DATA COMMUNICATION

(Common to CSE & ISE)

Subject Code: 18CS46 C.I.A. Marks: 40

Hours/Week : 04 Exam Hours: 03
Total Hours : 50 Exam Marks: 60

MODULE – 1 8 Hours
Introduction: Data Communications, Networks, Network Types, Internet History, Standards and Administration, Networks
Models: Protocol Layering, TCP/IP Protocol suite, The OSI model, Introduction to Physical Layer-1: Data and Signals,
Digital Signals, Transmission Impairment, Data Rate limits, Performance.
Textbook1: Ch 1.1 to 1.5, 2.1 to 2.3, 3.1, 3.3 to 3.6
RBT: L1, L2

MODULE – 2 8 Hours
Digital Transmission: Digital to digital conversion (Only Line coding: Polar, Bipolar and
Manchester coding).
Physical Layer-2: Analog to digital conversion (only PCM), Transmission Modes,
Analog Transmission: Digital to analog conversion.
Textbook1: Ch 4.1 to 4.3, 5.1
RBT: L1, L2

MODULE – 3 8 Hours
Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing and Spread Spectrum,
Switching: Introduction, Circuit Switched Networks and Packet switching.
Error Detection and Correction: Introduction, Block coding, Cyclic codes, Checksum,
Textbook1: Ch 6.1, 6.2, 8.1 to 8.3, 10.1 to 10.4
RBT: L1, L2

MODULE – 4 8 Hours
Data link control: DLC services, Data link layer protocols, Point to Point protocol (Framing,
Transition phases only).
Media Access control: Random Access, Controlled Access and Channelization,
Introduction to Data-Link Layer: Introduction, Link-Layer Addressing, ARP
IPv4 Addressing and subnetting: Classful and CIDR addressing, DHCP, NAT
Textbook1: Ch 9.1, 9.2, 11.1, 11.2 11.4, 12.1 to 12.3, 18.4
RBT: L1, L2

MODULE – 5 8 Hours
Wired LANs Ethernet: Ethernet Protocol, Standard Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit 08
Ethernet and 10 Gigabit Ethernet,
Wireless LANs: Introduction, IEEE 802.11 Project and Bluetooth.
Other wireless Networks: Cellular Telephony
Textbook1: Ch 13.1 to 13.5, 15.1 to 15.3, 16.2

RBT: L1, L2Text Book:

1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking 5E, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2013.

Question Paper Pattern:

The question paper will have ten questions.
Each full Question consisting of 20 marks
There will be 2 full questions (with a maximum of four sub questions) from each module.
Each full question will have sub questions covering all the topics under a module.
The students will have to answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each module.
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MODULE 1: TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

1.1.1 Components
1.1.2 Data Representation
1.1.3 Direction of Data Flow
1.2 NETWORKS
1.2.1 Network Criteria
1.2.2 Physical Structures
1.2.2.1 Type of Connection
1.2.2.2 Physical Topology
1.2.2.2.1 Bus Topology
1.2.2.2.2 Star Topology
1.2.2.2.3 Ring Topology
1.2.2.2.4 Mesh Topology
1.3 NETWORK TYPES
1.3.1 Local Area Network
1.3.2 Wide Area Network
1.3.2.1 Internetwork
1.3.3 LAN vs. WAN
1.3.4 Switching
1.3.4.1 Circuit-Switched Network
1.3.4.2 Packet-Switched Network
1.3.5 The Internet
1.3.6 Accessing the Internet
1.4 STANDARDS AND ADMINISTRATION
1.4.1 Internet Standards
1.4.1.1 Maturity Levels
1.4.1.2 Requirement Levels
1.4.2 Internet Administration
1.5 PROTOCOL LAYERING
1.5.1 Scenarios
1.5.1.1 Protocol Layering
1.5.2 Principles of Protocol Layering
1.5.3 Logical Connections
1.6 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
1.6.1 Layered Architecture
1.6.2 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
1.6.3 Description of Each Layer
1.6.4 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
1.6.5 Addressing 42
1.6.6 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
1.7 THE OSI MODEL
1.7.1 OSI versus TCP/IP
1.7.2 Lack of OSI Model’s Success
1.8 DATA AND SIGNALS
1.8.1 Analog and Digital Data
1.8.2 Analog and Digital Signals
1.8.3 Periodic and Nonperiodic
1.9 DIGITAL SIGNALS
1.9.1 Bit Rate
1.9.2 Bit Length
1.9.3 Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal

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1.9.4 Transmission of Digital Signals
1.9.4.1 Baseband Transmission
1.9.4.2 Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)
1.10 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
1.10.1 Attenuation
1.10.1.1 Decibel
1.10.2 Distortion
1.10.3 Noise
1.10.3.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
1.11 DATA RATE LIMITS
1.11.1 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
1.11.2 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
1.12 PERFORMANCE
1.12.1 Bandwidth
1.12.2 Throughput
1.12.3 Latency (Delay)
1.12.4 Bandwidth-Delay Product
1.12.5 Jitter

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MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

• Data communication is defined as exchange of data between 2 devices over a transmission-medium.
• A communication-system is made up of
→ hardware (physical equipment) and
→ software (programs)
• For data-communication, the communicating-devices must be part of a communication-system.
• Four attributes of a communication-system:
1) Delivery
➢ The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
2) Accuracy
➢ The system must deliver the data accurately.
➢ Normally, the corrupted-data are unusable.
3) Timeliness
➢ The system must deliver audio/video data in a timely manner.
➢ This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
➢ Data delivered late are useless.
4) Jitter
➢ Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival-time.
➢ In other words, jitter is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio/video packets.

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1.1.1 Components of Communication System
• Five components of a communication-system (Figure 1.1):
1) Message
2) Sender
3) Receiver
4) Transmission-Medium
5) Protocol

1) Message
➢ Message is the information (or data) to be communicated.
➢ Message may consist of
→ number/text
→ picture or
→ audio/video
2) Sender
➢ Sender is the device that sends the data-message.
➢ Sender can be
→ computer and
→ mobile phone
3) Receiver
➢ Receiver is the device that receives the message.
➢ Receiver can be
→ computer and
→ mobile phone
4) Transmission Medium
➢ Transmission-medium is physical-path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
➢ Transmission-medium can be wired or wireless.
➢ Examples of wired medium:
→ twisted-pair wire (used in landline telephone)
→ coaxial cable (used in cable TV network)
→ fiber-optic cable
➢ Examples of wireless medium:
→ radio waves
→ microwaves
→ infrared waves (ex: operating TV using remote control)
5) Protocol
➢ A protocol is a set of rules that govern data-communications.
➢ In other words, a protocol represents an agreement between the communicating-devices.
➢ Without a protocol, 2 devices may be connected but not communicating.

