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DEFINITION

SSD (solid-state drive)

By Alexander S. Gillis, Technical Writer and Editor Garry Kranz

What is an SSD?
An SSD, or solid-state drive, is a type of storage device used in computers. This
non-volatile storage media stores persistent data on solid-state flash memory.
SSDs replace traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) in computers and perform the
same basic functions as a hard drive. But SSDs are significantly faster in
comparison. With an SSD, the device's operating system will boot up more
rapidly, programs will load quicker and files can be saved faster.

A traditional hard drive consists of a spinning disk with a read/write head on a

mechanical arm called an actuator. An HDD reads and writes data magnetically.
The magnetic properties, however, can lead to mechanical breakdowns.

By comparison, an SSD has no moving parts to break or spin up or down. The

two key components in an SSD are the flash controller and NAND flash memory
chips. This configuration is optimized to deliver high read/write performance for
sequential and random data requests.

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SSDs are used anywhere that hard drives can be deployed. In consumer
products, for example, they are used in personal computers (PCs), laptops,
computer games, digital cameras, digital music players, smartphones, tablets and
thumb drives. They are also incorporated with graphics cards. However, they are
more expensive than traditional HDDs.

An image of a Samsung SSD.

Businesses with a
rapidly expanding need
w for higher input/output
(I/O) have fueled the
development and
adoption of SSDs.
Because SSDs offer

k This image shows a Samsung 2 TB SSD. lower latency than

HDDs, they can
efficiently handle both heavy read and random workloads. That lower latency
stems from the ability of a flash SSD to read data directly and immediately from
stored data.

High-performance servers, laptops, desktops or any application that needs to

deliver information in real-time can benefit from solid-state drive technology.
Those characteristics make enterprise SSDs suitable to offload reads from
transaction-heavy databases. They can also help to alleviate boot storms with
virtual desktop infrastructure, or inside a storage array to store frequently used

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data locally using a hybrid cloud.

How do SSDs work?

An SSD reads and writes data to underlying interconnected flash memory chips
made out of silicon. Manufacturers build SSDs by stacking chips in a grid to
achieve different densities.

SSDs read and write data to an underlying set of interconnected flash memory
chips. These chips use floating gate transistors (FGTs) to hold an electrical
charge, which enables the SSD to store data even when it is not connected to a
power source. Each FGT contains a single bit of data, designated either as a 1
for a charged cell or a 0 if the cell has no electrical charge.

Every block of data is accessible at a consistent speed. However, SSDs can only
write to empty blocks. And although SSDs have tools to get around this,
performance may still slow over time.

SSDs use three main types of memory: single-, multi- and triple-level cells.
Single-level cells can hold one bit of data at a time -- a one or zero. Single-level
cells (SLCs) are the most expensive form of SSD, but are also the fastest and
most durable. Multi-level cells (MLCs) can hold two bits of data per cell and have
a larger amount of storage space in the same amount of physical space as a
SLC. However, MLCs have slower write speeds. Triple-level cells (TLCs) can hold
three bits of data in a cell. Although TLCs are cheaper, they also have slower
write speeds and are less durable than other memory types. TLC-based SSDs
deliver more flash capacity and are less expensive than an MLC or SLC, albeit
with a higher likelihood for bit rot due to having eight states within the cell.

What are the major features of SSDs?

Several features characterize the design of an SSD. Because it has no moving
parts, an SSD is not subject to the same mechanical failures that can occur in
HDDs. SSDs are also quieter and consume less power. And because SSDs
weigh less than hard drives, they are a good fit for laptop and mobile computing
devices.

In addition, the SSD controller software includes predictive analytics that can alert
a user in advance of a potential drive failure. Because flash memory is malleable,

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all-flash array vendors can manipulate the usable storage capacity using data
reduction techniques.

A list of SSD terms.

k A list of SSD-related terms to know.

What are the advantages of SSDs?

The benefits of SSDs over HDDs include:

• Faster read/write speeds. SSDs can access large files quickly.

