAM is used as an intermediate stage of the Pulse Code modulation PCM.
PROCEDURE:-
• Set up the experiment as specified in the Figure 1.

• Set the pulse generator to t/Tp = max and Fp = 15 kHz fed into the input filter CH1 a
sinusoidal signal with Fm = 500 Hz.
• Observe the output of the filter by using oscilloscope with Vpp unchanged and change
Fm.
• Measure the amplitude of the output off the low pass filter CH1 and calculate the gain of
the low pass filter from Am and Ao.
• Connect CH2 of the oscilloscope at the output of the demodulator, repeat the experiment
at different t/Tp with the pulse frequency Fp unchanged observe the effect on the output
signal at CH1.
• Set the pulse duty factor t/Tp to max and lower the sampling frequency and take readings
at different Fp values, observe the effect on the output signal of the demodulator at CH1
using oscilloscope.
29
Figure 1
OBSERVATIONS:-
• Filter response
Input is a 7 Vpp sinusoidal wave with varying frequency.
Input Signal output Signal

Vpp (V) F (kHz) Vpp (V) F (kHz)
7 1
7 2
7 3
7 4
7 5
7 6
7 8
30
• Effect of Pulse duty factor on PAM signal
Input is a 7 Vpp sinusoidal wave fixed frequency of 1 kHz.
Pulse Duty Pulse

Input Signal Output Signal
factor Frequency
t/Tp Fp (kHz) Vpp (V) Fi (kHz) Vpp (V) Fo (kHz)
50% 7 1
40% 7 1
30% 7 1
20% 7 1
10% 7 1
• Effect of sampling frequency (Fp) on PAM signal
Input is a 7 Vpp sinusoidal with fixed frequency of 1 kHz.
Pulse Duty Pulse

Input Signal Output Signal
factor Frequency
t/Tp Fp (kHz) Vpp (V) Fi (kHz) Vpp (V) Fo (kHz)
50% 7 1
50% 7 1
50% 7 1
50% 7 1
50% 7 1
31
CONLCLUSION:-
Give a brief analysis of:
• The effect of Pulse duty factor on the PAM signal:-
• The effect of the sampling frequency on the PAM signal:-
32
LAB SESSION 08
OBJECT:-
To observe the normal operation of a 2-Channel PAM time-division multiplex system
(PAM-TDM) system.
1 PAM modulator module 736061
1 PAM modulator module 736071
2 Function generator module 72695
1 Power supply module 72686
1 Frequency counter module 72699
1 Digital storage oscilloscope
1 Multi meter
Bridging plugs
Cable pairs
THEORY:-
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the process of simultaneously transmitting more than one individual signals over
a single communication link. Multiplexing has the effect of increasing the number of
communication channels so that more information can be transmitted. There are two basic types
of multiplexing
1-FDM (Frequency division multiplexing)
2- TDM (Time division multiplexing)
In TDM each signal can occupy the entire bandwidth of the channel however each channel is
transmitted for a brief period of time.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Feed in a triangular signal with fm 1 = 200Hz and Am1 = 2V in channel 1 (CH1).
2. Feed in a sinusoidal signal with fm 2 = 300Hz and Am2 = 3V into channel 2 (CH2).
3. Set the sampling frequency to maximum fp = 20 KHz.
4. Set the Pulse duty factor to maximum t/Tp = 48%
5. Display the input signals simultaneously on the oscilloscope and sketch it.
6. Display the PAM-TDM signal and sketch it.
7. Display the respective input and out put signal of the demodulator low pass filter of CH1 and
CH2.
8. Display the CLOCK signal and the demux trigger signal on the oscilloscope and set delta t so
that the trigger signal is delayed by 90 degree w.r.t. the CLOCK signal.
9. Display the respective input and output signal of the demodulator low pass filter of CH1 and
CH2.
10. Adjust delta t with 180 degree phase difference you will observe that the demodulator signals
from CH1 and CH2 are interchanged completely.
11. Display the respective input and output signal of the demodulator low pass filter of CH1 and
CH2.
33
12. Now vary the pulse-duty factor from min to max and see the effect at the output signals of
the CH1 and CH2 low pass filter. Alternate from PAM1 to PAM2 by changing the bridging
plug the PAM modulator.
OBSERVATION AND RESULT:-
34
LAB SESSION 09
OBJECT:-
By use of slotted line:
• To determine the unknown frequency.
• To determine the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) and Reflection Coefficient.
APPARATUS:-
Transmitter mod MW-TX
One slotted line MW-5.
Loads of different values (Open Circuit, Short Circuit, 75 Ω, 50 Ω, 100 Ω).
RF cable (Z0=75Ω).
Voltmeter
THEORY:-
When power is applied to the transmission line, voltage and current appear. If ZL = Z0 load
absorbs all power and none is reflected. If ZL = Z0 then some power is absorbed and the rest is
reflected. We have one set of voltage and current waves travelling towards load from the source
and another reflected set travelling back to the source. These sets of travelling, in opposite
directions set up an interference pattern called Standing Waves. Maxima (antinodes) and Minima
(nodes) of voltage and current occur at fixed positions.
The slotted line isused to measurte voltage and current directly on the various sections of the
coaxial line, as by the slot you can enter the electricla and magnetic fields between the two
connectors constituting the coaxial line.
In the presence of standing waves, the voltage (or current) maximum and minimum value can be
seen, the distance between the maximum and the adjacent minimum is equal to one fourth the
wave length. The speed factor of the line is equal to 1 because the dielectric is air. Once the
speed factor is known, by measuring the distance between two minima and multiplying it by two,
it is possible to obtain the frequency of the signal applied to the slotted line.
The Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) is equal to the ratio of the maximum to the minimum value, in
fact on the maximum, the direct and reflected wave value (of voltage and current) are added and
on the minimum are subtracted. If the reflected wave does not exist, voltage and current keep
constant along the line and their ratio is equal to the characteristic impedence Z0 and the SWR is
equal to 1. such a line is called a flat line.
The output power of the generator, tuned to the lowest frequencies (for example 701.5 MHz)
must be regulated to the maximum, connect the output of the generator to the slotted line with a
one meter long 75 Ω cable, connect 75 Ω to the other end of the slotted line. In this case the line
is thus terminated with its characteristic impedence. If the machining is perfect then by moving
the probes along the slotted line the signal amplitude will keep almost constant. There may
however be variations caused by connectors or probe allignment.
Change the termination of 75 Ω to 50 Ω and measure the voltage along the line. It has the
strongest minimum and maximum values than the last ones. Check if the distance between the
minimum and maximum is equal to ¼ of the wave length. Now, take readings of the distance
35
between the minimum & maximum at various frequencies. You should note that this distance
changes for increasing and decresing frequencies.
Repeat this exercise with the termination set to 100 Ω.
We can also distinguish if the load is greater or smaller than the characteristic impedence of the
line, In fact with 100 Ω the voltage minimum is at ¼ wave length from the load while on the
load there is a maximum. With 50 Ω the voltage minimum is on the load.
PROCEDURE:-
• Connect the generator (transmitter) to the slotted line through RF cable.