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1.1.2 Data Representation
• Five different forms of information:
1) Text
➢ Text is represented as a bit-pattern. (Bit-pattern → sequence of bits: 0s or 1s).
➢ Different sets of bit-patterns are used to represent symbols (or characters).
➢ Each set is called a code.
➢ The process of representing symbols is called encoding.
➢ Popular encoding system: ASCII, Unicode.
2) Number
➢ Number is also represented as a bit-pattern.
➢ ASCII is not used to represent number. Instead, number is directly converted to binary-form.
3) Image
➢ Image is also represented as a bit-pattern.
➢ An image is divided into a matrix of pixels (picture-elements).
➢ A pixel is the smallest element of an image. (Pixel → Small dot)
➢ The size of an image depends upon number of pixels (also called resolution).
For example: An image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels.
➢ Two types of images:
i) Black & White Image
¤ If an image is black & white, each pixel can be represented by a value either 0 or 1.
¤ For example: Chessboard
ii) Color Image
¤ There are many methods to represent color images.
¤ RGB is one of the methods to represent color images.
¤ RGB is called so called ‘.’ each color is combination of 3 colors: red, green & blue.
4) Audio
➢ Audio is a representation of sound.
➢ By nature, audio is different from text, numbers, or images. Audio is continuous, not discrete.
5) Video
➢ Video is a representation of movie.
➢ Video can either
→ be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or
→ be a combination of images arranged to convey the idea of motion.

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1.1.3 Direction of Data Flow
• Three ways of data-flow between 2 devices (Figure 1.2):
1) Simplex
2) Half-duplex
3) Full-duplex

1) Simplex
➢ The communication is unidirectional
(For ex: The simplex mode is like a one-way street).
➢ On a link, out of 2 devices:
i) Only one device can transmit.
ii) Another device can only receive.
➢ For example (Figure 1.2a):
The monitor can only accept output.
➢ Entire-capacity of channel is used to send the data in one direction.
2) Half Duplex
➢ Both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time.
(For ex: The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with 2 directional traffic).
➢ When one station is sending, the other can only receive and vice-versa.
➢ For example (Figure 1.2b): Walkie-talkies
➢ Entire-capacity of a channel is used by one of the 2 stations that are transmitting the data.
3) Full Duplex
➢ Both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
(For ex: The full-duplex is like a 2-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the
same time).
➢ For example (Figure 1.2c):
Mobile phones (When 2 people are communicating by a telephone line, both can listen
and talk at the same time)
➢ Entire-capacity of a channel is shared by both the stations that are transmitting the data.

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1.2 NETWORKS
• A network is defined as a set of devices interconnected by communication-links.
• This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing among them.
• Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.
• Often, devices are referred to as nodes.
• A node can be any device capable of sending/receiving data in the network.
• For example: Computer & Printer
• The best-known computer network is the Internet.

1.2.1 Network Criteria

• A network must meet following 3 criteria’s:
1) Performance
➢ Performance can be measured using i) Transit-time or ii) Response-time.
i) Transit Time is defined as time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
ii) Response Time is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.
➢ The network-performance depends on following factors:
i) Number of users
ii) Type of transmission-medium
iii) Efficiency of software
➢ Often, performance is evaluated by 2 networking-metrics: i) throughput and ii) delay.
➢ Good performance can be obtained by achieving higher throughput and smaller delay times
2) Reliability
➢ Reliability is measured by
→ frequency of network-failure
→ time taken to recover from a network-failure
→ network's robustness in a disaster
➢ More the failures are, less is the network's reliability.
3) Security
➢ Security refers to the protection of data from the unauthorized access or damage.
➢ It also involves implementing policies for recovery from data-losses.

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1.2.2 Physical Structures
1.2.2.1 Type of Connection
• Two types of connections (Figure 1.3):
1) Point-to-Point
➢ Only two devices are connected by a dedicated-link (Figure 1.3a).
➢ Entire-capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
➢ For example: Point-to-Point connection b/w remote-control & TV for changing the channels.
2) Multipoint (Multi-Drop)
➢ Three or more devices share a single link.
➢ The capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally (Figure 1.3b).
i) If link is used simultaneously by many devices, then it is spatially shared connection.
ii) If user takes turns while using the link, then it is time shared (temporal) connection.
(spatially→space or temporally→time)

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1.2.2.2 Physical Topology
• The physical-topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
• Four basic topologies are:
1) Mesh
2) Star
3) Bus and
4) Ring

1.2.2.2.1 Bus Topology

• All the devices are connected to the single cable called bus (Figure 1.4).
• Every device communicates with the other device through this bus.
• A data from the source is broadcasted to all devices connected to the bus.
• Only the intended-receiver, whose physical-address matches, accepts the data.

• Devices are connected to the bus by drop-lines and taps.

• A drop-line is a connection running between the device and the bus.
• A tap is a connector that links to the bus or
• Advantages:
1) Easy installation.
2) Cable required is the least compared to mesh/star topologies.
3) Redundancy is eliminated.
4) Costs less (Compared to mesh/star topologies).
5) Mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.
• Disadvantages:
1) Difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault.
2) Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
3) A fault/break in the cable stops all transmission.
4) There is a limit on
i) Cable length
ii) Number of nodes that can be connected.
5) Security is very low because all the devices receive the data sent from the source.

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1.2.2.2.2 Star Topology
• All the devices are connected to a central controller called a hub (Figure 1.5).
• There exists a dedicated point-to-point link between a device & a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another. Thus, there is no direct traffic between devices.
• The hub acts as a junction:
If device-1 wants to send data to device-2,
the device-1 sends the data to the hub,
then the hub relays the data to the device-2.

• Advantages:
1) Less expensive: Each device needs only one link & one I/O port to connect it to any devices.
2) Easy installation & reconfiguration: Nodes can be added/removed w/o affecting the network.
3) Robustness: If one link fails, it does not affect the entire system.
4) Easy to detect and troubleshoot fault.
5) Centralized management: The hub manages and controls the whole network.
• Disadvantages:
1) Single point of failure: If the hub goes down, the whole network is dead.
2) Cable length required is the more compared to bus/ring topologies.
3) Number of nodes in network depends on capacity of hub.

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1.2.2.2.3 Ring Topology
• Each device is connected to the next, forming a ring (Figure 1.6).
• There are only two neighbors for each device.
• Data travels around the network in one direction till the destination is reached.
• Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of token.
• Each device has a repeater.
• A repeater
→ receives a signal on transmission-medium &
→ regenerates & passes the signal to next device.

• Advantages:
1) Easy installation and reconfiguration.
To add/delete a device, requires changing only 2 connections.
3) Fault isolation is simplified.
If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm.
The alarm alerts the network-operator to the problem and its location.
3) Congestion reduced: Because all the traffic flows in only one direction.
• Disadvantages:
1) Unidirectional traffic.
2) A fault in the ring/device stops all transmission.
The above 2 drawbacks can be overcome by using dual ring.
3) There is a limit on
i) Cable length &
ii) Number of nodes that can be connected.
4) Slower: Each data must pass through all the devices between source and destination.

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1.2.2.2.4 Mesh Topology
• All the devices are connected to each other (Figure 1.7).
• There exists a dedicated point-to-point link between all devices.
• There are n(n-1) physical channels to link n devices.
• Every device not only sends its own data but also relays data from other nodes.
• For ‘n’ nodes,
→ there are n(n-1) physical-links
→ there are n(n-1)/2 duplex-mode links
• Every device must have (n–1) I/O ports to be connected to the other (n-1) devices.

