(Lynne Sandles (Auth.) ) Occupational Therapy in RH (B-Ok - Xyz)

OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY IN RHEUMATOLOGY
FORTHCOMING TITLES
Occupational Therapy for the Brain-Injured Adult

Jo Clark-Wilson and Gordon Muir Giles
Physiotherapy in Respiratory and Intensive Care
Alexandra Hough
Understanding Dysphasia
Lesley Jordan and Rita Twiston Davies
Management in Occupational Therapy
ZielJa B. Maslin
Dysarthria
Theory and therapy
Sandra J. Robertson
Speech and Language Problems in Children
Dilys A. Treharne
THERAPY IN PRACTICE SERIES
Edited by Jo Campling
This series of books is aimed at 'therapists' concerned with rehabilitation
in a very broad sense. The intended audience particularly includes occupa-
tional therapists, physiotherapists and speech therapists, but many titles will
also be of interest to nurses, psychologists, medical staff, social workers,
teachers or volunteer workers. Some volumes are interdisciplinary, others
are aimed at one particular profession. All titles will be comprehensive but
concise, and practical but with due reference to relevant theory and
evidence. They are not research monographs but focus on professional
practice, and will be of value to both students and qualified personnel.
1. Occupational Therapy for Children with Disabilities
Dorothy E. Penso
2. Living Skills for Mentally Handicapped People
Christine Peck and Chia Swee Hong
3. Rehabilitation of the Older Patient
Edited by Amanda J. Squires
4. Physiotherapy and the Elderly Patient
Paul Wagstaff and Davis Coakley
5. Rehabilitation of the Severely Brain-Injured Adult
Edited by Ian Fussey and Gordon Muir Giles
6. Communication Problems in Elderly People
Rosemary Gravell
7. Occupational Therapy Practice in Psychiatry
Linda Finlay
8. Working with Bilingual Language Disability
Edited by Deirdre M. Duncan
9. Counselling Skills for Health Professionals
Philip Burnard
10. Teaching Interpersonal Skills
A handbook of experiential learning for health professionals
Philip Burnard
11. Occupational Therapy for Stroke Rehabilitation
Simon B.N. Thompson and Maryanne Morgan
12. Assessing Physically Disabled People at Home
Kathy Macllca
13. Acute Head Injury
Practical management in rehabilitation
Ruth Garner
14. Practical Physiotherapy with Older People
Lucinda Smyth et al.
15. Keyboard, Graphic and Handwriting Skills
Helping people with motor disabilities
Dorothy E. Penso
16. Community Occupational Therapy with Mentally Handicapped
Adults
Debbie Isaac
17. Autism
Professional perspectives and practice
Edited by Kathryn Ellis
18. Multiple Sclerosis
Approaches to management
Edited by Lorraine De Souza
19. Occupational Therapy in Rheumatology
An holistic approach
Lynne Sandles
Occupational
Therapy in
Rheu matology
An holistic approach
LYNNE SANDLES
Principal Occupational Therapist
The Dene Centre
Newcastle-upon-Tyne Council for the Disabled
Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.

First edition 1990
© Lynne Sandles 1990

Originally pub1ished by Chapman and Hall London in 1990
Typeset in 10112pt Times by Mayhew Typesetting, Bristol

Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk
ISBN 978-0-412-31560-2 ISBN 978-1-4899-3081-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-3081-1
AII rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, or stored in any
retrieval system of any nature, without the written permission of
the copyright holder and the publisher, application for which shall
be made to the publisher.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Sandles, Lynne
Occupational therapy in rheumatology: an holistic approach.
l. Man. Joints. Arthritis & rheumatic diseases. Therapy
1. Title II. Series
616.7206
ISBN 978-0-412-31560-2
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sandles, Lynne.
Occupational therapy in rheumatology : an holistic approach /
Lynne Sandles. - Ist ed.
p. cm. - (Therapy in practice series : 19)
IncIudes bibliographical references.
IncIudes index.
ISBN 978-0-412-31560-2
1. Rheumatism-Patients-Rehabilitation. 2. Occupational
therapy. 3. Holistic medicine. 1. Title. II. Series.
[DNLM: 1. Occupational Therapy. 2. Rheumatic Diseases-
rehabilitation. WE 544 S21701
RC927.S26 1990
616.7'2306515-dc20
DNLMIDLC
for Library of Congress 90-2589
CIP
Contents
Acknowledgements ix
Preface xi
I Introduction to chronic arthritides 1
2 Psychosocial aspects of rheumatoid disease 14
3 An holistic approach to the management of rheumatoid
disease 41
4 Assessment 51
5 Developing skills 72
6 Adaptive techniques 103
7 Housing adaptation 147
8 Splinting 162
9 Relaxation and pain control 170
10 Personal and sexual relationships 177
11 Community care 184
References 192
Index 195
Acknowledgements
The completion of this book has been achieved with the support,
advice and contributions of many people. I would like to express my
thanks to all those who have been involved in any way. Special
thanks go to Jo Campling and Chapman and Hall and to Helen Jones
for her endless patience and help.
This book would not, however, have been written without the
people of the North East of England who have shared freely their
experiences, their humour and made me welcome in their homes.
They are the people from whom I have learnt rheumatology and I
dedicate this book to them.
Preface
This book is written primarily for occupational therapists and

occupational therapy students but will be of relevance to anyone
working with clients with rheumatoid disease. It is hoped that the
text will communicate the challenge faced by therapists to establish
management programmes appropriate to the identified needs and
priorities of the individuals with whom they work, the potential to
utilize a wide range of skills and the opportunity to contribute to the
understanding of the many unanswered questions which remain in
relation to rheumatic diseases.
The aim of this book is to present an holistic approach to the
management of rheumatoid disease, considering first, the ways in
which rheumatoid disease can affect a person's life and then looking
at the approaches and techniques used by therapists to minimize
these effects. This approach has been chosen as it is fundamental to
both the philosophical basis of occupational therapy and the manage-
ment of a chronic progressive disease. An holistic approach
considers the physical, psychological, social and spiritual aspects of
a person and the ways in which these have been effected by an
underlying disease process. Each of the components are interrelated,
illustrating the complexity of establishing appropriate management
programmes and evaluating their effectiveness. The first two
chapters consider the effects of rheumatoid disease on clients and
their families.
An holistic approach identifies the need for a diversity of skills to
be available to both the therapist and client. The range of approaches
and skills needed in rheumatology often extends the boundary of the
conventional multi-disciplinary team and crosses from a hospital
setting into the community and from a ward environment into the
laboratory. To function as an active team member therapists must
have an understanding of the work of other members. Thus
rheumatology offers therapists the opportunity to extend the base of
their knowledge and the potential to work within a team offering a
diversity of skills. Chapter 3 considers the holistic approach to
management and the multi-disciplinary team.
Assessment is a fundamental component of establishing manage-
ment programmes enabling areas of need to be identified and
prioritized goals to be set and providing a baseline from which the
effectiveness of interventions can be measured. Many of the
PREFACE
techniques used by therapists in the field of rheumatology remain

unevaluated. The need to gain insight into the effectiveness of
interventions is great and opportunity to contribute to the knowledge
base of rheumatology is there for anyone who wishes to take up the
challenge. Evaluative procedures apply not only to establishing the
needs of clients but also to the work of therapists. The process of
assessment is considered in Chapter 4.
The chronic progressive nature of rheumatoid disease poses enor-
mous challenges to clients in relation to learning new skills to adapt
to their changing circumstances. The amount of time that therapists
spend with clients is fractional in terms of the overall duration of the
disease. This coupled with the increasing demand from clients to be
active participants in their management programmes leads therapists
to work with a variety of educational approaches on both an
individual and group basis. Chapter 5 considers different approaches
to conveying information, increasing client involvement and assisting
clients to cope with change.
The final section of the book considers specific interventions used
by occupational therapists in hospital and community settings.
It is hoped that this book will convey the wide horizons open to
therapists working within rheumatology and identify many of the, as
yet, unanswered questions. This field of medicine offers both breadth
and depth. The challenge of rheumatology is working with indivi-
duals and individual responses to a chronic progressive disease.
There is no such phenomenon as a treatment programme for
rheumatoid disease and it is this factor which extends the skills of
therapists to their maximum in relation to both clinical work and
research.
1
Introduction to the chronic arthritides
STRUCTURE OF DIARTHRODIAL JOINTS
Joints which possess a synovial-lined cavity are called diarthrodial

joints. They comprise a variety of types of cells and structures. The
articular surfaces of bones are covered by cartilage and lined by
synovium which is normally approximately three cells thick. Some
synovial cells secrete synovial fluid into the joint cavity, others are
phagocytic. The sUbsynovium is formed from a matrix of collagen,
proteoglycans and elastin; these molecules, secreted by fibroblasts,
provide synovium with its strength and flexibility. The tissue
contains also blood vessels, adipose cells, nerves and lymphatics.
Cells from the circulation pass through synovium, thus a few leuco-
cytes can be seen in the connective tissue of normal joints. Tendons
or ligaments may insert into bones near joint margins at a site called
the enthesis.
TYPES OF CHRONIC ARTHRITIS
The chronic arthritides involve tissue destruction and persistent

inflammation in one or several joints. Little is known about what
environmental factors are important for inducing tissue damage in
joints. Presumably most people are exposed to most of these factors,
but relatively few develop arthritis. The nature of the individual's
response, by inflammation and immune cell activation, to tissue
damage is probably of central importance in determining which
people are able to heal and repair tissue and which develop further
tissue destruction and hence disease.
Most types of chronic polyarthritis are multisystem diseases. In
other words, the brunt of damage and inflammation is borne by
joints but other tissues are involved remarkably often. Indeed,
1
INTRODUCTION TO CHRONIC ARTHRITIDES
Figure 1.1 Diagram of a diarthrodial joint
Fibrous capsule
Synovial inllma --"*-~~
clinical manifestations of the involvement of other systems may

precede or follow the onset of joint disease by many years and it is
important to recognize that the symptoms and signs of these diseases
may evolve with time. Sometimes the disability that arises from
involvement of other systems is more debilitating for the client than
that of the arthritis itself, and is occasionally life-threatening.
The main clinical basis for distinguishing one type of arthritis from
another lies in the distribution of joint involvement. However,
although characteristic patterns of joint involvement are described for
different types of arthritis it is often the case that individual clients
do not exhibit such classical patterns. In these circumstances an open
mind must be kept regarding diagnosis and careful repeated examina-
tion may reveal a diagnosis at a later date when other features of the
disease have developed. The initial clinical assessment of a client
involves making a diagnosis, based upon the distribution of joint
involvement and of systemic features, determining the extent to
which the disease interferes with his or her life and gauging the
nature of the client's response to the problem. Usually this assess-
ment can be accomplished with the minimum of laboratory
investigation.
The salient features of the four most common types of chronic
polyarthritis are described below.
2
Figure 1.2 Distribution of joint involvement in osteoarthritis
1stMTP
Osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis is the most common of the chronic arthritides. It occurs

as either a mono- or polyarthritis and can involve the spine, hips and
knees and is characterized by cartilage degeneration and osteophyte
formation. Peripheral joints can also be involved, in particular, the
distal and proximal interphalangeal joints, the first carpo-
metacarpophalangeal joint and the first metatarsophalangeal joint.
The clients often have bony swellings of the distal interphalangeal
joints, called Heberden's nodes, and of the proximal interphalangeal
joints, called Bouchard's nodes. Although osteoarthritis may have no
accompanying systemic manifestations, it develops frequently in
patients with certain rare conditions such as acromegaly and
ochronosis.
3
The predominant symptoms are pain and loss of function. Pain

may originate from the joints themselves or, when disc prolapse
from the vertebral column occurs, from nerve roots at sites of exit
from the spinal cord. Loss of function may be attributed to the pain
of inflammation or, in the later stages, to joint destruction and defor-
mity. However, a remarkable degree of function is often retained in
knee or hip joints which appear by their radiological appearances to
be affected severely. Clients may obtain benefit from measures
aimed at improving general levels of fitness, such as losing weight,
but once symptoms have developed they rarely resolve completely.
However, if progressive joint destruction does occur it usually does
so only slowly. If disability becomes severe, hip or knee joint
replacement may be indicated.
The crystal related arthropathies
A variety of types of crystal have been found in inflamed and

damaged joints. Monosodium urate crystals have been known for
many years to be associated with gout, a disease which manifests
either as repeated acute attacks of monoarthritis (classically involving
the first metatarsophalangeal joint) or as a chronic destructive
polyarthritis often accompanied by renal impairment.
The factors which promote the deposition of urate crystals in
tissues are understood poorly although concentrations of uric acid in
the serum, which are high in some clients, probably contribute to
this. Several diseases, such as haematological malignancies, and
several drugs, such as diuretics, are known to increase serum uric
acid concentrations and precipitate gout. Uric acid is the end product
of a biochemical pathway by which endogenous and dietary purines
are metabolized. The drug allopurinol inhibits an enzyme which is
active in this pathway, namely xanthine oxidase, and thus prevents
the production of uric acid. Allopurinol is used to treat clients who
suffer frequent attacks of acute gout or who have associated renal
impairment.
Calcium pyrophosphate crystals can also be found in joints in
association with acute attacks of arthritis, usually in the knees.
Clients may be perfectly fit between attacks. Interestingly, crystals
can be deposited in asymptomatic joints because it is quite common
to observe radiologically calcification of the joint cartilage, an
appearance termed chondrocalcinosis. This shows that the deposition
of crystals in joints does not necessarily result in arthritis, but at
4
Figure 1.3 Distribution of joint involvement in rheumatoid arthritis
MTPs
present the other mechanisms which determine the pathogenicity of

crystals are not understood. It is rare for rapid or severe joint
destruction to be associated with crystal deposition alone and if it
occurs the presence of other types of arthritis should be considered.
Management is based upon explanation and encouragement to
improve general levels of fitness and function. Simple analgesics or
antirheumatic drugs may be beneficial during acute attacks.
Rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome and related diseases
Rheumatoid arthritis is characterized by a chronic, destructive,

peripheral, symmetrical polyarthritis, often associated with
subcutaneous and tendon nodules.
It can develop at any age, including childhood. There is marked
5
INTRODUCfION TO CHRONIC ARTHRITIDES
systemic involvement, with malaise, weight loss, anaemia and

lymphadenopathy, and involvement of other systems resulting in
vasculitis, neuropathies, pulmonary and ocular disease. In particular,
clients frequently suffer from a dry mouth and dry eyes, and this
complex of clinical features is known as Sjogren's syndrome.
Sjogren's syndrome is also associated with other multisystem
diseases (such as systemic lupus erythematosus, systemic sclerosis,
polyarteritis nodosa) and organ-specific diseases (such as
Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves disease, pernicious anaemia) and
many clients develop these other conditions before or after the onset
of rheumatoid arthritis.
The following is a list of common extra-articular features of
rheumatoid arthritis.
1. Systemic
(a) Rheumatoid nodules
(b) Sjogren's syndrome
(c) Anaemia
(d) Lymphadenopathy
(e) Amyloidosis
(f) Vasculitis;
2. Ocular
(a) Scleritis and episcleritis;
3. Neurological
(a) Peripheral nerve entrapment
(b) Cervical cord compression
(c) Peripheral neuropathy;
4. Pulmonary
(a) Pleurisy
(b) Pleural effusion
(c) Pulmonary fibrosis;
5. Cardiovascular
(a) Pericarditis and myocarditis
(b) Pericardial effusion.
One prominent feature of these diseases is the chronic activation of

immune cells some of whose responses are directed towards different
proteins in the body. Hence, these diseases are known collectively as
autoimmune diseases. Many clients with rheumatoid arthritis have
high concentrations of antibodies called rheumatoid factors in their
serum. Rheumatoid factors, which are found in many diseases of
chronic inflammation and whose pathogenic significance is unclear,
6
bind antibodies of the IgG subclass. The term seropositive is used

to denote those clients with raised titres of rheumatoid factor in their
serum.
In addition to the distribution of joint involvement, two other
features of rheumatoid arthritis are striking. First, for reasons which
are unknown the disease is more common in females. Second, it is
frequently the case that over several generations more members of
a family develop rheumatoid arthritis or a related condition than
would be expected by chance, suggesting that genetic factors
contribute to disease pathogenesis. One region of the genome known
to be important in pathogenesis is known as the HLA region. The
proteins encoded by genes in this region play a role in the induction
of immune responses. One of the genes in the HLA region is called
the DR gene, and in some groups of clients with rheumatoid arthritis
there is a higher prevalence of individuals with DR4 or DR!
haplotypes than in the popUlation as a whole. It is unresolved at
present whether DR genes themselves playa role in pathogenesis, or
whether other genes close to them are in some way responsible.
The principal symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis are joint pain and
swelling, with stiffness in the mornings or after prolonged
immobility. The severity of rheumatoid arthritis characteristically
undergoes periods of exacerbation and remission, the pattern of
which is unpredictable and probably unique for each individual
client. Broadly speaking, in some clients complete resolution occurs
after months or years, others experience a persistent disease of fluc-
tuating severity whilst relatively few suffer relentlessly progressive
disease. At any stage, any of the associated clinical features may
supervene and be associated with deterioration in the client's condi-
tion. Changes in the client's symptoms may also reflect the fact that
their ability to cope varies according to changing personal circum-
stances. The extremely variable natural history of rheumatoid
arthritis is reflected in the spectrum of histological and radiological
changes seen in the joints. The characteristic histological features are
of synovial hypertrophy and hyperplasia with infiltration of tissue by
inflammatory and immune cells. The joint cavity is filled with an
inflammatory exudate. Where the synovial tissue spreads over
cartilage it is called 'pannus'. Changes occur in the adjacent bone
and cartilage leading to erosion of these tissues and hence destruction
of the integrity of the joint. Chronic inflammation and tissue damage
in associated structures, such as tendons, contribute to the character-
istic clinical features and to the patient's disability.
Any client with rheumatoid arthritis has a unique and complex
7
combination of physical, social and psychological disability, each

component of which varies to different degrees at different times. In
order to set management goals which are optimal and attainable it is
essential that each person contributing to the care of the client
appreciates all aspects of his or her condition.
The aim of management is to maintain the maximum possible level
of function. The approaches adopted in order to attain this vary from
client to client and a skillful management team will ensure that all
potentially useful resources are deployed appropriately. Much time
needs to be spent, particularly in the early stages, in discussion and
explanation with the client, the family and often with other indivi-
duals important in their lives. It is vital that the client be given
correct advice about methods for maintaining joint function, since
most can expect the severity of inflammation to diminish at some
stage but loss of the range of movement in a joint may prove
irreversible. Medical treatment for co-existent extraarticular disease
may be necessary, but the use of anti-rheumatic drugs is given much
less prominence in modem medical management. Concerns about
side effects, lack of efficacy and increased joint destruction in the
long term have probably all contributed to this changing view. A
similar changing view pertains regarding the use of intraarticular
steroid injections. For clients with severe destructive joint disease,
joint replacement may be indicated and this should be performed, if
possible, before marked deterioration in function occurs. Through-
out, the management team and the client should be aware of the
general importance of maintaining his or her morale in order to meet
the challenge of this chronic disease.
Ankylosing spondylitis and related diseases
Ankylosing spondylitis characteristically involves the sacro-iliac

joints and the spine and probably develops as a result of chronic
inflammation primarily at entheses.
Although the severe systemic upset which is such a marked feature
of rheumatoid arthritis is not found in ankylosing spondylitis, it is
nevertheless common to find involvement of other systems in these
clients. Again, these features can develop at any stage of a client's
disease.
Common extra-articular features of ankylosing spondylitis are
listed below.
8
Figure 1.4 Distribution of joint involvement in ankylosing spondylitis
1. Ocular
(a) Uveitis and conjunctivitis;
2. Pulmonary
(a) Upper lobe fibrosis;
3. Cardiovascular
(a) Aortic regurgitation
(b) Conduction defects;
4. Neurological
(a) Nerve root or cord compression;
5. Systemic
(a) Amyloidosis.
Certain other diseases (notably psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, inflam-

matory bowel disease and Reiter's syndrome) occur in clients with
ankylosing spondylitis and in their families more often than would
9
be expected by chance. The HLA region makes an important genetic

contribution to the pathogenesis of ankylosing spondylitis because in
caucasian populations over 95 % of clients have the HLA B27
haplotype compared to about 8 % of the population as a whole. It is
important to remember, however, that the HLA B27 haplotype is not
a high risk factor for disease and most people with this haplotype are
healthy. Despite much research the mechanism of HLA B27-disease
associations is still unclear. It may be that the HLA B27 gene itself,
or its encoded product, or a gene in close proximity, mediate this
effect.
The symptoms of ankylosing spondylitis develop in adolescence or
early adult life. Although it was thought previously to be more
common in males, clearly it has been underdiagnosed in females and
probably occurs equally in both sexes. The principal symptoms are
of low back pain and stiffness, the presence of stiffness helping to
distinguish it from other causes of low back pain such as nerve root
inflammation or vertebral collapse. Quite often there is arthritis in
one or more peripheral joints also. In ankylosing spondylitis, as in
rheumatoid arthritis, there is an infiltration of inflammatory cells at
sites of disease together with chronic activation of immune cells. As
in rheumatoid arthritis, some of the immune response is directed
towards the body's own proteins such that ankylosing spondylitis is
also regarded as an autoimmune disease. In contrast to rheumatoid
arthritis, however, the chronic inflammation in ankylosing spon-
dylitis leads to fibrosis and then marked calcification, a process
which can result in severe and characteristic spinal deformity with
loss of spinal mobility.
It is now well-recognized that the single most important aspect of
management is for the client to undertake a regular programme of
exercises in order to prevent the disastrous loss of spinal mobility
which occurred in clients in the past. The potentially catastrophic
consequences of spinal immobility should be emphasized repeatedly.
Although some clients undertake such exercise programmes them-
selves, following initial instruction, many take the opportunity to
perform them in groups and this probably contributes usefully in
other ways to support and maintain morale. Some clients find anti-
rheumatic drugs useful at times when the disease is active but the
continual and habitual ingestion of drugs should be discouraged. For
clients with severe joint destruction, hip or knee joint replacement
can be performed.
10
LABORATORY AND RADIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS
LABORATORY AND RADIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS
The most important aspect of diagnosis is the clinical history and

examination. There are very few circumstances in which investiga-
tions are of central importance for diagnosis, although they are used
in clinical practice for monitoring disease progress or determining
the extent of multisystem involvement. In interpreting results of
investigations for these purposes, the rate of change over time for
the various parameters is often as important as their absolute values.
Some commonly-used investigations are discussed below.
Parameters measured in peripheral blood
The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is the simplest and most

widely used objective measure of severity of inflammation. The ESR
increases in the presence of inflammation anywhere in the body and
therefore is not a specific indicator of arthritis. The ESR depends to
a large extent upon the concentrations in blood of a variety of
different proteins (such as C-reactive protein, a 2 macroglobulin)
which are secreted from cells such as hepatocytes during inflam-
mation but whose functions are unclear. In clients with rheumatoid
arthritis blood platelet concentrations increase with disease severity.
Haemoglobin concentrations characteristically fall in clients with
chronic disease, although other possible causes of anaemia (such as
blood loss or haemolysis) must be borne in mind. Decreases in blood
haemoglobin, platelet or white cell counts may also indicate drug
toxicity.
Biochemical investigations provide information on the function of
different organs (for example, urea and electrolyte concentrations
reflect kidney function) and indicate generally the state of activation
of the immune system, as measured, for example, by serum concen-
trations of immunoglobulins, complement components and cytokines.
Many clients with rheumatoid arthritis have high concentrations of
rheumatoid factors, which are antibodies which themselves bind to
antibodies of IgG type. Again, none of these measurements have
absolute diagnostic specificity for any particular type of arthritis.
Parameters measured in synovial fluid
In arthritis, synovial fluid contains a variety of types of inflam-

matory cells and biochemical mediators of inflammation. At present,
11
however, the only two circumstances for which examination of the

fluid is of accepted diagnostic value are (i) to look for crystals in
suspected crystal deposition diseases; and (ii) to culture for bacteria
if infection is suspected.
Radiological investigation
X-rays are used for diagnosis, to monitor disease progress, and to

help determine strategies when joint replacements are planned. X-
rays illustrate the degree of joint destruction but often correlate
remarkably poorly with function. It is interesting to note that clients
with severe inflammation do not necessarily develop severe joint
destruction whereas clinically mild inflammation may sometimes be
associated with marked damage to bone and cartilage. The radio-
logical changes reflect the pathological processes occurring in the
joints. For example, in rheumatoid arthritis the early changes are
seen in peripheral joints with narrowing of the joint spaces and
periarticular osteoporosis. This may be followed by erosion of bone
and cartilage, and subsequently by complete loss of the structure of
the joint. In ankylosing spondylitis the first radiological changes
(which may take years to develop) are seen as blurring of the
margins of the sacroiliac joints. This may be followed by sclerosis
and accompanied by characteristic changes in the spine, reflecting
the inflammation and calcification which occurs in spinal joints and
ligaments.
SUMMARY
Advances in biochemistry, immunology and molecular biology are

continually providing exciting new insights into mechanisms of
inflammation and immunity. It is hoped that one day these will lead
to successful methods of curing, or even preventing, chronic
arthritis. For the foreseeable future, however, the management of
these conditions will depend upon the ability of carers to address the
complex needs and demands of clients and their families.
Rheumatology remains therefore one of the most challenging and
interesting specialities in clinical medicine.
12
FURTHER READING
FURTHER READING
R. Cailliet (1982) Soft Tissue Pain and Disability, F.A. Davis Company,
1.S. Pigg, P.W. Driscoll, R. Caniff (1985) Rheumatology Nursing, A
Problem Orientated Approach, Wiley Medical Publications.
G.K. Riggs, E. Gall (1984) Rheumatic Diseases, Rehabilitation and
Management, Butterworth Publishers, Guildford.
13
2
Psychosocial aspects of rheumatoid
disease
The unique response of individuals to illness is an indication that

aspects, other than the underlying disease process, can influence the
way in which a person responds to and experiences symptoms of a
disease and the ways in which that disease can affect a person's
lifestyle.
Management of a chronic progressive disease can only be effective
when the psychological and social implications of the disease are
considered alongside the physical symptoms, no one factor can exist
in isolation.
In rheumatoid arthritis, as with other illnesses, a unique interac-

tion exists between disease, stages in life, personality and
environment. (Rogers et al., 1982)
The uniqueness of this interaction presents a challenge to any

professional working in the field of rheumatology as no standard
treatment or regime can be implemented. Clients' responses will be
different, they will develop their own coping mechanisms, have
varying levels of motivation and place different values on aspects of
their lives.
The interaction between these different facets is not only varied
from individual to individual but will also vary for each individual
during the course of the disease. The variability of rheumatoid
disease means that a client is passing from periods of exacerbation
to periods of remission and from periods of acute illness to periods
of chronic disease. This leads to the responses of clients having to
be flexible to cope with varying levels of pain, functional ability,
deformity and the psychosocial impacts of these variations. The
added problem of feeling controlled by, as opposed to controlling,
the disease can also arise. A high degree of unpredictability, change
and feelings of loss of control can lead to stress and anxiety.
14
SELF-CONCEPT
Healthcare professionals need to gain an understanding of these

interactions in order to help clients identify and develop coping
strategies which are appropriate to their needs and those of the
environment in which they are functioning.
In considering the psychosocial aspects of rheumatoid disease this
chapter will consider some of the relationships between the disease
process and self-concept, stages in life and the environment and how
these factors can be interrelated.
SELF-CONCEPT
Self-concept is a collective name for various aspects of 'self' relating

to the way in which we perceive ourself and our relationship to the
environments in which we exist. Thus this concept comprises many
facets each of which is ascribed a value and an emotive component
and is based upon previous experience. The self-concept is not a
static concept as components may change, highly valued attributes
may become less valued and new components may be incorporated.
The onset of a chronic disease can pose a considerable threat to
self-concept and lead to varying degrees of stress and anxiety .
Rheumatoid disease can lead to fundamental changes in a client's
self-image and role. The ability to cope with these threats will
depend upon the client's ability to utilize a range of coping
strategies. Decreased self-esteem, depression and a sense of loss of
control can result if a client is unable to utilize coping strategies to
deal with such threats to their self-concept.
Some of the components of self-concept will be discussed in
greater detail and consideration given to the way in which
rheumatoid disease can effect them.
Self-image
Self-image refers to the way we perceive our body looks and func-
tions and the emotions that our body generates, therefore it has both
a visual and an emotive element. The body schema, or visual map,
is developed in early childhood and represents the development of a
physical image, this image develops throughout life as our body
undergoes change, especially during such periods as adolescence. As
this physical picture is developing an emotional component is
developing alongside it. The emotional component is influenced
15
PSYCHOSOCIAL ASPECTS OF RHEUMATOID DISEASE
largely by societal influences which impose posItIve and negative

values to aspects of appearance. These values start to form at an
early age and can be seen in school playgrounds where any child
who is overweight or looks different is often the focus of harsh
ridicule. Positive and negative images are exploited and reinforced
daily by advertising agents who spend vast amounts of money on
projecting the desirable image to which we should all aspire, one
which is usually portrayed alongside other symbols of glamour,
wealth and good fortune. Thus positive and negative messages are
received about appearance and the social acceptability of the way we
perceive our body to look.
The wish to conform to these perceived socially acceptable norms
is strong and the strength of the media, which is brought daily into
our homes via papers, magazines and television, creates pressure to
aspire to the 'socially acceptable image'. The consequences of not
fitting into this image can include withdrawal from social situations,
low self-esteem, isolation, stress and anxiety.
If members of the public, or indeed health care professionals are
asked to describe the image of a person with rheumatoid disease
words such as 'deformed, gnarled hands' and 'twisted joints' are
used frequently. If the public image of a disease is one which is
associated with deformity this can figure highly on the list of
anxieties of a person who has been newly diagnosed as having
rheumatoid disease. The familial link of rheumatoid disease may also
mean that clients have observed at close quarters the progressive
nature of the disease and be all too aware of the possibilities of
developing deformity.
Fear of the onset of deformity is expressed frequently by clients
and yet it is questionable how much time is spent by professionals
on discussing this problem. Perhaps this is because the onset of
deformity is seen as an inevitable consequence of the disease process
about which little can be done. It is interesting, however, when talk-
ing to clients, the profound effect an altered appearance can have on
their function, especially the social consequences. On an individual
level we can identify how much a positive self-image can increase
confidence in social interactions and influence other peoples' percep-
tion of us: 'Looking good, feeling great' is a frequently used phrase.
While in reality there may be little that can be done by therapists
to prevent the development of deformity, it is necessary to consider
the ways in which poor self-image can affect a clients' function and
ways in which these effects can be minimized. Isolation and social
withdrawal may be a consequence of pain or limited mobility but
16
SELF-CONCEPT
may equally be the result of embarrassment about appearance or

gait. Therapists need to consider ways in which clients can be helped
to cope with the threat to their body image and ways in which they
can draw attention away from their visual deformities, and develop
their self-confidence in social interactions.
Incorporated within self-image is sexual identity which refers to a
person's awareness of themselves as a sexual being in relation to
other people. A change in self-image can effect sexual identity and
the way in which people perceive their ability to form or maintain
sexual relationships and to both give and receive sexual satisfaction.
The impact of a chronic disease on a person's sexuality will vary
from client to client. A young single person may feel that their
ability to form a relationship with another person is threatened; 'Will
anyone find me attractive?' A mature person in a relationship may
worry about their partner's changing attitude, they may believe they
are no longer sexually attractive or that an inability to maintain
previous levels of sexual function may lead their partner to seek
fulfilment else where.
Three components of rheumatoid disease have been identified as
affecting a person's body image, these are:
1. the disease process;