• Terminate the line by attaching a load (ZL) on the other end of the line.
• Insert the probes of voltmeter in the slots provided on the trailer of the slotted line.
• Turn on the generator and excite the cable with RF waves.
• Move the trailer on the slotted line. Positions of the maximum and minimum voltage
appear alternately on the slotted line.
• Note down the man & min values of voltege.
• Also note down the positions of the voltage minima and maxima on the scale.
• Determine VSWR by the following formula:
Measured VSWR = VMAX / VMIN
• Determine the calculated VSWR by the formula:
VSWR = [1 + Γ] / [1 - Γ] where, Γ = [ZL – Z0] / [ZL + Z0]
• Calculate the unknown frequency with the help of the following formula:
F=c/λ
Where, λ / 2 = measured distance between two consecutive voltage maxima (or two
consecutive voltage minima).
• Repeat same procedure for different loads (ZL).
36
OBSERVATIONS:-
VSWR VSWR
ZL VMAX VMIN
(measured) (calculated)
Open Ckt.
Short Ckt.
50 Ω
75 Ω
100 Ω
RESULT:-
37
LAB SESSION 10
OBJECT:-
By use of slotted waveguide
• To observe how the load impedance affects the VSWR.
• To determine when a waveguide is properly terminated
EQUIPMENT:-
1 Transmitter Module MW-TX.
1 Up Converter unit module MW-UC.
1 VSWR/LEVEL meter unit module MW-MT.
1 Waveguide module MW-3.
2 WG/Coax Adapter Module MW-1.
1 Fixed attenuator module MW-8.
1 20db Co-axial attenuator module MW-23.
1 slotted line module MW-5.
1 Detector module MW-4.
1 Short circuit module MW-10.
2 Low support module MW-21.
2 SMA-SMA coaxial cables.
1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable.
1 cable with 2 mm plug.
THEORY:-
Consider a transmitter line with characteristic impedance Z ο connected to a load impedance Z l .