• Advantages:
1) Congestion reduced: Each connection can carry its own data load.
2) Robustness: If one link fails, it does not affect the entire system.
3) Security: When a data travels on a dedicated-line, only intended-receiver can see the data.
4) Easy fault identification & fault isolation: Traffic can be re-routed to avoid problematic links.
• Disadvantages:
1) Difficult installation and reconfiguration.
2) Bulk of wiring occupies more space than available space.
3) Very expensive: as there are many redundant connections.
4) Not mostly used in computer networks. It is commonly used in wireless networks.
5) High redundancy of the network-connections.

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1.3 Network Types
• Two popular types of networks:
1) LAN (Local Area Network) &
2) WAN (Wide Area Network)

1.3.1 LAN
• LAN is used to connect computers in a single office, building or campus (Figure 1.8).
• LAN is usually privately owned network.
• A LAN can be simple or complex.
1) Simple: LAN may contain 2 PCs and a printer.
2) Complex: LAN can extend throughout a company.
• Each host in a LAN has an address that uniquely defines the host in the LAN.
• A packet sent by a host to another host carries both source host’s and destination host’s addresses.
• LANs use a smart connecting switch.
• The switch is able to
→ recognize the destination address of the packet &
→ guide the packet to its destination.
• The switch
→ reduces the traffic in the LAN &
→ allows more than one pair to communicate with each other at the same time.
• Advantages:
1) Resource Sharing
➢ Computer resources like printers and hard disks can be shared by all devices on the network.
2) Expansion
➢ Nowadays, LANs are connected to WANs to create communication at a wider level.

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1.3.2 WAN
• WAN is used to connect computers anywhere in the world.
• WAN can cover larger geographical area. It can cover cities, countries and even continents.
• WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems.
• Normally, WAN is
→ created & run by communication companies (Ex: BSNL, Airtel)
→ leased by an organization that uses it.
• A WAN can be of 2 types:
1) Point-to-Point WAN
➢ A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects 2 communicating devices through a
transmission media (Figure 1.9).

2) Switched WAN
➢ A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
➢ The switched WAN can be the backbones that connect the Internet.
➢ A switched WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are connected by
switches (Figure 1.10).

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1.3.2.1 Internetwork
• A network of networks is called an internet. (Internet → inter-network) (Figure 1.12).
• For example (Figure 1.11):
➢ Assume that an organization has two offices,
i) First office is on the east coast &
ii) Second office is on the west coast.
➢ Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to communicate with each other.
➢ To allow communication between employees at different offices, the management leases a
point-to-point dedicated WAN from a ISP and connects the two LANs.
(ISP → Internet service provider such as a telephone company ex: BSNL).

➢ When a host in the west coast office sends a message to another host in the same office, the
router blocks the message, but the switch directs the message to the destination.
➢ On the other hand, when a host on the west coast sends a message to a host on the east
coast, router R1 routes the packet to router R2, and the packet reaches the destination.

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1.3.3 LAN vs. WAN
Parameters LAN WAN
Expands to Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Meaning LAN is used to connect computers WAN is used to connect computers
in a single office, building or in a large geographical area such
campus as countries
Ownership of network Private Private or public

Range Small: up to 10 km Large: Beyond 100 km

Speed High: Typically 10, 100 and 1000 Low: Typically 1.5 Mbps
Mbps
Propagation Delay Short Long
Cost Low High
Congestion Less More
Design & maintenance Easy Difficult
Fault Tolerance More Tolerant Less Tolerant
Media used Twisted pair Optical fiber or radio waves

Used for College, Hospital Internet

Interconnects LAN interconnects hosts WAN interconnects connecting
devices such as switches, routers,
or modems

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1.3.4 Switching
• An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links together.
• A switch needs to forward data from a network to another network when required.
• Two types of switched networks are 1) circuit-switched and 2) packet-switched networks.
1.3.4.1 Circuit Switched Network
➢ A dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available between the two end systems.
➢ The switch can only make it active or inactive.

¤ As shown in Figure 1.13, the 4 telephones at each side are connected to a switch.
¤ The switch connects a telephone at one side to a telephone at the other side.
¤ A high-capacity line can handle 4 voice communications at the same time.
¤ The capacity of high line can be shared between all pairs of telephones.
¤ The switch is used for only forwarding.
➢ Advantage:
A circuit-switched network is efficient only when it is working at its full capacity.
➢ Disadvantage:
Most of the time, the network is inefficient because it is working at partial capacity.
1.3.4.2 Packet Switched Network
➢ In a computer network, the communication between the 2 ends is done in blocks of data
called packets.
➢ The switch is used for both storing and forwarding because a packet is an independent entity
that can be stored and sent later.

¤ As shown in Figure 1.14, the 4 computers at each side are connected to a router.
¤ A router has a queue that can store and forward the packet.
¤ The high-capacity line has twice the capacity of the low-capacity line.
¤ If only 2 computers (one at each site) need to communicate with each other, there is
no waiting for the packets.
¤ However, if packets arrive at one router when high-capacity line is at its full capacity,
the packets should be stored and forwarded.
➢ Advantages:
A packet-switched network is more efficient than a circuit switched network.
➢ Disadvantage:
The packets may encounter some delays.

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1.3.5 The Internet Today
• A network of networks is called an internet. (Internet → inter-network)
• Internet is made up of (Figure 1.15)
1) Backbones
2) Provider networks &
3) Customer networks
1) Backbones
➢ Backbones are large networks owned by communication companies such as BSNL and Airtel.
➢ The backbone networks are connected through switching systems, called peering points.
2) Provider Networks
➢ Provider networks use the services of the backbones for a fee.
➢ Provider networks are connected to backbones and sometimes to other provider networks.
3) Customer Networks
➢ Customer networks actually use the services provided by the Internet.
➢ Customer networks pay fees to provider networks for receiving services.
• Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
• The backbones are often referred to as international ISPs.
The provider networks are often referred to as national or regional ISPs.

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1.3.6 Accessing the Internet
• The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become part of it.
• However, the user needs to be physically connected to an ISP.
• The physical connection is normally done through a point-to-point WAN.
1) Using Telephone Networks
➢ Most residences have telephone service, which means they are connected to a telephone
network.
➢ Most telephone networks have already connected themselves to the Internet.
➢ Thus, residences can connect to the Internet using a point-to-point WAN.
➢ This can be done in two ways:
A) Dial-up service
¤ A modem can be added to the telephone line.
¤ A modem converts data to voice.
¤ The software installed on the computer
→ dials the ISP &
→ imitates making a telephone connection.
¤ Disadvantages:
i) The dial-up service is very slow.
ii) When line is used for Internet connection, it cannot be used for voice
connection.
iii) It is only useful for small residences.
B) DSL Service
¤ DSL service also allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice & data
communication.
¤ Some telephone companies have upgraded their telephone lines to provide higher
speed Internet services to residences.
2) Using Cable Networks
➢ A residence can be connected to the Internet by using cable service.
➢ Cable service provides a higher speed connection.
➢ The speed varies depending on the number of neighbors that use the same cable.
3) Using Wireless Networks
➢ A residence can use a combination of wireless and wired connections to access the Internet.
➢ A residence can be connected to the Internet through a wireless WAN.
4) Direct Connection to the Internet
➢ A large organization can itself become a local ISP and be connected to the Internet.
➢ The organization
→ leases a high-speed WAN from a carrier provider and
→ connects itself to a regional ISP.