2. treatment programmes;
3. perceptions (Smith et al., 1985).
Disease process
The disease process, which progresses often towards deformity, is an

area, which in the early stages of the disease is often a cause of
conflict for many clients. The onset of deformity is acknowledged as
a source of anxiety but the implications of the disease in its early
stages, having little apparent visual deformity are often neglected by
therapists, this will be discussed under 'perceptions'.
The disease process can affect a person's self-image in several
ways. The amount of time and energy devoted to appearance may
lessen due to fatigue and lack of energy. Self-care skills may be cut
to the minimum in the mornings due to the amount of time taken for
morning stiffness to wear off and the extra time needed to complete
activities. Limitation in movement and weakness of grip may lead to
difficulties in carrying out activities and if people have become
dependent in self-care skills the priorities of a carer may not be the
17
same as those held by the client and attention to detail may not be
as great. Clients whose mobility has become impaired may be reliant
upon members of the family or other carers to buy clothes, make-up
etc. on their behalf, losing control, to some extent, over the image
which they wish to project. Clients with limited upper limb function
may be unable to style hair or apply make-up and feel that the ability
of their husbands to assist in these matters is limited. Environmental
barriers may make access to hairdressers, dentists, health clubs etc.
impossible.
The development of deformities such as swan neck and bouton-
niers deformities and ulnar drift are difficult to conceal and gait may
be affected by lower limb deformities such as fixed flexion and
valgus deformities of the knees. The development of deformities can
lead to a change in a person's self-image as they can feel their defor-
mities to be very apparent and attracting unwanted attention. This
can lead to withdrawal from social situations and alterations in
interpersonal relationships.
The. degree of distress a person feels about changes in their
appearance does not necessarily correlate with the degree of deform-
ity they have developed. What may be perceived by one person to
be a mild deformity which causes little stress may be perceived by
someone else as unacceptable and be the cause of much stress. A
young woman attending a self-management course was extremely
distressed by the sight of other peoples' hands within the group. She
was a telephonist receptionist and was desperate to do anything
which may prevent deformities developing in her hands. Other group
members did not all share her concern and were more worried by
some of the other implications of the disease. She found the confron-
tation with other group member's deformity so distressing that she
felt unable to attend more than the first session. Her priority was to
seek assurance that her hands would not become deformed and she
was desperate to do anything possible to prevent deformities
occurring.
Non-verbal communication is an important aspect of any inter-
action providing information, cues and feedback and is fundamental
to communication. The impact of deformity on non-verbal communi-
cation has not been addressed in relation to rheumatoid disease but
is worth considering. Hands are an essential component of the
communication process adding graphic detail to language, providing
a visual portrayal of emotions such as anger, frustration and anxiety,
and via touch expressing affection and providing sensory stimulation.
A person who feels their hands to be unsightly and incapable of
18
SELF-CONCEPT
giving pleasure or their actions to be clumsy may be concealing one

of the most receptive and expressive forms of non-verbal com-
munication.
Visual deformity can also determine the type of response a client
receives in a social situation, 'seeing the wheelchair before the
person'. Clients relate how they have to develop the social skills to
cope with the responses of other people to their visual deformity,
trying to project their personality over the visual perception and
value judgements that have been made as a consequence of it.
Treatment programmes
It should be acknowledged that some of the treatment programmes

prescribed will also have an affect on a person's self-image. Medica-
tion can cause changes in appearance, both in the short term as a
result of adverse reactions and in the long term resulting in such
changes as the moonshaped face seen in clients who have been
undergoing prolonged use of cortico-steroids. Scarring after joint
replacement surgery or the healing of an ulcer can be distressing and
cause embarrassment to some clients. One young client had stopped
going swimming with her friends following joint replacement
surgery because she was embarrassed by the scars she had on her
legs. Coming to terms with an altered body image can take a long
time and the amount of confidence needed to carry out an activity
such as swimming in public baths should not be under estimated.
Some clients will overcome this by going to swimming sessions
organized specifically for people with disabilities where they hope to
find more understanding but this can cause conflict between being
categorized as 'disabled' and 'different' or carrying out a valued
activity.
The use of assistive equipment, splints and orthopaedic shoes will
provide a visual marker of a disability and may draw unwanted
attention. The design of many orthoses is a cause of conflict for
clients who may have to choose between accommodating such things
into their self-image, to obtain pain relief or increased function, or
coping with the pain and limitations in order to maintain their self-
image. Some clients will opt for the latter which is one of the
reasons for items being stowed in cupboards when taken home. It is
only when the advantages of using the equipment or orthoses
outweighs the effect on the self-image that a client will adapt their
image to accommodate the change.
19
One of the most frequently expressed losses, in relation to

appearance is the ability to wear fashionable shoes. 'No matter how
much effort I put into my clothes and make-up I always look down
and see great clod-hoppers on my feet'. If it is felt that appliances
have a therapeutic value that is aimed at the prevention of deformity
this issue must be addressed. It is a false expectation to believe that
clients will wear unsightly orthoses and appliances, unless it is
absolutely essential, and says little for the value given by profes-
sionals to the body image of the clients with whom they work.
Perceptions
A person's perception of themself as handicapped depends on many

factors one of which is their self-image. In the early stages of the
disease-process a client has very few visual deformities and this will
influence the way in which society reacts to that person. A clinician
may, on examination, identify synovitis, or careful observation may
highlight a protective gait or posture, but these manifestations of
pain and stiffness are usually not observed by people such as work
colleagues, members of the public and families, therefore conflict
can arise for the client.
In Disability and Disadvantage, David Locker (1983) describes the
process of 'legitimation' which is the process by which society
acknowledges a person as having a disability. The public image of
arthritis is usually associated with old age and gross deformity,
therefore when confronted by a young person with no apparent sign
of deformity, legitimation of the disease becomes more difficult.
Hidden handicaps are more difficult for society to legitimate. This
point is emphasized by the experience of a young mother in the early
stages of rheumatoid disease who was going through a period of
remission except for one ankle. Her leg had been placed in a below
knee walking plaster to rest the joint. During the time that her leg
was in plaster she received more offers of assistance than she had
ever experienced, despite, apart from the one joint, experiencing less
pain and functioning at a greater level of independence than over the
last year. A person with a visual clue of handicap is automatically
identified as 'disabled' and their limitations and handicaps
acknowledged.
Conflict arises for the person with no visual deformity between
appearing no different and therefore not being perceived as
'disabled' and thus attracting unwanted attention, sympathy etc., and
20
SELF-CONCEPT
yet having some limitations and possibly being in need of some

assistance and support in certain situations. One young mother aban-
doned her full shopping trolley in a supermarket when she
approached the checkout for disabled people and was told to use
another because that till was only for the use of people with a
disability. This conflict can be ongoing as clients may strive to main-
tain what they perceive as an appearance of 'normality' despite being
aware of limitations and changes in appearance a~d sometimes
wanting those limitations to be acknowledged.
This conflict was summarized recently by one client as she was
adjusting the beautiful scarf she used to conceal her collar; 'I have
my pride and my vanity, 1 want to look good, but the more 1 try
to keep up my appearances the less people believe me when 1 say
1 am not feeling too good. "Oh but you look wonderful they all
say". At times 1 could scream.'
The concept of self-image is central in rheumatology highlighting
possible areas of conflict, stress and anxiety. It is an issue which
may arise throughout the course of the disease as a clients' self-
image and their functional abilities change. A poor self-image can
lead to a person withdrawing from situations which evoke and rein-
force feelings of 'standing out in a crowd' or act as a reminder of
'what I used to look like'. Catching a glimpse of a reflection in a
shop window can be very distressing, as small mirrors at home do
not give a full reflection of outward appearance, posture and gait.
It can also lead to isolation in a social sense and within personal
relationships. Conflict between wanting to appear 'normal' and yet
gain some acknowledgement of needs can be a cause of anxiety.
A very clear insight into the emotive struggle associated with a
changing body image was provided by one client who made several
points worth reiterating. The first was that while she knew her
outward appearance had changed, especially as she often used a
wheelchair, when she dreamt, the image of herself she saw was of
a person who was still fully ambulant and physically the same as
before the onset of her disease. Dreams like these were distressing
as they seemed to provide a constant reminder to her of what she
used to look like and throw back in her face any hope that she had
started to come to terms with her new appearance. She also related
how she forgets the visual image that other people see, so that when
friends and family can see from her expression, or pallor that she
is exhausted or in pain she still thinks she can bluff them by joking,
laughing and playing the fool. 'I forget that people can see what 1
look like because 1 avoid looking in a mirror or a window and so
21
I have never seen what I can look like when I am struggling to stand
up or do something. On the inside, to me, I look no different than
I ever have done and forget that other people can see the reality
rather than my fantasy - I am on the inside looking out.'
The same client provided a graphic description of how she had
tried to cope with accepting that her legs were no longer going to
function in the way in which they used to. She had been very sport-
ing and active and was trying to come to terms with having to use
a wheelchair for long distances, an altered gait and poor balance.
I had heard that one way of dealing with this change was to go
on an imaginary journey to a harbour of acceptance and to stand
on the harbour wall and formally say goodbye to whatever it
was that you had lost, that way you could start to come to terms
with that loss. I can remember the instant well because I was
travelling back to Newcastle on the train from London and so
had nothing else to do. I closed my eyes and imagined my legs
doing all the things I used to value and enjoy and then boarded
those images onto the ship waiting at the quayside. I then sat
and watched it sail away taking those images with it. All this
probably sounds really weird but it really did help to have once
and for all have said goodbye and to stop struggling to hang on
to something I knew I had lost. That doesn't mean that I don't
still miss them but at the time I think it helped.
It is difficult to convey such feelings in clinical terms but hopefully

the experiences of some of the clients quoted can convey the inten-
sity of emotion clients are having to cope with in relation to
adjusting to a new image of themselves, the way they look to other
people and the way in which their body functions. This adjustment
of self-image is not, for clients with rheumatoid disease, a one-off
adjustment as over a period of ten years many different adjustments
may have to be made as the disease progresses.
As professionals it is easy to sit back and state that society is
becoming more aware of the needs of people with disabilities and
integration is really beginning to happen, but a frank discussion with
many clients will emphasize how much further we have to go. Many
instances can be given of clients having to confront prejudice and
curiosity ranging from 'By you're a bit of a cripple aren't you pet?'
to 'What's someone like you doing in a thing like that?' (a
wheelchair. )
Therapists may feel that there is little they can do to help but the
22
CHANGES IN ROLE
abilities to listen, to support and to show empathy can go a long way

to helping clients express this loss and start to adjust to change. A
frequently used opening line is 'I know you will think that 1 am vain
but ... ' Whether considered vain or not, self-image is a highly
valued component of self-concept and the loss associated with it is
as great as the loss associated with any other component of self-
concept or facet of function and should be acknowledged as such.
CHANGES IN ROLE
Role is a way of describing the various relationships that a person

perceives themselves to have with society or another person. They
may be related to work, social or family settings. Social roles are
used to identify an organized pattern of behaviour that is
characteristic and expected of the occupant of a defined position in
a social system, Mosey (1986). Most people are adopting several
roles at anyone time, e.g. worker, friend, parent, sister and
daughter.
A role exists in relation to a role partner, i.e. husband-wife,
mother-daughter and as well as having a partner, comprises a task
behaviour and an interpersonal behaviour. The task behaviour refers
to the activities encompassed in the role and the interpersonal
behaviour relates to the interactions that are required while fulfilling
the role.
The onset of a chronic disease can often threaten a client's ability
to maintain existing roles and in some cases necessitate the adoption
of new ones. Limitation in functional activities may compromise a
client's ability to carry out tasks required to fulfil the role and
interpersonal behaviours may change due to the response of the
client or other role participants to the development of a disability or
handicap. This section will examine how a chronic disease can affect
the role within the work setting, the family environment and the
community as a whole.
Roles related to employment
Work roles become incorporated into self-image during the late teens
and early twenties when work becomes a part of daily life for most
people. Work provides a structure and routine to the day, a
challenge in terms of planning a career and providing goals to aim
23
for, a sense of contributing to society and a certain amount of finan-

cial security.
Clients with rheumatoid disease have to face many challenges within
the work environment. Morning stiffness and the extra time needed to
complete tasks can mean the day has to begin much earlier in order
to be at work on time. The variability in the disease can lead to incon-
sistent levels of performance, not only from day to day but also
throughout the day, and periods of exacerbation can lead to extended
time away from work, as can periods of hospital admission.
The healthcare system does not function in a way that assists
clients in employment. As clinics are held mainly during the working
day, time off work may be required frequently. A client prescribed
a course of gold therapy is required to make frequent and sometimes
lengthy trips to the hospital, perhaps stretching the goodwill of some
employers and placing pressure on the client who may be all too
aware of possible criticism. The same is true for other therapeutic
interventions which the client may be in need of and may be a cause
of the client not attending. Clients will inevitably be placed in the
position of determining the most valuable appointments to attend and
those which may be useful but not necessary.
The attitudes of colleagues and employers play a central role in a
person being able to maintain their work and cope with their chang-
ing needs. Fear of dismissal, in an age of high unemployment, may
lead clients to try to conceal their problems for as long as possible.
To some extent the ability to maintain a job is dependent upon the
employer's response to the needs of their employees. A flexible
approach to problem solving and an acknowledgement of an
employee's potential rather than limitations can lead to functional
problems being overcome. While physical barriers are often sur-
mountable social barriers are more difficult to overcome.
Clients who are unemployed and seeking employment often have
to over-come both physical barriers and social stereotypes of the
abilities and disabilities of a person with a handicap. Clients find that
prejudice and lack of understanding lead frequently to applications
being turned down without interview if they declare a disability.
Clients seeking further education or training are faced often with
physical barriers of inaccessible colleges or training centres and in
many cases job centres, placing them at a huge disadvantage. If
buildings are accessible specialist equipment is often not available to
enable clients to participate fully in all courses. If the client's degree
of handicap is such that they need assistance with personal care then
their ability to participate is reduced even more.
24
CHANGES IN ROLE
A situation encountered by many younger people seeking advice

regarding careers or changes in career is that professionals have
narrow concepts of careers which may be pursued, often they are
pointed in the direction of clerical or administrative work.
Two factors have been identified as decreasing the probability of
having to leave work due to disability, first, a substantial degree of
work place autonomy, and second, self-employment (Meenan et al.,
1981). In both of these situations the client is in a position to control
their working environment and adapt it to suit their needs.
Maintaining a job can lead to compromises in other aspects of a
client's life, especially in relation to leisure and social activities. The
energy required to complete a full day's work may dictate that even-
ings and weekends are spent resting. Although, in the short term,
this may resolve an immediate need, which is to remain in employ-
ment, in the long term it can lead to a decrease in social contacts.
While in employment the loss of social contacts may not appear too
important, as work itself will provide alternatives. But if a person
is forced to give up work their social network will be rapidly
reduced and isolation may occur.
The decision to leave work for many clients highlights a time of
stress. It is unusual if this decision is taken and acted upon instan-
taneously, for many clients it usually follows a prolonged period of
being away from work and a gradual awareness that return to work
is not a realistic aim. This period of time can necessitate a re-
appraisal of self-concept and role, as the identity of worker may no
longer be one of the main roles associated with self. Ceasing
employment can also be equated with an apparent deterioration in
functional ability. In Meenan's study of 245 people with rheumatoid
disease, 59 % of those who had jobs no longer worked and of those,
89% attributed this to their rheumatoid disease. For those people
their earning potential was reduced by 50% (Meenan et al., 1981).
The value of work to people is high, especially in an age of high
unemployment. Most people who become unemployed can ascribe
the loss of work to a factor external to themselves and beyond their
control, such as government policy or the economic climate. The
focusing of blame on an external factor does not require that the
individual has to come to terms with the fact that a deterioration in
their own functional ability has led to them having to give up work.
For clients leaving work due to their rheumatoid disease a double
loss is incurred, first the role of worker and second the loss of func-
tional ability.
The losses related to this period of time are immense and include
25
change in role, financial loss, and a loss of structure and purpose to

the day. The financial loss may not only be associated with a change
in standard of living but may also be a time of transition from finan-
cial independence to dependence upon the State.
The change in role is every bit as pertinent to the housewife who
is no longer able to carry out her function within the home. In some
ways this change is even harder to cope with as she is confronted
daily by her inability to complete tasks. This frustration is often
compounded by having to watch someone else carry out the work,
often in a different way and to a different standard or else having
to ask another family member to help. The introduction of a home
help, a matter of routine for many professionals, represents a
confrontation with a loss of role for the housewife.
If the role of worker is no longer seen as a component of identity
the value ascribed to this role is reassessed. Other roles may be
given a higher value to make up for the loss, and so a role within
the family may become more important or new roles may be
adopted, a client may begin on a course of further education for
example. High levels of energy and motivation are required to iden-
tify potential resources and explore the possibilities of alternative
roles at a time when fatigue, pain and limitations in functional ability
have led to employment having to be given up. This can limit the
exploration of alternatives. Other limitations on the adoption of new
roles may be the change in a client's financial status, a degree of
expense is usually incurred by most forms of hobby, educational or
recreational pursuit, or the physical barriers of access to buildings or
the availability of specialist equipment. While many excellent oppor-
tunities now exist for study at home, via the Open University or
Open College, these options do not overcome the social isolation
often experienced on ceasing employment.
Role within the family environment
The onset of a chronic disease in one member of a family unit will

inevitably affect the whole unit. The term 'handicapped family' has
been used to described this concept (Shearer, 1981). This can apply
to both the immediate and extended family.
The status of the handicapped person within the family may
change in many ways, from breadwinner to dependent, from the
dominant partner to a more passive role and from a position of
independence to one of dependence. If one member of the family
26
CHANGES IN ROLE
adopts a new role the role of the other family members may have
to alter to accommodate this change. If role reversal occurs, i.e. the
dominant partner is required to become more passive and the passive
partner is required to become more dominant, stress and anxiety can
be felt by both partners especially if the new role to be adopted is
one in which neither person feels happy or wishes to adopt. The
dynamics of the family will have been altered.
Many roles are socially defined and carry with them a set of
attributes and functions which are perceived as being necessary to
fulfil in order to maintain the role. One example of this is the way
in which the role of 'mother' can be threatened for many women.
After giving birth some women experience a period of increased
disease activity and consequently experience difficulty in caring for
the newly born baby. Feeding, changing and even holding the baby
can be difficult. The emotional turmoil associated with childbirth can
be exacerbated by the inability to care for the baby, in the expected
way, and a dependence upon another family member. If the children
are older they may be required to assist with tasks around the house
or in some situations help with more personal activities such as
bathing or dressing. This may lead a parent to feel guilt as the
children are being asked to give up time which for them may other-
wise have been spent playing or studying and has been expressed as
'denying them their childhood'. These intense emotions associated
with a perceived 'failure' as a parent are often encountered during
discussions. The feeling of guilt is another emotion expressed
frequently in relation to the way families are often the recipients of
bad tempers when clients feel frustrated or in pain.
Isolation can be experienced within the family for a number of
reasons. Pain or sleepless nights may lead to partners sleeping in
separate beds or separate rooms, fatigue or lack of energy may lead
to the client sleeping during the day or in the evening and not going
out as a member of a family so often. Physical isolation can be
experienced through a lessening of physical contact due to increased
pain making hugging painful or fear on the families' behalf of caus-
ing pain. Decreased mobility can mean that clients .may not be able
to join in all the family activities possibly staying at home on some
occasions.
The needs of partners are not always given as much consideration
as they should be, the focus being primarily upon the client.
Misconceptions about the disease can make understanding what is
happening to the client difficult. Anger, resentment and frustration
are also experienced by partners as their plans, hopes for the future
27
and lifestyle will be affected as much as the clients. The expression

of these emotions can be difficult for partners. 'How can you
verbalize negative feelings about a situation which is beyond your
control, especially when you are daily having to watch your partner
struggle and cope with pain? Who do you share these feelings with
who will understand and not think you are being selfish?' Partners
can feel that they are betraying their partner by voicing difficulties
to other people or may feel that they themselves will be seen as
unsupportive and uncaring. The inability to voice these feelings can
lead to stress within a relationship.
Partners are also confronted with the guilt associated with carrying
out activities alone which were previously carried out together, or
going out with the family and leaving the partner at home. One
husband expressed how if he went out alone and had a good time
he had to live down his enjoyment when he returned home to his
wife as she had had to stay at home alone. This guilt is often
expressed by partners who are caring for a highly-dependent client
who may be taken into hospital for a period of respite care. Partners
can see this as a reflection of their inability to cope or as letting their
partner down and may find it difficult to use the time as it was
meant, i.e. to have a rest and to take some time for themselves. A
frequent experience of caring agencies in this situation is that the
client's partner spends most of the week travelling to visit the client
in hospital.
The social isolation which can be experienced by a client can also
be experienced by their husbands or wives, especially if the client
is limited in their functional ability. Many therapists will have been
in contact with families where their whole lives revolve around
completing the essential activities of daily living and coping with the
number of professionals calling to assist them. The carer's life can
become very limited with little or no time for hobbies or social
activities. Carers in this situation often relate how, when their part-
ner has been taken into long-term care or has died, they have had
to completely rebuild their life again as their circle of friends has
diminished and they had in many ways ceased to exist as a person
in their own right. Partners are required to redefine their role and
relationship as well as the client.
The attitude of the carer towards illness and disability can also
influence the client's behaviour. Carers can be protective taking-over
many of the functional activities from the client because they do not
know when to stand back and watch their partner struggle and when
to step in and help. The reality of family life may mean that it is
28
CHANGES IN ROLE
quicker for partners to do things themselves, especially first thing in

the morning. Alternatively some partners are unable to come to
terms with the changes occurring and try to cope by ignoring the
fact that anything has changed and expect life to continue as before,
making few, if any, concessions to the pain and difficulties their
partner may be experiencing.
The involvement of other family members is essential in the
management of rheumatoid disease. They are the people who are
required to provide support and motivation and who also have their
own needs in coming to terms with the affect upon their life and
future. Their roles will be significantly altered, future plans affected
and feelings of frustration, anger and stress encountered alongside
those of their partners. They have even less control than the client
over changes which may be occurring due to the disease and are
placed therefore in an even more passive role.
Role within the community
The way in which a society responds to people with disabilities can

affect dramatically the way in which people can function within that
society and the roles which they can adopt. Societies can build both
physical and psychological barriers which prevent full integration.
The general public's concept of a person with a disability is
generally a negative one providing a huge barrier which has to be
overcome on numerous occasions. The word 'disabled' is negative,
being ascribed such definitions as, 'to deprive of power, to weaken,
to cripple, and to deprecate' (Hayward and Sparks, 1986).
It is argued that it is in fact society that is handicapped by its
understanding of handicap and that the boundaries of normality
should be widened as every member of society has inabilities which
will to some degree handicap the way in which they function
(Shearer, 1981).
Cultural factors will also affect the way in which a person's role
may change if they become disabled. In some eastern cultures the
person is cared for totally within the family environment and the
need for that person to become independent is not perceived, where
as in some western societies people with disabilities fight
vociferously for their right to function independently within society
and for that society to recognize that right and where necessary
adapt to meet it. Cultural influences become more important to
therapists who are now working in multi-racial communities where
29
roles, expectations and outcomes can vary enormously between

cultures and therapists should have an appreciation of such
differences.
The society in which we have been brought up will shape our
attitudes towards people with disabilities and these attitudes will
affect the way in which we perceive ourselves should we ever
develop a disability. A person who perceives people with disabilities
as weak, having little to offer and as an object of pity may
experience difficulty equating that concept to themselves if they
should develop a disability. People's concept of 'disabled people'
may be why clients will do all that they can to avoid being called
disabled. Therapists are often told by clients 'you can always look
around and see someone who is worse off' perhaps this is a way of
seeking reassurance that a certain stage perceived as 'disabled' has
not yet been reached.
The fear of being stigmatized brings with it an unspoken pressure
for some people of needing to achieve a higher level of success and
attainment in order to prove that a disabled person can cope as well
as, if not better than, anyone else.
The physical environment also provides daily challenges to integra-
tion within society ranging from negotiating public transport systems
to gaining access to public buildings. Feelings of vulnerability and
insecurity within this threatening environment can be a cause of
isolation and withdrawal. An observation made by many clients is
the lack of seating within shops and department stores if a rest is
required. Walking in busy streets can be frightening if balance is not
very good or lower limbs are apt to 'give way'. Activities which
were previously carried out with little thought can become so
complicated thllt the effort involved becomes prohibitive. For a
person with limited mobility the spontaneity of going to, for exam-
ple, the theatre is taken away. If you need to use a wheelchair you
may have to inform the theatre of your intention of going so that
arrangements can be made to get you in and once inside you are
given little option of where you can sit, and the bar and toilets are
very likely inaccessible to you.
The barriers to the integration of people with disabilities into
society are immense and erected throughout the whole strata of
society from the individual, to the statutory sector, local and central
government. Overcoming these barriers is an ongoing problem which
occurs every time a person with a disability enters that society and
therefore the energy and physical ability required is often not
available to that person and the effort is wearing. As a disease
30
CHANGES IN ROLE
progresses and function deteriorates the effort increases and one way
of coping with this situation is to withdraw from such confrontations
or to cease responding and fighting. By doing this people's social
environment can become smaller and they can become the passive
recipient of societies' prejudices. While it is often said that people
with disabilities are discriminated against no more than any other
minority group and their predicament is similar it must be
remembered that while this may be true, coping with and confront-
ing prejudice is more difficult when you cannot physically gain
access to buildings, when functional ability may be limited and when
energy may be depleted. The extension of a disability into a
handicap is often the result of societal attitudes, values and the
handicapping environment in which we exist.
The role of patient
While aspects of other roles are being lost due to the onset of a
chronic disease one which is being assimilated into self-concept is
that of patient. This role will have different connotations for
different people but is usually equated with being 'sick' and in need
of treatment. The role of patient is reinforced by the environment in
which that role is encountered, i.e. hospitals and doctors' surgeries
and the perceived roles of the people working within that environ-
ment. The environment encountered in many hospitals is rigid,
authoritarian and oppressive and is primarily equipped to deal with
acute illness. When an individual comes into contact with such an
environment it is difficult to adopt anything other than a passive
role. In relation to acute illness this may be appropriate as many
patients are not in a position to participate in what is happening to
them. However, the situation changes in relation to a chronic disease
when clients are not in a life-threatening situation.
A classical example of this, in this country, is the way in which
client's medication is taken away from them as soon as they walk
through the door of a ward. The client has probably been managing,
very successfully, to administer their own medication for the last
five years, but simply by virtue of walking through a doorway is no
longer responsible enough to carry on so doing. Some units have
realized the irrationality behind this and have had to fight extremely
hard to overcome the rigidity of rules governing the administration
of medication. Self-medication on some wards has now been
achieved, but these are still very much in the minority.
31
Many such examples can be given of ways in which hospital

environments and the attitudes of people working within those
environments can become oppressive and this is an important factor
which is especially pertinent when considering the role which clients
are to take in the management of their disease. Is it appropriate, or
indeed possible to try and promote self-management programmes and
active roles in an environment which reinforces passivity and
reliance upon 'professionals' and how many divergent messages are .
clients receiving?
The expectations of many clients coming into contact with
healthcare professionals is that they will identify the problem and
prescribe a treatment which will eliminate or alleviate the cause.
Clients are, therefore, being asked to alter their expectations of
healthcare professionals and accept a degree of responsibility for
their own healthcare. It can be argued that the advent of the National
Health Service changed the emphasis of responsibility for health.
People began to look to the NHS for their health needs when
previously they had dealt with many of their own problems.
STAGES IN LIFE
The most common time of disease onset is between the ages of thirty
and fifty. To begin to understand the impact of a chronic disease it
is necessary to consider some of the general issues which are being
addressed during these periods of life and may be effected by the
onset of a disease.
Early adulthood 20-35
This is the time during which independence from parents usually

occurs, both physically and psychologically. Decisions are also taken
regarding career and personal relationships. The role of worker
becomes established into self-concept and alongside this financial
independence is achieved from parents. With regard to personal rela-
tionships the main issues which are addressed relate to the conflict
between finding a partner and settling into a permanent relationship
or remaining single and uncommitted to anyone person. Once a
commitment has been made decisions are then faced regarding
becoming a parent.
For a person developing rheumatoid disease during this period all
32
STAGES IN LIFE
of these aspects can become threatened. A single person may ques-

tion their ability to form and sustain a personal relationship and
question their attractiveness. They may worry about how deteriora-
tion in years to come may make them dependent upon their partner
and the legitimacy of knowingly burdening someone else with their
problems. Opposition from prospective in-laws may be encountered.
Clients in a stable personal relationship may have to confront the
possible changes which take place within that relationship and how
their partner feels about those changes. This may involve changes in
plans to start a family, or possibly changes in financial status may
limit the previous standard of living.
If the client is still living at home with their parents achieving
independence may become more difficult, both physically and
psychologically. For some clients this independence may already
have been achieved but limitations in functional ability or constraints
on income due to having to cease employment may lead to having
to move back into the parental home and increased dependence. This
can be seen as a retrigrade step and will inevitably effect the lives
of the client and their family.
In terms of career gaining employment may be difficult as
employers may not feel happy taking on an employee with a chronic
disease and need convincing that the contribution that can be made
will outweigh any possible physical limitations the person may have.
Long term career plans may change in the light of possible func-
tional limitations and perceived prospects may alter. The ability to
carry out full time employment is compromised often by the variable
nature of the disease and the functional limitations occurring as a
result of pain, stiffness and loss of movement.
Middle adulthood 35-60
This is usually the age group which is running society in terms of

responsibility and power. Careers have usually progressed and posi-
tions of responsibility have been achieved. Families are growing up
and leaving home. Coping with adolescent children presents many
challenges and also represents a time at which the family is becom-
ing less dependent upon parents. This can lead to a period of
reassessment and questions related to how the role of parent will
change and what other role may be adopted to accommodate this
change. As one's own parents are approaching old age this period
may also include an increasing need to care for them.
33
This period represents the most common age of disease onset and
therefore is the age group most frequently encountered in a
rheumatology department. Development of a chronic disease during
this period can require a reassessment of role in relation to work,
family and society. The prospect of having to give up work can be
devastating, especially as the position reached may represent years
of work. Anger and resentment can be directed towards the fact that,
especially towards the end of this period, children are becoming less
dependent and plans may have been directed towards spending more
time with partners and planning for retirement. These plans may
have to change considerably.
Post-retirement 60 onwards
Clients during this period of their life may be having to face a

change in role as they or their partner reaches retirement age, the
assimilation of role as grandparent into their self-concept and an
increasing dependency upon the state and their family. When retired,
partners are able to spend more time together, developing social and
leisure activities. If a client is married they may have to cope with
the death of their partner and have to consider how functional
problems can be overcome alone. While for some clients this may
mean increased dependence upon homecare services, their family or
moving into sheltered or residential homes, for others it can lead to
an increase in functional ability. One client began to do more for
herself after the death of her husband than she had done for a long
time, her independence increased significantly.
The development of a chronic disease, during any stage in life,
can lead to a period of reassessment and re-evaluation of self-
concept. As this is not self-imposed varying amounts of stress and
anxiety will be experienced.
STRESS ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION
The experience of stress is an emotional one and is therefore a

totally unique experience, expressed in emotional and subjective
terms. A situation which is perceived as stressful by one person may
not be by another. A transactional model of stress has been proposed
by Cox and Mackay which defines stress as 'a perceptual
phenomenon arising between the demand on a person and his ability
34
to COpe. An imbalance in this mechanism when coping is important

giving rise to the experience of stress and the stress response' (Cox,
1978). The response to stress depends upon how a person perceives
the demand confronting them and their ability to cope. This process
starts with an appraisal of the situation which initially defines the
meaning of the stress and whether it entails a threat, a challenge or
actual harm and then progresses to identifying ways in which the
stress can be dealt with.
Dealing with stress depends upon past experience and the
resources and skills available to the person and requires the use of
coping strategies. Therefore, a level of stress is necessary to elicit
the use of coping strategies but it is the discrepancy between what
each individual perceives to be the demands being made upon them
and the strategies available to them that can lead to anxiety, depres-
sion and feelings of helplessness.
Feeling out of control can lead to high levels of stress. This can
be induced by the variability and unpredictability of the disease
process or entering a system of care which is unfamiliar and
therefore increases reliance upon other people. Changes in self-
concept, especially when forced upon a person also leads to stress
and anxiety. Many of the situations confronting a client with
rheumatoid disease will be potentially stressful and anxiety provok-
ing. Consideration should be given to ways in which this stress can
be reduced to manageable levels and clients helped to develop some
of the skills to cope effectively with stressful situations regaining
some degree of control and lessening stress.
Consideration should also be given to ways in which clients can
be helped to minimize or deal with symptoms of stress by the use
of techniques such as relaxation, biofeedback or counselling. It is
unusual for stress to reach such levels that acute anxiety states are
reached and medical intervention needed, but this will depend upon
a client's previous personality and how they dealt with stress prior
to the onset of rheumatoid disease.
Reviews of literature will introduce the concept of an 'arthritic
personality' which is based upon personality traits which predispose
a client to the onset of rheumatoid disease. This concept is associated
with mainly negative personality traits such as conforming, inhibited
and lacking in emotional expression. Several reviews of this
literature have been carried out and have identified flaws in both the
design methods and evaluative procedures. In his review of
psychological aspects of rheumatoid disease Baum found that from
100 studies published 'more than 50% of the studies used
35
PSYCHOSOCIAL ASPECTS OF RHEUMATOlD DISEASE
psychological tests that were devised by the investigator and not used
by any other group' (Baum, 1982). The main criticisms of these
studies have been those relating to lack of controls, validity, and
reliability of measures and the retrospective nature of the studies.
Anderson concludes 'there is little or no support for the existence of
an arthritis personality that predates the disease and in some way
leads to the disease onset. Negative personality characteristics are
more feasibly explained as reactions to this chronic disease rather
than a causal factor' (Anderson et at., 1985).
However, an area undergoing research is that of the relationship
of psychological factors and disease activity, especially the effects of
stress. Subjective discussions with clients will often highlight stress
as a cause of an exacerbation in disease activity, and in some
instances as a cause of the disease. In a study carried out by Rimon
two specific sub-groups were identified, a major conflict group
characterized by little or no family history of rheumatoid disease,
severe symptoms and sudden onset, and a non-conflict group, where
there was a higher hereditary predisposition, onset was insiduous and
disease progress was slow. The major conflict group were able to
identify an emotionally traumatic life event within a year before
disease onset and associated subsequent flares with emotional trauma
(Rimon, 1985).
These observations were, however, based upon non-directed inter-
views and could be explained by the process of attribution in which
a client is seeking a causal factor to initiate the disease onset. It
could also be that increased disease activity lowers a client's ability
to cope and as a result of decreased coping higher levels of stress
are experienced. When discussing the relationship of stress to disease
activity the distinction has not as yet been made between a causal
factor or a response and is an area of ongoing research.
The occurrence of depression as a response to chronic illness
should be seen as a normal response and not one necessarily requir-
ing pharmaceutical intervention, unless it reaches the stages of
clinical depression or impairs a client's function. A reactive depres-
sion to loss of function, changes in self-concept and coping with
chronic pain is frequently encountered in clients at some stage in the
course of their disease. The opportunity to discuss these feelings and
to be given support and counselling should be available to clients as
they often feel that their family has reached the point of overload
and they can no longer 'burden them with their problems' so the
availability of another person with whom to express and explore
their feelings is often helpful. This does not necessarily have to be
36
a member of a clinical team and may just as well be a friend, but

for some clients limited function and mobility can limit access to
friends or other resources which they may previously have used to
work through depressive feelings prior to disease onset.
To deal with the emotions of stress, anxiety and depression a
client is required to utilize a variety of different coping strategies.
Coping strategies
A coping strategy can be defined as 'any thought or action which

succeeds in eliminating or ameliorating threat . . . whether it is
consciously recognized as intentional or not' (Breakwell, 1986). The
range of coping strategies used will differ from person to person and
situation to situation. The failure of one strategy to deal with the
threat may lead to the use of another. Three levels of coping
strategies have been identified by Breakwell:
1. intrapsychic, involving emotions and cognitions;
2. interpersonal, relying on changing relationships with others;
3. intergroup, which directs threat at the individual as a member of
a group lessening the impact.
Intrapsychic strategies include such techniques as selective ignor-
ing, denial and the modification of self-concept. The use of selective
ignoral and denial aims to deflect the threat, 'this is not really
happening to me', 'it will go away as quickly as it came'. Techni-
ques which aim to accept the threat include modifying self-concept,
one method of doing this is to re-evaluate aspects of self-concept by
devaluing an activity or role which can no longer be carried out or
placing a higher value on another activity to take its place.
Interpersonal strategies are aimed at modifying relationships with
others. Two such strategies pertinent to rheumatology are those of
isolation and compliance. If a person feels threatened in a situation
one way of dealing with it is withdraw from the situation and avoid
placing oneself in that situation again. This does not deal with the
stress but removes the necessity to confront it.
This strategy is encountered as a way in which clients deal with
peoples responses to deformity and also in coping with situations
which may highlight areas of limitation. While this strategy may be
a way of coping with one form of stress it can often bring about
another one, that of coping with the subsequent isolation that can
follow as a consequence.
37
The concept of compliance is difficult to address as its meaning

varies according to the context in which it is used. A therapist may
on the one hand be working to increase a client's compliance with
an exercise programme, but, on the other hand be trying to decrease
their compliance to the 'sick role'. If a client adopts a compliant role
and is continually placed in a position of passivity they will even-
tually learn passivity and become 'helpless' in decision making,
losing previous skills and becoming dependent.
Intergroup coping strategies are aimed at lessening the impact of
the disease on the individual by facilitating self-help, providing a
supportive environment and undertaking specific action in the form
of pressure groups.
With a variety of coping strategies available a person may choose
one or a combination of strategies to deal with a specific problem.
In his work related to the management of illness Mechanic identified
a 'search for meaning' (Mechanic, 1977) as a prerequisite for
coping. He maintained that it was only through an understanding of
what is happening that reasonable response could be devised.
The identification of a causal factor related to rheumatoid disease
has not been found. Gaining a sense of understanding can be difficult
in relation to a disease where there is no apparent causal factor, fluc-
tuation in disease activity has no apparent cause and answers to ques-
tions are usually generalized, vague or evasive.
LOCUS OF CONTROL
The amount of control a person feels they have in the management

of their condition will effect their response to the disease, the treat-
ment they utilize and the coping strategies they use. Locus of control
is a concept which describes this process and represents a continuum
from internal to external. A person with an internal locus of control
feels that they have some degree of influence over their disease and
takes on some of the responsibility for its management. A person
with an external locus of control feels that their disease is beyond
their influence and tends to adopt a passive role in its management
negating responsibility for what is occurring.
A client taking on a degree of control is acknowledging their
influence and responsibility in the disease management. In the course
of the disease there will inevitably be periods of fluctuation in levels
of function and pain. A person with an internal locus of control may
feel responsible for this change and ascribe it to failure on their own
38
LOCUS OF CONTROL
behalf leading to a sense of no longer having control and

helplessness. This feeling of losing control can lead to high levels of
stress and anxiety. It is at this time that therapists who work towards
increasing clients control should provide support and counselling to
help clients regain feelings of control. A person with an external
locus of control will ascribe such changes to factors other than their
own limitations which acts as a form of defence strategy.
The unpredictable nature of rheumatoid disease adds to the
difficulty of feeling in control. An increase in disease activity can
occur for no apparent reason and without warning, making forward
planning difficult. Arrangements, therefore, need to be kept fluid to
accommodate any change in condition. This includes social activities,
holidays and other events which would previously have been planned
in advance and anticipated with pleasure.
The resources used in coping are varied and have been categorized
by Pearlin and Schooler as social, psychological, and specific coping
responses (Pearlin and Schooler, 1978). Social resources relate to
family, friends, colleagues etc., psychological resources relate to
personality characteristics and specific coping responses relates to
the behaviours, cognitions and perceptions engaged in to deal with
a problem. These resources are inter-related and affect each other.
Mechanic (1977) has addressed the issue of social adaptation to
illness and identified several factors affecting adaptation. These are,
1. economic resources, largely influenced by government policy;

2. the abilities and skills of the individual;
3. defensive techniques;
4. social support;
5. motivation.
He suggests that 'the adequacy of any individual to cope depends

on the effectiveness of cultural preparation and the availability of
problem-solving tools necessary to deal with typical problems. What
may be an ordinary situation for those with skills or adequate
preparation is a crisis for those who lack them'. Many clients will
be encountering new situations and problems and may not neces-
sarily have developed ways of dealing with them. The strategies used
and developed will vary considerably and change as new situations
are encountered. Previously-used strategies may no longer be effec-
tive and so clients need access to a range of skills to enable them
to cope with the diverse situations they will inevitably encounter.
This chapter has hopefully provided an insight into some of the
39
psychosocial problems which can be encountered by clients. The

psychosocial effects of a chronic disease can be phenomenal, requir-
ing fundamental changes in self-concept, threatening previously held
identities and having as profound an effect as the physical manifesta-
tions of the disease on the way in which a person functions. It is
essential for therapists and clinicians to gain an understanding of
these processes if they are to assist, in any meaningful way, clients
to adapt to living with rheumatoid disease.
FURTHER READING
G. Breakwell (1986) Coping with Threatened Identities, Methuen.