If Z l is different from Zo there is a mismatch between load and line. In this case, not all the power
reaches the line end in the load, but part of it returns to the same line (and so to the generator).
Along the line Standing Wave are created, resulting from the sum of the incident wave traveling
along the line to the load and the reflected wave coming back and moving away from the load.
Along the line there are loops (maximum) and nodes (minimum) of voltage and current in fixed
positions: the maximum and minimum are separated by λ / 2 and a maximum of voltage
corresponds to a minimum of current and vice versa.
Co-Efficient of Reflection
It can be given by the following relation ship
Z L − Zο
Γ =
Z L + Zο
Standing Wave Ratio

We define as VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) as the ratio between the maximum value and
the minimum value of standing wave:
V
VSWR = max
Vmin
38
Power Standing Wave Ratio

The ratio between and VSWR is the following
1+ Γ
VSWR =
1− Γ
Power Standing Wave Ratio

Power standing wave ratio:
SWR = VSWR 2
Line with Load

In case of perfect matching between the line and load (Zo = ZL) we have Γ = 0 and VSWR
= 1. Acceptable VSWR values are included between 1.1 and 2. Figure 1 shows example of
standing wave ratio for different load impedances note that
• When ZL = Infinity (open circuit ); on the load there is maximum voltage and null current
• When ZL = 0 (short circuit); on the load there is null voltage and maximum current.
Figure 1
PROCEDURE:-
1. Carry out wiring between the unit as indicated in Figure 2.
(note that the final transition with the coaxial attenuator module MW-23 represent the
unknown load that is to be measured).
2. Take care to the connection between the transmitter unit and the input of the UP-
converter unit (side in which there are the led and the power supply input!)
SW1=1
SW2=1
SW3= Direct
LEVEL= -25
39
3. Set the meter unit in the following operating mode:

SW1 = 100 mV
SW2 = ON
4. Power the two units the start up switch set on the rear side
5. Move the trailer of the slotted guide to the unknown impedance (adapter plus attenuator).
6. Note that the values expressed during the exercise could be different as the impedance is
not ideal
7. Move the trailer and note the position of the first minimum (D m1= D L)
8. Move the trailer and note the position of the first maximum (DM1) and calibrate the
instrument to the maximum indication.
9. Move the trailer and note the position of the second minimum Dm2 and measure the
VSWR on the instrument.
10. If λg/2 is equal to the distance between the two minimum values, calculate λg that will be
equal to about 4 cm.
11. Change the adapter and coaxial attenuator with the short circuit.
12. Move the trailer and find the new first minimum value, next to the last (Ds)
13. Check again the measurement of λg/2.
15. Repeat for different types of load (ZL).
Figure 2
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:-

Dimensions of the waveguide a=_______cm; b=________cm
Mode of propagation = TE10
Frequency of operation = 10.7GHz
Wavelength in free space λo =2.8cm
Cutoff Frequency of waveguide = 7.870GHz.
Cutoff Wavelength λc = 2a = 3.81cm
40
Terminations Dm1 Dm2 λg =2(Dm2-Dml) Vmax Vmin VSWR
Open Circuit
Short Circuit
Horn Antenna
(MW-16)
Matched Load
RESULT:-
41
LAB SESSION 11
OBJECT:-
To measure unknown load impedance attached to a waveguide using the smith chart.
EQUIPMENT:-
1 Transmitter unit module MW-TX
1 Up converter unit module MW-UC
1 VSWR/LEVEL meter unit module MW-MT
1 wave guide module MW-3
2 WG/Coax Adapter module MW-1
1 Fixed attenuator module MW-8
1 20dB Co-axial attenuator module MW-23
1 slotted line module MW-5
1 Detector module MW-4
1 short circuit module MW-10
2 low support mod MW -21
2 SMA-SMA coaxial cables
1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable
1 cable with 2mm-plug.
1 Smith Chart.
THEORY:-
The Smith chart was developed by P. H. Smith in 1939, since then it has been the most widely
used graphical technique for analyzing and designing transmission line circuits. Even though the
original intent of its inventor was to provide a useful graphical tool for performing calculations
involving complex impedances, the Smith chat has become a principal presentation medium in
computer aided design (CAD) software for displaying the performance of microwave circuits.
The Smith chat can be used for both lossy and lossless transmission lines.
Impedances on the smith chart are represented by normalized values, with Zo the characteristic
impedance of the line, serving as the normalization constant. Note, that normalized impedances
are denoted by lowercase letters.
For example a load impedance ZL can be normalized as
zL = ZL / Zo (Dimensionless)
The reflection coefficient Γ can be written as