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1.4 STANDARDS AND ADMINISTRATION
1.4.1 Internet Standards
• An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification useful to those who work with the Internet.
• The Internet standard is a formalized-regulation that must be followed.
• There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard status.
• A specification begins as an Internet draft.
• An Internet draft is a working document with no official status and a 6-month lifetime.
• Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft may be published as a RFC.
• Each RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available to all interested parties.
• RFCs go through maturity levels and are categorized according to their requirement level.
(working document → a work in progress RFC → Request for Comment)

1.4.1.1 Maturity Levels

• An RFC, during its lifetime, falls into one of 6 maturity levels (Figure 1.16):

1) Proposed Standard
➢ Proposed standard is specification that is stable, well-understood & of interest to Internet
community.
➢ Specification is usually tested and implemented by several different groups.
2) Draft Standard
➢ A proposed standard is elevated to draft standard status after at least 2 successful
independent and interoperable implementations.
3) Internet Standard
➢ A draft standard reaches Internet standard status after demonstrations of successful
implementation.
4) Historic
➢ The historic RFCs are significant from a historical perspective.
➢ They either
→ have been superseded by later specifications or
→ have never passed the necessary maturity levels to become an Internet standard.
5) Experimental
➢ An RFC classified as experimental describes work related to an experimental situation.
➢ Such an RFC should not be implemented in any functional Internet service.
6) Informational
➢ An RFC classified as informational contains general, historical, or tutorial information related
to the Internet.
➢ Usually, it is written by a vendor.
(ISOC → Internet Society IAB → Internet Architecture Board)

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(IETF → Internet Engineering Task Force IRTF → Internet Research Task Force)
(IESG → Internet Engineering Steering Group IRSG → Internet Research Steering Group)

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1.4.1.2 Requirement Levels
• RFCs are classified into 5 requirement levels:
1) Required
➢ An RFC labeled required must be implemented by all Internet systems to achieve minimum
conformance.
➢ For example, IP and ICMP are required protocols.
2) Recommended
➢ An RFC labeled recommended is not required for minimum conformance.
➢ It is recommended because of its usefulness.
➢ For example, FTP and TELNET are recommended protocols.
3) Elective
➢ An RFC labeled elective is not required and not recommended.
➢ However, a system can use it for its own benefit.
4) Limited Use
➢ An RFC labeled limited use should be used only in limited situations.
➢ Most of the experimental RFCs fall under this category.
5) Not Recommended
➢ An RFC labeled not recommended is inappropriate for general use.
➢ Normally a historic RFC may fall under this category.

1.4.2 Internet Administration

1) ISOC
• ISOC is a nonprofit organization formed to provide support for Internet standards process (Fig 1.17).
• ISOC maintains and supports other Internet administrative bodies such as IAB, IETF, IRTF, and IANA.
2) IAB
• IAB is the technical advisor to the ISOC.
• Two main purposes of IAB:
i) To oversee the continuing development of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
ii) To serve in a technical advisory capacity to research members of the Internet community.
• Another responsibility of the IAB is the editorial management of the RFCs.
• IAB is also the external liaison between the Internet and other standards organizations and forums.
• IAB has 2 primary components: i) IETF and ii) IRTF.
i) IETF
➢ IETF is a forum of working groups managed by the IESG.
➢ IETF is responsible for identifying operational problems & proposing solutions to the problems
➢ IETF also develops and reviews specifications intended as Internet standards.
➢ The working groups are collected into areas, and each area concentrates on a specific topic.
➢ Currently 9 areas have been defined. The areas include applications, protocols, routing,
network management next generation (IPng), and security.
ii) IRTF
➢ IRTF is a forum of working groups managed by the IRSG.
➢ IRTF focuses on long-term research topics related to Internet protocols, applications,
architecture, and technology.

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MODULE 1(CONT.): NETWORK MODELS

1.5 PROTOCOL LAYERING

• A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to
follow to be able to communicate effectively.
• When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol.
When communication is complex, we need to divide the task b/w different layers. We need a
protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.

1.5.1 Scenarios
First Scenario
• In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer (Figure 2.1).
• Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas.
• Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same language

Second Scenario
• Maria and Ann communicate using regular mail through the post office (Figure 2.2).
• However, they do not want their ideas to be revealed by other people if the letters are intercepted.
• They agree on an encryption/decryption technique.
• The sender of the letter encrypts it to make it unreadable by an intruder; the receiver of the letter
decrypts it to get the original letter.

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1.5.1.1 Protocol Layering
• Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and simpler tasks.
• Modularity means independent layers.
• A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with inputs and outputs, without concern about how
inputs are changed to outputs.
• If two machines provide the same outputs when given the same inputs, they can replace each other.
• Advantages:
1) It allows us to separate the services from the implementation.
2) There are intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all layers.
• Disadvantage:
1) Having a single layer makes the job easier. There is no need for each layer to provide a
service to the upper layer and give service to the lower layer.

1.5.2 Principles of Protocol Layering

1) First Principle
• If we want bidirectional communication, we need to make each layer able to perform 2 opposite
tasks, one in each direction.
• For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the other direction).
2) Second Principle
• The two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
• For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext letter.

1.5.3 Logical Connections

• We have layer-to-layer communication (Figure 2.3).
• There is a logical connection at each layer through which 2 end systems can send the object created
from that layer.

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1.6 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• TCP/IP is a protocol-suite used in the Internet today.
• Protocol-suite refers a set of protocols organized in different layers.
• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a specific
functionality.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is supported by the services provided by
one or more lower level protocols.

1.6.1 Layered Architecture

• Let us assume that computer A communicates with computer B (Figure 2.4).

• As the Figure 2.5 shows, we have five communicating devices:
1) Source host(computer A) 2) Link-layer switch in link 1
3) Router 4) Link-layer switch in link 2
5) Destination host (computer B).
• Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of the device in the internet.
• The two hosts are involved in all five layers.
• The source host
→ creates a message in the application layer and
→ sends the message down the layers so that it is physically sent to the destination host.
• The destination host
→ receives the message at the physical layer and
→ then deliver the message through the other layers to the application layer.
• The router is involved in only three layers; there is no transport or application layer.
• A router is involved in n combinations of link and physical layers.
where n = number of links the router is connected to.
• The reason is that each link may use its own data-link or physical protocol.

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• A link-layer switch is involved only in two layers: i) data-link and ii) physical.

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1.6.2 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• As shown in the figure 2.6, the duty of the application, transport, and network layers is end-to-end.
• However, the duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop. A hop is a host or router.
• The domain of duty of the top three layers is the internet.
The domain of duty of the two lower layers is the link.
• In top 3 layers, the data unit should not be changed by any router or link-layer switch.
In bottom 2 layers, the data unit is changed only by the routers, not by the link-layer switches.

• Identical objects exist between two hops. Because router may fragment the packet at the network
layer and send more packets than received (Figure 2.7).
• The link between two hops does not change the object.