• Quicker boot times and better performance. Because the drive does not
need to spin up as an HDD would, it is more responsive and provides better
load performance.

• Durability. SSDs are more shock-resistant and can handle heat better than
HDDs because they do not have moving parts.

• Power consumption. SSDs need less power to operate than HDDs due to
their lack of moving parts.

• Quieter. SSDs produce less audible noise because there are no moving or
spinning parts.

• Size. SSDs come in a variety of form factors whereas HDD sizes are limited.

What are the disadvantages of SSDs?

Downsides that come with SSDs include:

• Cost. SSDs are more expensive than traditional HDDs.

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• Life expectancy. Some SSDs, for example, those using NAND memory-flash
chips, can only be written a specified number of times that is typically less
than HDDs.

• Performance. Limitations on the number of write cycles cause SSDs to

decrease in performance over time.

• Storage options. Because of cost, SSDs are typically sold in smaller sizes.

• Data recovery. This time-consuming process can be expensive, as the data

on damaged chips may not be recoverable.

What are the types of SSD non-volatile memory?

NAND and NOR circuitry differ in the type of logic gate they use. NAND devices
use eight-pin serial access to data. Meanwhile, NOR flash memory is commonly
used in mobile phones, supporting 1-byte random access.

SSD memory types compared.

k This chart compares the different SSD memory types.

Compared with NAND, NOR flash offers fast read times, but is generally a more
expensive memory technology. NOR writes data in large chunks, meaning it
takes longer to erase and write new data. The random-access capabilities of
NOR are used for executing code, while NAND flash is intended for storage. Most
smartphones support both types of flash memory, using NOR to boot up the
operating system and removable NAND cards to expand the device's storage
capacity.

What are the types of SSDs?

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Types of SSDs include:

1. Solid-state drives. Basic SSDs deliver the least performance. SSDs are flash
devices that connect via Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) or
serial-attached SCSI (SAS) and provide a cost-effective first step into the
solid-state world. For many environments, the performance boost in
sequential read speeds from a SATA or SAS SSD will suffice.

2. PCIe-based flash. Peripheral Component Interconnect Express-based

flash is the next step up in performance. While these devices typically offer
greater throughput and more input/output operations per second, the biggest
advantage is significantly lower latency. The downside is that most of these
offerings require a custom driver and have limited built-in data protection.

3. Flash DIMMs. Flash dual in-line memory modules reduce latency, going
further than PCIe flash cards by eliminating the potential PCIe bus contention.
They require custom drivers unique to flash DIMMS, with specific changes to
the read-only I/O system on the motherboard.

4. NVMe SSDs. These SSDs use the non-volatile memory express (NVMe)
interface specification. This accelerates data transfer speeds between client
systems and solid-state drives over a PCIe bus. NVMe SSDs are designed for
high-performance non-volatile storage and are well-suited for highly
demanding, compute-intensive settings.

5. NVMe-oF. The NVMe over Fabrics protocol enables data transfers between a
host computer and a target solid-state storage device. NVMe-oF transfers
data through methods such as Ethernet, Fibre Channel or InfiniBand.

6. Hybrid DRAM-flash storage. This dynamic random access memory (DRAM)

channel configuration combines flash and server DRAM. These hybrid flash
storage devices address the theoretical scaling limit of DRAM and are used to
increase throughput between application software and storage.

SSD form factors

SSD manufacturers offer diverse form factors. The most common form factor is a
2.5-inch SSD that is available in multiple heights and supports SAS, SATA and
NVMe protocols.

The Solid State Storage Initiative, a project of the Storage Networking Industry

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Association, identified the following three major SSD form factors:

1. SSDs that come in traditional HDD form factors and fit into the same SAS and
SATA slots in a server.

2. Solid-state cards that use standard add-in card form factors, such as those
with a PCIe serial port card. A PCIe-connected SSD does not require network
host bus adapters to relay commands, which speeds the performance of
storage. These devices include the U.2 SSDs that are generally considered
the eventual replacement for drives used in thin laptops.