zL −1
Γ=
zL + 1
Inversely, the normalized load impedance can be written as
1+ Γ
zL =
1− Γ
The smith chart is made up of circles of constant resistance and circular arcs of constant reactance
(capacitive or inductive) as shown in Figure 1.
42
Figure 1
The construction of the smith chart is based on the two parametric equations given below:
2 2
⎛ r ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎜ Γr − L ⎟⎟ + Γi2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 + rL ⎠ ⎝ 1 + rL ⎠
2 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(Γr − 1) + ⎜⎜ Γi − 1 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
2
⎝ xL ⎠ ⎝ xL ⎠
Here,
Γr = Real part of reflection coefficient.
Γi = Imaginary part of reflection coefficient.
rL = Normalized load resistance
xL = Normalized load reactance.
The perimeter of the Smith chart consists of three concentric scales which are the angle of
reflection coefficient in degrees scale, wavelength towards Load and wavelength towards
Generator scales.
Wavelength towards Generator (WTG) scale

The outermost scale around the perimeter of the smith chart called wavelength towards
generator (WTG) scale, has been constructed to denote movement on the transmission line
toward the generator. This scale is in units of wavelength λ, that is, Length is measured in terms
of wavelength. One complete counter-clockwise rotation along the perimeter of the smith chart
corresponds to a length of λ/2 along the transmission line (in the direction of load to
generator/source).
43
Wavelength towards load (WTL) scale

For convenience this scale is included on the perimeter of the smith chart. One complete clock
wise rotation along this scale denotes traveling from generator/source towards load on the
transmission line by a distance of λ/2.
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) circle

The center of the smith chart is the intersection point of Γr and Γi axes. Thus using a compass a
circle can be drawn (with origin at the center) to represent all points where the ‘Γ’ is same. This
circle is called the constant- Γ circle or more commonly the SWR circle.
1 + mag (Γ )
SWR =
1 − mag (Γ )
The value of SWR is numerically equal to the point at which the SWR circle intersects the real Γ
axis on the right hand side of the chart’s center.
Calculation of Unknown Impedance with the Smith Chart

Consider an unknown impedance ZL connected to a waveguide with characteristic impedance Zo.
The procedure to calculate ZL is the following:
Connect the ZL at the end of the line with the use a slotted line, calculate VSWR
Determine the position DL as reference of a standing wave minimum
Remove ZL and insert a short circuit
Measure the wave length in guide λ g (measure the value λ g /2 between two minimum or two
maximum value of the standing wave) note the new position DS of the minimum.
On the smith chart, plot the circle corresponding to the VSWR calculated in the last point 2.
Calculate the variation of the two minimum values found before expressed in fractions of wave
length (see Figure 2 and Figure 3).
D min = (DL–Ds) / λ g
Move along the circumference of the smith chart with a quantity like the last value D min
clock wise, if the minimum value found with the load is moved toward the generator in respect to
the minimum value found with the short circuit, vice versa on the contrary case.
Plot straight line between the determined point and the center of the smith chart.
The normalized value (ZL/Zo) of the unknown impedance is read in the intersection point between
the circle and the straight line:
ZL/Zo = r + jx
ZL= Zo . (r+jx)
Figure 2
44
Figure 3
Figure 4
45
PROCEDURE:-
1. Carry out wiring between the unit as indicated in Figure 4.
(note that the final transition with the coaxial attenuator module MW-23 represent the
unknown load that is to be measured).
2. Take care to the connection between the transmitter unit and the input of the UP-
converter unit (side in which there are the led and the power supply input!)
SW1=1
SW2=1
SW3= Direct
LEVEL= -25
3. Set the meter unit in the following operating mode:
SW1 = 100 mV
SW2 = ON
4. Power the two units the start up switch set on the rear side
5. Move the trailer of the slotted guide to the unknown impedance (adapter plus attenuator)
6. Note that the values expressed during the exercise could be different as the impedance is
not ideal
7. Move the trailer and note the position of the first minimum (D m1= D L)
8. Move the trailer and note the position of the first maximum (DM1) and calibrate the
instrument to the maximum indication.
9. Move the trailer and note the position of the second minimum Dm2 and measure the
VSWR on the instrument.
10. If λg/2 is equal to the distance between the two minimum values, calculate λg that will be
equal to about 4 cm.
11. Change the adapter and coaxial attenuator with the short circuit
12. Move the trailer and find the new first minimum value, next to the last (Ds)
13. Check again the measurement of λ g/2.
14. Calculate the distance between the two first minimum values as expressed by the formula
D min = (D L –D S) / λ g
15. On the smith chart plot, the circle corresponding to VSWR. Move the distance D min
towards generator from the short circuit point and draw a line from this new position to
the center of smith chart.
16. The cross point B of SWR circle and line provides the normalized resistive and reactive
component of the unknown impedance, read about
R/Z o
X/Z o
17. The impedance Zo is in this case the impedance of the wave guide that can be calculated
with the following formula:
120π 120π
Z g = Z° = =
2 2
⎛f ⎞ ⎛λ ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ 1 − ⎜⎜ ° ⎟⎟
⎝ f° ⎠ ⎝ λc ⎠
Where, f e = cut off frequency =c/ λ c= 7.870 GHz and fo = frequency in free space
18. At the frequency of 10.7 GHz, λο =2.8cm, calculate the used waveguide
( λ c=2a=3.81cm) characteristic impedance.
19. Calculate the values of R and X.
46
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:-