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1.6.3 Description of Each Layer
Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node to another node.
• Transmission media is another hidden layer under the physical layer.
• Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
• The transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical signals.
• The physical layer
→ receives bits from the data-link layer &
→ sends through the transmission media.
Data Link Layer
• Data-link-layer (DLL) is responsible for moving frames from one node to another node over a link.
• The link can be wired LAN/WAN or wireless LAN/WAN.
• The data-link layer
→ gets the datagram from network layer
→ encapsulates the datagram in a packet called a frame.
→ sends the frame to physical layer.
• TCP/IP model does not define any specific protocol.
• DLL supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
• Each protocol may provide a different service.
• Some protocols provide complete error detection and correction; some protocols provide only error
correction.
Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for source-to-destination transmission of data.
• The network layer is also responsible for routing the packet.
• The routers choose the best route for each packet.
• Why we need the separate network layer?
1) The separation of different tasks between different layers.
2) The routers do not need the application and transport layers.
• TCP/IP model defines 5 protocols:
1) IP (Internetworking Protocol) 2) ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
3) ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) 4) IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol)
1) IP
➢ IP is the main protocol of the network layer.
➢ IP defines the format and the structure of addresses.
➢ IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination.
➢ It is a connection-less & unreliable protocol.
i) Connection-less means there is no connection setup b/w the sender and the receiver.
ii) Unreliable protocol means
→ IP does not make any guarantee about delivery of the data.
→ Packets may get dropped during transmission.
➢ It provides a best-effort delivery service.
➢ Best effort means IP does its best to get the packet to its destination, but with no guarantees.
➢ IP does not provide following services
→ flow control
→ error control
→ congestion control services.
➢ If an application requires above services, the application should rely only on the transport-
layer protocol.
2) ARP
➢ ARP is used to find the physical-address of the node when its Internet-address is known.
➢ Physical address is the 48-bit address that is imprinted on the NIC or LAN card.
➢ Internet address (IP address) is used to uniquely & universally identify a device in the
internet.
3) ICMP
➢ ICMP is used to inform the sender about datagram-problems that occur during transit.
4) IGMP

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➢ IGMP is used to send the same message to a group of recipients.

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Transport Layer
• TL protocols are responsible for delivery of a message from a process to another process.
• The transport layer
→ gets the message from the application layer
→ encapsulates the message in a packet called a segment and
→ sends the segment to network layer.
• TCP/IP model defines 3 protocols:1) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
2) UDP (User Datagram Protocol) &
3) SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
1) TCP
➢ TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol.
➢ A connection is established b/w the sender and receiver before the data can be transmitted.
➢ TCP provides
→ flow control
→ error control and
→ congestion control
2) UDP
➢ UDP is the simplest of the 3 transport protocols.
➢ It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol.
➢ It does not provide flow, error, or congestion control.
➢ Each datagram is transported separately & independently.
➢ It is suitable for application program that
→ needs to send short messages &
→ cannot afford the retransmission.
3) SCTP
➢ SCTP provides support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet.
➢ It combines the best features of UDP and TCP.

Application Layer
• The two application layers exchange messages between each other.
• Communication at the application layer is between two processes (two programs running at this
layer).
• To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process and receives a response.
• Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer.
• TCP/IP model defines following protocols:
1) SMTP is used to transport email between a source and destination.
2) TELNET is used for accessing a site remotely.
3) FTP is used for transferring files from one host to another.
4) DNS is used to find the IP address of a computer.
5) SNMP is used to manage the Internet at global and local levels.
6) HTTP is used for accessing the World Wide Web (WWW).

(FTP → File Transfer Protocol SMTP → Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

(DNS → Domain Name System HTTP → Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
(SNMP → Simple Network Management Protocol TELNET → Terminal Network)

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1.6.4 Encapsulation and Decapsulation

A) Encapsulation at the Source Host

• At the source, we have only encapsulation (Figure 2.8).
1) At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a message.
➢ A message normally does not contain any header or trailer.
➢ The message is passed to the transport layer.
2) The transport layer takes the message as the payload.
➢ TL adds its own header to the payload.
➢ The header contains
→ identifiers of the source and destination application programs
→ information needed for flow, error control, or congestion control.
➢ The transport-layer packet is called the segment (in TCP) and the user datagram (in UDP).
➢ The segment is passed to the network layer.
3) The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as payload.
➢ NL adds its own header to the payload.
➢ The header contains
→ addresses of the source and destination hosts
→ some information used for error checking of the header &
→ fragmentation information.
➢ The network-layer packet is called a datagram.
➢ The datagram is passed to the data-link layer.
4) The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as payload.
➢ DLL adds its own header to the payload.
➢ The header contains the physical addresses of the host or the next hop (the router).
➢ The link-layer packet is called a frame.
➢ The frame is passed to the physical layer for transmission
B) Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router
• At the router, we have both encapsulation & encapsulation and because the router is connected to
two or more links.
1) Data-link layer
→ receives frame from physical layer
→ decapsulates the datagram from the frame and
→ passes the datagram to the network layer.
2) The network layer
→ inspects the source and destination addresses in the datagram header and
→ consults forwarding table to find next hop to which the datagram is to be delivered.
➢ The datagram is then passed to the data-link layer of the next link.
3) The data-link layer of the next link
→ encapsulates the datagram in a frame and

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→ passes the frame to the physical layer for transmission.

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C) Decapsulation at the Destination Host
• At the destination host, each layer
→ decapsulates the packet received from lower layer
→ removes the payload and
→ delivers the payload to the next-higher layer

1.6.5 Addressing
• We have logical communication between pairs of layers.
• Any communication that involves 2 parties needs 2 addresses: source address and destination
address.
• We need 4 pairs of addresses (Figure 2.9):
1) At the application layer, we normally use names to define
→ site that provides services, such as vtunotesbysri.com, or
→ e-mail address, such as [email protected].
2) At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers.
➢ Port numbers define the application-layer programs at the source and destination.
➢ Port numbers are local addresses that distinguish between several programs running at the
same time.
3) At the network-layer, addresses are called IP addresses.
➢ IP address uniquely defines the connection of a device to the Internet.
➢ The IP addresses are global, with the whole Internet as the scope.
4) At the data link-layer, addresses are called MAC addresses
➢ The MAC addresses defines a specific host or router in a network (LAN or WAN).
➢ The MAC addresses are locally defined addresses.

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1.6.6 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Multiplexing means a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from several next-higher layer
protocols (one at a time) (Figure 2.10).
• Demultiplexing means a protocol can decapsulate and deliver a packet to several next-higher layer
protocols (one at a time).
1) At transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept a message from several application-layer
protocols.
2) At network layer, IP can accept
→ a segment from TCP or a user datagram from UDP.
→ a packet from ICMP or IGMP.
3) At data-link layer, a frame may carry the payload coming from IP or ARP.

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1.7 OSI MODEL
• OSI model was developed by ISO.
• ISO is the organization, OSI is the model.
• Purpose: OSI was developed to allow systems with diff. platforms to communicate with each other.
• Platform means hardware, software or operating system.
• OSI is a network-model that defines the protocols for network communications.
• OSI has 7 layers as follows (Figure 2.11):
1) Application Layer
2) Presentation Layer
3) Session Layer
4) Transport Layer
5) Network Layer
6) Data Link Layer
7) Physical Layer
• Each layer has specific duties to perform and has to co-operate with the layers above & below it.

1.7.1 OSI vs. TCP/IP

1) The four bottommost layers in the OSI model & the TCP/IP model are same (Figure 2.12).
However, the Application-layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Session, Presentation
& Application Layer of OSI model.
Two reasons for this are:
1) TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol.
2) Many applications can be developed at Application layer
2) The OSI model specifies which functions belong to each of its layers.
In TCP/IP model, the layers contain relatively independent protocols that can be mixed
and matched depending on the needs of the system.