T. Cox (1987) Stress Macmillan Education, London.
V. Finkelstein (1980) Attitudes and Disabled People, World Rehabilitation
Fund.
D. Locker (1983) Disability and Disadvantage. The Consequences of
Chronic Illness, Tavistock Publications Ltd, London.
A. Shearer (1981) Disability Whose Handicap, Blackwell, Oxford.
40
3
An holistic approach to the management
of rheumatoid disease
The two previous chapters have outlined the complexity of

rheumatoid disease in relation to its physical, psychological and
social manifestations. The relationship between these different
dimensions is totally unique to each individual client and also
variable, for the individual, throughout the course of the disease,
therefore posing a challenge to clinical management. The range of
needs which may be expressed by one client requires a variety of
treatment strategies to be available and the lack of knowledge about
the disease and effectiveness of interventions necessitates a broad
programme of clinical and laboratory-based research to be under-
taken. No single treatment technique has, as yet, been identified as
having a major impact on the disease process and its manifestations,
therefore clinical management still remains multi-faceted and
primarily aimed at coping with the effects of the disease.
This is seen in the multi-disciplinary approach used in most
rheumatology departments which encompasses laboratory work,
directed at understanding the mechanism of the disease,clinical
research, directed towards evaluating the effectiveness of different
forms of intervention, and the clinical management of the physical,
psychological and social problems presented by individual clients.
This team approach, when working well, has the potential to offer
a range of treatment techniques and the opportunities for clients to
explore a variety of possible coping strategies. These range from
directed self-management courses, providing practical information,
to non-directed group work, providing an environment in which
clients can explore and identify their own needs in coping with a
chronic disease, from pharmaceutical methods of pain control to
relaxation techniques and from specific treatment programmes to the
development of skills related to activities such as art, literature and
music.
The potential of the team is dependent largely upon its members'
41
AN HOLISTIC APPROACH TO THE MANAGEMENT OF RHEUMATOID DISEASE
concept and definition of its composites and their understanding of

the potential skills of each other. If the concept is rigid and limited
to a few people the potential is limited and clients will only have
direct access to resources which lie within this boundary. A lack of
understanding of each others' skills and resources leads to an under-
utilization of the team's potential. Frequently, in clinical practice,
the needs of an individual are met as long as they fall within the
constraints of a 'team', thus limiting the range of options available.
Clients are referred to dieticians for advice on weight-reducing
diets but few have access routinely to dieticians for advice if they
wish to explore the possibility of using diet as a means of controlling
their disease activity. A high percentage of clients will at some time
try a different diet and need access to information on basic nutrition
and ways of ensuring a balanced diet. Dieticians have the relevant
skills and information but bias against this strategy as a component
of management denies clients access to information and forces them
to look to libraries, or private practitioners for advice.
Pain control clinics are used frequently for clients with chronic
pain, usually which has not been amenable to pharmaceutical
methods of control, and a range of methods of pain control are
explored, both pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical. These alter-
native methods of controlling pain are not available widely to the
main population of a rheumatology department despite pain being the
main reason for referral and client's, and clinician's, unhappiness
with the long-term effects of taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
medication.
The above examples relate to resources which are already a
component of healthcare within the statutory sector but which
possibly have the potential to add to the strategies available to clients
and clinicians in coping with rheumatoid disease. The role of social
sciences, art and religion are often perceived as lying outside the
remit of a team, alongside alternative medicine, although all are
frequently turned to by clients as a way of coping with certain
problems. Their contribution and validity is questioned by clinicians.
The need to establish the validity of approaches is central to the
medical model of care to ensure that, as a minimum requirement, the
potential to do harm is eliminated. Inclusion within this medical
framework is dependent upon meeting these criteria. Establishing the
validity of an approach by ascribing numerical values to concepts
with high degrees of variability is fraught with difficulty and has to
a large degree been avoided.
While this situation remains static a continuous argument exists in
42
THE RELATIONSHIP OF MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAMS AND CLIENTS
which potentially valuable components of management are being

discounted and clients are forced to look outside the recognized
system for help. The onus has to be upon practitioners to validate
the interventions they are using but the open-mindedness of clinicians
to explore beyond a rigid definition of a team may assist in
establishing the validity of alternative forms of intervention. A reap-
praisal of potential resources which are deemed frequently to be on
the periphery of care may open a wider range of options to clients
which are more appropriate in addressing the wide range of needs
of the clients.
The potential number of people involved in the treatment and
support of a client with rheumatoid disease is large, involving
hospital and community based services from the statutory and volun-
tary sectors. The involvement of agencies will depend upon the
needs of each client with some requiring relatively few and others
needing many. The communication of information between services
can be a problem which increases in direct proportion to the number
of services involved. The availability and communication of informa-
tion is a key element in the planning and implementation of an effec-
tive treatment programme. The identification of a key worker to
liaise between agencies, especially between hospital and community
services is essential to ensure continuity of approach.
THE RELATIONSmp OF MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAMS AND

CLIENTS
The effective functioning of a team is also dependent upon the role

the client is asked to adopt within this team. They are the one person
who will be in contact with all the agencies involved in their
management, which in relation to the rest of the team is a unique
position. If they have been active in the planning of their treatment
and understand the basis of decisions which have been made they
can be central to the functioning of a team approach. If they have
no involvement at all they then become a pawn moved through a
variety of experiences without understanding why or being able to
contribute in any way other than that of passive recipient. A cynic
may say that this is the most efficient way to run a team which is
professionally led.
Many therapists will have been confronted with clients arriving in
the department not knowing why they have been referred, sometimes
even who has referred them, or what is going to happen to them
43
when they arrive. As professionals it is all too easy to adopt the 'I
did explain' approach which usually means that at some point during
a consultation an explanation was given but the client did not under-
stand. An awareness must develop, amongst professionals, of the
feelings experienced by clients when placed in a clinical environment
over which they have little control and at a time when their stress
levels are high. The onus should be placed upon the professional to
create an environment which is less intimidating, ensure that infor-
mation is communicated and to check that this has been understood.
Consideration should also be given to which team member will be
the most effective in communicating information. After a ward round
has passed through a ward more information is usually communi-
cated to clients from nurses returning to talk than at the time the
round has reached the client's bed. Clients can feel so anxious by
the presence of so many people and of being the focus of attention
that they are unable to assimilate what is being said. While
communicating information may be a time consuming process it is
essential if the client is to function as a member of the team.
Access to information and potential resources is to a large degree
controlled by 'professionals' and their perception of what clients
need to know. If the knowledge of the team regarding the resources
available is limited this limitation will be passed on to the client.
While it can be argued that the client has the option to find out infor-
mation for themselves the time, functional ability, energy, and skills
needed to do so are not always present. The barriers to gaining
information are numerous, ranging from the ways in which profes-
sionals can discourage and limit self-help to the format of the infor-
mation once it is identified. As a result of the 1986 Disabled Persons
Act, Local Authorities now have a statutory obligation to provide
information on the services which they provide to clients. No such
statute, as yet, applies to Health Authorities and clients rarely know
how they gain access to dieticians, chiropodists, appliance officers
etc. The same applies to the voluntary sector which is often more
confusing and so clients remain reliant upon clinicians to raise their
awareness of resources which can be used.
The nature of rheumatoid disease necessitates a team approach to
management which is holistic in nature. The needs of the individual
have to be the focus of the clinical team not solely the disease, as
the physical, psychological, social and spiritual make-up of the
individual will determine the way in which they experience and
respond to the disease.
While the central role of the client in their treatment programme
44
is discussed frequently the implementation of such an approach and

the definition of what that role entails is an extremely grey area. In
many cases it entails explaining the rationale of interventions to
clients as they are about to happen or providing information about
areas of assumed interest. The use of a truly client-directed approach
would change the basis of much clinical practice, if implemented,
and require a great deal of energy, time and resources from all team
members, including clients themselves. There are many barriers
which have to be overcome for this to be a reality and many areas
of conflict to address. Some of these issues will be raised in subse-
quent chapters and cover the whole spectrum of physical, social and
psychological barriers for both client and practitioner. The
composites of the team are varied and can include any of the
following.
1. Hospital based team:

Consultant
Surgeon;
Nurse;
Occupational therapist;
Physiotherapist;
Social worker;
Psychologist;
Pharmacist;
Dietician;
Orthotist;
Chiropodist.
2. Community based team:
General practitioner;
District nurse;
Occupational therapist;
Support Services, home help, meals on wheels, bath attendant;
Employment Agencies;
Housing department.
3. Non Statutory Agencies:
Voluntary organizations;
Church;
Complementary medicine.
4. Research team:
Laboratory team;
Clinical team comprising any of the above.
45
This list is by no means exhaustive but provides an indication of

the complexity of co-ordinating and evaluating appropriate interven-
tions. The availability of the above resources will vary and will be
influenced by some extent to economic, social and political factors.
Economic factors
Certainly within the statutory sector economic factors are becoming

one of the major influences on service provision and the delivery of
health care. The perceived cost of providing institutional care has led
to a shift in emphasis to community care which has not necessarily
seen the transfer of resources to accommodate this change. The
change in emphasis has to some extent highlighted areas of concern
regarding the ability of community services within the statutory
sector to cope with this change. In addition the role of the voluntary
sector is changing as greater demands are being placed upon it and
it is now becoming an integral component of healthcare in relation
to chronic disability.
However, the major effect of economic factors on therapists is that
the need to evaluate the effectiveness of intervention is becoming
more widely recognized in order to compete for resources. The
development of performance indicators and cost benefit analysis is
going to mean that, for the first time, therapists will need to be able
to justify some of their treatment and interventions. Budget holders
will want to know the value of what they are paying for and blanket
referrals will probably disappear.
With increasing case loads and, in the community, growing
waiting lists, the need to consider carefully the allocation of
resources and the establishment of priorities for the service appears.
Given a 36 hour week and an expanding case load decisions are
having to be made as to the most effective way of allocating
resources. At the moment the basis for these decisions is ques-
tionable. Without effective evaluation of interventions the only
parameter will be financial and this may not reflect in any way
therapeutic effectiveness in terms of enhanced quality of life or
service provision to clients. If the allocation of resources is to be
considered in terms other than financial, therapists must establish
appropriate methods of assessment and evaluation to use alongside
economic measures.
46
Social factors
Social factors effect service provision and uptake at two levels, the
allocation of resources and, at an individual level, the uptake of
services. One of the major factors influencing accessibility to or
uptake of services is social class. The inequalities in health care were
highlighted for the first time by the publication in 1980 of the Black
Report which showed how people in lower socioeconomic classes
had less access to services.
Social factors also influence the resources allocated to specific
services and this is especially apparent within the voluntary sector
where individuals are contributing directly to what they perceive to
be needy charities. Priorities for a Social Services Department in
areas of inner cities may be different from the priorities faced by a
Social Services Department in a rural area and thus effect the alloca-
tion of resources.
Political factors
Political factors can influence directly service provision via legisla-

tion. This is typified by such acts as The Chronically Sick and
Disabled Persons Act 1970; Disabled Persons (Employment Act)
1974 and the Disabled Persons Act 1986. These acts influence in
various ways the services provided to people with a disability and
place statutory obligations upon local authorities to provide specific
services. The Disabled Persons Act of 1986 went further and has
given disabled people the right to appoint advocates to represent
them and to appeal against decisions they may not agree with.
As described there are many factors which can influence the effec-
tiveness of a team approach to management of a chronic disease,
some of which are dependent upon the team members themselves,
some upon the role of the client in the team and some upon factors
which are not directly within the control of either clients or team
members. However, communication of information at all levels is
identified as a most important component of team work and essential
if clients are to play any role other than that of a passive recipient.
The emphasis of the following chapters is upon how therapists can
utilize their skills to, in many instances, act as facilitators working
with clients to help them identify their needs and play a role in
meeting these needs. These skills are fundamental to the profession
of occupational therapy and form the basis of the profession. The
47
following section will look more closely at the role of the occupa-
tional therapist.
THE ROLE OF THE OCCUPATIONAL THERAPIST
When describing the work of occupational therapists the one phrase

which most therapists use is 'It is an holistic approach'. The basis
of this approach stems from the foundation of the profession at the
beginning of this century upon the way in which illness affected the
occupational nature of humans and of the therapeutic potential of
activity to restore or re-organize daily activity. At this stage in the
development of the profession disease categories or medical manage-
ment were not seen as central to the work of therapists.
The developments in the scientific basis of medicine has been iden-
tified as causing a major shift in emphasis for the profession, which
was perceived as having no theoretical basis. Occupational therapy
became more aligned to the medical model of care which brought
conflict between the analytical scientific model of the medical profes-
sion and the humanistic model of occupational therapy. These two
models are seen as being opposed. Kielhofner aligns the medical
model of care to a closed system which states 'that any system can
be ultimately understood by reducing it to its least common
denominators and specifying the cause effect relationships between
them' as opposed to an open system approach which 'is a composi-
tion of structures organized into a coherent whole that interacts with
an environment and that is capable of maintaining and changing
itself.' (Kielhofner, 1985).
Closer alignment with a medical model of care brought the
emphasis of the profession more towards diagnostic categories and
disease pathology and represents for many therapists an area of
continuing conflict, that of trying to explain occupational dysfunction
in pathological terms. Kielhofner argues that this emphasis has taken
the profession away from its original theoretical premis and that a
balance is now needed to be achieved in the profession between
analytical science and conceptual humanism (Kielhofner, 1982).
The incorporation of some of the analytical model will enable
therapists to develop the skills and tools necessary to evaluate the
validity of therapeutic interventions. Thus strengthening the
theoretical framework of the profession.
The holistic approach of occupational therapy offers several
dimensions to the treatment of a person with rheumatoid disease.
48
THE ROLE OF THE OCCUPATIONAL THERAPIST
The skills of therapists aim to facilitate maximum independence by

assessing the physical, psychological and social factors relevant to
the way in which each client functions in order to plan appropriate
interventions. The contribution of the therapist to the clinical team
is one of assessing and monitoring the disease progress and the
effectiveness of interventions in terms of a client's functional ability.
This role frequently takes therapists away from the hospital setting
and into the client's own home or work environment enabling a
realistic picture of a client's abilities to be compiled away from the
simulated environment of a hospital.
Therapists may be involved in treating clients in either an in-
patient or out-patient setting or in the community, each with a
slightly different emphasis to their work. Usually, on an in-patient
basis, therapists are aiming to rehabilitate a client who has been
through an acute period either due to increased disease activity,
surgical or other forms of therapeutic intervention, or is experienc-
ing decreased ability to cope due to psychosocial reasons. Out-patient
treatment is primarily concerned with the treatment of conditions
which do not warrant hospital admission or the inclusion in educa-
tional groups aimed at conveying information regarding specific
methods of management.
Community based therapists are primarily referred clients who
have a specific functional problem with a view to assessment and
planned intervention. Some therapists are also involved in the
development of self-help groups and support groups which are
community as opposed to hospital based.
For occupational therapists the process of treatment planning is
initiated with a period of assessment which aims to build up a picture
of the clients' abilities, areas of limitation, their perceived needs and
priorities and those of their family and to use this information, along
with that gained by other team members to identify an appropriate
treatment plan. As such a treatment plan is a specific plan of action
with stated aims and identified objectives which provides a measure
of how and if those aims have been achieved. The active involve-
ment of the client is essential in establishing and implementing this
plan. It is likely that in relation to a client with rheumatoid disease
the plan will need reviewing and altering during the course of the
disease.
The specific modalities used by therapists working in the field of
rheumatology are primarily focused on the active involvement of the
client and their ability to identify their needs, problem solve and
adapt to the changes required to live with a chronic disease. The
49
main- premise of occupational therapy is that given the opportunity

clients have the ability to make choices and play roles other than
those of dependency and passivity. The first section of this book
explores the way in which therapists can use their skills to provide
these opportunities focusing on the use of self-management
programmes, self-help groups and counselling to convey informa-
tion, provide support and enable clients to explore their feeling about
the impact of rheumatoid disease and the ways in which they cope
with its effects.
The second section goes on to examine specific techniques which
can be used to assist clients in maintaining functional ability ,
considering energy conservation, pacing, joint protection, the use of
assistive equipment, housing adaptation, personal and sexual relation-
ships, relaxation, splinting and community care.
The potential for occupational therapists within the field of
rheumatology is great. It is an area of clinical practice where the
skills of therapists can be used to full potential providing the oppor-
tunity to use clinical skills, psychotherapeutic skills and to embark
upon areas of research. The opportunity is given to work within a
team and contribute a dimension to the team which is based upon the
holistic approach to therapy and the potential of the client, as
opposed to a disease oriented approach.
FURTHER READING
G. Kielhofner (1985) A Model of Human Occupation Williams and Wilkins,

Baltimore.
A. Mosey (1986) Psychosocial Components of Occupational Therapy Raven
Press, London.
50
4
Assessment
The process of assessment is an information gathering process which

is embarked upon jointly by therapist and client. It enables a picture
to be created which identifies the client's present situation, but also
includes aspects of their past and how they perceive their future. The
chronic progressive nature of rheumatoid disease means that this
picture is never complete but is a part of a series which helps to
identify the client's perceived areas of need, their goals and expecta-
tions and provides an indication of their medical condition and the
changes in each of these elements. These elements once identified
indicate possible methods of management, help to evaluate the effec-
tiveness of any intervention and monitor the progress of the client
and the disease.
To enable this picture to evolve a range of assessments are needed,
which can involve a varying number of people, of clinical, func-
tional, psychological and social factors. When collated this informa-
tion is the basis upon which interventions are planned. Inevitably
there will be some areas of overlap in the assessment of team
members but effective communication should eliminate as much of
this as possible.
As the process of assessment forms the basis for developing a
management programme it is essential that the client is an active
participant in this process. The development of the role which it is
hoped that the client will assume is established within this initial
period of assessment and is influenced by the relationship established
between the client and team members. The information gathered
during this process should be explained to the client so that they do
not feel themselves a passive recipient of treatment planned around
them but central to the whole process.
Inclusion of the client and, if appropriate the family, at this stage
will provide an indication that the client is seen as an active partici-
pant in their treatment. An information gathering process which does
51
ASSESSMENT
not include establishing the clients' pnontles, understanding, plans

and expectations is only placing a thin sketch upon a canvas and
missing out the most important element, that which contains the
colour, adds definition and brings meaning to the sketch.
Closer consideration will be given to some of the specific assess-
ments used in relation to rheumatoid disease.
CLINICAL ASSESSMENTS
These assessments can include

1. pain and stiffness;
2. joint tenderness;
3. range of movement;
4. radiological assessment;
5. laboratory investigations.
Radiological and laboratory assessments have been considered in a
previous chapter.
Pain and stitTness
The experience of pain and stiffness is subjective and therefore the

assessment of each is based either upon the SUbjective report of the
client or the subjective observations of the clinician. The pain
measures most frequently used are, visual analogue scales, five point
scales, or specific pain questionnaires. Visual analogue scales
provide a linear representation of pain. A line 10 cm long is shown
to the client with one end marked 'no pain' and the other 'unbear-
able pain' and the client is asked to mark a point on the line which
is representative of the pain they are experiencing at present, or the
worst pain they have experienced that week etc. The distance from
the 'no pain' end is then measured in centimetres and a numerical
value given. Five point scales range from 1 = mild pain to 5 =
unbearable pain and clients are asked to choose the number which
they feel is appropriate to the level of pain they are experiencing.
These methods all measure pain intensity. 'It is clear, however,
that to describe pain solely in terms of intensity is like specifying the
visual world only in terms of light flux without regard to pattern,
colour texture, and the many other dimensions of visual experience'
(Melzack and Ward, 1982). Therefore more in depth questionnaires
52
JOint tenderness/IOlnt swelling

N.8 . Tenderness IS elicited on all JOints by firm pressure over the JOint margin with the exception of the
four' JOints where It IS elicited by passIVe movement of the JOint
I JOint tender~ IJOint swelling I

Cervical spine • U 0= Patient has no
tenderness
0= No JOint swelling
1 = Mild JOint
Right Left 1 = Patient complains Right Left
swelling
Temporomandibular U U of pain
2= Patient complains U U 2= Moderate JOint
swelling
Sternoclavicular U U of pain and winces
3= Patient complains
U U 3= Marked JOint
swelling
Acromioclavicular U U of pain, winces
and Withdraws
U U 9= Non-respondable
10lnt
Shoulder U U 9= Non-respondable U U
JOint
Elbow: U U U U
Wrist U U U U
Metacarpophalangeal
First (thumb)
U U U U
Second. U U U U
Third U U U U
Fourth
U U U U
Fifth
U U U U
Proximal Interphalangeal
Thumb·
U U U U
Index U U U U
Middle. U U U U
Ring U U U U
Little U U U U
Hlp: •
U U
Knee U U U U
Ankle. U U U U
Talocalcaneal • U U U U
Midtarsal: •
U U U U
Metatarsophalangeal
First·
U U U U
Second
U U U U
Third
U U U U
Fourth:
U U U U
Fifth
U U U U
Figure 4.1 The Ritchie Articular Index.
have been developed which aim to identify the quality of pain

experienced by clients. The McGill pain questionnaire is an example
of this which comprises lists of descriptors, words that describe the
sensory, affective and evaluative aspects of pain, and present pain
intensity rated from 0-5 (Melzack, 1975).
53
ASSESSMENT
Joint tenderness
The Ritchie Articular Index was developed by Dorothy Ritchie, an

occupational therapist, and colleagues, and is a scoring system to
indicate joint tenderness (Figure 4.1) (Ritchie et al., 1968). The
assessment is carried out by the clinician palpating the joints and
observing and scoring the client's response.
1. The patient feels no pain or tenderness.
2. The patient feels pain and says so.
3. The patient feels pain and winces.
4. The patient feels pain, winces and withdraws.
The collective scores are added together on completing the assess-
ment providing a numerical indication of the amount of pain and
tenderness a client is experiencing. This initial assessment acts as a
baseline and can be used to monitor the effectiveness of any
interventions being used. The assessment requires no equipment and
is straight forward to perform. It is important that the same person
carries out the assessment on each occasion as different assessors
may use differing amounts of pressure when palpating a joint.
Musculoskeletal examination
It is not intended in this text to describe a full musculoskeletal

examination as this is well documented in other texts, see recom-
mended reading. The main composites of such an examination are,
first to observe. Initially, observations can be made regarding a
client's gait, posture, pallor, etc. Closer observations of specific
joints may identify inflammation, the skin may be red, or odematous
and deformities may be present. Palpating the joint will identify
synovial proliferation, the presence of nodules and effusion and an
indication of tenderness and pain.
Passive range of movement is tested by the therapist placing each
joint through a full range of movement while the client is relaxed, as
opposed to an active range of movement in which the client moves the
joints through their range. There may be a difference in the range of
movement achieved by each method. The stability of the joint may also
be examined to detect signs of instability, subluxation or dislocation.
It is important that the time of day at which the assessment was taken
is noted, as a client who has travelled to the department on public
54
transport on a cold day in the morning for the first visit and is given
a lift in the afternoon for the second visit may show an increase in
range of movement which may not be due totally to therapist
intervention. There is also a degree of inter-observer error with the
use of instruments such as a goniometre, the exact positioning of the
goniometre varying between therapists, so the same therapist should,
wherever possible, complete the assessments.
Functional assessments
Functional assessments are a crucial component in the assessment of

a client with rheumatoid disease reflecting the effect of impairment in
terms of disability and handicap. This area of assessment is frequently
undertaken by occupational therapists. The assessment is primarily an
information gathering process and as such 'measures functional ability
independent of other factors. Examination of the aetiology of dysfunc-
tion should be done independently of the measurement of function'
(Liang and Jette, 1981). Therefore having completed an assessment
an indication of a client's ability and disability is given but the
process of assessment in isolation provides no causal explanation or
statement of where to proceed to. As such a functional assessment can
not be seen in isolation of assessment of client's needs, and goals or
of clinical assessments.
The development of functional assessments has been identified as
comprising three stages:
1. 1920-1940 to reimburse an impaired person for the loss of
function;
2. 1940-1960 to provide more comprehensive and effective services
to impaired people;
3. 1960-1983 to demonstrate accountability within all levels of the
human service network (Halpern and Fuhrer, 1984).
These stages are not seen as developing in such a way that one
stage replaces another but rather as a cumulative process. Assessment
of function is a complex issue which remains in need of clarification,
definition and standardization. Lack of clarity exists as to whether
assessments are addressing issues related to impairment, disability or
handicap and terminology is used frequently in an undefined way.
There is a need to identify the composites of function and what is
meant by a functional assessment. Until agreement is reached as to
what constitutes activities of daily living it is not possible to construct
55
ASSESSMENT
a standard assessment. At the moment therapists use a wide range

of assessments which comprise different activities. Methods of
measurement also vary greatly as do processes for gathering the
information. This leads to many questions relating to the reliability
and validity of assessments.
Functional assessment is defined as 'the measurement of purpose-
ful behaviour in interaction with the environment, which is inter-
preted according to the assessment's intended use' and from this
definition seven key terms have been identified: measurement;
purposeful; behaviour; environment; interaction; intended use and
interpretation (Halpern and Fuhrer, 1984).
The way in which function is measured and the degree of the
measurement detail is extremely variable. Methods of measurement
include interview, observation, self-assessment and rating scales. The
precision with which function is measured also varies. Five criteria
have been identified as essential components of an assessment tool.
1. Allow quantification.
2. Have validity.
3. Have reliability.
4. Standardized data collection procedures.
5. Measurement precision (Liang, 1981).
Measurement scales are used to quantify or identify and comprise

four scales; nominal; ordinal; interval or ratio (as reviewed by Eakin,
1989). A nominal scale is a descriptive category such as name,
address, sex and race. The numbers given to the categories are merely
labels and cannot be used as the basis for statistical calculations.
Steinbrocker and colleagues developed a classification of functional
capacity in rheumatoid arthritis by identifying four classes (Stein-
brocker, Traeger and Batterman, 1949). This is an example of an
ordinal scale.
Class 1 Complete functional capacity with ability to carry on all

usual duties without handicaps.
Class 2 Functional capacity adequate to conduct normal activities
despite handicap of discomfort or limited mobility of one or
more joints.
Class 3 Functional capacity adequate to perform only few or none of
the duties of usual occupation or of self-care.
Class 4 Largely or wholly incapacitated with patient bedridden or
confined to wheelchair, permitting little or no self-care.
56
Interval scales have the characteristics of ordinal scales but the

distance between the categories can be measured in standard units.
An interval scale does not have a fixed zero point and so numbers
can only be added or subtracted. The ratio scale is the most
sophisticated scale having a fixed zero point enabling all arithmetical
procedures to be carried out. The problems around devising a rating
scale of functional ability are immense and have been summarized
by Eakin (1989).
Many functional scales are rated as the Stanford Index; 0 = able
to complete task without difficulty; 1 = with difficulty; 2 = with
some help from another person and 3 = unable to do (Fries et al.,
1980). The assumption is that each activity has the same value and
so being unable to open a push button car door has the same value
as being unable to get on and off the toilet, or being unable to use
a pen or pencil the same value as being unable to walk outdoors on
flat ground. Eakin states that many of these scales have been treated
as fixed ratio scales and that it is erroneous to use these scales to
calculate whether a client has improved as much as another client
because:
1. the same score for different patients does not indicate that they
are independent in the same activities;
2. two patients might improve equally, by, say, 5 points but one
might move from dependent to partially dependent whilst the
other might move from partially dependent to fully independent
in five activities (Eakin, 1989).
It is also feasible that two clients can be scored as independent in

feeding when one of them is independent as long as the meal is
placed in front of them on the table and the other is independent not
only in feeding but also in the preparation of the food. There
remains a large amount of work to be completed in relation to the
measurement of functional activities and the clarification, on an
international level, of what constitutes activities of daily living.
The validity and reliability of the assessment has also to be
established. Validity refers to measuring what the assessment
purports to measure and this can be demonstrated by construct,
content and criterion validity. In relation to activities of daily living
it is difficult to demonstrate criterion validity as there is no accepted
definition of what constitutes activities of daily living or a standard
rating with which to compare. Content validity refers to the degree
to which the assessment measures, in this case, activities of daily
57
ASSESSMENT
living and construct validity refers to the overall construct being

investigated, i.e. activities of daily living; all the subsets must relate
to this construct.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results obtained, so if
the same client completes the assessment twice, and the result is the
same and if two assessors administer the same test to the same client
do they achieve the same results? These refer to test re-test
reliability and inter-observer reliability.
Reviews of literature indicate that this is an area in which much
work is still needed, to define what is meant by activities of daily
living thus providing the basis for a construct of a standard assess-
ment, to validate assessments being used within the country of use,
many assessments have been developed in the United States and
modification may be required for use in this country, and to raise
the standard of assessments carried out by therapists. The use of
locally designed assessments and checklists does not provide valid
and reliable assessments.
Occupational therapists must be carrying out, as a profession, a
vast amount of functional assessments, it is disturbing to note the
size of contribution they have made to this field of work. It is hoped
that with the need to validate practice becoming recognized more
widely this situation will change. The conclusion of a review of
problems with assessments of activities of daily living leaves food
for thought:
The more occupational therapists who use the same assessments

the easier it becomes to evaluate and compare treatment methods
and outcomes. Without such measures, occupational therapists
can never prove their true worth as members of the rehabilita-
tion team (Eakin, 1989).
This issue is perhaps appropriate for the special interests groups

now emerging to consider and has indeed begun to be addressed by
some of them.
Check lists are one of the most common forms of assessments
used by therapists and comprise lists of activities against which the
client's level of ability is noted. Thus the application of information
gained via the use of a check list is limited to use with an individual
by an individual.
The aim of the assessment should be identified before the process
is embarked upon. Without answering the question 'why am I carry-
ing out this assessment?' it is impossible to ensure that the
58
appropriate assessment is being used, elements may be missing

which are essential to fulfilling the aim or inappropriate methods of
assessment may be used. There should be no such thing as a
'routine' assessment which is conducted without questioning the
rationale and appropriateness of the process.
Behaviour is the object of the assessment and can be effected by
impairment, disability and handicap. The International Classification
of Impairment Disability and Handicap is as follows (WorId Health
Organization, 1980).
• Impairment in the context of health experience is any loss or

abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical struc-
ture or function.
• Disability is any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment)
of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range
considered normal for the human being.
• Handicap is a disadvantage for an individual, resulting from an
impairment or a disability, that limits or prevents the fulfilment
of a role that is normal (depending on age, sex and social and
cultural factors) for that individual.
Thus a chain of events can be identified starting with disease

which leads to pathology and impairment. The term impairment
refers to a biological process. When performance is affected by
impairment the behavioural consequences become a disability and if
this disability effects the performance of specific roles and places an
individual at a disadvantage relative to others it leads to a handicap.
However, it must be remembered that each stage does not neces-
sarily lead onto the next. Within the clinical field this fact is
demonstrated frequently. On clinical examination a client may be
present with greatly impaired anatomical structures of the hand. If
a functional assessment is then carried out the functional ability of
the client may be only affected slightly and there may be little or no
evidence of disability or handicap. Clients with gross hand deformity
have often demonstrated their ability to produce the most intricate
and beautiful work. Impairment, disability and handicap can only be
demonstrated in the context of the individual as they are subjective
terms.
The effect of the environment in which the assessment is carried
out may have a bearing on the results of the assessment and should
always be borne in mind when the data is interpreted. However,
several problems have been raised in relation to the measurement
59
ASSESSMENT
and evaluation of function in different environments (Kelman and