Dimensions of the waveguide a=_______cm; b=________cm
Mode of propagation= TE10
Frequency of operation=10.7GHz
Cutoff Frequency of guide = 7.870GHz.
Characteristic impedance of waveguide=____________ohm
Wavelength in free space λο =_________cm
Terminations DMI Dml Dm2 λ g=2(Dm2-Dml) Vmax Vmin VSWR
unknown load
short circuit
DL = ____________; DS ___________
D MIN = (DL-DS) / λg
From smith chart: R/Z ο =_________; X/Z ο =_________
120π 120π
Zο = = =
2 2
⎛f ⎞ ⎛λ ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ 1 − ⎜⎜ ο ⎟⎟
⎝ f° ⎠ ⎝ λc ⎠
R= ______________; X= _____________
RESULT:-
47
LAB SESSION 12
OBJECT:-
To investigate the properties a dipole antenna in free space
EQUIPMENT:-
Feedback Antenna Lab 57-200.
Pentium 4 or equivalent computer.
THEORY:-
Antenna: an antenna is a transducer designed to transmit or receive radio waves which are a
class of electromagnetic waves. In other words, antennas convert radio frequency electrical
currents into electromagnetic waves and vice versa. Antennas are used in systems such as radio
and television broadcasting, point to point radio communication, wireless LAN, radar and
numerous other applications. Antennas usually work in air or outer space, but can also be operate
under water or even through soil and rock at certain frequencies.
Physically, an antenna is an arrangement of conductors that generate a radiating electromagnetic