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1.7.2 Lack of OSI Model’s Success
• OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and money had been spent on
the suite; changing it would cost a lot.
• Some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined.
• When OSI was implemented by an organization in a different application, it did not show a high
enough level of performance

LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL (Detailed OSI layers not in syllabus, it’s for your reference)
Physical Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Physical-layer (PL) is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node to another node.

• Other responsibilities of Physical-layer (Figure 2.5):

1) Physical Characteristics of Interfaces and Medium
➢ PL defines the mechanical/electrical characteristics of the interface & transmission-medium
i.e. Mechanical → cable, plugs, pins
Electrical → modulation, signal strength, voltage levels
➢ PL also defines the type of transmission-medium. (Wired or wireless).
2) Representation of Bits
➢ PL defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0s and 1s are changed to signals.
➢ Data consists of a stream of bits: 0s or 1s.
➢ Bits must be encoded into signals for transmission.
3) Data Rate
➢ PL defines the transmission-rate.
➢ Transmission-rate refers to the number of bits sent per second.
4) Synchronization of Bits
➢ PL deals with the synchronization of the transmitter and receiver.
➢ The sender and receiver are synchronized at bit-level.
5) Line Configuration
➢ PL defines the nature of the connection.
i) In a point-to-point configuration, a dedicated-link is used to connect between 2 devices
ii) In a multipoint configuration, a shared-link is used to connect between 2 or more devices.
6) Physical Topology
➢ PL defines the type of topology used for connecting the devices in the network.
➢ Topologies can be mesh, star, ring or bus.
7) Transmission Mode
➢ PL defines the direction of data-transfer between 2 devices.
i) Simplex: Only one device can send; the other device can only receive.
ii) Half-duplex: Two devices can send and receive, but not at the same time.
iii) Full-duplex: Two devices can send and receive at the same time.

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Data Link Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Data-link-layer (DLL) is responsible for moving frames from one node to another node.

• Other responsibilities of data-link-layer (Figure 2.6 & 2.7):

1) Framing
➢ DLL receives & divides the stream of bits from network-layer into frames.
2) Physical-addressing
➢ DLL appends a header to the frame coming from the network-layer.
➢ Header contains the physical-address of sender & receiver of the frame.
3) Flow Control
➢ DLL provides flow-control.
➢ Flow-control ensures that source sends the data at a speed at which destination can receive it
➢ If there is an overflow at the receiver-side, the data will be lost.
4) Error Control
➢ DLL provides error-control.
➢ Error-control is process of identification or correction of error occurred in the transmitted data
➢ Error-control uses mechanisms to
→ detect damaged-frames
→ retransmit lost-frames
→ recognize duplicate frames.
➢ Normally, error control information is present in the trailer of a frame.
5) Access Control
➢ DLL provides access-control.
➢ Access-control determines which device has right to send the data in a multipoint connection.

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Network Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Network-layer (NL) is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across
multiple-networks.
• Data-link-layer vs. Network-layer:
1) The data-link-layer ensures the delivery of the packet between 2 systems on the same link.
2) The network-layer ensures that each packet gets from the source to the final destination.
• If 2 systems are connected to the same link, there is no need for a network-layer.
However, if the 2 systems are attached to different links, there is often a need for the network-
layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.

• Other responsibilities of network-layer (Figure 2.8 & 2.9):

1) Logical Addressing
➢ NL appends a header to the packet coming from the transport-layer.
➢ The header contains the IP addresses of the sender and receiver.
➢ An IP address is a universally unique address in the network.
➢ NL uses IP address to recognize devices on the network.
2) Routing
➢ NL provides routing of packets.
➢ Routing is the process of finding the best path from a source to a destination.
➢ Routers/gateways are used for routing the packets to their final destination.
➢ NL is concerned with circuit, message or packet switching.

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Transport Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Transport-layer (TL) is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
• Process-to-process delivery means delivery from a specific process on one computer to a specific
process on the other computer.
• A process is an application program running on a host.
• Network-layer vs. Transport-layer:
1) Network-layer ensures source-to-destination delivery of individual packets.
2) Transport-layer ensures that the whole message arrives in order

• Other responsibilities of transport-layer (Figure 2.10 & 2.11):

1) Service Point Addressing
➢ NL appends a header to the segments coming from the network-layer.
➢ Header contains the port-address of the sender and receiver.
➢ Network-layer vs. Transport-layer:
i) The network-layer gets each packet to the correct computer.
ii) The transport-layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
2) Segmentation & Reassembly
➢ A message is divided into segments.
➢ Each segment contains a sequence-number.
➢ At receiver, the sequence-numbers are used to
→ rearrange the segments in proper order
→ identify lost/duplicate segments

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3) Connection Control
➢ TL can be either i) connectionless or ii) connection-oriented.
i) In connectionless, TL
→ treats each segment as an independent packet and
→ delivers the segment to the transport-layer at the destination-machine.
ii) In connection-oriented, TL
→ first, makes a connection with the destination-machine.
→ then, delivers the packets to the destination-machine.
4) Flow Control & Error Control
➢ Like DLL, TL is responsible for flow-control & error-control.
However, flow-control & error-control are performed end-to-end rather than node-to-node.

Session Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Session-layer (SL) establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction between 2 systems.
• Other responsibilities of session-layer (Figure 2.12):
1) Dialog Control
➢ SL allows 2 systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
2) Synchronization
➢ SL allows a process to add checkpoints into stream of data.
➢ The checkpoint is a way of informing the status of the data transfer.
➢ For example:
A checkpoint after first 500 bits of data will ensure that those 500 bits are not sent again
in case of retransmission at 650th bit. (Checkpoints → Synchronization Points)

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Presentation Layer
• Main Responsibility:
Presentation-layer (PL) is concerned with syntax & semantics of the info. exchanged b/w 2 systems.

• Other responsibilities of presentation-layer (Figure 2.13):

1) Translation
➢ PL translates data between
→ format the network requires and
→ format the computer understands.
➢ PL is responsible for interoperability between encoding methods as different computers use
different encoding-methods.
2) Encryption
➢ PL performs
→ encryption at the sender and
→ decryption at the receiver.
➢ Encryption means the sender transforms the original information to another.
➢ Decryption means the receiver transforms the encrypted-message back to its original form.
3) Compression
➢ PL carries out data compression to reduce the size of the data to be transmitted.
➢ Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
➢ Data compression ensures faster data transfer.
➢ Data compression is important in transmitting multimedia such as audio, video, etc.

Application Layer
• Main Responsibility: The application-layer (AL)
→ provides services to the user
→ enables the user to access the network.

• Other responsibilities of application-layer (Figure 2.14):

1) Mail Services
2) Directory Services

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3) File Transfer, Access, and Management

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MODULE 1(CONT.): DATA AND SIGNALS

1.8 DATA AND SIGNALS

1.8.1 Analog & Digital Data
• To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic-signals.
• Data can be either analog or digital.
1) Analog Data refers to information that is continuous.
➢ For example:
The sounds made by a human voice.
2) Digital Data refers to information that has discrete states.
➢ For example:
Data are stored in computer-memory in the form of 0s and 1s.