Willner, 1962). These mainly related to the variability and reliability
of test performance and how these can be affected by the test
environment, the motivation of the client and the interaction of the
client and the evaluation setting. If a client's functional assessment
in a hospital setting is different to an assessment at home which is
used as the outcome criteria? A situation which has been observed
in relation to clients with rheumatoid disease is a decline in function
on returning home after a period of bed rest in hospital. It is difficult
to say whether this is due to a difference in disease process, or the
increased demands being placed upon a client at home. Therapists
must ask themselves what information is really obtained about the
way in which a client functions when assessed in a hospital environ-
ment and what relationship this bears to the client's overall func-
tional ability. Can a single functional assessment reflect the impact
of a disease which is so variable in nature and if not, how many
assessments is it necessary to complete and in how many different
environments to gain a realistic picture of functional ability?
Although an indication can be provided of the client's functional
ability, thought should be given to the large number of variables
which have been introduced into the assessment. The client is being
asked to carry out activities in a simulated environment, many
hospital bathrooms, for example, bear little relation to a bathroom
in a client's home. The effect of being asked to conduct activities in
front of a healthcare professional may introduce an element of not
wanting to appear in need of help and tolerating more pain than if
the client had been carrying out the activity alone or of not wanting
to 'fail'.
A classic example of this is clients who claim mobility allowance
and at the assessment make an effort to walk as far as they can in
order to 'do their best' giving an unrealistic picture of their level of
mobility. As a consequence their eligibility for the allowance can be
questioned. It is easy for professionals to make valued judgements
based on an assessment which bears little relation to the client's
long-term level of functional ability and this factor should always be
borne iri mind, especially when making decisions on the appropriate-
ness of assistive equipment or housing adaptations.
The other side of this coin is the dependent client who during
assessment appears to be functioning at a higher level than is
reported by other members of the family. The motivation to carry
out activities is provided by the presence of the therapist and this
motivation disappears on return home.
60
Studies have demonstrated a difference when assessments obtained

from self-administered questionnaires were compared with an inter-
view conducted by an occupational therapist. Patients were more
willing to admit difficulties in a questionnaire than they were in a
personal interview (Spiegel, et al., 1985).
A continuation of this element of assessment is the interaction
between a client's behaviour and the environment. Everyone's func-
tional ability is influenced by the environment, different
environments bring different demands, levels of motivation, stimula-
tion and expectations. The functional demands for an elderly person
living at home are far greater than those placed upon an elderly
person living in residential care. Environments are often associated
with specific roles and the behavioural components of those roles are
adopted when entering into the environment, i.e. worker, parent,
friend, patient. A difference in functional performance in elderly
clients was observed when formally assessed in a hospital and in
their residential home and when staff observed their functional
ability as part of the daily routine. Different scores were obtained
from the different assessments highlighting the variability in perfor-
mance in different environments (Kelman and Willner, 1962).
The intended use of the data collected during assessment should be
identified before the assessment is carried out alongside the purpose
of the assessment. This can influence the amount of detail needing
to be obtained from the assessment. The data may be used to plan
an individual client's treatment programme, as the basis for planning
service provision for a unit's strategic plan, or for the use of cost
benefit analysis or as a component of a research project to evaluate
the effectiveness of a specific intervention. Each of these situations
demands different levels of information which must be established
prior to the assessment taking place.
An assessment should specify the technique for administering the
assessment and collecting and recording the data. An assessment
which has been validated within a hospital population does not
necessarily transfer to use with clients in a community setting and
vice versa. Some of the most common forms of administering assess-
ments include a guided interview, self-administered questionnaire,
observation and performance testing. The precision of measurement
refers to the degree of change which can be detected using the
assessment. Some of the functional assessments used are not always
sensitive enough to pick up changes in disease activity due to
interventions such as the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs.
61
ASSESSMENT
One functional assessment which is used frequently by clinicians

in clinical trials is the Disability Scale of the Health Assessment
Questionnaire developed at the Stanford Arthritis Centre (Fries et
at., 1980). This has been shown to have validity and be reliable. But
if the components of this assessment are examined there are few
elements which a therapist might expect to change for a client having
undergone knee replacement surgery. More significant changes may
however be seen in relation to levels of pain and range of
movement.
The final component of assessment is the way in which the data is
interpreted in relation to its intended use. The interpretation of the
data, in respect of treatment planning, may be influenced by other
elements such as psychological and social factors relating to the client.
Therapists, having established levels of function, will want to deter-
mine the reasons why areas may be affected and establish a pro-
gramme aimed at increasing functional ability in relation to specific
tasks. If the assessments are being used as a component of a research
project the data may be subjected to a series of statistical analysis.
The lack of clarity, validity and reliability surrounding the assess-
ment of function is, perhaps, an indication of the complexity of the
nature of the assessment. The basis for gaining an element of
understanding may be at an individual level compiling individual
case studies. It is only when the framework of understanding on an
individual level is obtained by consistently using valid and reliable
assessments that data can be collated and interpreted across groups
and perhaps contribute to a greater understanding of the impact of
the underlying disease and pathology of a chronic progressive
disease. While therapists continue to use locally designed checklists
or assessment forms they contribute little to the understanding of the
basis of their profession, and the effectiveness of their interventions.
Areas of function covered in assessment
Assessments of activities of daily living cover a broad spectrum of

activities and usually include the following areas of function:
1. Transfers
Chair;
Bed;
Toilet;
Bath.
62
2. Personal care
Dressing, managing fastenings, shoes, getting clothes from
cupboards and drawers;
Washing face;
Washing body;
Washing hair;
Cleansing after using the toilet;
Application of make-up;
Shaving;
Oral hygiene;
Care of nails;
Combing hair;
Coping with menstrual cycle;
Personal relationships.
3. Mobility
Walking, inside and outside, on rough and smooth surfaces;
Climbing steps and stairs;
Access to house;
Driving;
Using public transport.
4. Home management
Cooking
making a drink;
making a snack;
preparing a meal;
Housework
washing;
ironing;
cleaning;
managing plugs and sockets;
Shopping;
Using taps;
Opening jars, bottles and tins.
5. Eating
Use of cutlery;
Taking cup to mouth.
6. Communication
Writing;
Using a telephone;
Handling money.
7. Employment
Mobility to and from work;
63
ASSESSMENT
Mobility around the place of work;

Ability to carry out work.
8. Leisure activities
Ability to pursue hobbies.
This is not an exhaustive list and only serves to give an indication

of areas of function which should be considered during assessment.
The initial assessment serves to identify areas where problems exist.
These specific areas are then investigated further to identify the
cause of the problem and possible solutions. The assessment is also
backed up with information from the initial interview which provides
background information about the client and their family, their social
situation etc.
HEALTH STATUS QUESTIONNAIRES
Health status questionnaires have been developed which take a multi-

dimensional view of assessment, some have been specifically
developed for use with clients with rheumatoid disease. One such
scale is the Arthritis Impact Measurement Scale, AIMS (Meenan, et
al., 1982). This scale was designed to measure several dimensions
of rheumatoid disease and contains nine scales, mobility, physical
activity, dexterity, household activities, activities of daily living,
anxiety depression, social activity and pain. The questionnaire is
self-administered and has been shown to be reliable and valid in use
with clients with rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, systemic lupus
erythematosis and sero-negative variants. The Stanford Disability
Questionnaire is another example of a multi-dimensional assessment
and has five dimensions, death, discomfort, disability, drug of
therapeutic toxicity and dollar cost, each of which has been broken
down into components (Fries et al., 1980). The functional com-
ponent of the assessment has already been discussed.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
It is essential that therapists gain an appreciation of the psychological

impact of rheumatoid disease upon the clients with whom they are
working. This will be gained informally during the process of initial
interview or assessments. If a client is exhibiting high levels of
64
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
anxiety, stress or depression referral to a clinical psychologist may

be indicated. This referral may result in the use of formal
psychological assessments to identify in more detail the nature and
extent of the client's problem and the most appropriate form of
management.
An overall assessment of the client's psychological state can be
obtained by asking pertinent questions and actively listening to the
response. Asking the client how their life has changed since the
onset of the disease will provide some information about the impact
of the disease on the client's way of life and lead into a discussion
of how these changes have been coped with both for the individual
and their family.
It is also important to identify what factors are important in the
client's life, what their hopes and expectations for the future are and
how these equate with living with a chronic disease. This may iden-
tify whether the client is still going through a bereavement process
and denying the long-term implications of the disease because 'it is
going to go away', whether the responses are appropriate to the
stage of disease which the client has reached and the effects of the
disease to their lifestyle. Asking the client what they understand
about arthritis will give an indication of their knowledge about the
disease and how they think it will progress. The way in which
clients cope with the pain they experience is also an important factor
to establish and how this affects the way they function.
Asking appropriate questions and listening carefully to the
response provides a good indication of the psychological problems a
client may be experiencing, and an indication as to whether referral
to a psychologist or far less frequently a psychiatrist is indicated.
Depression, stress, anxiety and bereavement are normal responses to
the onset and progression of a chronic disease which has chronic
pain, leads to alteration in body image, functional ability and
changes in lifestyle. It is when these symptoms in themselves begin
to affect a client's functional ability and physical well being that
problems arise. Interventions are directed frequently towards
addressing problems once they arise, perhaps more thought should
be given to the way in which interventions can be used to prevent
these problems arising in the first place.
65
ASSESSMENT
SOCIAL FACTORS
The impact of rheumatoid disease on the social network and relation-

ships of a client will vary and depend upon the effect of the disease,
both physically and psychologically on the client and the responses
of others to these changes. Social contacts can reduce due to a vast
number of reasons including limited mobility, pain and fatigue, loss
of roles which include social contacts such as leaving work,
decreased income, and withdrawal due to embarrassment at
appearance.
A disproportionate amount of time may be given to purely func-
tional aspects of living and leisure and social activities compromised
as a result. This change can occur quite slowly and may not be
apparent. In one group meeting clients were considering aspects of
pacing and time management and assessing how such time had, that
week, been spent on different activities and discussing things they
used to do. One of the participants was horrified when she actually
worked out what she was doing with her time and compared the mix
of activities with that of a few years ago. She had never realized
how many social activities she had stopped and in many instances
could not think of the reasons why when she was still mobile and
able to get out and about. The change had been so gradual that it
had not been noticed.
Family dynamics can be altered fundamentally by the onset of a
chronic disease in one family member, some of these factors have
already been discussed. During assessment it is necessary to ascer-
tain the amount of support a client receives from family and friends
and whether this support is adequate or whether the use of
community services are needed to assist with functional problems.
The support given to a family caring for a dependent client can be
a fundamental component in the length of time they are able to care
for the client at home negating the need for admission to long-term
care. Factors such as respite care should be discussed as well as
other forms of relief to provide the carer with time to themselves.
The responsibility for the care of a family can also fall upon one
parent as well as maintaining the family income. When a family is
young and there are teenagers about the home support services
frequently are not available as family members are expected to take
on a share of the work. The reality can be very different and the
pressure placed upon one partner can be immense. If appropriate this
matter should also be discussed with the whole family to try and
spread the work more evenly. Therapists should check whether a
66
THE PROCESS OF OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY ASSESSMENTS
client is in receipt of benefit and if not whether this is appropriate

and needing referral to a social worker.
Several stages lead up to carrying out an assessment, referral, initial

interview and then assessment. The receipt of a referral leads on to
an initial interview which identifies areas of need which are then
assessed in a more specific way. The form that specific assessments
take is varied and will include observation, activity analysis and the
use of standardized tests.
The process of assessment enables a therapist to
1. identify the client's physical, psychological and social needs;

2. identify factors which may influence these needs;
3. gauge the client's understanding of their condition;
4. form a baseline for treatment;
5. identify short- and long-term goals;
6. plan appropriate treatment programmes and techniques;
7. evaluate the effectiveness of interventions;
8. modify treatment when appropriate;
9. monitor the course of the disease.
Referral
The source of the referral will include ward rounds; out-patient

clinics; general practitioners; colleagues; community support
services; family and self-referral. The information included in this
may be broad, 'this lady is having problems coping' or specific
requesting an assessment of hand function. The problem identified in
the referral, especially if received from a client, may bear no rela-
tion to the main problem eventually identified by assessment as
clients may feel they need some help but not be exactly sure what,
or may feel unable to express their problem in an initial referral.
The information received may be supplemented with information
from the medical notes, if available. While some therapists may feel
ill-prepared if no further information is available they do have the
advantage of approaching the assessment with no preconceived ideas
about the client, which have been based upon the subjective
comments of other colleagues.
67
ASSESSMENT
Initial interview
The initial interview forms the basis of future relationships between

client and therapist and enables a rapport to begin to develop. The
therapist needs to obtain specific information during this interview
which is therefore a guided conversation during which both client
and therapist give and receive information. Therapists should be
aware of the possible stress and anxiety clients may experience
during this process. For a client this may be the first contact they
have had with a healthcare professional and they may be unclear as
to what this encounter may entail. Situations do occur where clients
feel they are being tested, an example of this is a home visit prior
to hospital discharge. These can be perceived as tests which are
either passed or failed and upon which a decision will be taken
regarding a client's ability to cope at home. This can place undue
pressure on a client, especially if they have been in hospital for a
long period of time, and may affect their functional ability.
The information that clients are being asked to give is often
personal and frequently highlights areas of inability. Voicing limita-
tions and talking about previous levels of function may emphasize
areas of great personal loss which have never been vocalized before.
The onus is therefore upon the therapist to create an environment in
which information is communicated in a positive way.
The approach of the therapist is fundamental to future relationships
with the client and forms the foundation upon which many of the
occupational therapists' interventions are based. 'The skill of the
therapist lies in the ability to guide a conversation without being too
directive or dismissive and to show both empathy and the ability to
listen actively'. Whilst it is impossible to avoid discussing areas of
limitation, areas of skill and potential should also be discussed and
reinforced. This is summarized as 'providing the right atmosphere,
to be a good listener and to ask only the questions that help the
client tell their own story' (Trombly, 1983).
Wherever possible the initial interview should be carried out in an
environment which is free from distractions and comfortable.
Therapists working in the community are able to carry out the whole
process in the ideal environment for the client, their own home. The
client has a greater feeling of security and, as the therapist is a
guest, control. In the hospital environment the client is placed in an
unfamiliar environment over which they have little control. Few
wards offer privacy and many interviews are carried out by the
patients bed. Although drawing the curtains offers visual privacy
68
many therapists will have experienced silence descending in a ward

when a particularly personal subject is being discussed.
During the first few days of hospital admission a person will have
undergone several physical examinations, a series of clinical
investigations and have answered many repetitive questions.
Therapists should remember this fact and not attempt a long assess-
ment following on from another member of the team, if at all
possible.
Assessment
The timing and content of an assessment will vary on the needs

which have been identified in a referral or following an initial inter-
view. When interpreting the outcome of an assessment, however,
therapists should consider carefully the information gathered. The
variability of disease activity is reflected in a client's functional
ability and therefore assessments must be considered in the light of
this. A functional assessment carried out in the morning may vary
considerably from one carried out in the middle of the afternoon.
The information gathered from an assessment at home may vary
from that gathered in a hospital setting. If a series of assessments are
being carried out as a means of identifying progress following treat-
ment interventions it is essential that these assessments are carried
out at the same time of day and if possible by the same therapist.
If a client has been in hospital for an extended period of time,
undergone operative procedures or for any other reason their ability
to cope at home is in question a pre-discharge assessment may be
carried out. Pre-discharge assessments are carried out to:
1. ensure the client has achieved a level of function to maintain

themselves at home;
2. determine the amount of support needed upon discharge and iden-
tify the appropriate agencies;
3. identify the need for the provision of assistive equipment or adap-
tation and determine the most appropriate type given environmen-
tal limitations;
4. enable community agencies to meet the client and their family
prior to discharge and establish communication with hospital
staff.
Therapists carrying out home assessments should always be aware
69
ASSESSMENT
of the pressures upon the client when undertaking such a visit. The
thought of returning home for an hour's visit, especially after a long
absence, can be extremely frustrating and upsetting. Pressure can be
added by a feeling of having to pass a test before being allowed
home and fear of failure. The amount of activities to be completed
in this time is also unrealistic and demanding and this should be
recognized by the therapist. An imminent discharge can bring a
range of feeling for the client, especially if they live alone, ranging
from happiness and fear to anxiety and loneliness.
Therapists should also consider the implications of the information
obtained during such a visit. The information will help to identify
specific equipment which may be considered within the environment
in which it will be used and to provide an indication of a client's
functional ability in relation to one or two activities. Home
assessments can also provide an opportunity for community support
staff who will be involved in the patient's treatment when discharged
to meet the client and gain some understanding of the problems the
client may be experiencing. Therapists will be all too familiar with
the home assessment where there are so many staff involved that
completing any meaningful assessment of functional ability becomes
impossible. There is a lot to be said for keeping staff to a minimum
and communication being improved by community staff having a
greater involvement in pre-discharge hospital based work.
However, the long-term reality of coping at home cannot be
simulated in such a visit and for this reason post-discharge visits may
be appropriate to ascertain the long-term problems clients may be
experiencing. Admission to hospital, for many clients, represents a
significant reduction in activity. Some clients have expressed dis-
appointment and frustration regarding their level of function and
increase in pain when they have been at home for a few days. Their
level of function has returned to that prior to admission. The feeling
of well-being when laying in a hospital bed can be false and unrealistic
and lead to disappointment and fear a few days after returning home,
for the client and their family. This can be a time when support is felt
to be lacking after the security of a hospital ward where someone,
whether staff or another patient, was usually around to talk with.
The process of assessment is fundamental to the planning of a
treatment programme. It is an information gathering exercise aimed
at building up a picture of the client's physical, psychological and
social needs and then, with the client, placing them in an order of
priority to work towards addressing. In the long-term it will enable
information to be gathered providing a picture of the progression of
70
FURTHER READING
the disease and its impact upon the individual. The format of
assessments is varied, some components of the assessments being
standardized, valid and reliable and others being highly subjective.
The challenge for therapists remains to identify and use standard and
reliable assessments enabling the information collated to be used to
evaluate the effectiveness of interventions. Without the use and
availability of valid and reliable assessment procedures the evaluation
of interventions becomes meaningless. The completion of the assess-
ment procedures enables areas of need to be identified and subse-
quent chapters will discuss interventions used by occupational
therapists to address some of the issues.
FURTHER READING
C. Partridge, R. Bamitt (1986) Research Guidelines, A Handbook for

Therapists, Heineman Physiotherapy, London.
O. Payton (1988) Research: The Validation of Clinical Practice, 2nd edn,
F.A. Davis Company.
C. Trombly (1983) Occupational Therapy for Physical Dysfunction,
Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.
71
5
Developing skills
As a therapist working in the field of rheumatology one of the most

fundamental aspects of the work is the ability to assist people in
developing some of the skills necessary to cope with the challenge
of a chronic disease. In some situations this may entail the develop-
ment of existing skills and abilities while in others new skills may
need to be acquired. The holistic approach of occupational therapy
enables a wide range of skills to be explored with clients ranging
from concepts of pacing and joint protection to aspects of coping
with stress and anxiety. This may entail working either on an
individual or group basis. The skills of occupational therapists extend
far beyond addressing the purely physical components of a disease
and the potential to use these skills is at its greatest in assisting
clients to meet some of the challenges posed by chronic disease.
The variability and unpredictability of rheumatoid disease makes
acquiring a set of coping strategies difficult. A condition which is
static, while initially posing many difficulties, enables specific skills
to be developed to address needs. The response of a client with
rheumatoid disease has to remain flexible as the condition is moving
between periods of acute and chronic disease, each bringing different
problems and needs. The progressive nature of the disease also
requires some reappraisal in the type of response used as differing
levels of pain and functional ability pose new problems.
The amount of time clients spend in contact with healthcare
professionals is fractional in terms of the overall duration of the
disease. Therefore clients need to know how to utilize the resources
available to them to try to address problems as and when they occur.
To do this the transference of information and the development of
skills are essential. The resources available to clients and the ways
in which these resources are utilized will vary considerably. The
main focus for planning a management programme is the identifica-
tion of the client's perceived needs, the resources available to the
72
PROVISION OF INFORMATION
client and the most appropriate way, for that client, in which these
resources can be used. A client with a large social network may seek
support from within this network whereas a client living alone may
join a self-help group to find the same level of support.
The aim of this section is to give consideration to some of the
settings in which information can be communicated and coping skills
developed. The potential use of self-management programmes, self-
help groups and counselling will be discussed.
PROVISION OF INFORMATION
The provision of information within the field of healthcare is

developing as recognition of the need to include clients in the promo-
tion of health and the management of chronic disease is growing.
The main emphasis of many programmes is in the field of primary
healthcare and preventative medicine aiming to provide the relevant
information to enable people to make informed decisions regarding
health matters. These programmes range from vaccination
programmes to the promotion of healthy eating habits and anti-
smoking campaigns.
The responsibility for health education is shared by government,
statutory agencies, the voluntary sector, the media and each
individual. Government responsibility is seen mainly in relation to
the implementation of legislation and social reform. Statutory agen-
cies and local authorities are responsible for the implementation and
monitoring of government policy and for advising on strategies.
The voluntary sector is now playing a major role in the provision
of information which is predominantly directed towards specific
diseases and methods of coping with them. The large growth in
information from the voluntary sector is, perhaps, an indication of
the divergent beliefs between the voluntary sector, which is largely
client led, and the statutory sector, which is largely professional led,
regarding the need for information and the allocation of resources to
meet this need.
The media, arguably, play the most important role in influencing
public opinion on, and behaviour towards, health related topics,
whether via advertising, reporting or dramatic representation of
issues.
The individual is ultimately responsible for assimilating the infor-
mation and deciding whether to follow or ignore recommendations.
The adoption of a specific piece of information, while predominantly
73
DEVELOPING SKILLS
affecting the individual, can also influence the attitudes and

behaviours of immediate and extended family and in some situations
the wider community.
Information related to rheumatoid disease is provided on both a
national level, via the Arthritis and Rheumatism Council and
Arthritis Care, and on a local basis via self-help groups, voluntary
organizations and healthcare professionals. This information is aimed
at a varied audience which includes, clients with the disease,
providing specific information, the general public, to increase
understanding of the disease or raise money to fund research, and
also at colleagues to increase their understanding of the needs of
clients with rheumatoid disease.
As a therapist the expressed wish for information relating to health
issues is frequently encountered. The development of self-
management programmes is one way of meeting this need by
conveying information in a structured way.
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES
Before discussing the development and implementation of educational

programmes it is necessary to consider the rationale behind the
programmes and their aims. Programmes have been developed in
many different forms and contain a wide variety of information.
Some of the programmes have been specific and concentrate on
providing information on one topic such as exercise programmes or
precautions following joint replacement surgery and some are broad
and cover a range of information on different topics.
One of the main criticisms of educational programmes is the
discrepancy between aiming to provide choice and increase involve-
ment and yet measuring their effectiveness in terms of compliance.
This ambiguity is typified by the frequent occurrence in the literature
of statements such as 'We recommend patient education as an effec-
tive means of helping patients to understand and hence comply with
physicians' instructions as well as helping patients assume a greater
responsibility for their own care.' (Kaye and Hammond, 1978). It is
difficult to perceive how compliance and assuming more respon-
sibility can be achieved within the same programme.
Programmes aimed at increasing compliance are developed along
totally different lines and using different approaches to those aimed
at increasing control and participation in decision making. The range
of approaches can be described along a continuum which, at one
74
CHOOSING APPROPRIATE APPROACHES
end, starts with an overt aim to change behaviour and, at the other
end, finishes with self-help. The role of healthcare professionals
becomes less directive further along the continuum and the aim of
increasing compliance remains very much towards the behaviour
change end of the line. It is therefore essential that the aim of
providing information is clearly identified so that the most
appropriate approach can be identified along with the most
appropriate information provided.
Given a range of information clients will adopt the information and
use the resources which they feel are appropriate to themselves and
their situation, exercising a degree of choice and control. Not
enough work has been carried out to identify what clients perceive
to be important or useful information and which coping strategies are
more commonly adopted than others. The main bulk of studies have
concentrated on the effectiveness of different formats of providing
information, ways of increasing compliance and only in the last few
years, the affect on psychosocial parameters.
The long-term implications of participating in educational
programmes are yet to be identified. While behaviour change has
been noted the duration of this change and the affects on the disease
progress and levels of pain and functional ability remain a matter for
debate. The evaluation of interventions is of paramount importance
in an area where little is known about the effectiveness of treatment.
It is essential therefore when planning a programme that effective
methods of evaluation are identified.
It is also necessary to re<;ognize that many factors influence
behaviour and the provision of information about coping strategies
and treatment regimes does not necessarily equate with the adoption
or use of the information. The perceived appropriateness of the
information, social and economic factors all influence whether a
client will utilize it or not.
A variety of approaches have been identified to utilize in educational

programmes, a medical approach, behaviour change approach,
educational approach, client directed approach and social change
approach (Ewles and Simnett, 1985). The three approaches most
frequently used by therapists are: the behavioural change, educa-
tional and client directed approach.
75
DEVELOPING SKILLS
The behaviour change approach
The main emphasis of this approach is placed upon changing a

person's behaviour and attitudes, i.e. adopting an exercise
programme or weight reducing diet. The therapist is placed in the
position of expert and provides instructions to be carried out explain-
ing the rationale behind them. This places the therapist in a position
of being directive and in control.
One of the criticisms of this approach is the concept of 'victim
blaming' (Naidoo, 1986). This refers to the situation which arises if
a client chooses not to adopt the recommended regime. If their
condition deteriorates and they need to seek further assistance they
may feel that they are to blame for the deterioration and expect to
be greeted with the all telling 'I told you so' look. This can be a
cause of not seeking help for fear of rejection or reprimand.
Therapists using this approach should be aware of this concept and
question their own responses to clients who are deemed to be non-
compliant. Many factors can cause people to not adopt new
approaches not least the therapist's failure to set realistic aims which
are specific to the client's needs and social situation, having expecta-
tions which are too high or priorities which are different from those
of the client's.
Therapists should try to gain an understanding of factors which may
influence client's behaviour and acknowledge their existence. Some
of the socioeconomic factors affecting healthcare in Great Britain
were highlighted in The Black Report (1980) which was compiled by
the Working Group on Inequalities in Health set up in 1977 under the
chairmanship of Sir Douglas Black. An assessment of this has been
made by Townsend and Davidson (1985). It is factors such as these
which are easy to overlook in a clinical setting and yet are fundamen-
tal to healthcare. Therapists may feel unable to agree with some of
the reasons given by clients for not following treatment programmes
but recognition and acknowledgement does not necessarily mean
endorsement but may enable both therapist and client to respect each
other's opinion and maintain channels of communication, leaving the
door open should the client change their mind.
The client directed approach
This approach is the least directive approach for professionals

involved. Their role is seen as facilitatory and they give no sense of
76
direction to the group. This approach may be used in counselling

groups or in some forms of self-help groups. The use of this
approach is seen infrequently in a medical setting and to some clients
may pose a threat. The expectation of many clients regarding
healthcare professionals is that they are perceived as being prescrip-
tive, directive and in control. When confronted by someone who is
perceived as providing no assistance and expecting you as a client
to make decisions and a major contribution to the group clients can
express anger, resentment and anxiety. Therapists skilled in group
facilitation will be able to use their skills to work with the group to
overcome these problems. The use of this approach needs much
more time as the development of group cohesiveness, identification
of needs and aims of the group will take longer to establish than with
a more directive approach that has identified aims as a prerequisite
to establishing the programme.
The educational approach
This approach is less directive than the behaviour change approach

and more directive than the client directed approach placing more
onus on the need to present information in as unbiased a way as
possible. It aims for the client to gain an understanding of the issues
discussed and emphasizes the client's ability to make decisions based
upon the information gained.
As is common with cQDcepts occupying the middle ground an area
of grey exists where the other approaches meet and this approach
can be used as a compromise. The behaviour change approach is
blatant in its statement of intent to change behaviour and attitudes,
the client directed approach is directly opposed to this and aims
towards facilitating self-determination. The educational approach is a
way of giving an element of choice while still maintaining some
control over the group structure, content and process.
The main issue surrounding the use of this approach is the extent
to which a degree of choice is allowed and what is meant by choice
in this context. When a programme of information is evolved how
much choice do therapists really aim to give clients? Is the informa-
tion presented in an unbiased way?
Perhaps this compromise offers a range of options to both
therapists and clients, offering therapists the opportunity to maintain
some control and be seen in the light of 'professional' and yet still
feeling that clients are having a significant say in the structure and
77
DEVELOPING SKILLS
content of the programme. It may also offer clients the opportunity

to feel some degree of control and active participation while feeling
that the therapists are still providing support and professional advice
decreasing feelings of stress and anxiety about being asked to assume
too much responsibility. The effectiveness of different approaches in
relation to chronic disease has not as yet been established and is an
area in which evaluation is needed urgently.
When developing an educational programme therapists need to
consider the underlying rational behind the programme in order to
choose the most appropriate approach. The approach chosen must
reflect the thinking of all participants in the programme. If some
team members feel unhappy using a client directed approach,
needing to be directive, or do not have the skills necessary to
facilitate group processes, group participants could end up confused
about the role which they are being asked to adopt. They may be
receiving contradictory information from group leaders.
USE OF EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES
The use of educational approaches in the management programmes

of clients is encountered frequently. The aims, structure, content and
approaches used in programmes are varied. Sometimes they are used
on a one to one basis, sometimes on a group basis. Individualized
programmes may be used when the information being conveyed is
of relevance only to one person, such as a specific treatment regime.
Group programmes are used frequently by therapists where a group
of clients with broadly the same needs can be identified. In terms of
information retention it has been suggested that individualized
programmes produce a greater learning gain than group programmes
(Lorish, Parker and Brown, 1985).
There are, however, other factors which may influence the choice
of group work as opposed to individual programmes. The support
that group members can gain from each other and from sharing
experiences should not be underestimated. Most clients cope alone
with the problems they encounter daily and can feel isolated in doing
so. They may also feel that the problems they are encountering are
unique to them as they have no gauge by which to measure them.
While families are usually sympathetic and supportive there comes
a time when clients feel unable to burden their families with the
problems they have heard numerous times before. Bringing people
with similar problems together in a group does provide an
78
opportunity for the sharing of information and the discussion of

problems with people who have a greater degree of empathy.
One dilemma which confronts therapists when formulating a
programme based upon group work is whether or not group
members should be at roughly the same stage in the disease process.
Is it distressing for newly diagnosed clients to be involved in groups
with clients who may have had the disease for several years, have
developed deformities and have lost some aspects of function?
Three considerations have been identified in relation to group
work carried out with people with multiple sclerosis (Pavlon,
Harting and Davis, 1978). Contagious fears arose among group
members whereby the clients who were less disabled by their condi-
tion were afraid of being made worse by being in contact with
people whose condition was more advanced. This was seen as a
'natural extension and modification of a phenomenon seen in new
groups universally' and such feelings were identified even in groups
which were homogenous with regard to disease level. If the group
members are self-selected then those members who do not wish to
confront issues relating to their future will cease to attend and
therapists can thus identify them and follow them up to ensure that
they have not suffered any harm and offer alternative ways of
receiving information if they so wish.
The positive effects of heterogeneous groups were identified as
less disabled members 'spending less energy avoiding fearful
thoughts of the future and less time avoiding situations in which they
might be frightened in this way'. The groups which were comprised
solely of less disabled members showed higher levels of anxiety as
there was 'no discrete focus for their fears of deterioration'.
The inclusion of relatives is another issue which arises when plan-
ning programmes. There are advantages and disadvantages which
need to be considered. The inclusion of relatives can be inhibitive for
both clients and family members with regard to the expression of
issues which may relate to family relationships. It is sometimes
difficult to discuss problems which may be occurring within a rela-
tionship, or perceived lack of understanding if both partners are
present. However, family members also have the need to be provided
with information regarding the disease, its management and specific
treatment regimes. Family support has been associated with client's
adoption of specific regimes such as wearing splints, taking medica-
tion and exercising (Ferguson and Boyle, 1978; Oakes et al., 1970).
Three broad areas of educational work in rheumatology can be iden-
tified as:
79
DEVELOPING SKILLS
1. clients having undergone the same operative procedure;

2. information relating to a specific treahnent technique;
3. broad based self-management programmes.
Therapists have developed educational groups for clients who have

undergone the same course of treahnent, as in the case of joint
replacement surgery. An example of this is a group which is deve-
loped for clients who have undergone hip replacement surgery. As
the number of clients having hip replacement surgery increases
therapists time is being taken up explaining to each person the
precautions which it is necessary to take post-operatively and ways
in which they can remain independent within these limitations. A
more effective use of time is to develop a group programme of
information, supplemented with a booklet to overcome the time-
consuming repetition of information on an individual basis.
Groups may also be used to convey information regarding a
specific treahnent technique such as relaxation. This sort of
programme would usually comprise more than one session to ensure
that time is given for reinforcement and practice of the technique
being taught.
The development of a self-management programme can meet the
wider information needs of clients and usually contains information
relating to a variety of issues. Such programmes are usually
implemented by more than one member of the team, if not via direct
involvement in groups then via input into the planning stage.
The planning of such work, whether on an individual or group
basis and whether for one session or a programme of several
sessions is essential and comprises several stages.
1. Identifying the client group.