field in response to an applied alternating voltage and the associated alternating current, OR can
be placed in an electromagnetic field so that the field will induce an alternating current in the
antenna and a voltage between the terminals.
Simple Dipole Antenna: the dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in the opposite
directions arranged either horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the
radio and the other end handing free in space. This is the simplest practical antenna and it is used
as a reference model for other antennas. Generally, the dipole is considered to be omni
directional in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the antenna, but it has deep nulls in the
directions of the axis.
Radiation Pattern: the radiation pattern is a graphical depiction of the relative field strength
transmitted from or received by the antenna. As the antennas radiate in space often several
curves are necessary to describe the antenna. If the radiation of the antenna is symmetrical about
an axis (as is the case in dipole, helical and some parabolic antennas) a unique graph is
sufficient.
Each antenna supplier/user has different standards as well as plotting formats. Each format has
its own advantages and disadvantages.
PROCEDURE:-
Proceed to power up the PC and the trainer. Click on the Discovery II IMS icon on the PC
desktop and select the desired practical as shown in the Figure 1 below.
48
Figure 1
For Plots of the Radiation Pattern click on the following icon in the software to activate the
respective function.
To launch the 2D polar graph window.
To launch the 2D Cartesian graph window.
To create a new plot, select 'File' then 'New Plot'. Enter the desired frequency and start.
To open an existing plot, select 'File' then 'Open Plot'
To save a plot, select 'File' then 'Save Plot [plot name]...'
NOTE: before running the equipment it is best to calibrate it (which would have already been
done for you). For this you must disconnect the RF coaxial cable (which connects the
transmitting test antenna with the generator) because the generator motor does an initial test.
This, is so that the RF coaxial cable is not stretched excessively during the test phase. Excessive
stretching may result in breakage of the cable.
Also, it is best to perform this experiment in a lab/room with a fairly open area (Why?). The
distance between the transmitter and receiver should also be about three metres. The distance
between the transmitter and PC should be about 2 metres. Both Transmitter and receiver should
be at the same height from the ground.
49
OBSERVATION:-
RESULT:-
50
LAB SESSION 13
OBJECT:-
To observe the working of a Yagi Uda Antenna.
EQUIPMENT:-
Feedback Antenna Lab 57-200.
Pentium 4 or equivalent computer.
THEORY:-
Antenna: an antenna is a transducer designed to transmit or receive radio waves which are a
class of electromagnetic waves. In other words, antennas convert radio frequency electrical
currents into electromagnetic waves and vice versa. Antennas are used in systems such as radio
and television broadcasting, point to point radio communication, wireless LAN, radar and
numerous other applications. Antennas usually work in air or outer space, but can also be operate
under water or even through soil and rock at certain frequencies. Physically, an antenna is an
arrangement of conductors that generate a radiating electromagnetic field in response to an
applied alternating voltage and the associated alternating current, OR can be placed in an
electromagnetic field so that the field will induce an alternating current in the antenna and a
voltage between the terminals.
Yagi Uda Antenna: the Yagi Uda antenna is a directional variation of the simple dipole
antenna. There are parasitic elements added with the functionality similar to adding a reflector
and lenses (directors) to focus a filament light bulb. In the six element Yagi Uda antenna there
are four directors and one reflector with a driven element in between. Its radiation pattern is not
symmetric.
PROCEDURE:-
Proceed to power up the PC and the trainer. Click on the Discovery II IMS icon on the PC
desktop and select the desired practical as shown in the Figure 1.
51
Figure 1
For Plots of the Radiation Pattern click on the following icon in the software to activate the
respective function.
To launch the 2D Cartesian graph window.
To create a new plot, select 'File' then 'New Plot'. Enter the desired frequency and start.
To open an existing plot, select 'File' then 'Open Plot'
To save a plot, select 'File' then 'Save Plot [plot name]...'
NOTE: before running the equipment it is best to calibrate it (which would have already been
done for you). For this you must disconnect the RF coaxial cable (which connects the
transmitting test antenna with the generator) because the generator motor does an initial test.
This, is so that the RF coaxial cable is not stretched excessively during the test phase. Excessive
stretching may result in breakage of the cable.
Also, it is best to perform this experiment in a lab/room with a fairly open area (Why?). The
distance between the transmitter and receiver should also be about three metres. The distance
between the transmitter and PC should be about 2 metres. Both Transmitter and receiver should
be at the same height from the ground.
52
OBSERVATION:-
RESULT:-
53
LAB SESSION 14
OBJECTIVES:-
To become familiar with the use of 4 telephones connected to the local switching centre.
EQUIPMENT:-
Teknikit 58 series digital telephony kit, 58-digital WB (USB).
THEORY:-
Local Signalling: The signalling between the telephone user, and the local Switching Centre is
known as local signalling.
The signals available to the user are the Switch Hook and the Keypad. The Switch Hook