3. Solid-state modules that reside in a DIMM or small outline dual in-line memory
module. They may use a standard HDD interface such as SATA. These
devices are known as non-volatile DIMM (NVDIMM) cards.

Two types of RAM are used in a computer system: DRAM, which loses data
when power is lost, and static RAM. NVDIMMs provide the persistent storage a
computer needs to recover data. They place flash close to the motherboard, but
operations are carried out in DRAM. The flash component fits into a memory bus
for backup on high-performance storage.

Both SSDs and RAM incorporate solid-state chips, but the two memory types
function differently within a computer system.

Seven SSD form factors.

k An example of seven SSD configurations.

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Two newer form factors worth noting are M.2 and U.2 SSDs. An M.2 SSD varies
in length -- typically from 42 millimeters (mm) to 110 mm -- and attaches directly
to a motherboard. It communicates via NVMe or SATA. The small size of an M.2
limits the surface area for heat dissipation which, over time, will reduce its
performance and stability. In enterprise storage, M.2 SSDs often are used as a
boot device. In consumer devices, such as notebook computers, an M.2 SSD
provides capacity expansion.

A U.2 SSD describes a 2.5-inch PCIe SSD. These small form-factor devices were
formerly known as SFF-8639. The U.2 interface enables high-speed NVMe-
based PCIe SSDs to be inserted in a computer's circuit board, without the need to
power down the server and storage.

SSD manufacturers
The SSD market is dominated by a handful of large manufacturers, including:

• Crucial

• Intel

• Kingston Technology

• Micron Technology Inc.

• Samsung

• SanDisk

• Seagate Technology

• SK Hynix

• Western Digital Corp.

These manufacturers produce and sell NAND flash chipsets to solid-state drive
vendors. They also market branded SSDs based on their own flash chips.
Factors to consider when shopping for SSDs include:

• Durability. Every SSD warranty covers a finite number of drive cycles,

determined by the type of NAND flash. An SSD used only for reads does not

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require the same level of endurance as an SSD intended to handle mostly

writes.

• Form factor. This determines if a replacement SSD works with existing

storage and the number of SSDs that can fit in a single chassis.

• Interface. This determines maximum throughput and minimum latency

thresholds, as well as the expansion capabilities of the SSD. Manufacturers
qualify their SSDs for NVMe, SAS and SATA.

• Power usage. The drive interface also specifies the maximum power of an
SSD, although many enterprise SSDs are engineered to be tuned while in
operation.

Historically, SSDs cost more than conventional hard drives. But due to
improvements in manufacturing technology and expanded chip capacity, SSD
prices had been dropping, enabling consumers and enterprise customers to view
SSDs as a viable alternative to conventional storage. However, prices are
increasing due to chip shortages and a general volatile market -- more recently in
2020 and 2021, due to COVID-19-related supply chain issues. Fluctuating
demand for flash chips has kept pricing for SSDs variable, but the price for an
SSD remains higher than an HDD.

SSD vs. HDD

SSDs are considered much faster than the highest performing HDDs. Latency is
also substantially reduced, and users typically experience much faster boot times.

Several factors influence the lifespan of SSDs and HDDs, including heat,
humidity and the effect of metals oxidizing inside the drives. Data on both types of
media will degrade over time, with HDDs generally supporting a higher number of
drive writes per day. Industry experts recommend storing unused or idle SSDs at
low temperatures to extend their life.

The moving parts of HDDs increase the chance of failures. To compensate, HDD
manufacturers have added shock sensors to protect drives and other
components inside PCs. This type of sensor detects if the machine is about to fall
and takes steps to shut down the HDD and related critical hardware.

Read performance of an HDD can suffer when data is split into different sectors

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on the disk. To repair the disk, a technique known as defragmentation is used.

SSDs do not store data magnetically, so the read performance remains steady,
regardless of where the data is stored on the drive.