2. Establishing their needs and expectations.
3. Developing aims and objectives.
4. Organizing content and identifying resources.
5. Planning methods of evaluation.
6. Implementing the programme.
7. Evaluation and if appropriate, revising the programme.
These various stages will now be discussed using the development

of a self-management programme as an example.
80
Identifying client group
Referrals from consultants and discussion with clients attending a

rheumatology out-patient clinic identified a need for information to
be provided regarding different aspects of managing rheumatoid
disease. This need was also voiced by clients who were admitted to
the ward. Discussion with in-patients revealed a frustration that they
were receiving information once admitted to the ward which they
had not had access to as an out-patient and how much they would
have valued this opportunity prior to admission. In-patients also
related feelings of isolation and fear regarding coping with the
disease and not knowing what help was available or what they could
be doing to help themselves.
On this basis a self-management programme for clients attending
out-patient clinic was developed to enable participants to have access
to a variety of information related to coping with rheumatoid
disease. This client group was identified as an expressed need from
clients and a perceived need by therapists. It was decided that
anyone attending out-patient clinic with rheumatoid disease could
participate in the programme and participants were given the oppor-
tunity to bring along a family member.
Establishing needs and expectations
Having identified the cl.ient group it was necessary then to establish

the needs of the group in a more precise fashion. It is essential that
clients are approached in the development of a programme and their
needs not assumed by the programme organizer. The needs iden-
tified by healthcare professionals do not always reflect the needs
identified by clients and different priorities are placed upon different
issues. A survey designed to compare the views of clients and
professionals regarding the importance of different aspects of self-
care showed that clients rated more highly aspects related to such
things as exercise and energy conservation and that professionals
rated the provision of assistive equipment, sexual counselling and
drug treatment more highly than clients (Potts, Weinberger and
Brandt, 1984). Therefore it should not be assumed that effective
programmes can be planned without consultation with represen-
tatives from the group at whom the programme is aimed. Neither
should it be assumed that because a person has had rheumatoid
disease for ten years or been admitted to hospital that they have
81
DEVELOPING SKILLS
been in receipt of an abundance of information, this in many

instances is not the case.
Clients' needs can be identified in various ways. Initially conversa-
tions with representatives of the specific group should provide infor-
mation upon which a programme can be developed. It is worth
considering, however, that the needs expressed by clients to
therapists may not reflect totally what they feel. Clients may feel a
need to say what they think the therapist would like to hear, or if
this discussion is carried out on a group basis may reflect the needs
of the most vocal and dominant group member. If a therapist feels
that either factor is the case she may wish to follow up initial discus-
sion with a questionnaire based upon these discussions. If the ques-
tionnaire is anonymous it may be a more accurate reflection of client
need. It can also be circulated on a wider basis and therefore gain
a more representative picture of the client group's wishes.
Simple questionnaires can provide a wealth of information to assist
in programme development. They can provide an indication of
programme content, venue, frequency, timing and inclusion of
family members.
Alongside establishing the needs of client's it is also necessary to
establish the needs of colleagues who are working with the client
group. Their views regarding approaches, content and evaluation are
essential and will also provide perceptions from a different view
point. If the programme is being developed along a multi-
disciplinary team approach other team members involved in the
implementation of the programme should be involved in the
planning.
While establishing needs it is necessary to establish the expecta-
tions of both colleagues and clients towards participation in the
programme. The expectations of clients involved in a self-
management programme can range from the information received
making no difference at all, to being able to do more for themselves,
to seeing a change in the underlying disease process. High expecta-
tions can be a cause of disappointment and evoke a sense of failure
when expectations are not met. Therapists should be aware of the
participants' expectations of the programme as this can assist in
ensuring that the aims and objectives are explained initially, hope-
fully placing into context the expectations of the group organizers
and the participants.
82
USE OF EDUCATIONAL APPROACliES
Developing aims and objectives
Once the background work has been completed it should be possible

to establish the aims and objectives of the programme. In the
development of a self-management programme there may be several
levels of aims and objectives.
The overall aim of a programme may be to
develop a self-management programme for clients attending out-

patient clinic which identifies a range of possible coping
strategies and resources which may be of assistance in coping
with rheumatoid disease, the programme being backed up with
written information.
The objective being to
identify any effect participation in the programme had on disease

parameters using a multidimensional assessment comprising
valid and reliable measures.
While these were the overall aims and objectives for the
programme being discussed more specific aims and objectives were
developed for each session included in the programme. These should
identify in a more precise way the aim of each session and the ways
in which it is possible to identify whether or not these aims have
been achieved. The overall aim of the programme will also identify
the most appropriate approach to use. The above aim led to the
development of a programme using an educational approach. A set
programme was established based on identified needs of a represen-
tative group, but the programme was developed to provide scope for
discussion and was flexible, to some extent, in content to meet the
needs of different groupS. However, it was not a client directed
approach as time was not spent on working with each group to iden-
tify their needs and enable them to arrive at the direction they
wished to take. The resources, especially therapist's time, were not
available to use this approach and the programme would have been
only available to a much smaller number of people.
Organizing content and identifying resources
Having established aims and objectives the content of the programme
83
DEVELOPING SKILLS
is identified more easily. The content will, to some extent, be depen-

dent upon the resources available in terms of time, venue, finance,
teaching materials and support. While considering group leaders it is
worth considering the possibility of co-running groups with a person
with rheumatoid disease. In an evaluation of self-management
courses no difference was identified in outcome between groups
which were therapist led and groups which had been led by lay
people who had participated in a training course (Cohen and
Lazarus, 1979).
If it is decided to develop teaching resources to compliment group
sessions adequate time should be allowed in the preparation of the
programme for this to be carried out. The production of teaching
material, if done well, is a lengthy process.
Planning methods of evaluation
It is essential that some form of evaluation is carried out, as a

minimum, to identify whether or not the stated aims and objectives
are being achieved. The ways in which this is performed range from
the use of questionnaires designed by the therapist to the use of valid
and reliable measures. The use of pre-testing may identify more
clearly any changes which may have taken place as a result of the
intervention. A wealth of information can be made available to
therapists if systematic evaluation of programmes is carried out
preferably with valid and reliable measures. Information will be
provided to enable the effectiveness of interventions to be identified,
directions in which to progress work clarified and a degree of
understanding of the management of the disease contributed to the
body of knowledge being assimilated.
Implementing the programme
The following programme is an example of a programme used with

out-patients with rheumatoid disease. The sessions were held on a
weekly basis, each session lasting an hour and a half with a break
for coffee and a change of position. Sessions 1, 3, 4 and 5 were led
by an occupational therapist, session 2 by a physiotherapist.
84
Session 1 the disease process and its management

Aim To enable participants to gain an understanding of the way in
which rheumatoid disease affects their body and ways in which it is
managed clinically.
Content
1. The structure of a synovial joint.
2. The way in which inflammation can effect this structure.
3. Systemic features of rheumatoid disease.
4. Medical management of the disease.
5. Other forms of management, including diet and homeopathy.
Session 2 the use of exercise

Aim To enable participants to gain an understanding of the use of
exercise programmes, how to adjust them according to disease
activity and how to use heat and ice at home.
Content
1. The rationale behind the use of exercise.
2. The difference between range of movement, isometric and passive
exercises.
3. Demonstration of and participation in a range of movement
programme.
4. Explanation of how and when to use heat and ice.
5. Discussion on swimming and exercises to carry out in water.
Session 3 maintaining function

Aim To provide information on maintaining function by pacing and
the use of assistive equipment.
Content
1. Explanation of the concept of pacing.
2. Discussion on what is meant by rest, activity and exercise and how
the three can be balanced.
3. Demonstration of some small items of assistive equipment.
4. Discussion on the use of equipment and its provision.
85
DEVEWPING SKILLS
Session 4 coping with rheumatoid disease

Aim To provide the opportunity for participants to discuss how
they cope with problems arising from rheumatoid disease and to
identify possible resources which may be of assistance.
Content
1. Introduction from therapist about coping with pain and loss of
function.
2. Open discussion from group members.
Session 5 relaxation
Aim To provide the opportunity for participants to discuss how they
cope with stress and tension and participate in a period of relaxation.
Content
1. Continuation of previous week's discussion.
2. Discussion on how pain can cause tension.
3. Explanation of what relaxation entails and different methods
relaxation session.
While this programme provides a brief outline it can give an

indication of the type of programme which can be used. The onus
of this programme was essentially on introducing and discussing
basic concepts and ideas and providing participants with an insight
into the potential they have to help themselves. The sessions were
backed up with a booklet which had been produced in conjunction
with the local Health Education Authority and compiled by various
members of the team. The booklet comprised:
1. the disease process and management;

2. the use of exercise, with a fully illustrated exercise programme;
3. the use of heat and ice;
4. swimming;
5. pacing and energy conservation;
6. the use of assistive equipment;
7. coping with stress;
8. personal relationships;
9. employment;
10. mobility;
86
THE USE OF DIFFERENT MEDIUMS
11. footwear and footcare;

12. local resources.
Each section gave basic information and practical advice. The

section on local resources provided addresses of social service
offices, local self-help groups etc. This programme was a basic
introduction for group members and provided an opportunity for out-
patients to meet with other people experiencing similar problems and
to discuss some of their problems with other group members and
therapists. It is worth relaying the fact that group members, via
evaluation, felt that a person with rheumatoid disease should co-run
the groups as they would have a greater understanding of problems
and would also help to overcome some of the fear group members
felt about coping with the future, i.e. they could talk to someone
who has coped for a period of years. Some of the group participants
still keep in touch with each other socially showing that the effects
in terms of support can be long lasting.
Evaluation
Having implemented the programme the evaluation should be carried

out, gathering the data together and its implications considered. The
information gathered during evaluation may well identify areas of the
programme which need revising or developing.
When considering the development of an educational programme
it is also necessary to consider which medium is the most effective
way of conveying the information, this will now be discussed.
The range of mediums available to therapists to convey information

has never been greater. The facility to communicate via the written
or spoken word, slides or videos, or the use of computer
programmes is now readily accessible to most therapists. Teaching
materials are available on a national basis via various publishers as
are audio visual materials. Local resources are usually available if
therapists wish to develop their own specific packages. Mediums
available include: pamphlets and booklets, workbooks, tapeslide
programmes, cassette tapes and computer programmes. The potential
of these different mediums has not, as yet been realized in relation
87
DEVELOPING SKILLS
to developing materials for clients to use, not only in departments

but also in their own homes. Many of these mediums, with the
exception of tapeslide programmes, are now accessible to a growing
number of clients in their own homes. This means that learning can
take place at the pace of the individual, it can be reviewed when
necessary and is also available to other members of the family.
While therapist-led sessions convey information, the use of
supplementary information means that clients can have access to
information when they want it. Sometimes information conveyed
may not be relevant immediately but several years later can be
retrieved as necessary.
Pamphlets and booklets
A wide range of booklets are available on a national basis via the

Arthritis and Rheumatism Council. Titles applicable to clients with
rheumatoid disease include: Rheumatoid arthritis explained, A new
hip joint, Alternative medicine, Are you sitting comfortably? ,
Arthritis: sexual aspects and parenthood, Choosing shoes, Driving
and your arthritis and Your home and your rheumatism. These
booklets provide information in a clear and concise format (Arthritis
and Rheumatism Council). Therapists also produce frequently their
own supplementary information to programmes they are developing.
The standard of this literature varies from A4 sheets of typed infor-
mation to illustrated and printed booklets. Before re-inventing the
wheel it is worth establishing exactly what is available as the
development of such materials is time consuming and costly.
Workbooks
Workbooks are encountered more frequently in the United States

where the production of educational material tends to be more
formalized with educationalists employed specifically to co-ordinate
and develop educational activities within units. The information
ranges from fact sheets about routine investigative procedures such
as X-rays to management programmes for specific conditions. An
example of this is Rehabilitation Through Learning: Energy Conser-
vation and Joint Protection. A Workbook for People with Rheumatoid
Arthritis (Furst, Gerber and Smith, 1982). This book comprises four
sections: body positioning, rest, activity analysis and joint protection.
88
Each section outlines teaching objectives and provides infonnation

and practical suggestions. The infonnation is followed by a series of
worksheets for clients to complete and an evaluation checklist. Such
books can be used in conjunction with therapist led sessions
providing useful infonnation as to how the client is using the infor-
mation and how they are applying it to their daily routine. The prac-
tical application can act as a reinforcement of the written
infonnation.
Books
A growing number of publications are on general release which

provide a variety of infonnation regarding rheumatoid disease. Some
have been written by therapists and clinicians and others by people
with the disease or people involved in other fonns of intervention,
such as homeopaths or dieticians. As these pUblications are available
through many libraries and local bookshops it is well worth
therapists reviewing the publications so that the infonnation
presented is known about should clients refer to books which they
have read. It may be appropriate for copies to be kept in the
department.
Tapeslide programmes
Commercially produced programmes are now available on such

topics as joint protection, medication and exercise programmes.
While some therapists have embarked upon developing their own
programmes the time involved may be prohibitive. The main draw
back of this medium is that it is not as accessible as other mediums
as the appropriate audiovisual equipment must be available, therefore
its use is usually limited to wards and clinics. An advantage of this
medium however is that it is accessible to clients who have reading
difficulties, which the options mentioned previously are not.
Tapes
Probably one of the most widely recognized uses of tapes is in the

teaching of relaxation techniques. They are relatively easy to prepare
needing only a tape recorder and are easily reproducible. They are
89
DEVELOPING SKILLS
also a medium which a large proportion of clients will be able to use

within their own homes. Tapes are also a useful way of supplemen-
ting information for people who have a visual impairment and who
otherwise may not have access to written information.
Videos
The potential of videos is yet to be realized in relation to conveying

information to clients. The cost of production and the availability of
equipment may prohibit the development of videos within many
departments. Again this is a medium which can be used within a
growing number of clients' homes and is also a medium to which
people can easily relate.
Computer programmes
The development of computer programmes as an educational medium

is a new area for many therapists. As more departments are installing
computers for use as a treatment medium or for departmental admini-
stration it is becoming a more widely available medium. As a medium
it may deter some clients who feel unable to cope with new technology
but for a certain group of clients it may prove ideal. It is an active
learning process as responses to questions are required bringing a
degree of involvement and challenge which other more passive
mediums such as watching a slide programme lack. Also a growing
number of clients will have home computers. The scope of this medium
is immense and programmes have already been established that enable
users to shop from home or to communicate with each other.
Therapists must determine which mediums they feel are
appropriate to the client group they are using them with and which
fall within the budgets or resources they have access to. Thought
should also be given to how accessible the information is to members
of ethnic groups and clients who have learning difficulties or are
sensorily impaired. In the development of information it must be
decided whether the information is to be used as a supplement to
therapist led sessions or in isolation. If clients are to be given infor-
mation without access to someone to discuss queries, the format and
content should be very clear. While the provision of a booklet may
convey information the use of group work can convey the same
information but also provide levels of support.
90
SELF-HELP GROUPS
The development of educational programmes is one way of con-

veying information to clients. Many of the educational approaches
used by therapists tend to adopt either a behavioural or educational
approach, thus having a defined structure and content. The effec-
tiveness of these programmes in terms of conveying information has
been demonstrated but the longer term effects in relation to func-
tional ability or coping responses remains a matter for investigation.
A less formalized environment for conveying information and
gaining support and advice is that of self-help groups.
SELF-HELP GROUPS
Recent years have seen the emergence of many self-help groups

related to a wide and varied range of issues. They are seen as offer-
ing help and assistance from outside of 'the system' and so being
less inhibited by bureaucracy and having the ability to reflect the
voice of the people. It is also for this reason that the relationship
between self-help groups and the statutory sector has not always
been easy. There are many political issues, both with a capital and
a small 'p' which surround the emergence of self-help, especially at
a time when the services offered within the state system are receding
and being criticized in many areas.
First, it is necessary to define what is meant by self-help, as the
words tend to be used interchangeably with mutual aid, although
these are two very different concepts. Self-help is fundamentally an
egocentric concept epitomized by a capitalistic society. It relates the
Victorian concept of the undeserving poor and is summarized in the
following quotation from Samuel Smiles, 'The spirit of self-help is
in the root of all genuine growth in the individual and exhibited in
the lives of many constitutes the source of national vigour and
strength. Help from without is often enfeebling in its effects but help
from within invariably invigorates, whatever is done for men and
classes to a certain extent takes away the stimulus and necessity of
doing for themselves and where men are subjected 10 over guidance
and over government the inevitable tendency is to render them
comparatively helpless' (Smiles, 1958). Therefore the original
concept of self-help does not equate, in many ways, with the general
usage of the terminology today. Mutual aid, however, was seen as
a co-operative process in the emergence of friendly societies and
trade unions where people work together to assist each other. Both
ideologies emerged from political roots and still carry political
91
DEVELOPING SKILLS
undertones with them. Most people refer to the underlying

philosophy of mutual aid when they talk about self-help.
The re-emergence of self-help can be seen as a response to the
bureaucratic welfare system; 'The welfare state tends to treat
materials and practical problems rather than promote personal
growth and a sense of personal worth. An established profession
such as medicine has tended to treat symptoms and bodily illness
rather than promote self-understanding, adjustment and a greater
sense of wholeness. Self-help along with holistic medicine and a host
of other new responses to problems has begun to fill a vacuum'
(Landan North and Duddy, 1985). While this statement may be
viewed by some as extreme in its view of a totally impersonal
narrow profession it is apparent that such a large state run system
carulot be as flexible and responsive to individual needs as locally
based groups. Many would see self-help as complementing the
services offered by the statutory sector.
A criticism of self-help is that it is attributing to the dismantling
of the welfare system by taking on roles and providing services
which should be available through the state system. While services
are being provided by the voluntary sector there is a decreased
demand on statutory services enabling them to negate responsibility
for certain aspects of care, especially within the community.
Self-help has also been identified as a predominantly middle-class
concept, which can be seen to be untrue in relation to co-operative
societies and trade unions, and so only reflecting the voice of a small
section of the population. The relationship with professionals can be
tenuous in some circumstances especially when groups are seen to
question aspects of their healthcare or management. 'Groups of
people meeting in each other's home over tea or coffee pose no
particular threat or concern. . . . However when a group of people
having a particular problem come together to actively help
themselves and others and attach the title self-help they are often
viewed with suspicion and asked to explain the rationale for their
existence' (Landan North and Duddy, 1985).
On a collective basis self-help groups are therefore seen as fulfill-
ing both a social and a political role. The benefits for individual
members are however more varied. Self-help groups are essentially
groups of people who feel they have a common problem meeting
together to exchange help and support and do something about the
problem. Emphasis is on the idea of sharing and providing the
opportunity to meet and learn from one another. This breaks away
from the 'doctor-patient' relationship and emphasizes reciprocity.
92
SELF-HELP GROUPS
For some members the groups provide a way in which they can
contribute to solving some of their own problems and so feel more
in control of their disease. As members become more involved in
groups and have attended for a period of time they may gain a sense
of being able to help other people by offering information or
support. The organization of groups lends a degree of formality
which emphasizes the difference between a self-help group and a
group of friends, although some self-help groups also provide a
social function for members outside of the meetings and friendships
develop through contacts met at groups.
Groups also provide services beyond the group meetings, many
Arthritis Care groups organize swimming sessions, some have
welfare officers who visit clients at home and they also offer holiday
accommodation at several places throughout the United Kingdom or
organize group holidays abroad. Other groups concentrate on fund
raising to help pay for research into a specific condition or campaign
to increase public awareness regarding the condition, or political and
social issues arising from it.
Self-help groups exist on two levels, the larger organizations tend
to be national organizations with a head office and employed staff,
producing literature on a national basis, such as Arthritis Care.
These organizations usually have local groups and regional officers
to provide support at a local level and encourage the development of
new groups and initiatives.
Smaller local initiatives exist where a group of people have met and
decided to start their own group, either because a larger group with
which to affiliate does not exist, or, the one that does exist does not
meet the needs as identified by that group who feel an alternative is
necessary. An example of this may be a local group which consists
of an older age group who meet on a purely social basis and a group
of younger people with the same condition who want to find out more
about their disease and actively campaign on specific issues. While
the presenting condition of the clients is the same the needs as iden-
tified by the two groups are completely different. Local groups have
the advantage over national organizations of being in touch with local
needs. The needs of a head office based in London may reflect in no
way the local needs of a group in the north of the country, whose
priorities, needs and resources may be totally different.
The level of participation in group activities varies considerably.
Some members are willing to adopt leadership roles while others
prefer to stay in the background and attend meetings. Some common
problems of self-help groups have been identified as:
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DEVELOPING SKILLS
1. getting people to adopt extra responsibility;

2. a high membership turnover making the running of groups and
gaining stability difficult;
3. a low membership turnover making groups stale;
4. a shared problem bringing the group together invariably means
that it functions under a handicap;
5. practicalities such as transport and finance (Richardson, 1984).
Non-participation in groups can be attributed to several factors, it

may be a matter of choice not to join or it may be a lack of
knowledge of the group's existence, problems of transport and
finance can also inhibit membership as can the degree of support
received from family. If a client is dependent upon her husband for
transport to and from the meeting it is difficult to participate if he
is against her attending. With thought and careful planning some of
these problems can be overcome. The involvement of healthcare
professionals with groups is an area which needs addressing,
especially in relation to the role which professionals can play in
supporting groups.
New groups are formed frequently from an individual who iden-
tifies an area of need and starts looking for help in meeting that
need. If no form of help is available then advice may be sought
about starting a self-help group. If a professional is approached at
this stage consideration should be given as to whether to get involved
or to refer the client to another agency more related to self-help
initiatives than to statutory provision. In some areas Councils for
Voluntary Services may exist or there may be Community Develop-
ment Officers attached to Local Authorities. Such agencies have the
skills to work alongside group members helping them to develop the
skills necessary to start and maintain a self-help project. They will
usually work alongside groups until the group is strong enough to
run itself, providing help and support which is withdrawn gradually
so that the group becomes self supporting.
If therapists become involved in groups, consideration should be
given to the level of involvement and the way in which this can
detract from the essence of self-help. If a high level of involvement
is assumed it is difficult for group members to develop their own
organizational skills and the group can become dependent upon the
support of the 'professionals'. This is summed up in the following
statement, 'professionals must learn to be enablers leading from
behind. They should give support but not control, advise but not
dictate, be available but not always around' (Landan, North and
94
SELF-HELP GROUPS
Duddy, 1985). It is difficult when asked for help not to take over
and take on responsibilities, especially when used to organizing and
developing projects and perhaps knowing exactly where to go for
assistance and knowing that the tasks could be completed in half the
amount of time simply because you have ready access to the infor-
mation and know ways around and through systems.
In addition to this founder members may still be feeling unsure of
what they are meant to be doing and out of their depth and feel that
a 'professional' will be able to help them overcome their problems.
However if skills are going to be acquired by members, profes-
sionals must resist the temptation to become too involved, even
though it may initially take longer to explain processes rather than
carry them out. Support and advice should be given and practical
assistance if necessary but preferably working alongside members
and not actually taking on the work in isolation. Clients may feel
initially dependent upon healthcare professionals as they are
predominantly seen as service providers and clients as receivers. To
reverse these roles could be threatening for clients whose expecta-
tions of professionals is one of taking the lead and may also be
threatening to professionals who have been used to being in a
. controlling situation. The temptation to dominate, take on too many
tasks and play an organizational role should be resisted.
Various guides and packages have been compiled to assist groups
in establishing themselves. Once a group of people have been iden-
tified as wishing to develop a group many practical issues have to
be considered. Decisions have to be taken as to the aims of the
group, whether to provide information, provide support, organize
campaigns, raise funds or plan social activities. The composition of
the membership has to be identified as to whether it will comprise
purely of people with the problems, or include family and other
interested people. Thought also has to be given to the first meeting
and a suitable venue identified. The accessibility of the venue can
influence greatly the numbers of people getting to the meetings as
can the availability of transport.
The content of the first meeting has to be identified, a format
developed and chairperson elected. In order to maintain the momen-
tum of the first meeting some thought should also be given to the
second meeting so that the venue and topic can be announced and
members feel a sense of continuity. Once these topics have been
addressed the first meeting has to be publicized and potential
members informed. While not being involved directly therapists can
offer support to members trying to establish a group and contacts for
95
DEVELOPING SKILLS
advice and practical assistance. Advice may also be needed on ways

of raising finance to contribute towards the cost of publicity ,
refreshments, rent for a venue, postage, etc.
Therapists have a role to play with established groups. Keeping a
group running can demand a lot of energy from the organizers and
they may need on-going support and advice. It is useful for them to
know that there are some professionals who will offer support and
information without taking over the group. As the membership of
groups can change frequently on-going publicity is needed to attract
new members. Therapists and clinicians have access to potential new
members and can fulfIl a valuable role by passing on information
about groups and meetings. The other active role which can be
played by therapists is that of taking meetings when asked or
suggesting potential speakers or resources which may be of use.
Therapists can also utilize self-help groups as an invaluable source
of information representing the real 'client voice'. In the develop-
ment of services or programmes or the evaluation of work seeking
representative client groups for opinions and comment can prove
difficult. These groups rarely exist within the statutory sector and so
have to be sought in the voluntary sector, primarily self-help groups.
Self-help groups can provide a valuable contribution to the
management of a chronic disease providing a dimension of manage-
ment which can not be offered by many healthcare professionals, the
provision of information and support from the view point of a person
with the condition. Therapists should endeavour to foster working
relations with self-help groups and utilize the resources and services
they can provide. Misunderstandings and threat are usually born
through lack of communication and overprotection of identity, if
these stumbling blocks can be overcome the value of working
together can only add an extra dimension to the service offered to
clients. The fostering of links and the active involvement of
members of self-help groups in the work of departments of
rheumatology should be encouraged.
COUNSELLING
The main emphasis of many therapeutic interventions in

rheumatology are towards eleviating the physical manifestations of
the disease, reducing symptoms and maintaining function. Previous
chapters have considered the psychosocial impact of the disease and
highlighted how these can also affect perception of, and in some
96
COUNSELLING
instances induce, physical symptoms, and decrease levels of func-

tion. Personal and family relationships can also be affected and
communication between family members can break down.
This section will consider the role of counselling in facilitating
client's adjustment to living with a chronic disease and coping with
crises if they occur. This will be addressed from the view point of
the humanistic approach which is psychotherapeutic not psycho-
analytical and is non-directive or client centred. This approach has
been taken as it relates closely to the basis of occupational therapy.
Rogerian therapy is based upon an existential humanist approach
and has influenced greatly counselling work. Rogerian theory
emphasizes the wholeness of man, the responsibility of the individual
for their life and their freedom to make choices. Humanist views
believe in man's ability to understand himself and change or improve
through his own efforts. Rogerian therapy is directed towards
facilitating this process. This process involves the therapist in enter-
ing into a relationship of unconditional positive regard, being warm
and supportive.
Through using skills such as active listening, physical attending,
empathy and reflection, therapists aim to help clients identify and
clarify their feelings. When using counselling skills the therapist is
non-directive and never imposes views or opinions. The counsellor
provides the environment in which clients can explore feelings or
problems and arrive at their own definition of what they feel and the
direction in which they wish to progress. This process is at the
opposite end of the continuum to a behavioural approach which is
directive and places the emphasis on the therapists status as 'profes-
sional' providing specific guidelines to follow and action to take.
The trend of psychotherapeutic interventions in clinical practice is
directed predominantly towards crisis management rather than help-
ing clients adjust to the significant changes in lifestyle, body image
and role that can occur or work through the bereavement process
associated with the losses they may be experiencing. Within clinical
practice the onus is still more towards physical rather than
psychological management. Some of the reasons for this include the
basis of the medical model of care, the lack of validity of
psychotherapeutic interventions and the amount of resources required
to use these interventions.
The medical model of care is predominantly disease orientated
with an emphasis on the physical component of disease and working
towards curing or eleviating physical problems. A client presents
with a problem which is taken on by the clinician, investigated and
97
DEVELOPING SKILLS
treated. The basis of counselling a client is that the therapist does

not take on the client's problem but through the use of specific skills
provides an environment which enables the client to address their
own problem. The underlying philosophy of counselling is very
different to a medical model of care.
Despite the increasing use of counselling in relation to rheumatoid
disease little data exists which identifies the validity of this approach.
Studies which have been conducted have failed to identify a
statistically significant change in psychological parameters. This is
an area in which research is proceeding confronted by the need to
validate methods of intervention using criteria from a model of care
which is in many ways opposed to the model being validated.
Embarking upon a process of individual counselling is a lengthy
and labour intensive process. The allocation of therapist's time is a
factor of consideration as resources become less available. It is
essential that time allocation is considered before a client is taken on,
as they cannot be abandoned after a few sessions if time becomes
limited.
The initial period of counselling aims to explore and enable the
client to clarify issues which they perceive as problems, the skills
used are directed towards this and also establishing a therapeutic
relationship with the client. An overview of the counselling process
has been proposed as eight stages.
Stage 1
Meeting the client.
Stage 2
The discussion of surface issues.
Stage 3
Revelation of deeper issues.
Stage 4
Ownership of feelings and possible emotional release.
Stage Generation of insight, the client's life is reviewed by them
5
in a different light.
Stage 6 Problem-solving and future planning.
Stage 7 Action by the client.
Stage 8 Disengagement from the counselling relationship by the
client (Burnard, 1989).
The main skills used in a counselling process are listening and

attending, reflection, selective use of questions and summarizing.
The distinction between hearing and listening is stated as 'Hearing
involves the capacity to be aware of and receive sound. Listening
involves not only receiving sounds but, as much as possible,
accurately understanding their meaning. As such it entails hearing
words, being sensitive to vocal cues, observing movements and
98
COUNSELLING
taking into account the context of communication' (Nelson Jones,

1988). This involves paying attention not only to content but also to
the tone of a person's voice, the pitch and the volume. Being party
to a conversation in which you have not been listened to is a situa-
tion with which most people can identify and will be able to
remember the frustration and anger felt. It is essential that the client
is aware of the counsellor's attention and feels that they are being
listened to. Becoming an active listener is a definite skill and
involves the use not only of verbal skills but non-verbal communica-
tion as well. Attending is the skill of showing the client that they
have your full attention and this is communicated by posture, gesture
and other forms of non-verbal communication.
Reflection is probably the most widely recognized counselling skill
as it is used to conjure up the stereotyped picture of a counsellor
repeating parrot fashion what is being said. In fact it has several
very specific uses. It is easy to relate on a personal level to the
clarity that is gained by someone reflecting what you have said.
Very often we think we have said something and the person listening
hears something different. Reflection enables both the counsellor and
client to check they are on the same line and talking about the same
thing. Reflection also enables the client to hear, perhaps for the first
time, their thoughts and feelings being verbalized. The process of
verbalization can bring thoughts into perspective and help to identify
if what is being said is really meant and clarify the feelings the client
may be experiencing. While situations may be easy to explain
sometimes the feelings attached to those experiences are more
difficult to identify.
Questions should be open ended and relevant to what is being
discussed and can be used to lead a client if they are experiencing
difficulty in verbalizing a specific problem.
During this initial exploratory period the content of the interviews
may be muddled, jump from one issue to another and bring out pain-
ful issues. It is necessary for the counsellor to summarize what has
been said from time to time to try and make some links between
what has been said and to clarify what is going Gn. The content often
reflects the client's confusion at the early stages of the counselling
process and as they feel more secure in the relationship they are able
to move on to exploring issues in more depth.
The next phase of counselling focuses more on specific problems
which have been highlighted in the exploratory period. These issues
are looked at in detail to enable the counselling to move on to help
the client identify possible ways of approaching the issues raised and
99
DEVELOPING SKILLS
dealing with them and the possible consequences of doing so. This
enables clients to explore options within the safety of the relationship
established with the counsellor and in some situations to try out
possible responses with the counsellor before embarking upon
facilitating change in their own situation.
The processes involved in counselling are described in many
publications which provide exercises to carry out, either on an
individual or group basis and references will be given. The use of
these skills and the provision of space and time for the client to
explore issues within a relatively safe environment is invaluable in
assisting clients to adapt to change. The responsibility remains with
the client and at no time does a counsellor take on the responsibility
for the client's problems, they merely provide an environment in
which problems can be identified, clarified and explored and
responses learned and tried out.
Even if therapists feel that they do not have the time to become
involved in counselling clients the development of counselling skills
will help tremendously in their day to day work. The ability to be
an active listener and to progress a conversation without imposing
values or opinions is a skill which will contribute to the effectiveness
of client/therapist relationships and provide the means to enable
clients to explore the issues which are of importance to them.
Group counselling has also been used in relation to groups of
clients with rheumatoid disease, the counsellor acting as group
facilitator and using the dynamics of the group to identify and
explore issues of relevance to that group. The structure and intention
of such a group is different from a group of clients meeting as a
self-help group, as a counselling group is usually closed, given some
form of direction from the group leader (in relation to facilitating the
group process) and runs for a set period of time.
This section has explored several settings in which therapists can
be involved as a vehicle for communication. The structure of each
setting is different, as is the role of the therapist in each. The aim
of all of these settings is to provide an environment in which clients
are active, if they want to be. They all focus on active participation
and it must be remembered that for some clients this will not be
appropriate. Some clients will wish to adopt a passive role and hand
over the management of their disease to 'the professional'. Thought
must be given as to whether this is due to a lack of skills and
confidence on the client's behalf which could be developed, an
entrenchment in the medical model of care which hands over all
responsibility to the professional as this is their perceived role or a
100
FURTHER READING
person who for various reasons has taken on a passive sick role in
which they are happy.
Access to information, support and resources are essential
components to coping with a chronic disease. The type of each will
vary from client to client, some clients will find their support from
friends in the club, others from a self-help group and others from
within their own home. Some clients will want to find out as much
information as possible about what they can be doing to help
themselves, others will want to know very little.
The aim of a team should be to provide access to a variety of
settings and approaches so that the needs of clients can be met on
a broad spectrum. The active involvement of clients is dependent
upon the attitudes of the therapists and clinicians they meet and the
amount of information they have access to. The role of the team
should be that of enabling clients and providing access to the
services and resources which clients feel are important, supporting
when necessary during times of need and then withdrawing to give
clients the opportunity and space to develop their own skills.
Empowering clients is an issue which to many clinicians is threaten-
ing, primarily as it means relinquishing power as a 'professional' but
in rheumatology the onus has to be on ways in which clients can be
empowered to help themselves.
The potential of occupational therapists to facilitate these
approaches is immense as many of them are central to the underlying
philosophy of the profession and form a significant component of
therapist's training. While some of the concepts may be alien to the
medical model of care and their potential not realized, as yet,
therapists are ideally placed to introduce and implement such
concepts, as a minimum, within their own clinical practice if not on
a wider scale.
The general direction of healthcare is towards greater client
involvement, a move which to some extent has been client led, and
individual therapists must identify the most appropriate model of
working for themselves, with the confidence however, to know that
they have the skills and the hospital and community perspective to
play a central role in a direction which is slowly becoming reality.
FURTHER READING
L. Ewles, I. Simnett (1985) Promoting Health, A Practical Guide to Health