operates as soon as the telephone is lifted. This is the Off Hook state of the telephone, and is
recognised by the Switching Centre. The Keypad is primarily used to send the Destination
Address to the Switching Centre; that is the number of the telephone to which the connection is
required.
Dual Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF) signalling:The signals are in the form of a combination
of two audible tones, a different combination for each number on the Keypad. Hence it is known
as Dual Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF) signalling.
The Switching Centre can send signals to the user, by using tones and by ringing the bell or
alerter in the telephone. The audible tones are known as call progress tones, and indicate to the
user important responses of the Switching Centre. Obviously they are only useful if the user is
listening to the telephone. If the telephone is not in use, i.e. if it is on hook, then the Switching
Centre can ring it.
ITU-T Standards: Standards for the telephone industry are agreed by an international body. Up
to 1994 it had a French name, Comite Consultatif International de Telegraphique et
Telephonique (CCITT). Since then it has been known as the Telecommunications
Standardisation Sector of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU-T).The ITU-T
produced a Standard Recommendation E.180 for the tones used in local signalling.
Each telephone system is run by an Administration, sometimes a public Administration, usually
running the whole telephone system in one country, and sometimes privately owned. Historically
each Administration has often used different tones for the same purpose. The ITU-T
Recommendation aims to reduce these differences so that in international calls operators and
users understand easily the meaning of the tones. The Recommendation includes 'acceptable'
tones for each purpose, and 'recommended' tones for new systems. The general nature of each
tone, and the acceptable and recommended limits are:
Dial Tone: should be a continuous tone, either a single frequency in the range 400-450 Hz, with
425 Hz preferred, or a combined tone of up to 3 frequencies, with at least one frequency in the
ranges 340-425 and 400-450 Hz, with at least 25 Hz difference between any 2
frequencies.However any existing dial tones, including interrupted tones are acceptable, because
of the technical and social difficulties of changes.
54
Ring Tone: is a slow period tone, in which the tone period is shorter than the silent period. The
recommended limits are 0.67 to 1.5 seconds for the tone and 3 to 5 seconds for the silence; and
the acceptable limits are up to 2.5 sec and up to 6 seconds respectively. The recommended
frequency is 400-450 Hz, with 425 Hz preferred; and the acceptable range is 340-500 Hz.
Busy Tone: is a quick period tone, with the tone and silence periods equal. The total duration of
both tones is recommended to be 0.3 to 1.1 seconds; and the ratio of tone to silent period should
be between 0.67 and 1.5. The recommended frequency is 400-450 Hz, with 425 Hz preferred;
and the acceptable range is 340-500 Hz.
Number Unobtainable Tone: no recommendations are made.
System Operation: The normal use of the 4 telephones connected to the local Switching Centre
is demonstrated in this Practical. By using the telephones to make calls, the basic operation of
the Switching Centre is examined. The telephones use single digit numbers. The numbers to be
dialled correspond to the Line numbers L1 to L4 shown on the Workboard i.e. 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Figure 1.
The system uses 4 Call Progress Tones: Dial tone, Ring tone, Busy tone and Number
Unobtainable (NU tone). Using the telephones the tones can be heard. Also the connection of
them can be seen on the Switching Centre diagram. Ringing the telephone requires a much larger
voltage than the acoustic Tones. This is indicated by a different colour inside the Switching
Centre diagram. The Digital Switching Centre Workboards used for this can operate as one of
two types, A or B. The workboard used for the single Switch Assignments, must be set to type
A, by the Switching Centre Type switch at the far right hand corner of the board. If two boards
are connected, the other should be type B, and is not used for these Assignments.
PROCEDURE:-
• One Digital Switch Centre: if there is only one digital switch centre and telephone tray
(58-122 and 58-123) connected to the system controller 58-121, make sure the Switching
Centre Type Switch is set to ‘A’.
• Two Digital switch Centres: If there are two Digital Switch Centres and Telephone Trays
(58-122 and 58-123), one Switching Centre Type Switch should be set to ‘A’ the other to
‘B’. A ‘Curly’ trunk cable should interconnect the ‘Trunks’ connectors. Use Switch
Centre ‘A’ for the practicals.
• Two Digital Switch Centres plus a Trunk Networks Board: If there are two Digital
Switch Centres and Telephone Trays (58-122 and 58-123) and a Trunk Networks Board,
58-140 included in the setup, one switching Centre Type Switch should be set to ‘A’ and
the other to ‘B’. ‘Curly’ trunk cables should interconnect the ‘Trunks’ connectors. Use
Switch Centre ‘A’ for the practicals.
• The numbers for the telephones for the first Assignments correspond to the line numbers
on the work board, i.e. 1 to 4. The tones are preset but non-standard.
• Put all 4 telephones face down (On Hook).
• Pick up telephone 1. Dial Tone is heard, and the connection is shown on the diagram.
Press button 2. Ring Tone and Alerting (Ring) are applied to telephones 1 and 2. Pick up
telephone 2. Speak into one of them to check the connection.
• While the first connection is held, pick up telephone 3 and press button 1. Busy Tone is
heard. Then replace telephone 3.
55
• Replace telephone 2. Is the connection broken? Replace telephone 1.