SSDs have a set life expectancy, with a finite number of write cycles before
performance becomes erratic. To compensate, SSDs employ wear leveling, a
process that extends the life of an SSD. Wear leveling is typically managed by
the flash controller, which uses an algorithm to arrange data so write/erase cycles
are distributed evenly among all the blocks in the device. Another technique, SSD
overprovisioning, can help minimize the impact of garbage collection write
amplification.

SSD vs. eMMC

An embedded MultiMediaCard (eMMC) provides the onboard flash storage in a
computer. It is installed directly on the computer motherboard. The architecture
includes NAND flash memory and a controller designed as an integrated circuit.
EMMC storage is typically found in cellphones, less expensive laptops and IoT
applications.

An eMMC device delivers performance roughly equivalent to that of an SSD. But

they differ in capacity, as a standard eMMC typically ranges from 1 GB to 512
GB, and SSD sizes can range from 128 GB to multiple terabytes. This makes
eMMCs best suited for handling smaller file sizes.

An embedded eMMC MultiMediaCard.

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k This shows an embedded eMMC MultiMediaCard.

In portable devices, an eMMC serves as primary storage or as an adjunct to

removable SD and microSD multimedia cards. Although this is the historical use
of eMMC devices, they are increasingly deployed in sensors inside connected
internet of things devices.

SSD vs. hybrid hard drive

Although not as widely used as a standard solid-state drive, an alternative is a
hybrid hard drive (HHD). HHDs bridge the gap between flash and fixed-disk
magnetic storage and are used to upgrade laptops, both for capacity and
performance.

HHDs have a conventional disk architecture that adds approximately 8 GB of

NAND flash as a buffer for disk-based workloads.

The parts of a hybrid hard drive.

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k This diagram shows the components of a hybrid hard drive.

As such, an HHD is best suited for computers with a limited number of

applications. The cost of a hybrid hard drive is slightly less than an HDD.

History and evolution of SSDs

The earliest solid-state drives generally were designed for consumer devices.
This changed in 1991 when SanDisk released the first commercial flash-based
SSD. Commercially designed SSDs were made with enterprise multi-level cell
flash technology, which enhanced write cycles.

Other notable dates include:

• The debut of the Apple iPod in 2005 marked the first notable flash-based
device to broadly penetrate the consumer market.

• Toshiba announced 3D V-NAND in 2007. 3D flash devices boost capacity and

performance.

• EMC -- now Dell EMC -- is credited with being the first vendor to include
SSDs in enterprise storage hardware, adding the technology to its Symmetrix
disk arrays in 2008. This spawned the creation of hybrid flash arrays that
combine flash drives and HDDs.

• Toshiba introduced triple-level cells in 2009. TLC flash is a type of NAND flash
memory that stores three bits of data per cell.

• IBM is considered the first major storage vendor to release a dedicated all-
flash array platform, called FlashSystem, based on technology from its
acquisition of Texas Memory Systems in 2012. Around that time, Nimbus
Data, Pure Storage, Texas Memory Systems and Violin Memory began
pioneering the adoption of all-flash arrays, relying on SSD storage to replace
hard disks.

• In 2012, EMC acquired XtremIO and now ships an all-flash system based on

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the XtremIO technology.

Learn more about four causes of SSD failure and best practices for dealing with
them in this article.

This was last updated in August 2021

m Continue Reading About SSD (solid-state drive)

·· HDD vs. SSD storage in the age of flash

The rise of the high-capacity vs. the high-performance SSD

·· Nimbus adds cheaper 64 TB QLC SSDs to complement 100 TB SSD

SSD becoming the norm in laptops

· Does a gaming computer need an SSD? Everything you need to know

Related Terms
IOPS (input/output operations per second)
IOPS (input/output operations per second) is the standard unit of measurement for the
maximum number of reads/writes to ... See complete definitionq

Pure Storage
Pure Storage is a provider of enterprise data flash storage products designed to substitute
for electromechanical disk arrays. See complete definitionq

software redundant array of independent disk (software

RAID)

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Software RAID, also known as virtual RAID, is a form of RAID (software redundant array of
independent disk) performed on an ... See complete definitionq

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