Education, John Wiley and Sons Ltd, London.
101
DEVELOPING SKILLS
R. Nelson-Jones (1988) Practical Counselling Skills, 2nd edn, Cassell,

London.
A. Richardson (1984) Working with Self-Help Groups: A Guide for Profes-
sionals, Bedford Square Press, London.
S. Rodmell, A. Watt (1986) The Politics of Health Education, Raising the
Issues, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
W. Stewart (1985) Counselling in Rehabilitation, Croom Helm, London.
102
6
Adaptive techniques
Many different adaptive techniques are available to both therapists

and clients to maintain independence and reduce the impact of
rheumatoid disease on functional ability. These techniques can be
used as components of self management programmes or on their
own, in a group setting or on an individual basis. They are not only
a means of maintaining function but also of enabling clients to
achieve a sense of control over their disease. The ways in which
rheumatoid disease can lead to feelings of helplessness have already
been discussed and these techniques present practical ways in which
a degree of control, no matter how small, can be achieved.
As techniques they are available to all clients to adopt. The aim
of the therapist should be to present the principles in a way which
is meaningful to the client and a way which seems realistic to incor-
porate in a daily routine without too much upheaval. By conveying
principles the client is able to incorporate and adapt them as and
when is appropriate. The time a client is in contact with any
healthcare professional is fractional and clients should be given the
information and the confidence which enables them to take a degree
of responsibility in their care and be given the information necessary
regarding how and when they may wish to seek the help of a
'professional'. The sharing of information is essential in the relation-
ship of therapist and client and the role of therapist is one of 'enabl-
ing' and facilitating as well as in specific circumstances treating.
The aim of this chapter is to discuss some of these concepts and
their application to the total management and life style of a client.
The therapist and client together will need to identify the relevant
concepts and work out realistic methods of application. As principles
they remain guidelines and merely form a basis upon which to build.
Collectively they comprise the principles of joint protection, which
include energy conservation, as proposed by Joy Cordrey. The
theoretical basis of these principles was an understanding of
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
biomechanics, pathology of rheumatoid disease, the consequences of

inflammation and anatomy (Cordery, 1965). This theoretical
framework was developed into a set of principles which aimed to
reduce the stress placed upon joints while carrying out activities of
daily living in order to reduce pain, save energy and preserve the
joint structures.
The principles comprise the following:
1. respect for pain;

2. balance between work and rest;
3. avoidance of positions of deformity;
4. maintenance of range of movement and muscle strength;
5. use of joints in their most stable position;
6. use of the strongest joints available to carryout an activity;
7. reduction of energy needed to complete an activity;
8. avoiding sustained positions or repetitive activities;
9. avoiding activities which cannot be stopped if they cause too
much stress to joints or elicit high degrees of pain;
to. use of splints and assistive equipment to protect the joints
(Melvin, 1977).
A brief explanation of these principles will be given, some will be
considered in more depth in subsequent sections, followed by discus-
sion of the dilemmas facing a therapist when presenting and using
these principles.
Respect for pain
This relates to clients becoming aware of the types of pain they

experience and differentiating between what is a normal level of
background pain, which many clients experience each day, and what
is pain caused by acute inflammation, or placing excessive force or
strain on joints.
In most situations pain is seen as a warning signal of injury or
illness and elicits a response to deal with the cause, which is usually
avoidance and protection, however this situation differs with clients
who experience chronic pain. The reverse occurs and clients need to
develop coping strategies which place the pain in the background
enabling activities of daily living to be carried out in spite of the
pain being present. Pain clinics conduct courses aimed at helping
clients to maintain levels of function and decrease pain-related
behaviour which reinforces the intensity of pain felt.
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
The dilemma for clients with rheumatoid disease, however, is that

they experience both acute and chronic pain and this is where an
understanding of the nature of each is essential. Many clients
experience a level of almost unremitting pain, if this pain were to
be seen as a reason to rest joints and decrease functional activities
movement would be lost, deformities develop and lifestyle would
become very limited. However during an acute episode when joints
are inflamed rest is needed and exercise should be limited in order
to reduce the inflammation.
Clients, therefore, need to differentiate between acute and chronic
pain and respond accordingly. This principle also relates to the point
at which an activity is stopped due to pain. If, during an activity, pain
becomes acute clients are advised to cease the activity as soon as
possible. They should not continue until the level of pain becomes so
unbearable that they have no choice other than to stop, as this is felt
to increase inflammation and place undue stress on joint structures.
This principle relates to clients identifying the different types of
pain they feel and acknowledging them.
1. What is an acceptable level of pain at which they must try to

continue activities?
2. What is acute pain that is an indication that a joint is inflamed
or has been subjected to too much activity or stress?
3. How can they respond to these different levels of pain within
their lifestyle?
Balance between work and rest
This principle relates to the amount of rest and aCtIVIty a client

incorporates into their day and encompasses clients' concepts of
each. The amounts will vary according to disease activity and
therefore clients need to understand the principles of rest, activity
and exercise and how the three are related. This principle is
discussed in more detail under the heading of energy conservation.
Avoidance of positions of deformity
It is recommended that certain positions should be avoided as far as

possible to decrease the development of deformities, for example
placing pillows behind knees which encourages the development of
105
ADAPTNE TECHNIQUES
flexion contractures. Clients should also be encouraged to lie flat un

a bed, preferably on their stomach, to stretch the hip into full exten-
sion, if they are prone to the development of hip contractures. These
principles also include the position of the hand during activities and
the avoidance of positions that encourage the deformities of ulnar
drift, swan neck, boutonniere, and subluxation of the MCP joints.
Specific examples of the way in which this principle can be utilized
are well documented in other publications. They mainly relate, with
reference to hand function, to the use of alternative grips, the heel
of the hand and the lateral edge of the palm as these are the
strongest most stable parts of the hand and least vulnerable to stress.
The use of two hands when lifting and the use of the forearm when
carrying bags etc. as opposed to the hand are common examples.
Maintenance of range of movement and muscle strength
This principle is achieved through the use of a specific exercise

programme designed to place each joint through a full range of
movement to maintain movement, prevent the development of
contractures and maintain muscle strength. Clients need to know the
different types of exercise that can be carried out and how and when
to up or down grade them according to disease activity. This princi-
ple will be discussed in more detail.
Use of each joint in its most stable position
The stability of joints can be compromised by destruction of the joint

cartilage or bone or the lengthening of tendons or ligaments thus
decreasing their stabilizing effect on the joint during movement. It
was proposed that placing rotationary forces on joints such as the
knees could increase this instability.
Use of the strongest joint to carry out an activity
This principle relates to distributing weight and stress to the largest

joints during activities. So hips are used to push open doors rather
than hand, palms are used to push rather than fingers etc.
106
ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
Reduction of energy to carry out activities
This principle will be expanded in the energy conservation section

and involves the use of energy saving equipment, the use of assistive
equipment and forward planning.
Avoidance of holding sustained positions
Staying in one position for any length of time can lead to stiffness
and pain on movement, clients will often relate how they dread
getting up after they have been sitting for some time as they know
how painful it will be. Therefore changes of position will help to
decrease stiffness. Sustaining a static position can also be a cause of
muscle fatigue and thus transmit stress to underlying ligaments and
related structures.
Avoidance of activities which cannot be stopped
Starting an activity which cannot be stopped if pain occurs is placing

a client in a position of having to continue through pain to complete
the task. This principle relates to the planning of activities so that
breaks can be incorporated if and when appropriate.
Use of assistive equipment and splints
In relation to joint protection the use of assistive equipment has been

identified as:
1. supporting weakened joints, i.e. the use of walking aids;

2. to provide leverage to increase force while decreasing exertion;
3. to help maintain joints in the most stable anatomical position;
4. to extend reach when joints are limited in range of movement;
5. to avoid unnecessary use or strain, i.e. using a book rest when
reading (Melvin, 1977).
One of the largest dilemmas facing therapists in the field of

rheumatology is how they present these principles to clients and what
basis this decision is taken from. While Cordrey has provided the
theoretical basis for these principles this has not, as yet, been carried
107
ADAPTNE TECHNIQUES
over into the clinical field. The main basis for using these principles
initially was the reduction of deformity, but there remains a distinct
lack of clinical data to substantiate the use of these principles on this
basis. This is probably due to the enormous number of variables
involved in such a long-term study. Some of these include the
variability in the disease from client to client, the interpretation of
each principle which leaves a great deal of scope for subjectivity,
compliance over a long period of time and the large variation in
clients' functional activities and lifestyles.
The variability of the disease from client to client is immense. In
some clients destruction of joints occurs rapidly after onset necessitat-
ing joint replacement surgery within a relatively short space of time.
Other clients can have the disease for years and while experiencing
pain and other symptoms joint structures remain intact. It would
therefore be difficult to ascribe the development or lack of develop-
ment of deformity to the use of joint protection aside from the under-
lying disease process.
The interpretation of such concepts of rest and exercise and posi-
tions of deformity etc. are at the moment highly subjective. These
terms would have to be defined much more precisely if they were to
be the basis for an evaluative process.
The benefits of using joint protection in relation to the prevention
of deformity, cannot be demonstrated over a short period of time.
Compliance over a period of years would be difficult to sustain,
especially as clients would not be receiving any immediate rein-
forcement.
The large variation in client's lifestyle and level and type of func-
tional activity makes comparison between clients and control groups
difficult. These are some of the problems which make the evaluation
of joint protection in terms of prevention of deformity difficult. It has
been proposed that the objective of joint protection be redefined as
'pain relief, reduction of internal and external stress to the joint, and
decreasing inflammation within the patient's life-style. Success in
obtaining these objectives should be clinically evident', and two possi-
ble definitions of joint protection proposed as being either in relation
to 'preservation of structural components in a biomechanical frame of
reference, with a cause effect relationship-slowing progression of joint
deterioration' or as 'the enhancement of joint utilization in a functional
sense - by avoiding pain and increasing function' (Shapiro-Slonaker,
1984).
One phrase which should be reiterated is 'within the patient's life-
style'. Therapists must ask themselves what is the realistic level of use
108
ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
of these principles? It may be that they are used primarily during

periods of exacerbation because this is the time at which pain and
fatigue are at their worst and it seems more appropriate. In some
environments, like work, clients may have little control over the way
in which they work, the amount of rest they can take or the ability
to cease an activity if it becomes painful. The choice of how these
principles are used is always the clients and therapists should respect
this fact and present joint protection in a way which is meaningful and
realistic to each client.
The phrase 'joint protection' is in itself misleading as it can be seen
to imply protecting joints from pain. While this is fundamental to the
principles some of them equally refer to overcoming the body's
natural protectiveness toward noxious stimuli. If a joint is painful the
natural inclination is not to move it. While in some situations this is
correct in others it can have dire consequences, leading to muscle
weakness, the development of contractures, loss of function and more
pain. The natural inclination to flex a joint when in pain is another
example, if a person has painful knees the pain can be reduced by
flexing the knee, yet while in the short term pain relief may be gained
in the long term flexion deformities may develop. Clients will often
say how during periods of exacerbation the only comfortable posture
to adopt is a flexed one, not only of knees, but also of upper limbs
with rounded shoulders, flexed fingers and bent elbows. Thus, some
of these principles aim to overcome the long-term consequences of the
body's natural reaction and method of protection.
Before embarking upon the process of teaching clients the principles
of joint protection therapists need to consider carefully the way in
which they will present them. Is it appropriate to present information
on the basis that it is a means of preventing the onset of deformity
when the basis for this is as yet not at all clear? In the long term it
is unlikely that the original therapist will be present to answer the
questions of clients who have developed deformity inspite of using
joint protection principles and clients may be left wondering what they
have done wrong.
The reduction of pain and increase of function through using these
principles can, however, be seen immediately. Clients will receive
quick feedback as to whether using energy conservation techniques
enables them to do more, or whether the use of assistive equipment
elicits less pain when performing an activity. Whichever interpreta-
tion therapists choose there is still the responsibility to evaluate its
basis. Data is needed in relation to the effectiveness of the principles
of joint protection whether in relation to decreasing deformity, pain
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
or internal or external stress on joints during activity, otherwise the

basis for asking clients to fundamentally change their life-style will
always remain questionable, and how can therapists answer with any
conviction the client who asks 'why should I do this?' or the clini-
cian who asks 'why should I refer clients to you to be taught joint
protection?' Some of these principles will now be considered in
more detail.
ENERGY CONSERVATION
Fatigue and lack of energy are expressed frequently as having a

major impact on a person's functional ability. This symptom may
not, initially, be associated by the client with the disease process as
the articular manifestations of the disease are more widely
recognized by clients than the systemic. Fatigue and lack of energy
can be the expression of either a physical or psychological state or
a combination of both.
The disease process can cause fatigue often associated with an
increase in disease activity as more energy is expended in dealing
with the inflammatory response. Anaemia may also lead to depleted
energy levels as can the decreased ability of weak muscles to carry
out daily activities. Pain and stiffness frequently lead to loss of sleep
which over a period of time can prove as debilitating as articular
manifestations, and coping with chronic pain can be debilitating in
itself.
In relation to stress, anxiety and depression, fatigue can be viewed
as either a cause or a symptom. Constantly feeling tired and lacking
in energy can lead to a decrease in functional ability and feeling of
frustration and a sense of failure which may lead to depression.
Alternatively a client undergoing a period of reactive or endogenous
depression may be experiencing fatigue as a symptom of that
depression.
As a symptom there are several ways in which clients can adapt
their lifestyle to incorporate energy conservation into a daily routine
and thus lessen the impact of decreased energy on function,
hopefully avoiding the frustration and feelings of loss of control
which can be associated with not having the energy to fulfil previous
roles. The term energy conservation can be misleading to clients
because it implies saving energy. It should be emphasized that this
is not the object but rather making the most of the energy available
and ensuring that it is used effectively.
110
PACING
The main principles of energy conservation relate to:
1. pacing;
2. forward planning;
3. work simplification.
PACING
Pacing refers to the use of rest, exercise and activity and their rela-
tionship to each other. The basis of communicating this concept lies,
initially in establishing a client's understanding of each. Rest can be
perceived as anything from reading to gardening, i.e. anything which
is not work. Activity and exercise are often combined so that clients
will perceive doing activities of daily living as exercise and therefore
see no need to carry out a regular programme of exercise. By
understanding the role of each of these three concepts clients will be
able to use them to achieve a balance according to their varying
needs and disease activity. The proportion of each will vary accord-
ing to disease activity and to some extent the client's previous use
of each before disease onset. Some people find sitting down and
relaxing very difficult, preferring to be on the move. To suddenly
incorporate rest into such a life-style can be difficult.
Rest may be applied to one specific joint, being local, the whole
body, often called systemic, and psychological which includes relax-
ation. Local rest refers to the resting of a specific joint due to an
increase in inflammation. It is usually achieved by the use of splints
such as resting splints for the hands and wrists. Systemic rest refers
to total body rest and this is sometimes used during periods of
exacerbation when a client is admitted to a unit for a period of bed
rest. The interpretation and use of bed rest varies from unit to unit.
In some instances it will mean complete rest with clients being
wheeled to the toilet for a period of, on average seven to ten days,
while in others it will mean alternating between bed and chair with
some degree of mobility allowed. Even during periods of complete
rest some degree of exercise will be carried out in the form of
passive exercise or gentle range of movement exercise. Emotional
rest refers to relaxation of the mind. A person may be physically
resting but emotionally active thinking of the tasks which need to be
completed next or feeling guilty about sitting down in the middle of
the day. If the mind is active and stressed muscles will be tense and
the benefits of rest decreased. Relaxation can be used to cope with
111
ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
the symptoms of stress and anxiety and also as a means of coping

with pain. Relaxation will be discussed in more detail.
The need to rest throughout the day is often a need which elicits
feelings of guilt and failure. Sitting down can be regarded as 'giving
in'. Therapists need to convey the positive aspects of rest which are
primarily that when used correctly it enables more to be achieved by
the end of the day, and that during periods of inflammation joints
need to be rested to help decrease the inflammation. The usual way
to complete a day's activity is to commence in the morning and work
through until the tasks are completed with perhaps a break for lunch
and coffee. A client will often try to retain this pattern of work and
complete tasks even though this may lead to joint pain. Once a joint
has been worked enough to elicit pain an activity has to be stopped
and rest is enforced. Rest should be used before pain becomes so
unbearable that activity is stopped. Short and frequent rests may
increase functional activity.
Specific exercise programmes will usually be provided by physio-
therapists in order to maintain or increase muscle strength and range
of movement and prevent or correct deformities. However these
must be incorporated into the daily routine and used in conjunction
with rest and activity. Clients should be taught the rationale behind
the programmes as well as the specific exercises.
Generalizations like 'exercise each day' or 'here is a list of exer-
cises' serve little purpose in relation to a condition where disease
activity is so variable and programmes need to be up or down
graded frequently. If clients are given the information regarding the
different types of exercise and their use then they will be able to
adapt them to their varying needs.
The most common types of exercise used in relation to rheumatoid
disease are isometric exercises and range of movement exercises.
Isometrics are used frequently during periods of exacerbation as they
entail muscular contractions without movement of the joint, thus
helping to maintain muscle strength. Range of movement exercises
are used to place specific joints through their full range of movement
and may be passive or active.
It is essential to distinguish between exercise and activity as clients
often see activity as a substitute for exercise. Daily activities rarely
place all joints through a full range of movement especially if the
working environment has been organized to simplify work. Many
daily activities are carried out within an inner- to mid-range of
movement and a good example of how movement can be lost by use
purely within a functional range is the elbow joint. The number of
112
PACING
times a day in which full elbow extension is achieved in relation to

activities is negligible and many clients present with limitation in
elbow extension. Loss of movement only usually becomes apparent
to clients when function is affected and by this time movement may
have been permanently lost.
It should not be assumed that any of us know what the full range
of movement is for each of our joints and that limitations would be
noticed. If clients are shown what their full range of movement is
and how to monitor it then they will be in a better position to iden-
tify when limitations occur and seek help before contractures
develop. Ways of grading exercises should also be taught so that
programmes can be varied according to disease activity. During
periods of remission exercises may be increased whereas during
periods of exacerbation a family member may be required to assist
in a passive range of movement.
Physiotherapists will work with clients when specific interventions
such as passive stretching, or ultrasound are required but basic infor-
mation regarding exercise should be available if clients are to carry
out their own programmes.
Activity can refer to a whole spectrum of occupation ranging from
sitting at a desk typing to completing a physically arduous task. In
relation to pacing, clients are being asked to examine the type of
activities in which they engage and identify ways of arranging the
activities so that demanding tasks are alternated with less demanding
activity. If possible tasks requiring repetitive movements should be
interspersed with either a break or an activity which uses other joints
and muscle groups balancing the work so that no one joint or muscle
group is being asked to sustain activity in a repetitive manner for
any length of time. It is this factor which sometimes leads to
problems in employment situations where clients may be working on
a production line continually carrying out repetitive movements with
few breaks or opportunities to change position. Activities which
require prolonged grip or repetitive movements can lead to an
increase in pain and inflammation.
One example of this was a client who was working on a produc-
tion line operating a machine to place the metal button on jeans. The
work was repetitive in relation to upper limb function, sitting posi-
tion and the trunk rotation needed to pass the garment on to the next
person. There was no control over work rate, as she was part of a
production line, and the garment, being denim, was heavy. It
became necessary to consider alternative work and the employer
allocated her to a different activity in the factory which was less
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
arduous. Alternating periods of high actrvIty with periods of rest

may increase a client's functional ability, if the environment in
which the client is functioning allows this.
The concept of pacing refers to the way in which rest, exercise
and activity are used in relation to each other, disease activity and
the functional requirements of a client. The optimum use of them is
seen more often when a client has control over the content and struc-
ture of their day. In an employment situation it may appear difficult
to incorporate periods of rest or to alternate activities. In some
employment situations employers are prepared to adopt a flexible
attitude to the way in which an employee uses their time allowing
them to restructure their day to suit their needs, within a realistic
structure. However, it is not always possible especially if the work-
ing environment is dictated by production lines where the next
person's work is dependent upon every component of the process
functioning in a set manner. Another client who presented with
work-related problems was working for a local authority as part of
a team laying kerb stones. The work was physically very demanding,
obviously outdoors and the team were paid according to the footage
of kerbstone laid. The incentive therefore placed more pressure on
the client to keep up with his colleagues as any variation in his work
not only slowed the team down but also directly affected their wage
packets. In these situations the ability to use such principles can
seem tantalizing to someone who has little control over their level
of activity, but is faced with the choice of maintaining work or
facing unemployment, and therapists are confronted with the
problem of compromising principles to adjust to the reality of life.
FORWARD PLANNING
The principles of forward planning will not appear strange to anyone

who has participated in a time management course. They are as
useful to therapists with a large case load as to clients with
rheumatoid disease. Forward planning and time management apply
to both work and leisure. The way in which activities are carried out
throughout the day or week is often, for most people, at best a ques-
tion of meeting certain demands and needs as and when they occur
with no formal statement of intent, and at worst a series of crisis
management. For a person with limited energy and changing levels
of function the way in which time is managed becomes more impor-
tant and the setting of priorities essential.
114
FORWARD PLANNING
The principles of forward planning can be conveyed in a practical

and meaningful way for most clients. Most of us can relate to never
having the time to complete all that we wanted to or leaving impor-
tant tasks to the last moment and then placing ourselves in a crisis
situation!
A starting point from which to convey this concept is to ask clients
to write a record of what they have done for several days and to also
include everything that they had to leave due to pain or stiffness.
This record will then provide a basis for looking at how the client
is at present using their time and energy and whether or not they are
achieving a balance of work, rest and activity.
It then becomes possible to divide the activities into various
categories such as work-related, leisure, rest, family, and exercise.
Clients will then be able to see how much time is apportioned to
each aspect of their life and how this relates to their present
priorities. Frequently clients may be placing a large amount of time
in maintaining employment or completing specific tasks to maintain
independence. This is often at the cost of time spent with the family
or in leisure activities. It may well be that the total amount of time
allocated to different types of activity has not been considered
previously and the imbalance of activity not perceived. At certain
stages in disease progress, usually ones of transition to adapting to
a loss of function, or during periods of exacerbation, this imbalance
may reflect the client's priority as they try to maintain or regain
levels of function, needing to devote more time to one aspect of their
life, or purely that more time is needed to carry out activities.
The use of rest and exercise can also be identified and at what
times they occur. If a person is always resting at the end of the day
with no further periods of activity this may be an indication that they
are continuing to work until levels of pain or fatigue are so great
that they have to stop. Having identified a pattern of activity it then
becomes possible to work with the client to identify ways of plan-
ning more effective use of their time to incorporate periods of rest
and exercise and ensure that effective use is made of time allocated
for activities.
Daily 'to do' lists will be familiar to those who use forward plann-
ing in their work. At the beginning of the day clients are asked to
write a list of all that they need to do during that day. This is a way
of using time before morning stiffness has worn off when many
clients tend to sit and loosen up. This list should include both work
and leisure activities. Having compiled the list the activities are then
prioritized in order of importance. Initially the activities are graded
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
with an A, B, or C. then working through the list of As each activity

is given a number, so Al becomes the most important task to
complete and should be completed first.
This method of working ensures that priorities are carried out and
that clients are not placing themselves in the position of being tired
and having to push themselves to complete activities which have to
be done that day. As the activities become less important it becomes
easier to leave them to the next day. Activities can be carried over
from one day to the next and their priority reassessed.
Forward planning also enables periods of predicted activity to be
incorporated into a week with allowances for more rest. If clients
know that they have been invited out or are expecting to have to
complete a demanding task they can allow periods of rest either
before or after the activity.
Forward planning is the practical means by which pacing is incor-
porated into a daily schedule by identifying priorities and ways of
organizing time to incorporate all the necessary elements of a day.
WORK SIMPLIFICATION
This is based upon the use of activity analysis and ergonomics and
aims to increase the efficiency with which specific activities are
carried out. Working environments, especially in the home, may not
be laid out in the most efficient way. By asking a client to map out
the distances walked while carrying out a simple task like making a
cup of tea a visual picture of working practice can be made. From
this it may be possible to discuss ways in which changes can be
made to decrease unnecessary activity.
While many of the principles used seem common sense it is often
these which are overlooked and yet they are in many cases, the most
relevant and applicable. They include the following:
1. the organization of working environments giving consideration to

correct working heights, position of work and the accessibility of
frequently used items;
2. the type of equipment being used i.e. weight, size and ease of use;
3. the use of labour saving equipment;
4. saving repeated journeys by organizing such things as what needs
to be taken up and down stairs and doing it in one trip;
5. breaking activities down into smaller constituents;
6. delegating tasks to other family members.
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THE USE OF ASSISTNE EQUIPMENT
Delegation, although purported to be the art of good management,

is often one of the most difficult things to do, whether associated
with a colleague or family member. Asking for assistance can be
seen as giving in or admitting failure or can be the cause of guilt
or embarrassment. The higher the personal value ascribed to the
activity the more difficult it becomes to delegate to someone else or
to seek assistance with. Communication between family members
will allow the personal space to complete highly valued tasks while
absorbing the more routine and less important ones.
Spending time with clients discussing their present lifestyle and
how they carry out activities will provide a clearer idea of factors
which may be contributing towards the levels of fatigue they may be
experiencing. Energy conservation is a misleading term because it
implies saving energy and does not convey the positive motive
behind it which is to maximize the use of energy to achieve priorities
and maintain function. It incorporates the treatment modalities of rest
and exercise alongside activities of daily living and provides an
active way in which clients can begin to explore ways of adjusting
lifestyles to attain goals.
THE USE OF ASSISTIVE EQUIPMENT
The use of assistive equipment is considered when function is limited

by the effects of an impairment. It may be introduced as a short-term
measure following joint replacement surgery to limit extremes of
movement temporarily in order to protect the new joint or long-term
when the physical capacity to carry out an activity is compromised.
The range of equipment available to maintain functional ability has
never been greater. Markets for products extend internationally
giving access to equipment previously not available. The increase in
competition has led manufacturers to pay more attention to the needs
of clients and therapists when developing a product and to consider
the aesthetics of the product alongside design and safety factors. For
many clients the greatest constraint on access to equipment is finan-
cial. With local authority budgets coming under closer scrutiny
access to therapists and equipment is limited and often compromised
by financial constraints placing limitations on what can be provided
through the statutory sector. While more clients are deciding to
purchase their own equipment the cost can in many instances be
prohibitive.
Many factors need to be considered when identifying the
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
appropriate piece of equipment for the client, these factors are physical,
psychological, social and environmental. The process of assessment for
equipment can be broken down into the following stages.
1. Identify the clients' needs.

2. Consider physical, psychological, social and environmental
factors which may influence choice.
3. Consider other factors which may influence choice, i.e. funding
or policies.
4. Identify equipment which may be appropriate and sources of
provision.
S. Explain rationale behind the choice of equipment to client and, if
appropriate, their family.
6. Instruct in the use of equipment.
7. Re-evaluate after a period of use.
The provision of equipment may, for a therapist, be a matter of

routine but for clients may be seen as an indication of the progres-
sion of the disease and a deterioration in their ability to carry out
fundamental activities. Some clients see the use of equipment as
giving in and will try to carry on for as long as possible without
using it. Another barrier which needs to be overcome by many
clients before accepting equipment into their homes is the look of
equipment and the visual indication this gives to visitors of a client's
limitation.
IDENTIFYING CLIENTS' NEEDS
Having carried out a functional assessment, areas of limitation will

have been identified. The first decision is whether the limitation is
a problem to the client and how much of a problem they themselves
perceive it to be. Assessment may have highlighted a client's
inability to get in and out of the bath but this does not automatically
mean that this is a problem to the client. They may be happy
washing at the sink or having the bath attendant in to assist them.
In some cases the physical or social contact that assistance with
activities of daily living brings is more important than the
independence of completing an activity without assistance. The
priority given to aspects of function by the client may differ from
that of the therapist. If several areas of need have been identified the
client's priorities associated with each area must be identified.
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IDENTIFYING THE CLIENTS' NEEDS
Physical, psychological and environmental factors influencing

choice
Physical factors which contribute to a decrease in function are:
• pain;
• loss of movement;
• fatigue;
• weakness;
• stiffness;
• deformity.
Consideration should be given to the source of pain, movements

which elicit it or prevent it and any variation which may occur.
Liaison is needed with other team members to ascertain whether
other interventions have been tried or whether they are indicated. As
has already been discussed some positions which decrease pain are
contraindicated as they can lead to deformity, therapists must be
conscious of this. An example of this is clients who find sleep
difficult due to pain and find a flexed posture comfortable to sleep
in. Electric beds enable a posture of flexed hips and knees to be
assumed all night but may be contraindicated due to the possible
development of hip and knee contractures.
The amount of stress placed on joints while using assistive equip-
ment should be considered also as this may lead to increased pain.
This can be illustrated with the use of bathboards and seats. While
these may assist a client to transfer into the bath the use of this
equipment places a great deal of strain on upper limbs which can
cause pain. Rope ladders used to help people to sit up in bed can
increase strain on the upper limbs leading to pain.
Loss of movement may be as a result of joint destruction, pain,
deformities and contractures. Liaison is again essential to ensure that
equipment is not compensating for movement which could be
regained with a course of physiotherapy. A client may be on a
waiting list to undergo joint replacement surgery and this may have
a bearing on the equipment provided. A therapist may feel that it is
advisable to provide a temporary solution to the problem and
reassess the client's functional ability post-surgery. This dilemma is
a difficult one to address. A person with degenerative arthritis may
have single joint involvement and there may be a dramatic improve-
ment in their functional ability post-operatively. A person with multi-
ple joint involvement may see little change in their functional ability
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ADAPTNE TECHNIQUES
post-operatively but pain levels may be reduced significantly. Few

functional activities utilize only one joint and the completion of func-
tional activities may still be compromised by limitation and pain in
other joints.
If fatigue is a major cause of limitation energy conservation and
pacing may improve function. However the provision of some equip-
ment may be indicated to enable clients to utilize the principles of
energy conservation, such as perching stools or trolleys.
Weakness is a major limiting factor in relation to hand function,
where reduced grip compromises function, and also in relation to
mobility.
Stiffness can lead to a fluctuation in functional ability, especially
in relation to the morning. Clients will often have to wait for stiff-
ness to wear off before they can begin to carry out activities. It can
also inhibit function if a client has been maintaining one position for
any period of time so that transfers can become more difficult the
longer a person is seated.
The development of contractures can limit function in relation to
many aspects of activities of daily living. If these contractures are
reversible function may improve following therapy. If deformities
are permanent they may influence the choice of equipment. Clients
who have developed flexion contractures of hips and knees are often
unable to use many of the types of bath aids available as they do not
accommodate such limitations in movement. Deformities of the hand
may limit finger extension and the size of some kitchen aids may be
too large to grip, or alternatively limited flexion may mean that
handles are too small.
The variability of the physical symptoms of rheumatoid disease
should also be considered. The difference between a client's func-
tional ability on a good day and a bad day can be immense. In rela-
tion to an activity such as bathing, a client may, during a period of
remission, be able to bathe independently using a bath board and seat
and yet during a period of exacerbation require something which
offers a much greater degree of assistance. For this reason some
clients prefer equipment which is portable, so that during periods of
remission it can be put away and is not obvious or intrusive.
Therapists must be aware of the possible adverse effect of providing
equipment which supplements movement which could be regained or
places the client in positions which may lead to the development of
deformity.
Psychosocial factors which influence the choice of equipment
include the client's perception of their need, their acceptance of their
120
disability and their attitude to the use of equipment. If a client has

not accepted their disability and is denying the effects of the disease
it is unlikely that they will accept the need for assistive equipment
to be used. As it is so material it is difficult to deny its function and
the use of such equipment means an acceptance of some limitation.
For many clients the use of equipment is usually considered when
the completion of activities independently becomes more important
than incorporating the use of equipment into the self-concept or
levels of pain become intolerable.
Clients seem to perceive a hierarchy of equipment so that,
initially, the use of small equipment to help with food preparation
is perceived as providing help whereas the use of a larger piece of
equipment in the bathroom is not accepted as it is seen as an indica-
tion of being in need of more assistance and being labelled as
disabled. Therapists are frequently told, 'I haven't got to that stage
yet but it is reassuring to know what is available'.
Clients will often have a perception of how their need can be met
before they meet a therapist and have expectations of how these
problems are to be overcome. Community therapists often relate how
they are constantly being asked for showers to be installed and
receiving requests for specific equipment. It must be remembered
that clients will very infrequently have a great knowledge of exactly
what equipment is available and it is logical to request a shower if
climbing in and out of the bath is difficult. This does not necessarily
reflect a dogmatism on the client's behalf but a lack of information
regarding all the options available.
It is wrong to assume that clients want to achieve independence in
all aspects of daily living; some may be happy receiving assistance.
This is when the involvement of family or carers becomes important.
If both the client and carer are happy giving and receiving assistance
and when options are explained still wish to continue as before, there
is little point in spending time and resources in trying to increase
independence. A client with a young family may have a routine
worked out whereby her husband gets her dressed and washed in the
morning and gets the children ready for school. This family may
have worked out their own routine which suits their lifestyle and
needs.
Problems do arise, however, when a client has adopted a depen-
dent role and expects their partner to provide a level of assistance
which they are not able or prepared to offer. Therapists can then be
faced with a client who is refusing to accept the use of equipment
because they perceive their carer as fulfilling the function and a
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
carer who, in some situations, is being expected to provide an

unrealistic level of support. In this situation communication between
partners is essential if assistance is ever going to be provided. So
many factors can contribute to such a situation including denial on
the behalf of the client as to the level of demand they are making,
apprehension about accepting help from other people, anger and
frustration that they have limitations and on the carer's behalf guilt
about not fulfilling a caring role and possibly about being healthy
and independent. In this situation it is essential that both partners
begin to communicate and understand each others point of view.
Clients' attitudes towards equipment will also influence its use.
Some of the compromises clients are asked to make would be
difficult for most of us to accept. If a client is unable to get upstairs
to the bathroom they may have to bring their bed downstairs and use
a commode. This can be embarrassing for the client who is depen-
dent upon someone else to empty it and also in some situations for
other members of the family. One client recounted her obvious
distress when her teenage son told her that he was too embarrassed
to bring his friends home because the living room was now used as
a bedroom and 'not like other peoples' homes'. While it is easy to
say that this is a stage that teenagers go through it helped neither the
mother or her son. The criteria for provision of equipment or hous-
ing adaptations should be broad enough to include social as well as
physical factors.
Consideration should also be given to the type of assistance
another member of the family is being asked to provide and whether
this is acceptable to both the client and the carer. An example of this
is in relation to bathing. Husbands and wives have certainly been
encountered who have never seen each other in the bath and would
find the situation acutely embarrassing if asked to do so. Assump-
tions and valued judgements should never be made about the level
or type of assistance family members are prepared to give. In some
families the level of care can be intimate and cause no embarrass-
ment whatsoever but this should not be taken for granted. The needs
of other family members should be taken into account alongside
those of the clients and may influence choice of equipment,
especially if carers have some form of limitation in their ability to
offer assistance. A carer with back problems may not be able to lift
some of the bath aids provided out of the bath.
If a client is reliant upon the assistance of carers from outside the
family these carers should be familiar with the safe and proper use
of the equipment. A classical example of this is the use of hoisting
122
equipment. The carers going into a client's home may change

regularly, especially over holiday periods, and not all carers may be
familiar with the use of equipment. While therapists cannot ensure
that every person using the equipment will be familiar with it key
people should be identified and taught how to use it. This factor
encroaches upon the topic of training of community care staff in the
use of equipment and is a training commitment in which many
therapists are involved.
Environmental factors such as, size and layout of room, width of
doorways, structure of walls and floor and accessibility to power can
effect the choice of equipment. The type of environment in which
the equipment is going to be used will also play a part. It may be
a place of work as well as home and therefore the suitability for use
in both environments must be considered alongside portability.
Other factors influencing choice
While therapists may identify a piece of equipment which is

appropriate for the client other factors may limit the supply of it to
the client. In a world where budgets were limitless there would be
no constraint other than the need of the client. However supply of
equipment through the statutory sector is dependent upon budget.
The range of equipment available to the client if they choose to
purchase privately is much greater. This can be shown in relation to
wheelchairs where the Disablement Services Authority provides an
adequate range of wheelchairs but the style, fabrication and perfor-
mance of chairs purchased privately is very different. It is sometimes
possible to gain assistance with funding for equipment via charities,
trusts and, in relation to employment through the Disablement
Advisory Service.
Identifying equipment
As the range of equipment available increases therapists rely more

on information networks to keep them up to date with new products.
A knowledge of the standard provision via the statutory sector is
essential, as this is usually the starting place for provision. If the
standard equipment range does not meet the needs of the client then
therapists need to identify alternatives. Information networks regard-
ing equipment are published by the Disabled Living Foundation in
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
the form of equipment lists and another resource is the Equipment

for Disabled People series of books. The DHSS also publish equip-
ment evaluations where a range of a category of equipment is given
to clients and reports compiled as to how the clients compared the
different pieces of equipment and what advantages and disadvantages
had been identified.
At a local level Disabled Living Centres have a display of equip-
ment for clients and therapists in use and an extensive back-up of
literature. This resource is excellent for clients wishing to purchase
equipment privately. Disabled Living Centres are staffed, usually by
occupational or physiotherapists and are open on an appointment
basis for clients to call in. Clients are able to receive independent
advice about equipment and also use the equipment to see if it is
appropriate. The range of equipment displayed will vary according
to the size of the centre but equipment which is not on display can
usually be obtained for a specific assessment. Centres are involved
frequently in holding study days and seminars related to equipment
and usually have excellent relationships with the supplier and
manufacturers of equipment.
COMMON FUNCTIONAL PROBLEMS
Seating
The main problems encountered in relation to seating are:
• Transfers - pain, stiffness and loss of movement;