• Using any telephone, listen to Dial Tone, and then press button 8. Number Unavailable
Tone (NU Tone) is heard.
• Try out other connections.
Figure 1
OBSERVATIONS:-
If a call is made from telephone 1 to telephone 2, what happens if telephone 2 is replaced

(Switch Hook pressed), and then picked up again?
With the same call what happens if telephone 1 is replaced? What is this known as?
RESULT:-
56
LAB SESSION 15
OBJECT:-
To become familiar with Time Switching in digital telephone system.
EQUIPMENT:-
Teknikit-58 series digital telephony kit, 58-digital WB (USB).
THEORY:-
Digital Transmission: Digital telephone signals use a synchronous transmission system, which
combines Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). Each
speech path has to send an 8 bit binary code at a rate of 8000 codes per second. The codes are
organised into groups called frames. Each code is transmitted in a timeslot. The frames include
special synchronising codes so that each timeslot can be identified and the code correctly
converted back to analogue form.
In the CEPT system which originated in Europe there are 32 timeslots in each frame. Each
frame takes 125 µs, and each 8 bit timeslot is transmitted in 3.9 µs, at a rate of 2.048 Mbps. In
the T1 system which was designed in North America there are 24 timeslots in each frame. Each
frame also takes 125 µs, and so each 8 bit timeslot is transmitted in 5.2 µs. An extra bit is used
for synchronising so the transmission rate is 1.544 Mbps.
The connection to each telephone uses 2 wires which carry analogue signals in both directions.
For Digital Switching, incoming and outgoing speech are separated by hybrid circuits. Then
combined Codec/Filter circuits provide analogue to digital and digital to analogue conversion
Figure 1.
Figure 1
The Codec/Filter circuits are connected to the Digital switch through Inlet and Outlet Busses.
Each Bus can carry up to 24 or 30 speech connections, depending on the PCM system in use.
Each Codec is connected to the Inlet and Outlet Busses at a designated time; for the period of
one timeslot.
57
Basic Digital Switching: The Digital Switch transfers the contents of each timeslot in the Inlet
Bus to the appropriate timeslot in the Outlet Bus. Switching of the data from each timeslot in the
Inlet Bus requires changing the time at which the data is transmitted along the Outlet Bus. The
process is known as Time Switching or Time Slot Interchange.
Time Switching: The basic process in Digital Switching for telephone systems is the transfer of
8 bits of digital data from one Timeslot to another. The speech signals from each telephone are
connected through a Codec to the Switch during a specified Timeslot. The connections are made
along Inlet and Outlet serial busses. The simplest connection between 2 telephones occurs if
they are both using the same Inlet and Outlet busses. They must, of course, use different
Timeslots. Then 8000 times per second the contents of the Inlet Timeslots for each telephone
must be transferred to the Outlet Timeslots of the other. This is Timeslot Interchange or Time
Switching. The Timeslots are organized in Frames. Each Frame has 32 (CEPT systems) or 24
(T1 systems) Timeslots. Successive Frames are transmitted along the same physical connections
i.e. the same Inlet and Outlet busses.
The data for transmission is only available briefly, and the display flashes to suggest this. Of
course the actual data transmission is very much faster than the flashing. For convenience one
digit dialing is still used in this Assignment (Line numbers 1 to 4).
PROCEDURE:-
PART A. Time Switching
1. Switching between 4 telephones, all of them connected to one bus. The data is only
available briefly in each timeslot, as suggested by the flickering display Figure 2.
2. Make a connection between any two telephones. They have numbers 1 to 4. Observe
which timeslots have their contents exchanged to carry the speech signal from one
telephone to the other.
3. Make another connection without breaking the first one and observe the new timeslot
interchange.
4. Clear the connections and make new connections.
Figure 2.
58
RESULT:-
What is the essential process of Digital Switching?
How many data transfers between timeslots are required for one telephone connection?
How often are the data transfers made?
59

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PRACTICAL WORK BOOK

For Academic Session 2009

Department of Electronic Engineering

For The Course

TC-492 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS II

Mr. Tahir Malik (Lecturer)

Mr. Tahir Malik (Lecturer)

The Board of Studies of Department of Electronic Engineering

Communication Systems II Practical Workbook covers a variety of

The practicals are based on modern trainers that incorporate a variety of

-To observe Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

To observe 2-PSK (Phase shift Keying)

To plot the characteristic modulation curve of

To observe the characteristics of a Frequency

To observe FM modulation using Sine wave,

To observe the normal operation of pulse

To observe the normal operation of a 2-Channel

By use of slotted line:

To measure unknown load impedance attached

To investigate the properties a dipole antenna in

-To observe the working of a Yagi Uda

To become familiar with the use of 4

To become familiar with Time Switching in

• To perform Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) modulation and demodulation.

• Power unit PSU

Bit Error rate- B.E.R

BER = (No. of error Bits) / (Total No of received bits)

• Power on module. See Figure 1.

• Keep the last condition (J1c-J3d-J4-J5-J6a; SW2=normal, SW3=24 bit SW4=1200,

Bit Error Rate

• Set the jumpers as follows: J1d-J3d-J4-J5-J6a.

• Bit Error Rate readings

• To observe Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) modulation and demodulation.

• Power unit PSU

Frequency shift keying -FSK

Bit Error rate- B.E.R

BER = (No. of error Bits) / (Total No of received bits)

Bit Error Rate

• Set the jumpers as follows: J1d-J3d-J4-J5-J6a.

• Bit Error Rate readings

• To observe the 2 PSK (Phase Shift Keying) modulation and demodulation.

• Power unit PSU or PS1

To plot the characteristic modulation curve of FM Modulator & calculate Sensitivity

Frequency modulation generation

Characteristic modulation curve. Sensitivity and Non linearity

N.L = [(S- SO) / SO] x 100

F’= 50 kHz, V’ = 175 mV

S’ = 50/175 = 0.29 kHz/mV

Frequency Modulation Generation:

Figure 3: Spectrum analyzer output

Figure 4: Oscilloscope output

Input Voltage Output Frequency Output Frequency

• Digital pulse modulation

• Set up the experiment as specified in the Figure 1.

Input is a 7 Vpp sinusoidal wave with varying frequency.

Input Signal output Signal

• Effect of Pulse duty factor on PAM signal

Input is a 7 Vpp sinusoidal wave fixed frequency of 1 kHz.

Pulse Duty Pulse

• Effect of sampling frequency (Fp) on PAM signal

From smith chart: R/Z ο =_; X/Z ο =_