1.8.2 Analog & Digital Signals

• Signals can be either analog or digital (Figure 3.2).
1) Analog Signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
2) Digital Signal can have only a limited number of defined values.

1.8.3 Periodic & Non-Periodic Signals

• The signals can take one of 2 forms: periodic or non-periodic.
1) Periodic Signal
➢ Signals which repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Periodic Signals.
➢ The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.
2) Non-Periodic Signal
➢ Signals which do not repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Non-Periodic Signals.

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1.9 DIGITAL SIGNALS
• Information can be represented by a digital signal.
• For example:
1) 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage.
0 can be encoded as a zero voltage (Figure 3.17a).
2) A digital signal can have more than 2 levels (Figure 3.17b).

Example 1.1

1.9.1 Bit Rate

• The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s.
• The bit rate is expressed in bits per second (bps).

Example 1.2

Example 1.3

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Example 1.4

1.9.2 Bit Length

• The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.

1.9.3 Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal

• A digital signal is a composite analog signal.
• A digital signal, in the time domain, comprises connected vertical and horizontal line segments.
1) A vertical line in the time domain means a frequency of infinity (sudden change in time);
2) A horizontal line in the time domain means a frequency of zero (no change in time).
• Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a digital signal.
1) If the digital signal is periodic, the decomposed signal has a frequency domain representation
with an infinite bandwidth and discrete frequencies (Figure 3.18a).
2) If the digital signal is non-periodic, the decomposed signal has a frequency domain
representation with an infinite bandwidth and continuous frequencies (Figure 3.18b).

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1.9.4 Transmission of Digital Signals
• Two methods for transmitting a digital signal:
1) Baseband transmission 2) Broadband transmission (using modulation).

1.9.4.1 Baseband Transmission

• Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without changing the digital
signal to an analog signal (Figure 3.19).

• Baseband transmission requires that we have a low-pass channel.

• Low-pass channel means a channel with a bandwidth that starts from zero.
• For example, we can have a dedicated medium with a bandwidth constituting only one channel.

• Two cases of a baseband communication:

Case 1: Low-pass channel with a wide bandwidth (Figure 3.20a)
Case 2: Low-pass channel with a limited bandwidth (Figure 3.20b)
Case 1: Low-Pass Channel with Wide Bandwidth
➢ To preserve the shape of a digital signal, we need to send the entire spectrum i.e. the
continuous range of frequencies between zero and infinity.
➢ This is possible if we have a dedicated medium with an infinite bandwidth between the sender
and receiver.
➢ If we have a medium with a very wide bandwidth, 2 stations can communicate by using
digital signals with very good accuracy (Figure 3.21).
➢ Although the output signal is not an exact replica of the original signal, the data can still be
deduced from the received signal.

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Case 2: Low-Pass Channel with Limited Bandwidth
➢ In a low-pass channel with limited bandwidth, we approximate the digital signal with an
analog signal.
➢ The level of approximation depends on the bandwidth available.
A) Rough Approximation
¤ Assume that we have a digital signal of bit rate N (Figure 3.22).
¤ If we want to send analog signals to roughly simulate this signal, we need to consider
the worst case, a maximum number of changes in the digital signal.
¤ This happens when the signal carries the sequence 01010101 . . or 10101010. . . .
¤ To simulate these two cases, we need an analog signal of frequency f = N/2.
¤ Let 1 be the positive peak value and 0 be the negative peak value.
¤ We send 2 bits in each cycle; the frequency of the analog signal is one-half of the bit
rate, or N/2.
¤ This rough approximation is referred to as using the first harmonic (N/2) frequency.
The required bandwidth is

B) Better Approximation
¤ To make the shape of the analog signal look more like that of a digital signal, we need
to add more harmonics of the frequencies (Figure 3.23).
¤ We can increase the bandwidth to 3N/2, 5N/2, 7N/2, and so on.
¤ In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate;
If we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.

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Example 1.5

Example 1.6

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1.9.4.2 Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)
• Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an analog signal for
transmission.
• Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel (Figure 3.24).
• Bandpass channel means a channel with a bandwidth that does not start from zero.
• This type of channel is more available than a low-pass channel.

• If the available channel is a bandpass channel,

We cannot send the digital signal directly to the channel;
We need to convert the digital signal to an analog signal before transmission (Figure 3.25).

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1.10 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
• Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.
• The imperfection causes signal-impairment.
• This means that signal at beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at end of medium.
• What is sent is not what is received.
• Three causes of impairment are (Figure 3.26):
1) Attenuation
2) Distortion &
3) Noise.

1.10.1 Attenuation
• As signal travels through the medium, its strength decreases as distance increases. This is called
attenuation (Figure 3.27).
• As the distance increases, attenuation also increases.
• For example:
Voice-data becomes weak over the distance & loses its contents beyond a certain distance.
• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.

1.10.1.1 Decibel
• The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of
→ 2 signals or
→ one signal at 2 different points.
• The decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated.
The decibel is positive if a signal is amplified.

• Variables P1 and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.

• To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of decibel.

Example 1.7

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Example 1.8

Example 1.9

Example 1.10

1.10.2 Distortion
• Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape (Figure 3.29).
• Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
• Different signal-components
→ have different propagation speed through a medium.
→ have different delays in arriving at the final destination.
• Differences in delay create a difference in phase if delay is not same as the period-duration.
• Signal-components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the sender.
• The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.

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1.10.3 Noise
• Noise is defined as an unwanted data (Figure 3.30).
• In other words, noise is the external energy that corrupts a signal.
• Due to noise, it is difficult to retrieve the original data/information.
• Four types of noise:
i) Thermal Noise
➢ It is random motion of electrons in wire which creates extra signal not originally sent by
transmitter.
ii) Induced Noise
➢ Induced noise comes from sources such as motors & appliances.
➢ These devices act as a sending-antenna.
The transmission-medium acts as the receiving-antenna.
iii) Crosstalk
➢ Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other.
➢ One wire acts as a sending-antenna and the other as the receiving-antenna.
iv) Impulse Noise
➢ Impulse Noise is a spike that comes from power-lines, lightning, and so on.
(spike → a signal with high energy in a very short time)

1.10.3.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

• SNR is used to find the theoretical bit-rate limit.
• SNR is defined as

• SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise).
• A high-SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise.
A low-SNR means the signal is more corrupted by noise.
• Because SNR is the ratio of 2 powers, it is often described in decibel units, SNRdB, defined as

Example 1.11

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1.11 DATA RATE LIMITS
• Data-rate depends on 3 factors:
1) Bandwidth available
2) Level of the signals
3) Quality of channel (the level of noise)
• Two theoretical formulas can be used to calculate the data-rate:
1) Nyquist for a noiseless channel and
2) Shannon for a noisy channel.

1.11.1 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

➢ For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit-rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit-rate

where bandwidth = bandwidth of the channel

L = number of signal-levels used to represent data
BitRate = bitrate of channel in bps
➢ According to the formula,
¤ By increasing number of signal-levels, we can increase the bit-rate.
¤ Although the idea is theoretically correct, practically there is a limit.
¤ When we increase the number of signal-levels, we impose a burden on the receiver.
¤ If no. of levels in a signal is 2, the receiver can easily distinguish b/w 0 and 1.
¤ If no. of levels is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish b/w 64
different levels.
¤ In other words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.