• Comfort - pain, stiffness, altered posture, nodules.
Considerations
- the possibility of adapting existing chair;
- the amount of assistance needed to rise, will extra height be
enough is spring assistance needed or a motorized chair raise;
- the dimensions required, height, depth, width of seat, length of
back;
- accommodation of any deformity, scoliosis, flexion contractures
etc.;
- if mechanical, the method of control and ease of use of controls.
124
Range of equipment
Adapting existing chair Clients who have problems in rising from
a chair will try frequently to increase the height by placing several
cushions on the seat. While this achieves a heightened seat it
completely alters the dimension of the seat raising the seat and
usually making the arms too low to rest on. If the chair offered any
lumbar support this will now be in the wrong place and support for
the head and neck may also be lost. It is more appropriate to raise
the chair from the base rather than the seat.
Chair raisers can be purchased which heighten the chair either by
inserting the legs into a sleeve or by replacing castors with screw-in
legs. A platform can also be built which raises the chair the
required height and into which the castors sink to avoid slipping
when the client sits down. If a seat sags placing a piece of hard
board under the cushion may provide extra support.
Neck cushions can be made or purchased to provide support to
painful necks. Lumbar cushions can prove useful to people with low
back pain, these are usually in the form of foam wedges or
inflatable cushions.
Purchasing new chairs When assisting a client in choosing an

appropriate seat, factors to consider include the height, width and
depth of the seat, the amount of back support provided, the height
of the back, angle of the seat, padding and type of armrest. Chairs
can be too high as well as too low. Clients are often tempted to buy
a seat which is high and therefore easy to rise from. Feet should
be able to reach the floor easily. A chair which is too high will not
support ankles and lead to increased pressure on the thighs, or slip-
ping down the seat. It is worth checking before commencing assess-
ment that the client is wearing the type of footwear they would
normally be wearing in the house. If the client is assessed in shoes
with a two inch heel and normally wears flat shoes around the
house the assessment will be incorrect.
The front edge of the seat should not dig into the back of a
client's knees. Some chairs provide very little back or head support.
If a person has cervical involvement they should not have to extend
their neck to gain support. The most comfortable seat is not
necessarily one with a horizontal seat. A seat angle of about six
degrees actually prevents slipping and slumping in the seat by
slightly flexing the hips. If a client has nodules on their elbows it
is more comfortable if the armrests are padded rather than wooden.
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
A good grip on the end of the armrest will also assist in transferring.
There are a wide variety of chairs on the market, many of which are
made to specific dimensions and some of which can be made to the
requirements of the individual client.
Self-lift seats If, having tried a chair which is the correct height,
the client still has difficulty in transferring it will be necessary to
consider an assistive mechanism. Self-lift chairs provide a sprung
seat which assists the client to stand. It is necessary to assess the seat
the same way as above, ensuring the dimensions are correct and then
to assess the strength of spring needed. Some chairs are adjusted by
adding or removing springs from the seat, others have gauges which
can be altered and some are set at the time of purchase by the
manufacturer. The spring is set according to the client's weight.
When they are seated the back of the seat should be flat. If the seat
is not flat the spring is too heavy and should be decreased. If when
the client goes to stand they feel they are getting no assistance the
spring could be increased.
Some self-lift seats have a locking mechanism so that the seat
remains flat until the mechanism is released. This ensures that if a
client is sitting and, for example, reaches forward to pick something
up from the floor the seat does not move and push them forward.
While this extra safety factor is beneficial the mechanisms are often
too stiff for clients with weak grip to operate.
Motorized chair An increasing number of electrically-operated

chairs are available. The functions they offer vary from the seat unit
raising, the whole chair raising so that back support is provided, to
reclining as well. The most flexible chair has three independent
motors which can work in isolation. Most chairs recline in one
action, so that as the feet raise the back reclines. A client who
spends a large amount of time in a chair may not always want to
recline fully. There may be occasions when they wish to raise their
feet but also sit up to eat or watch television or talk to someone. The
flexibility of independent motors allows this.
Clients frequently request a reclining chair and find that they do
not have the upper limb strength to operate the mechanism. Certain
models of recliners can be motorized so that they recline electrically.
These chairs can also offer the option of assisting in standing if this
is needed. A guide to choosing a chair is published by the Arthritis
and Rheumatism Council which covers the range of chair available.
126
Bathing
The main problems relate to:
• Transfers;
• Personal hygiene;
• Comfort.
Considerations
- client's functional ability;
- type of bath, size and layout of bathroom;
- availability of assistance;
- requirements of other family members;
- presence of nodules or leg ulcers;
- post-operative precautions.
A wide range of equipment is available to assist clients and their

carers in relation to bathing. The complexity of use ranges from a
fundamental board and seat to an overhead hoist used in combination
with slings. While the prime concern is to enable the client to
transfer independently or to assist the carers in transferring the
client, thought should also be given to other aspects of personal
hygiene. If a client is provided with equipment which enables them
to transfer independently but they are unable to undress or wash
themselves they will still not have achieved independence in bathing.
The existence of leg ulcers may mean that, at least until the ulcer
has healed, the client should not be bathing and this should be
checked with the nurse who is responsible for the dressing regime.
A client with sacral nodules may find sitting on the hard surface of
a bath or bathing equipment very uncomfortable and need some form
of cushioning to enable them to sit down in comfort.
If a client has undergone a total hip arthroplasty specific precau-
tions may be indicated post-operatively. Some surgeons advise their
clients not to get in and out of the bath for twelve weeks post-
operatively. This regime will vary however and should be clarified
with the appropriate surgeons.
Bathboards and seats Bathboards and seats are usually the first
consideration for therapists. The range on the market varies
considerably in materials and fixing mechanism but all basically
fulfil the same function. Boards are used frequently to assist clients
127
ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
in getting into the bath, by sitting on the board and swinging legs
over into the bath. Painful metatarsal heads can make standing on
the floor in bare feet painful and this can affect balance, therefore
if clients can transfer sitting down they may experience less pain and
be more stable.
Boards are used frequently in combination with an overbath
shower enabling clients to shower seated. Boards which rest upon
the top of the bath however can cause some problems as tucking the
shower curtain inside the bath is difficult. Some boards and seats can
be wall mounted enabling shower curtains to hang normally but, this
is dependent upon the structure of the wall and the weight of the
client. Boards should always be fitted securely to prevent slippage
when the client transfers.
Seats vary in design and style but, used in combination with a
board, enable clients to get further into the water. Clients with
rheumatoid disease find frequently that lowering from the board to
the seat requires more strength than they have in their upper limbs.
The fabric of the bath is important when considering the type of
seat as fibreglass baths cannot cope with pressure from the seat
being placed on their sides and there is a possibility that they may
crack. Seats with supports that hang on the top of the bath are
recommended for use in plastic baths.
The use of board and seat, while assisting clients to get over the
bath, does have limitations caused primarily by the strength required
to use them and the amount of strain placed through upper limbs.
They do not get the client right down into the water, only allowing
them to perch just above or just get below the level of the water.
Some clients undoubtedly gain relief from pain and stiffness by soak-
ing in warm water and this cannot be achieved by the use of board
and seat.
Mechanical bath aids A range of mechanical bath aids exist which

provide assistance for either the client or their carer. Some of these
devices are static and others are portable and the mechanisms vary
from springs to electricity. Several bath aids function on a spring
basis, where the equipment is set according to the client's weight.
The client transfers onto the seat and unlocks the mechanism which
lowers into the bath. When the client has finished bathing a slight
push on the side of the bath causes the mechanism to lift the client
up out of the bath aided by the buoyancy of the water. Some of the
mechanisms are more easy to use than others and controls placed
more appropriately for clients with limited hand function. An aid
128
like the Bathability is small and compact and can be easily

transported if the client goes away from home.
Power-assisted bath aids utilize either electricity or power supplied
by a rechargeable battery pack placed in the back rest. Either air or
water is used to inflate a bellow located under the seat which raises
the seat out of the bath level with the top enabling the client to
transfer. The seat is deflated to lower the client into the bath. The
control to operate the seat is relatively easy to use. Such equipment
is usually portable and can be removed from the bath enabling other
family members to bath unobstructed.
The main limitations of power-assisted aids are that they are quite
heavy to lift and a carer who is elderly or has a disability may
experience difficulty in removing them from the bath. They also
have a solid back so that, while taking a client down further into the
bath than a board and seat, they still do not enable the client to lie
back in the water. These pieces of equipment may not be suitable
for use in baths with anti-slip bottoms as the suction pads may not
adhere to the bottom of the bath making them unstable to use.
Hand-wound mechanisms are also used to transfer clients into the
bath. These comprise a seat which is raised and lowered and pivots
around a central pole. The height to which the seat can be wound
does vary and can have implications for clients with fixed flexion
deformities of the knees. These clients need a seat which gives a
greater clearance over the bath as they are unable to extend their
knees to clear the bath.
Such equipment is more frequently used to assist carers as a lot
of upper limb strength and movement is required to use it alone.
Some of the seats also detach from the central pole fixing onto a
chassis providing a portable chair as well. These are useful with
clients who need more assistance to transfer or find being moved
painful. The mobile chair can be wheeled to the bedside and the
client transferred onto it. It has a commode aperture and is high
enough to use over a toilet after which it can then be attached to the
bath hoist the client transferred in and out of the bath and then used
as a mobile chair again to wheel back into the bedroom. This avoids
several transfers and fulfils the two functions of mobile commode
chair and bath hoist.
Some of the winding mechanisms vary in their positioning making
them more accessible for clients to use if they have limited upper
limb strength, and some are powered by electricity which enables the
client to raise the seat and traverse across the bath unaided.
Gel cushions are available, either to place on the bottom of the
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
bath or on the seat of bath hoists to provide cushioning for clients

with sacral nodules or pressure sores.
Overhead and mobile hoists Clients who are more severely disabled
may not be able to give any assistance in transferring and considera-
tion should be given to either overhead or mobile hoists, used in
combination with slings, to assist the carer. The use of mobile hoists
can sometimes be limited in a bathroom due to a lack of space. To
enable a mobile hoist to be positioned a section usually has to be
removed from the bottom of the side panel of the bath so that the
hoist can be pushed underneath. Mobile hoists do have the advantage
of portability to assist with all transfers.
Slings are supportive and the hoists can lift up to an average of
twenty stone with little effort on the carer's behalf. In a ward situa-
tion or in a client's home where all transfers are a problem a mobile
hoist is more flexible as it can be used to assist with all transfers,
whereas a ceiling-mounted hoist can only be used in the position in
which it has been fixed. The design of quickfit slings requires very
little movement of the client to position the sling and they can be
positioned while the client is seated in a chair, whereas the more
supportive hammock slings need to be positioned while the client is
lying on a bed. There are a range of slings to use in combination
with hoists, some canvas and some netting.
With much of the above equipment, except the winding mechanisms
and hoists, the client when seated has to lift their legs over the bath
and pivot round. If a client cannot do this easily, thought should be
given to the stretch being applied to the skin on the client's bottom
if twisted round by a carer. Torque and shear can easily cause a tear
in fragile skin which may then develop into a pressure sore.
Showers Showers will be discussed in relation to housing

adaptations.
Personal hygiene
The main problems in relation to personal hygiene are:

• limited movement;
• weakness of grip;
• lack of dexterity.
Virtually all aspects of personal hygiene can be affected by
130
rheumatoid disease. These actIvIties are usually carried out either

first thing in the morning, when joints can be stiff, or last thing at
night, when pain and fatigue can limit function and are therefore
highlighted frequently as problems areas. As they also involve
aspects of personal care they may be highlighted as priorities as a
means of maintaining dignity and are seen frequently as a high
priority for the client.
Limited grip and dexterity

- razor handles can be padded or electric razors used;
- toothbrush handles can be padded with rubberzote or electric
toothbrushes used;
- toothpaste dispensers can be wall mounted and require less
pressure than squeezing the tube;
- showergel or liquid soap or soap on a rope overcomes handling
slippery soap;
- stirex scissors assist with cutting nails;
- lever taps or tap turners enable taps to be turned on and off
easily;
- sponges are more easily wrung out than flannels.
Limited upperlimb movement

- brushes, combs and other accessories can be purchased with
extended handles;
- loofas can assist with washing backs;
- towelling bath robes help to dry the areas which cannot be
reached;
- sheepskin washing brushes help to reach feet.
Toilets
The main problems in relation to toiletting are:
• transferring;
• cleansing after using the toilet;
• flushing the toilet;
• coping with clothing;
• use of sanitary protection;
• mobility to and from the toilet;
• use of public toilets.
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
Considerations
Independence in toiletting is a priority for many clients as assistance
can be embarrassing and demeaning. For clients who are experiencing
minimal difficulty in toiletting the range of equipment available can
often overcome problems and regain independence. It is when a client
is having difficulty in getting to or transferring from the toilet that
problems become more complex to solve. In this situation the amount
of assistance available is of primary importance and will influence the
solution arrived at. The problems created by dependence in toiletting
can be immense especially for clients living alone as highlighted by
the following case.
A lady with severe rheumatoid disease was admitted to hospital and
underwent a below knee amputation due to vasculitis and impaired
circulation. She was unable to use a prosthesis as she had neither the
upper or lower limb function to do so and the weakness of her upper
limbs made transferring independently impossible. She was provided
with an electric wheelchair and regained some mobility. She lived
alone and a home assessment was carried out. All aspects of her care
could be covered apart from toiletting. Nurses called to get her up in
the morning, home helps and meals on wheels called during the day
and nurses called to put her to bed at night. This was at a time when
home helps were unable to provide assistance with personal care, and
this situation has now changed in this lady's locality.
The two remaining problems were: what happened from 1O.OOam-
7.00pm between visits from the nurse and also what happened during
the evening and night, in respect to using the toilet? One solution was
to provide an electric wheelchair with an integral commode, but this
presented problems with sacral pressure care, the client felt it totally
unacceptable, not only in terms of the necessary clothing adaptations
but also in terms of dignity and hygiene. She did not have the manual
dexterity to use a female urinal. The day time was eventually over-
come by a rota of carers from friends and the voluntary sector calling
throughout the day.
The evening still remained however. The client tried numerous
female urinals and positions and eventually a custom made device was
produced which she could use with a great deal of effort. Her daughter
also decided to travel every night to help toilet her before she went to
sleep. The discharge from hospital was very tenuous and the main
reason was trying to cope with a client's personal care needs with a
limited resource. The option which had been considered at one point
was residential care purely through a client's inability to toilet
independently.
132
Transfers
If a client is mobile but is having difficulty getting on and off of the
toilet a raised toilet seat can provide the extra height needed to
reduce stress on joints. The height on the seat can vary from two
to six inches and the seats should be secured to avoid slipping when
in use. Front cutouts enable clients with limited arm movement to
cleanse themselves from the front instead of behind. A seat can be
obtained with either the front left or right side shaped to accom-
modate a client who has a fixed hip and is unable to flex it to 90°.
If the extra height is not enough to assist a client to stand, a self-lift
toilet seat can be used which provides a spring seat which, as with
self-lift chairs, is set according to the client's weight.
If stability is needed grab rails fitted beside the toilet will provide
more assistance. If the wall is not strong enough to fix rails to a
free-standing or preferably a floor fixed frame can provide an
armrest on either side of the client to assist with transfers. Frames
which combine a seat as well as armgrips can be used. These are
usually adjustable in height and can be either free-standing or floor
fixed. If the frame is free-standing the client must be taught to use
both arm-rests when transferring to avoid the frame tipping.
If a client has limited mobility and is using a wheelchair enough
space must be available to enable the chair to be positioned correctly
for the client to transfer or for carers to assist without being
cramped. It is possible for some clients to maintain their
independence with the use of an overhead tracking hoist in combina-
tion with a sling with a commode aperture.
Some clients are unable to transfer and are totally reliant upon
outside agencies for their assistance. In this situation an alternative
means of toiletting is needed as bladder and bowel function cannot
be totally dependent upon the visit of the care attendant. Several
options exist, probably the most desirable is the use of aU-shaped
cushion in the wheelchair which allows for a urinal to be inserted
and used while sitting in the wheelchair. The success of this method
is dependent upon the client's manual dexterity to position the urinal
and remove it, adapted clothing is also required to overcome
problems of pants and tights.
Wheelchairs which combine commodes are available but do have
some limitations. Some clients, understandably, find the use of
wheelchair commodes embarrassing as talking to a visitor while
seated on a commode which you have just used can be distressing.
The other problem which these pose is that of pressure. Although the
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
seats are padded, areas of high pressure can be caused around the
rim of the aperture. In some situations however the use of a
wheelchair commode can be the difference between remaining at
home or needing residential or long-term hospital care.
Cleansing after using the toilet

Limitation in upper limb movement, manual dexterity or external
rotation of the hip can all be causes of problems in cleansing after
using the toilet. Upper limb movement can be compensated for by
the use of long handled toilet paper holders which can be used from
the front. Tearing off toilet paper can be overcome by using toilet
tissues rather than roll. Limited movement of the hips can be more
of a problem and may require the use of a bidet. A Clos 0 Mat
toilet provides the facilities for a person with severe limitations of
movement to operate a warm water douche to cleanse themselves
and then use warm air to dry themselves.
Flushing toilets
Sometimes clients can experience difficulty in operating toilet flushes
and adaptations are needed to either bring chains within reach or
provide a different grip.
Coping with clothes

Adjusting clothes can be a problem for some clients. Zips and
buttons on trousers may need to be adapted. A small piece of tape
or a safety pin threaded through the eye of a zip enables a better
grip upon the pull. Velcro fastening to replace buttons may also be
needed. If women have problems in pulling tights up and down,
stockings or stay-ups eliminate the need to remove them while using
the toilet. French knickers are more easy to pull up and down than
tight cotton pants.
Coping with sanitary protection

The use of sanitary protection may become difficult if hands are
painful and grip or upper limb movement limited. Tampons with an
applicator may be more easy to use. If this is difficult then sanitary
towels with self adhesive backings may be more convenient.
134
Mobility to and from the toilet

Limitation in mobility can lead to the need for alternative toiletting
arrangements to be considered. Some clients experience limited
mobility during the night when they are perhaps feeling stiff and
moving more slowly. In this situation a bedside commode may be
appropriate. Some clients may be completely unable to gain access
to the bathroom, perhaps because they can no longer get upstairs,
and need a more permanent arrangement. While commodes may be
provided initially their acceptability will depend upon the availability
of people to empty them. Chemical toilets provide a more acceptable
alternative as they can be flushed after use and require less frequent
emptying than commodes, lasting several days. They can be set upon
platforms to provide height and armrests and some are now produced
in the form of a chair with padded back support and a wood finish.
The use of mobile chairs enable carers to get clients to the bathroom
more quickly and some are high enough to be wheeled over the toilet
decreasing the need to transfer.
Using public toilets

The difficulty in using public toilets or in reaching the toilet in a
friend's house can deter people from going out for any length of
time or lead them to limit their fluid intake. While more buildings
are now offering adapted toilets many clients still worry about
finding an accessible toilet. Small hand-held urinals, or bottles for
men can overcome the problem of accessibility or being unable to
rise from a low toilet. Problems have also been experienced in rela-
tion to the heavy locks and doors which public buildings frequently
install and clients have relayed examples of being locked in toilets
and having to call for assistance to get out. While these situations
can often be looked back upon and laughed at they are a cause of
stress and embarrassment and may deter clients from going out in
the future.
Beds
The main problems in relation to beds are:
• transfers;
• comfort;
• pressure relief.
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
Considerations
If a client is experiencing difficulties in relation to any of the above
it is likely that they and their partners are experiencing regular sleep
disturbance. This can range from being woken once every so many
nights to being awoken several times each night. The level of fatigue
experienced from loss of sleep can have a profound effect on both
client and carer. The awareness, on the client's behalf, of disturbing
their partner's sleep can lead to the decision to sleep in separate beds
or different rooms.
This isolation can be even greater for the client who is unable to
cope with stairs and has to move a bed downstairs while their part-
ner sleeps upstairs. Isolation caused by lack of sleep can be
experienced when a client, who is not sleeping during the night,
sleeps for long periods through the day to catch up, thus sleeping
while the family is awake and being awake when the family is
asleep.
If a client is spending a lot of time in bed a special bed may be
needed to enable the client to adjust their position independently,
assist carers with transfers or care functions and provide pressure
relief. It is difficult to assist with many care functions in a double
bed which is not adjustable in position or height and where easy
access to both sides of the bed may not be possible.
Transfers The main problem of getting into bed is often raising legs
up onto the mattress and the problem with getting out is rising from
a low base. Small spiral steps called bedhoppers are available to
enable clients to work their legs up onto the bed in stages. The
height of beds can be increased by the use of blocks or raises.
However raising the height may assist with getting up but make
getting in more difficult.
Comfort and pressure relief Comfort can be affected by pain, stiff-

ness and the presence of nodules. Muscle wasting and loss of weight
can also add to pressure problems.
Clients often buy orthopaedic mattresses but these do not
necessarily provide the right amount of support. A firm hard
mattress does not accommodate the curves of the body and areas of
high pressure can be caused at contact points. A soft spongey
mattress on the other hand provides no support and the body is
enveloped in it making transfers difficult and providing little support.
A guide to the required amount of support is to lie flat on the back
136
CLOTHING
and try to slip an arm under the lumbar curve. If it slides through
easily the mattress is too firm, if the pelvis has to be arched to get
it through the mattress is too soft. The arm should slide through with
a small amount of movement required.
Bed paddings are an effective way of providing cushioning for
painful joints. They are placed on top of the mattress and are usually
made of fibre filling. They can be purchased with a plastic or
material covering. If this padding is to be used at home it may be
worth considering the use of a segmented mattress as these are more
easily laundered. The sections can be removed from the cover and
the cover washed like a sheet. Sheepskin fleeces also provide a
degree of comfort for painful joints.
Special pressure-relieving mattresses can be obtained for clients
who are at high risk of developing pressure sores. These can be air
filled, or floatation and provide a higher degree of pressure relief
than ordinary mattresses or fleeces.
CLOTIDNG
The main problems are in relation to limited movement and poor

dexterity. Limited shoulder movement can present difficulties with
back fastenings, such as bras and zips on dresses, getting arms into
jumpers, shirts and blouses and reaching to dress lower limbs. Poor
dexterity can present problems in relation to fastenings. Limited
lower limb movement can lead to difficulties in dressing the lower
half of the body.
Front fastening clothes are usually easier to cope with as are
clothes which are not a tight fit. The weight of clothes is also a
consideration, especially when buying such garments as winter coats.
Elasticated girdles or support stockings present problems as they
require a strong grip to pull on and even to use in conjunction with
dressing aids. Helping hands and dressing sticks can provide extra
reach and assist in removing clothes from shoulders or pulling
clothes onto the shoulders.
One client related how she was having difficulty in getting her
winter coat onto her shoulders and so hung it over the knob at the
bottom of the staircase so that she could just slip her arms into it
and shrug it onto her shoulders. Having placed her arms into it she
was unable to get it onto her shoulders and was left attached to the
bannister until someone came to release her; she welcomed the idea
of a dressing stick!
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ADAPTNE TECHNIQUES
Stocking gutters can assist with stockings, tights or socks, although

for some clients the finger dexterity required to use these may be too
great. Button hooks can assist with doing up buttons, or velcro
fastening can be used to replace the button completely.
Long handled shoe horns and elastic laces may assist clients who
are having difficulties getting their shoes on and off. Involvement of
the metatarsal joints can lead to pain and difficulty in walking.
Insoles which have been specially moulded to the client's feet may
provide some padding or be built-up in such a way as to redistribute
the points of pressure and weight bearing when walking. These
insert into shoes which can cause problems for some clients. The
shoe may not be designed to take the extra thickness of an insert and
this will lead to increased pressure on the top of the toes as they are
being pushed upwards. It may be necessary to buy new shoes which
accommodate the insert.
Cushioned sole and arch support is provided by many makes of
trainers and the softness of the uppershoe accommodates deformity.
Some clients feel happier wearing trainers than specially made
orthopaedic shoes which can be limited in their design. However
some clients will need to have orthopaedic shoes made to accom-
modate deformities which may have developed and limit the range
of shop made shoes available to them. Extra ankle support may be
needed to prevent inversion from occurring or arch support needed.
MOBILITY
Problems in relation to mobility can be experienced due to limited

movement, pain and stiffness, fatigue and contractures of the lower
limbs. The choice of footwear has already been discussed, the use
of walking aids, the need to use manual or electric wheelchairs to
increase mobility or the adaptation of a car to make driving more
easy will now be considered.
Walking aids
The use of some walking aids can be made difficult by the grip
required to hold them, the strain placed upon joints while using them
or the strength needed to move them. Specially moulded handles are
available for sticks and crutches which distribute the pressure more
evenly over the whole hand.
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MOBILITY
A frequent request regards the suitability of sticks which open out

into a seat. Several different models are on the market, some more
stable than others when used as a seat. Clients feel it advantageous
to have their own seat with them if they require a rest, but the
stability of the seat should be ascertained.
The use of elbow crutches or walking sticks can cause pain in the
wrist and elbows as pressure is exerted through them. This can be
reduced by the use of gutter crutches and pulpit frames which
provide support along the length of the forearm, through which the
weight is borne. If a client finds lifting walking frames difficult
casters enable the frame to be glided rather than lifted.
If a client uses a frame to walk with the ability to fold the frame
may be advantageous. When travelling in cars, frames can take up
a lot of space and limit the number of passengers. Folding frames
collapse flat and can be stored in the boot allowing more room in
the car.
Various types of rollators and walking frames are available which
incorporate a seat to rest on when tired or a tray to assist with
carrying items around.
Manual wheelchairs
When a client's mobility becomes impaired to the extent that it is

limiting their ability to go out they may decide to use a wheelchair
to enhance their mobility over long distances. A range of self-
propelling and attendant controlled chairs are available through the
District Health Authority and is supplied free of cost to the client.
The range of lightweight chairs is extending rapidly and some
clients do choose to purchase their own chair for several reasons.
The prime reason is often the ease of manreuvrability of the chair.
The centre of gravity of the chair can usually be altered to enable
the chair to be tipped more easily for mounting kerbs. If the
wheelchair user has the upper limb strength to balance on the back
wheels of the chair they can mount kerbs unassisted and gain a
greater degree of independence. Even if the client is unable to do
this, propelling the chair is much easier. Most wheelchair
manufacturers are now producing lightweight wheelchairs which are
easy to propel and manreuvre and light to lift in and out of
a car. They often dismantle into small components, the wheels
being quick release, which means that they take up less storage
space.
139
ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
The main disadvantage of private purchase is that the maintenance

and replacement of the chair is the client's responsibility as is the
supply of any special cushion which they may require. Chairs
supplied by the DSA are maintained, replaced and special seating
needs assessed at no cost to the client. A secondary consideration for
some clients is also the design and colour range which is available
through private purchase.
Powered wheelchairs
The strength needed to self-propel is substantial and some clients

may be unable to use a manual wheelchair for this reason. Powered
mobility offers clients a greater degree of independence in this situa-
tion. Sometimes a client's carer may not have the strength to push
a chair and for this reason seek the assistance of power.
The range of chairs available starts with an indoor powered chair,
which is purely for use inside, then moves on to an indoor/outdoor
chair, which is compact and manreuvrable enough to use in a house
but also has the facility to cope with kerbs and outdoor environ-
ments, and finally finishes with an outdoor chair which is usually
more powerful and robust, can cope with longer journeys, but does
not provide the manreuvrability in confined environments.
Indoor chairs are supplied through the wheelchair services after an
assessment has been carried out. However, at the moment they do
not supply an outdoor electric wheelchair which can be used
independently or offer the facility to cope with kerbs and travel long
distances. This situation is under review. They do supply an atten-
dant controlled chair which is large and cumbersome and does not
reflect the vast improvements in technology over recent years.
For some clients the cost of powered chairs is prohibitive,
especially if the client is not eligible for or in receipt of a mobility
allowance. It is sometimes possible to seek assistance with funding
from charitable trusts and organizations who frequently contribute to
the cost of such equipment. However if funding is sought in this way
consideration must be given to the cost of maintaining, insuring and
replacing the chair once purchased.
A wide range of powered chairs are on the market and clients
should try several before deciding upon the final purchase. Disabled
Living Centres usually keep a range of chairs for demonstration, the
range will depend upon the size of the centre, but all will have a
wide variety of manufacturer's literature. It is essential that clients
140
MOBILITY
have a home demonstration of the chair before they make a final

purchase to ensure that the chair is appropriate for the environment
in which it is going to be used. The addition of kerb climbers can
increase the overall width of the chair making manreuvrability more
difficult, access to and from the home must be assessed and access
to points to recharge the battery considered.
The chairs are powered by a rechargeable battery which is charged
using mains electricity. The range of the chair will vary from chair
to chair and it is worth remembering that the range quoted on the
literature often refers to the distance the chair will travel on the flat.
Coping with hilly environments will decrease this overall distance.
The controls for the chairs are usually simple to operate compris-
ing an on/off switch, a joystick for steering and a speed control. A
sustained grip is required to keep the chair moving and for some
clients this can be a problem if they are travelling several miles. The
controls can be located on either the left or right hand side, some
are multi-adjustable in height and distance from the end of the arm,
while others are positioned on purchase and relocation requires work
from the supplier. Clients with limited movement, grip or hand func-
tion may need the controls positioned in a different place from the
arm rest to enable ease of access.
The ability to climb kerbs provides clients with a much greater
degree of independence, as not all pavements are dropped to allow
ease of crossing. Kerb climbers are situated in several different posi-
tions: on the front wheels, on the outside of the front wheels, in the
middle of the foot rest.. Some chairs do not require kerb climbers.
Kerb climbers can add extra width to the chairs and for this reason
some manufacturers offer the option of indoor and outdoor footrests,
one with and one without kerb climbers. Kerb climbers situated in
the middle of the footrest, while reducing the overall width of the
chair, can impair transfers, depending on how the client transfers.
Some chairs are front wheel drive and usually have large front
wheels which have the power to climb kerbs. It is necessary to
consider the implications for clients who have cervical involvement
and wish to use an outdoor chair as the process of kerb climbing can
jar the neck and may have contra-indications depending upon the
degree of cervical instability.
One of the problems associated with powered chairs is their
portability. Many chairs do dismantle to fit into a car but, even when
dismantled, the components are extremely heavy. This can be
prohibitive to some clients whose carers cannot cope with lifting.
More and more clients are opting to buy scooters rather than
141
ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
powered chairs. They have the ability to travel similar distances and
to cope with kerbs and, like chairs, differ in their suitability for
different environments. They are also powered by batteries. Again
a sustained grip is needed to operate the scooter and there is a larger
degree of variability between models in the grip required. The size
of scooters can prohibit access to some buildings. Clients who have
some degree of mobility use scooters to travel long distances to and
from shops being able to walk around the shop once they arrive.
Scooters are perceived as being more socially acceptable than
wheelchairs and also have the bonus of being less expensive.
The other form of powered mobility available are buggy type
vehicles. These vehicles are large and purely for outdoor use requir-
ing garaging and access to power to recharge batteries. These
vehicles do give a much greater degree of weather protection and
again are more suitable for clients who have a degree of mobility as
access to buildings is a major problem.
Clients buying some form of powered vehicle should be
encouraged to take out an insurance policy including third party
cover, as it is possible that they could be involved in an accident.
Car adaptations
Limitations in movement, grip strength or dexterity can all lead to

problems with driving. The ability to drive offers a great degree of
independence and clients who are already in possession of a licence
can carry out adaptations to maintain their independence in most
situations. The onus is placed upon the client to inform the DVLC
at Swansea of any disability which they have, although some clients
are reluctant to do this for fear of losing their licence.
Some of the main problems experienced by clients relate to limited
foot movement, poor grip due to swan neck or other deformities of
the hand, limited neck movement due to cervical involvement and
access to and from the car.
Automatic transmission overcomes many of the problems
associated with pedal control and also limits the amount of upperlimb
movement needed in relation to gear changes. Poor grip can lead to
problems in gripping the steering wheel which may be overcome by
the use of a pommel or knob being attached onto the wheel.
Weakness of grip can cause problems with using the hand break
which can be adapted or repositioned. Limitations in neck movement
can be compensated for by the use of extra mirrors in the car
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MOBILITY
providing all round visibility. Access to and from the car can be
difficult for clients with severely limited movement, especially if
they require assistance with transfers. Existing car seats can be
replaced by swivel car seats which rotate round out of the car to
enable a client to do a side transfer from a wheelchair or for carers
to assist more easily with transfer. Once the client has transferred
onto the seat it is rotated back around into the car. Limitation in
upper limb movement may also present difficulties in relation to
using a seat belt. Adaptations can be made to belts to bring them
into the reach of a person with limited shoulder movement.
One of the problems experienced by non-drivers is identifying
driving instructors who have adapted cars on which to learn. Local
instructors with limited adaptations are usually identifiable. Clients
with a greater degree of disability may require a specific assessment
of their limitations and abilities to establish exactly what adaptations
are required to assist them to drive and these are carried out at
assessment centres such as Banstead Place Mobility Centre.
Home management
Assistive devices to help with aspects of home management are as

numerous as the problems encountered by clients in relation to this
aspect of function. This section will provide a broad perspective of
both and not an exhaustive list. Comparisons of some categories of
equipment have been d~cumented in DHSS equipment reports and
are available on request.
Opening bottles and jars