Example 1.12

Example 1.13

Example 1.14

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1.11.2 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
➢ In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy.
➢ For a noisy channel, the Shannon capacity formula defines the theoretical maximum bit-rate.

where bandwidth = bandwidth of channel in bps.

SNR = signal-to-noise ratio and
Capacity = capacity of channel in bps.
➢ This formula does not consider the no. of levels of signals being transmitted (as done in the
Nyquist bit rate).
This means that no matter how many levels we have, we cannot achieve a data-rate
higher than the capacity of the channel.
➢ In other words, the formula defines a characteristic of the channel, not the method of
transmission.

Example 1.15

Example 1.16

Example 1.17

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1.12 PERFORMANCE
1.12.1 Bandwidth
• One characteristic that measures network-performance is bandwidth.
• Bandwidth of analog and digital signals is calculated in separate ways:
(1) Bandwidth of an Analog Signal (in hz)
➢ Bandwidth of an analog signal is expressed in terms of its frequencies.
➢ Bandwidth is defined as the range of frequencies that the channel can carry.
➢ It is calculated by the difference b/w the maximum frequency and the minimum frequency.

In figure 3.13, the signal has a minimum frequency of F1 = 1000Hz and maximum
frequency of F2 = 5000Hz.
Hence, the bandwidth is given by F2 – F1= 5000 - 1000 = 4000 Hz
(2) Bandwidth of a Digital Signal (in bps)
➢ Bandwidth refers to the number of bits transmitted in one second in a channel (or link).
➢ For example:
The bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet is a maximum of 100 Mbps. (This means that this
network can send 100 Mbps).
Relationship between (1) and (2)
• There is an explicit relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per seconds.
• Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in bits per second.
• The relationship depends on
→ baseband transmission or
→ transmission with modulation.

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1.12.2 Throughput
• The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.
• Although, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are actually different.
• A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link with T always
less than B.
• In other words,
1) The bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link.
2) The throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
For example:
¤ We may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected to
the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps.
¤ This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.

Example 1.18

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1.12.3 Latency (Delay)
• The latency defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the destination
from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.

1) Propagation Time
➢ Propagation time is defined as the time required for a bit to travel from source to destination.
➢ Propagation time is given by

➢ Propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on

→ medium and
→ frequency of the signal.

Example 1.19

2) Transmission Time
➢ The time required for transmission of a message depends on
→ size of the message and
→ bandwidth of the channel.
➢ The transmission time is given by

Example 1.20

c
Example 1.21

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3) Queuing Time
➢ Queuing-time is the time needed for each intermediate-device to hold the message before it
can be processed.
(Intermediate device may be a router or a switch)
➢ The queuing-time is not a fixed factor. This is because
i) Queuing-time changes with the load imposed on the network.
ii) When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing-time increases.
➢ An intermediate-device
→ queues the arrived messages and
→ processes the messages one by one.
➢ If there are many messages, each message will have to wait.
4) Processing Delay
➢ Processing delay is the time taken by the routers to process the packet header.

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1.12.4 Bandwidth Delay Product
• Two performance-metrics of a link are 1) Bandwidth and 2) Delay
• The bandwidth-delay product is very important in data-communications.
• Let us elaborate on this issue, using 2 hypothetical cases as examples.
Case 1: The following figure shows case 1 (Figure 3.32).

➢ Let us assume,
Bandwidth of the link = 1 bps Delay of the link = 5s.
➢ From the figure 3.32, bandwidth-delay product is 1 x 5 = 5. Thus, there can be maximum 5
bits on the line.
➢ There can be no more than 5 bits at any time on the link.
Case 2: The following figure shows case 2 (Figure 3.33).

➢ Let us assume,
Bandwidth of the link = 4 bps Delay of the link = 5s.
➢ From the figure 3.33, bandwidth-delay product is 5 x 5 = 25. Thus, there can be maximum
25 bits on the line.
➢ At each second, there are 5 bits on the line, thus the duration of each bit is 0.20s.
• The above 2 cases show that the (bandwidth X delay) is the number of bits that can fill the link.
• This measurement is important if we need to
→ send data in bursts and
→ wait for the acknowledgment of each burst.
• To use the maximum capability of the link
→ We need to make the burst-size as (2 x bandwidth x delay).
→ We need to fill up the full-duplex channel (two directions).

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• Amount (2x bandwidth x delay) is the number of bits that can be in transition at any time (Fig 3.34).

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1.12.5 Jitter
• Another performance issue that is related to delay is jitter.
• We can say that jitter is a problem
→ if different packets of data encounter different delays and
→ if the application using the data at the receiver site is time-sensitive (for ex: audio/video).
• For example:
If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms
the delay for the second is 45 ms and
the delay for the third is 40 ms
then the real-time application that uses the packets suffers from jitter.

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MODULE-WISE QUESTIONS

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION

1) Define data communications. Explain its 4 fundamental characteristics. (4*)

2) Explain different components of data communication system. (6*)
3) Explain different forms of information. (4)
4) Describe simplex, half-duplex and full duplex methods of data flow. (6*)
5) Explain the 3 criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network. (4*)
6) Explain point to point and multipoint connection. (4*)
7) Explain the following topologies:
i) Mesh ii) Star iii) Bus iv) Ring (12*)
8) Explain in detail LAN & WAN. List the differences between LAN & WAN. (10*)
9) Explain circuit-switched and packet-switched networks. (6*)
10) Explain components of Internet. (4*)
11) Explain different method of accessing the Internet. (6*)
12) With respect to RFC, explain the following:
i) Maturity Levels ii) Requirement Levels. (6)
13) What are internet standards? Explain the functions of standard organizations. (4*)

MODULE 1(CONT.): NETWORK MODELS

1) Explain TCP/IP architecture with a layer diagram. (4*)

2) List the 5 layers and its functionality in TCP/IP model. (8*)
3) With respect to in TCP/IP model, explain the following:
i) Encapsulation and decapsulation. ii) Multiplexing and demultiplexing. (8)
4) Explain four levels of addressing employed in TCP/IP protocol. (6*)
5) What are the uses of a layered network model? Compare OSI and TCP/IP models. (4)

MODULE 1(CONT.): DATA AND SIGNALS

1) Compare the following:

i) Analog signal vs. Digital signal. ii) Periodic signal vs. Non-periodic signal. (4)
2) Describe digital signal as a composite analog signal. (4)
3) Explain 2 methods for transmitting a digital signal (8*)
4) What do you mean by transmission impairment? Explain causes of transmission impairment? (6*)
5) What are the three factors data rate is dependent on? Explain the theoretical formula which was
developed to calculate the data rate. (8*)
6) Explain 4 performance parameters of network. (8*)

MODULE 1(CONT.): DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

1) Explain in detail any 6 characteristics of digital signal. (6*)

2) Compare the following:
i) Data element vs. Signal element. ii) Data rate vs. Signal rate. (4)
3) Explain following encoding schemes with example:
i) Unipolar Scheme ii) Polar Schemes iii) Bipolar Schemes (8*)
4) Represent the following sequences using different line coding schemes.
i) 101011100. ii) 10110011. iii) 00110101. (6*)
5) Define the following:
i) Network ii) Internet iii) Protocol iv) Decibel v) SNR vi) Line coding (6*)

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