Opening bottles, jars and cans is an area of difficulty experienced by
many clients. Jars and bottle openers are either hand held or wall
mounted. Hand held devices range from a non-slip pad to plier like
devices. The amount of grip required to operate these devices varies
and in some cases is prohibitive. Wall mounted versions can be V-
shaped to grip the top of varying size jars or bell shaped with non-
slip rubber inside. The positioning of these devices is important to
allow for maximum pressure to be applied. Rubber grips can also be
purchased which fit onto individual bottle tops to enlarge the grip
required to open them.
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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
Opening cans
For many clients electric can-openers are the most effective way of
opening cans, requiring little grip or hand strength. Many have a
lever action and if the lever is large then the heel of the hand or the
forearm can be used to operate.
Plugs
Pulling electric plugs in and out of the socket or reaching the socket
can cause problems. Plugs can be purchased with large handles on
them to enable the whole hand to be used, rather than just the finger
tips. Extension brackets can be plugged into sockets near the floor
and wall mounted to bring the socket within the reach of clients with
restricted movement.
Taps
Lever action taps are easier to use as they place less stress on the
fingers. Tap turners can be used to adapt existing taps if replacement
is too costly, they can be fitted to ordinary or crystal taps. If clients
are replacing taps with lever mechanisms, ones which have 180 0
turn provide more control over the volume of water coming out of
the tap than the 90 0 mechanism.
Saucepans
Problems related to lifting saucepans can be overcome by placing
vegetables etc. in cooking baskets, so that when they are cooked
they can be lifted from the pan negating the need to carry pan and
water and also to drain them. The use of microwaves can reduce
significantly the amount of lifting of heavy hot utensils in the
kitchen.
Kettles
Filling can be made easier by using a plastic jug, rather than carry-
ing a heavy full kettle. Problems associated with lifting and pouring
can be overcome by, using a kettle tipper, tippers are now available
for jug as well as conventional kettles using a smaller travelling
kettle or a microwave to make drinks in. Small drinks dispensers are
also available from large department stores.
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MOBILITY
Utensils
The handles of utensils can be padded for clients with restricted grip,
or ranges of knives are available with the handles in different posi-
tions placing less strain on the wrist when in use. The grip of uten-
sils should be considered when buying equipment as often
conventional ranges can offer a better grip, rather than having to buy
specific equipment designed for people with disabilities.
Cooker and heating controls

A range of adaptations for controls are available for appliances. The
Gas and Electricity Boards provide a range of alternative controls for
appliances. Individual grips can be moulded by the use of a Grip Kit
which enables a handle to be moulded in a maluable material which
then sets forming a rigid grip.
The range of equipment to assist in home management tasks is
immense. It is not the intention of this chapter to list every item
available but to provide an indication of the range and of considera-
tions that should be taken into account. Proper assessment for
assistive equipment is essential to ensure that appropriate equipment
is provided that will meet the physical, psychological, social and
environmental needs of the client and their family. Ideally this
should take place in the client's home although it is appreciated that
this is not always possible.
As the commercial market for equipment is growing, client's
awareness of equipment is being raised through advertising in the
popular press. This has both advantages and disadvantages. The
advantages are that clients are now beginning to take initiatives in
requesting help because they are now aware that help does exist,
they are more informed about the choice that they have and they can
place pressure on local authorities to provide more than a basic
range of equipment. Clients are now beginning to ask 'why is that
not available through Social Services?' The answer is often difficult
to explain.
The biggest disadvantage, however, is that the scope for parting
with large amounts of money for inappropriate equipment has also
become larger. Clients may not be prepared to wait for a therapist
assessment or may prefer to purchase privately and many clients are
being encountered who have purchased expensive items of equipment
following a demonstration from a company representative and found
the equipment to be unsuitable. The increase in commercial centres
145
ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
and high street shops selling equipment widens the potential for
errors to be made, however many of the new retail outlets either
employ therapists or use therapists to train staff and are aware of the
potential to not only waste a client's money but also in some cases
cause harm.
Assessment should ensure that appropriate equipment is provided
and kept to a minimum. A factor which is often neglected due to
lack of therapist time is that needs change and equipment may either
no longer be needed or may need reassessing. This is often left to
the client to report and the assumption made that if the client has not
been in contact the equipment must be alright. While a routine
reassessment is out of the question therapists should ensure that
clients know who to contact if their needs change or if the equipment
breaks down.
FURTHER READING
M. Brattstrom (1987) Joint Protection and Rehabilitation in Chronic

RheuTrUltic Disorders, Wolfe Medical Publications Ltd, London.
J. Melvin (1977) RheuTrUltic Diseases: Occupational Therapy and Rehabilita-
tion, F.A. Davis Company.
H. Unsworth (1986) Coping with RheuTrUltoid Arthritis, Chambers.
146
7
Housing adaptation
The need to consider housing adaptation becomes apparent when the

physical environment in which the client functions becomes a barrier
to maintaining previous levels of function for the client or when a
combination of the client's condition and the environment inhibit the
functioning of a carer or the family unit and these situations cannot
be met by the provision of assistive equipment. Clients may not wish
to be rehoused, if in local authority accommodation, or to move
house for a variety of reasons, apart from the upheaval involved. If
the client has a young family, moving will invariably affect
children's schooling that may necessitate them moving to a different
school. If the client has lived in an area for a long period of time
support and friendships may exist within the local community which
would be lost if the client moved house. This factor becomes even
more important if the client is elderly, a situation which is frequently
encountered in an elderly population is a client being rehoused and
slowly losing contact with their friends and the local community as
mobility becomes a problem for all concerned. The extent of a hous-
ing adaptation can vary from the installation of a walk in shower in
a bathroom to building a downstairs extension containing bedroom
and bathroom facilities.
Communication and co-operation between therapist, client, housing
department, environmental health inspector and architect, if
appropriate, is essential to ensure that the appropriate adaptation is
carried out and the process of application for grants, funding and
planning permission is as smooth as possible. Adaptations should be
carried out with longterm prognosis in mind. While it is difficult to
predict outcome in relation to rheumatoid disease its progressive
nature should be borne in mind, as far as possible, to prevent the
need for costly revision of adaptations if the client's condition
changes. The policies and procedures for carrying out housing adap-
tations varies enormously from local authority to local authority and
147
HOUSING ADAPTATION
SO it is not the intention of this section to consider in detail specific

policies and procedures: therapists should familiarize themselves
with local procedures relevant to their work.
Occupational therapists can be involved in adaptation to a variety
of different properties including:
1. local authority housing;

2. privately rented accommodation;
3. owner occupied accommodation;
4. new local authority housing schemes.
The whole process of grant applications, architect's visits and fees,

responsibilities regarding redecorating or installing extra central
heating can be a minefield of confusion for clients. It is essential that
therapists spend time with the family to explain the procedures
involved, the costs which the client will be expected to contribute to,
any implications for increased bills in the future as in heating an
extension, and the length of time the whole process will take. Clients
should also be informed of the amount of upheaval that will occur
during building or installation so that the necessary plans can be
made during that time.
Assessment and identification of need
Assessment and identification of need is a responsibility of all local

authorities. This responsibility is laid down in the Chronically
Sick and Disabled Persons Act 1970. Section 1 of the Chronically
Sick and Disabled Persons Act requires authorities to inform
themselves of the number of people with disabilities in their area and
of their need for services, to publish information about available
services and inform users of other services which may be of
relevance to them. The act then goes on to identify specific services
which include transport, recreation, meals and practical assistance in
the home. In relation to housing adaptation and equipment it states
that local authorities must make arrangements for:
the provision of assistance for that person in arranging for the

carrying out of any works of adaptation in his home or the
provision of any additional facilities designed to secure his
greater safety, comfort or convenience.
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HOUSING ADAPTATION
The way in which this act is interpreted varies considerably from

authority to authority. Obviously authorities are working with finan-
cial constraints and budgets have to be allocated accordingly.
Conflict arises when the needs perceived by the therapist and client
differ in their perception of importance or when the needs identified
by the therapist conflict with the existing policy of the employing
authority. A clear assessment procedure is needed to ensure that
specific aims and objectives are identified and prioritized.
Communication is vitally important to ensure that the client knows
exactly what is being proposed, what is entailed and why the specific
decisions have been reached. This factor becomes more important in
the light of the Disabled Persons (Services, Consultation and
Representation) Act 1986 which in section 1 identifies the provision
of a procedure to appoint a representative for a person with a
disability and establishes guidelines for the rights of that represen-
tative stating that if required an authority must supply a written state-
ment, 'either specifying:
(a) (i) any needs of the disabled person which in the opinion of the
authority call for the provision by them of any statutory
services and;
(ii) in the case of each such need, the statutory services that
they propose to provide to meet the need;
or stating that, in their opinion, the disabled person has no
needs calling for the provision by them of any such services
and;
(b) giving an explanation of their decision'
While not all of the sections of this act have as yet been
implemented it will provide clients with a procedure of appeal and
representation and make local authorities and therapists more
accountable for their decisions and actions. This act also states that
in all assessments for the provision of services to disabled people the
needs of carers must also be taken into account. This section will
now go on to look at specific adaptations which may be needed for
a client with rheumatoid disease.
KITCHEN DESIGN AND ADAPTATION
The need to adapt a kitchen for clients with rheumatoid disease is

often encountered if a client has made the transition from being
149
HOUSING ADAPTATION
ambulant to using a wheelchair and therefore the layout of the

kitchen needs adapting to compensate for the client's new position of
function. In some situations a client may have the opportunity to re-
design their kitchen, when redecorating or moving home, and may
be seeking advice on factors which need to be considered to make
kitchen activities easier to cope with.
The factors which need to be considered are the needs and abilities
of the client, the use of the kitchen, the needs of other people who
may be using the kitchen, design considerations and the existing
physical environment of the kitchen. While publications provide
anthropometric data it should be remembered that these data are
guidelines and a therapist involved in a kitchen adaptation for an
individual client has the opportunity to tailor make a kitchen to the
needs of the individual.
The needs and abilities of the client are fundamental to kitchen
design. This means establishing the functional abilities and
disabilities of the client and what they feel to be important factors
to consider. Functions which may be limited for a client with
rheumatoid disease are discussed below.
Reach
The ability to reach into wall cupboards and lift something down
may be limited as may the ability to reach across work surfaces by
decreased range of movement in the upper limbs, or decreased
strength. If a person is in a wheelchair their ability to reach will be
compromised not only by possible upper limb involvement but also
by the fact that they are functioning from a seated position.
Ability to bend
Poor balance and limited hip movement may make bending down to
cupboards, plug sockets, or the bottom of the fridge, cooker or other
appliance difficult. Knee movement and pain may mean that clients
can no longer kneel on the floor. This will also be the case if a
client has undergone a total knee arthroplasty.
150
Stamina
Levels of fatigue may make standing for any period of time difficult
and many kitchen activities may need to be carried out sitting down.
Muscle weakness may make standing for prolonged periods difficult.
Hand function
This may limit the client's ability to use controls, switches plugs,
taps, open cupboards, etc.
Mobility
If the client is using an aid to mobility this may affect the amount
of circulation space needed in the kitchen.
Other factors which need to be considered are how much the client
is intending to use the kitchen and what for. The level of use will
range from needing to make a drink or a snack to needing to prepare
all the family meals and carry out other domestic activities such as
laundry. The possible longterm prognosis of rheumatoid disease is
also a consideration. If the kitchen is being planned for an ambulant
person it may be worth using a kitchen unit which allows for easy
repositioning of height should the client at some point need to use
a wheelchair. The flexibility of units heights is an important factor
if considering a kitchen which will be used by different occupants
as in local authority housing schemes. Repositioning enables the
same kitchen to be used whether the client is ambulant or uses a
wheelchair. Although the initial cost may be more the flexibility
negates the need to refurbish the kitchen to meet the needs of a new
tenant.
The use to which the kitchen is put is also another factor to
consider. For many people the kitchen fulfils a much greater role
than that of a food preparation area. It may also be a dining area,
or the focal point of the home in which friends are entertained,
children play and television is watched. Many kitchens also provide
access to the garden, utility room or garage; all of these factors can
influence ultimate design.
In a family situation usually more than one person uses the kitchen
area and the needs of other family members are important. In some
situations decisions have to be taken as to who the kitchen is being
151
HOUSING ADAPTATION
designed for. For example a client who is using a wheelchair will

have very different design needs to that of her mobile husband and
adolescent children. Is the kitchen to be designed totally around the
needs of the client or will some compromises be made to accom-
modate the needs of his or her family? In a group home situation
the kitchen area may be used by several people all with different
disabilities and needs and some compromises may be needed.
Design considerations relate firstly to whether the identified needs
can be met using the existing area of the kitchen, whether it will be
necessary to utilize space from an adjacent room or whether there
is an indication that an extension is needed and if the space is
available for this option. Problems are encountered frequently in
relation to clients who use a wheelchair in finding the space
necessary for circulation.
Specific design considerations relate to storage units, work
surfaces, sinks, switches and sockets, lighting, flooring and
appliances.
Base storage units are needed to provide easy access to items on
shelves and at the back of cupboards to overcome problems in
bending or balance. This can be achieved in several ways, the
shelves can be on runners so that they slide out making items more
easy to see and avoiding having to bend down so far. The space
often wasted by corner units can be utilized by the use of a carousel
rather than shelving. This revolving shelf unit allows easy access to
items on the shelf as well as utilizing what would otherwise have
been wasted space. Locating storage baskets on the inside of
cupboard doors can also provide accessible shelving. The hinges on
base unit doors should be as strong as possible as many clients will
use them to steady themselves with as they bend down. Some units
are designed with this specifically in mind.
Access to wall cupboards frequently presents problems for clients
with limited reach. While items can be organized so that the items
used most frequently are placed on the lower shelves access to all
shelving is rarely gained. This can be achieved by the use of units
with shelving which can be pulled out of the cupboard and down
within reach and then returned to the cupboard when finished with.
Limited reach above the head is a common problem for clients with
rheumatoid disease, as is having the upper limb strength to reach up
and to hold a heavy object.
Clients who are working from a wheelchair lose access often to a
great deal of storage space. Floor units are compromised to enable
access to work surfaces, sinks or hobs and wall cupboards can
152
become inaccessible due to their height. Mobile trolleys fitting under

the work surface do provide some storage space to help overcome
this problem. Units can be purchased with pull-out work surfaces so
that a client in a wheelchair has access to an appropriate surface as
well as maintaining the cupboard space of base units.
Most suppliers of kitchen units for people with disabilities offer a
wide range of door handles and fittings usually offering different
diameters and different shapes to enable a range of grips to be
considered.
The heights of work surface will vary according to the position
from which the client is working. In a family kitchen, if the client
is a wheelchair user, it may be necessary to provide a range of
heights to provide for the needs of other family members. As well
as considering the height of the work surface it is also necessary to
consider the clearance beneath the surface if the client is working
from a wheelchair or seated position. There must be enough room
for the chair to be drawn close to the unit or the arms of the chair
to fit underneath, depending on how close the client needs to be to
work. Alternatively consideration can be given to providing desk
arms to the wheelchair enabling closer access to working surfaces.
Clearance for the footplates of wheelchairs should be considered
also. The depth of the unit is important for clients with limited reach
as this may affect access to power points and utensils at the back of
the surface.
Other factors which need to be considered are as follows.
1. The depth of the sink, especially if the client is working from a

wheelchair.
2. The position of the draining board, clients usually have a
preference to left or right.
3. The type of taps used, preferably lever for ease of operation.
4. The position of power points and whether they are accessible.
5. The use of both natural and artificial light.
6. The type of flooring to be used, whether it is non-slip.
The overall design of the kitchen should be considered not only in

terms of functional ability but also in terms of work flow. This is
especially important for people with rheumatoid disease ensuring that
the relationship of appliances and storage units and sink reflect the
principles of energy conservation minimizing the amount of energy
being put into food preparation.
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HOUSING ADAPTATION
Appliances
It is not intended to go into specific consideration for all appliances

used in a kitchen as this is well documented in other publications.
Factors which need to be considered as a general guideline are:
1. overall position of the appliance in the kitchen to maximize work

flow;
2. access to shelves in terms of height, especially ovens, fridges and
freezers;
3. ease of use of appliance.
Overall position
Appliances should be positioned to minimize the amount of move-
ment between them. Thought should be given to the proximity of
work surfaces to minimize the distance items have to be carried.
Specific surfaces may be located in close proximity to appliances like
ovens. A pull-out work surface is often located under the oven in an
oven-casing to provide a surface to rest hot dishes on.
Access to appliance
The height at which appliances are situated can determine how
accessible they are. Placing fridges in built in units allows them to
be situated above floor level giving easy access to all shelves. A split
level cooker provides easy access to ovens, many clients find
bending to lift dishes from the oven very difficult and dangerous.
Upright deep freezes provide easier access to the contents than the
chest type, as less bending and reach is required to use them.
Ease o/use
The type of controls on appliances are an important consideration
when purchasing as is the ease of cleaning.
The inclusion by Which? of a section relating to people with

special needs in some of their consumer reports is a welcome addi-
tion. Clients will now have access to a comprehensive consumer
report on a range of readily available products enabling them to
identify specific points before purchasing a major appliance for the
home. It is very difficult for some clients to do the rounds of
154
BATHROOM ADAPTATION
showrooms to examine a range of products and assistants do not

always know the answers to specific questions a client may have.
BATHROOM ADAYfATION
Problems in relation to personal hygiene can be overcome often by

the use of assistive equipment which has already been discussed,
however, adaptations are sometimes required. The most common
forms of bathroom adaptation for clients with rheumatoid disease are
the installation of showers or the relocation of the bathroom on the
ground floor. The main problems encountered by clients are:
1. mobility
- access to the bathroom during the day can be difficult if it is
located upstairs;
- Clients using aids to mobility may find their bathroom too
small to manoeuvre the aid around in;
2. inability/difficulty to transfer due to pain, stiffness or loss of
movement;
3. 'problems with cleansing after using the toilet.
As with kitchen design it is necessary to consider the needs of the

family in planning a bathroom adaptation to ensure that all needs are
taken into consideration. The installation of a shower in a small
bathroom may mean that the bath is removed, inevitably effecting
the whole family. Another important area to consider is the needs of
the carer if assistance is needed with personal hygiene. Adequate
space should be provided to assist with transfers and other aspects
of care. If assistance with washing is needed a system should be
provided that does not require the carer to put on waterproofs in
order to assist!
Mobility
Access to and around the bathroom can pose problems. The provi-
sion of a stairlift is a common way of gaining access to the
bathroom, if upstairs, during the day. However in some homes the
stairs may not be suitable for the installation of a lift and the provi-
sion of a downstairs bathroom and bedroom may be considered.
The use of walking frames and wheelchairs in bathrooms can be
155
HOUSING ADAPTATION
inhibited by the size of some rooms, especially if the bath and toilet
are in separate rooms. It is necessary sometimes to remove dividing
walls to gain a greater circulation space, if the problem cannot be
overcome by the provision of more compact aids to mobility, and
to provide adequate space for transfer to be carried out safely.
Transfers
Bathing
The provision of assistive equipment to assist with transfers in the
bath has already been discussed, for some clients however the
provision of a shower may be preferable. Even with assistive equip-
ment clients may need assistance to swing their legs up over the
side of the bath and still be dependent upon assistance from a carer.
Many bath aids have rigid backs preventing the upper body from
being immersed in the warm water. Some clients prefer the overall
warmth provided by a shower as they feel it relieves pain and
stiffness.
A large variety of shower trays exist which provide level access
to the shower, either to walk in to or to use in combination with
a mobile shower chair. The main consideration in relation to the
size of the tray is whether the client is ambulant or a wheelchair
user. The type of shower installed varies considerably from a non-
slip tiled floor with a central drain to a shower cubicle depending
on the constraints of the client's bathroom and the policy of the
local authority. Some of the showers have a full length curtain,
some have half doors and some a combination of both. It is essen-
tial that the shower unit is thermostatically controlled and conforms
with British Safety Standards to ensure that clients cannot be
scalded if there is a variation in water temperature. The temperature
of some showers varies if a person downstairs turns on the cold
water tap decreasing the pressure and increasing the heat of the
water, clients with limited mobility will not be able to move out of
the way quickly. The controls on the shower should be operated
easily, a wide range of controls are now available including
pushbutton and knobs.
The position from which the client is to shower is also a
consideration as, if it is seated, the type of seating provided may
influence the choice of cubicle. Shower seats can be:
156
BATHROOM ADAPTATION
1. secured to a supporting wall;

2. provided as an integral part of the cubicle;
3. free standing;
4. mobile.
Therapists must determine the most appropriate type for their client,
bearing in mind possible weight restrictions of wall-mounted seats
and the construction of the wall to which it is to be fixed.
If a client is living in local authority or privately rented acco-
mmodation it may not be appropriate to remove the bath perma-
nently. Shower trays are now manufactured to the same dimensions
as the bath, provided a showering area and a changing area, and
using the same drainage system. When a new tenant moves into the
house it is possible to reinstate the bath if required with very little
upheaval.
In some situations it may be appropriate to provide an alternative
bathroom downstairs and an extension may have to be built. If
space is restricted a bathroom cubicle exists which provides a toilet
and shower facility within one cubicle requiring very little space.
Location will depend upon drainage and situation in relation to the
kitchen but for some clients provides a solution to having to move
home. A recent addition to the market has been the production of
a prefabricated bathroom which can be adjoined to a building. The
only preparation needed is the drainage, a concrete base to stand it
on and access to the house. The internal design can vary to meet
the needs of the individual.
Overhead tracking hoists assist clients with transfers not only into
the bath but also on and off of the toilet. They are ceiling fixed and
run along either a straight or curved track, used in combination
with a sling. In some situations they are installed to assist the carer
while in others for the client to use independently. If the client has
the upper limb movement to attach the sling to the hoist they can
transfer themselves. Slings can be adapted, if necessary to maximize
the upper limb function a client has.
Toiletting
The inability to cleanse after using the toilet can be an embarrassing
problem for both the client and their carer. The provision of a bidet
can overcome this problem and restore dignity and independence for
clients. Some bidets have a variety of methods of operation, the most
common type used being electrical, and also offer the option of
157
HOUSING ADAPTATION
having a warm air drying facility to enable clients to cleanse and dry
themselves independently. If a client is dependent upon a carer for
toiletting a bidet can greatly assist the carer, as trying to stand
someone up, clean them and cope with clothing is extremely
difficult.
Mobility problems
Limited mobility can lead to a variety of problems around the house

related to:
- access to the house;

- climbing stairs.
Access to the house Access to the house can be a problem not only
in terms of the client getting in and out but also in relation to letting
visitors in and out. The solution to access problems will inevitably
depend upon:
- the client's specific mobility problem;

- the amount of space available leading up to the door.
The main solutions to access problems are:
- lessening the height of the steps;

- providing rails;
- ramping.
If steps are too high for clients to climb doubling the amount of
steps halves the height of the step to be taken, this for some clients
enables them to gain access more easily. Often the support of rails
when climbing s\~ps is beneficial. If a client uses a wheelchair or
walking frame the provision of a ramp may be indicated. The recom-
mended gradient for a ramp is 1:20, but this is not always possible,
the maximum gradient should be 1: 12. If the client's steps lead
directly onto a public footpath a permanent ramp cannot be provided
as it would obstruct the public highway, in this situation a portable
ramp may be more applicable if someone is available to lay it down
and remove it after use. The surface of the ramp should be non-slip
and a level landing should be provided at the entrance of the house
to enable the client to open the door without rolling backwards.
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BATHROOM ADAPTATION
Clients with limited mobility often benefit from the installation of

an intercom to enable them to open the front door from their chair.
A constant source of frustration to many clients is reaching the door
and finding the person has left.
Access to the garage can be a problem as doors are often heavy
and require strength and range of movement to open. Automatic
doors can provide easy access, by the use of a remote control
switch.
Stairs
An adaptation required frequently for clients with rheumatoid
disease is the provision of a stair lift to gain access to the upstairs
of a house. It is more cost effective than providing a bedroom and
bathroom downstairs and is not a permanent feature of the home.
Stairlifts are basically designed with a straight or curved tracking
which fits onto the staircase and has a seat which either travels up
the stair sideways or backwards. They also provide a footplate. The
height of the seat is crucial for many clients, especially in relation
to the foot rest as this dictates how much knee flexion is required
to sit on the seat and in relation to overall height for transfers on
and off of the seat. Stairlifts can also be provided with a standing
platform if clients are unable to transfer from a seated position.
Some of the seats swivel around so that when the client is getting
off at the top of the stairs they can have their back to the staircase
and transfer in safety.
The lifts are controlled by a pushbutton switch requiring constant
pressure, although alternatives are available for clients with limited
hand function, some companies provide rocker switches or joy stick
controls.
Throughfloor lifts are provided either where the staircase is
unsuitable for the installation of a stairlift or where the client is
unable to transfer onto the seat of a stairlift. They are usually
situated to travel up into a bedroom. The lift is usually kept upstairs
until needed so that it forms part of the ceiling and is brought down
into the room when required, enabling the client to walk or wheel
in.
This section has covered some of the adaptations that are carried
out for clients with rheumatoid disease. Assessment is essential to
identify the individual needs of clients and their families and to
determine environmental factors which may influence recommenda-
tions. Once this has been carried out therapists are then required to
159
HOUSING ADAPTATION
identify how these needs can be met within the policy of the
particular authority for whom they work. This is often a process of
compromise between what is desirable and what is acceptable.
Clients must be fully involved in this process to gain an understand-
ing of the processes being gone through and the meaning of this for
both themselves, their family and their home.
More clients are now considering paying for adaptations privately,
usually due to long waiting lists for assessment or a dissatisfaction
with recommendations. The one problem that is encountered by
clients, however, is the availability of advice. While some clients
may have access to Disabled Living Centres the availability of
therapists who can carry out a home visit, which is essential, is
limited. Clients in many areas have an all or nothing service
whereby the community occupational therapist will assess if an
application is made to social services but not if the client wishes to
fund the adaptation for themselves. This consultancy service is an
area of need which has not been met as yet by the profession and
should be addressed.
With the emphasis of healthcare being shifted into the community
the need for the provision of both appropriate housing and housing
adaptation is essential to ensure that the underlying philosophies of
community care become a reality. The environmental barriers
provided by a home can be immense resulting in isolation and a
dependence upon other people for tasks which, given the right
environment, could be carried out independently. The stresses placed
upon the family as a whole can develop into a crisis if unrecognized.
Clients with rheumatic diseases are not always given high priority on
waiting lists as they do not have a life threatening illness nor are
they recovering from an acute traumatic event. The problems
encountered by clients often fall into low priority categories and can
be left for some considerable time before being addressed.
Community care is now a reality and the needs of clients with
rheumatoid disease are very much community orientated. The
debilitating effect of living in accommodation which is not suitable
and does not enable basic needs to be met as independently as possi-
ble is substantial, not only on the client but on the whole family unit.
Much valuable time and energy can be spent in fulfilling basic needs
often leaving clients too tired or in too much pain to consider
embarking upon less essential activities. A home which fulfils basic
needs is essential to anyone and should be a priority if the potential
of community care and integration is to be met, both from the point
of view of the client and the whole family unit.
160
FURTHER READING
FURTHER READING
E. Bumphrey (1987) Occupational Therapy in the Community, Woodhead-

Faulkner.
161
8
Splinting
The fabrication of splints often falls into the remit of therapists

working in departments of rheumatology. The types of splints made
and materials used vary considerably and it is not the intention of
this section to discuss detailed design and fabrication as this is
covered comprehensively both in other. publications and the
references provided. Before embarking upon the fabrication of
splints, therapists must have an understanding of the anatomy of the
hand, the structures and their functions and the effects of impairment
and splinting upon each.
The inflammatory process of rheumatoid disease can affect greatly
the stability of joints. Synovial proliferation and effusions stretch and
weaken the capsule and ligaments and also erode the cartilage. This
process can lead to a laxity of the joint capsule and surrounding
structures and hypermobility of the joint leading to subluxation and
dislocation. Muscle forces can become altered as they are no longer
restricted and alignment may shift leading to an altered direction of
pull and abnormal position of the joint. Muscle spasm to protect
inflamed joints can lead to deformity and loss of movement, an
example of this are the intrinsic muscles of the hand. Tendons can
also become inflamed, snap or rupture causing functional loss. Nerve
compression can result in functional impairment, loss of sensation
and pain, an example of this associated with rheumatoid disease is
carpal tunnel syndrome, where the median nerve becomes
compressed within the carpal tunnel resulting in numbness and tingl-
ing in the first three fingers.
Classification of splints
Splints can be classified either by their design or by their function.

Design classification usually refers to a static or dynamic splint. A
162
SPLINTING
static splint prevents movement and rests the affected joints. As its
primary aim is to immobilize, it should be used as a component of
a therapeutic programme to ensure that atrophy, weakness and stiff-
ness do not occur as a result of wearing the splint. If the splint is
to be used at home therapists must ensure that the client is aware
of the need to exercise an immobilized joint as and when
appropriate.
Dynamic splints allow movement and so are constructed to incor-
porate hinges, elastic or springs or utilize the movement of another
body part.
Classification according to the function of the splint falls into three
categories:
1. resting;
2. functional;
3. corrective.
These functions are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Their

purposes are as follows.
1. Resting splints to:

- relieve pain;
- decrease inflammation;
- prevent the development of contractures;
- maintain proper hand position;
- decrease or alleviate symptoms of nerve entrapment;
- support ligaments and joint capsule.
2. Functional splints to:
- relieve pain;
- support unstable structures;
- accommodate for muscle weakness or atrophy;
- protect from further damage;
- assist in controlling inflammation;
- protect against nerve entrapment or tenosynovitis.
3. Corrective splints to:
- modify soft tissue contractures (Seeger, 1984).
A further category of splints are those used post-operatively to main-

tain alignment or mobility, assist with post-operative stretching and
minimize adhesions.
163
SPLINTING
Hand assessment
A comprehensive hand assessment must be carried out before a

splint is made which not only assesses how the rheumatoid disease
has effected the structures of the hand but also its function, these two
factors do not necessarily have any correlation. A client with gross
deformity may have minimal impairment of hand function whereas
a client with minimal deformity may have severe impairment. This
is an essential consideration in pre-operative assessment for clients
undergoing corrective hand surgery, improvement in alignment does
not necessarily lead to an improvement in function.
The process of assessment in relation to splinting aims to:
1. provide baseline measurements against which changes can be

documented;
2. identify the priorities, needs and expectations of the client;
3. evaluate the effectiveness of interventions;
4. define the aims and objectives of splinting;
5. identify other interventions which may be appropriate, such as
exercise or joint protection.
When assessing the hand it is essential to include an assessment of

the wrist, elbow and shoulder as these will all affect the way in
which the hand functions and could equally be the cause of pain, loss
of movement and loss of function. They can also be affected by the
use of splints, for example the weight of splints may have implica-
tions for the function of the whole limb and immobilization may also
affect other joints. A comprehensive hand assessment includes
documentation of the following.
1. The presence of:

- pain;
- inflammation;
- tenderness;
- oedema;
- deformity.
2. Range of movement of the:
- shoulder flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, internal
and external rotation;
- elbow flexion, extension, pronation and supination;
- wrist flexion, extension, ulnar and radial deviation;
164
SPLINTING
- fingers flexion, extension, adduction and abduction of

metacarpalphalangeal joints, proximal and distal
phalangeal joints;
- thumb flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, opposition.
It should be noted whether these ranges are of active or passive

movement.
1. Grip strength:
- power grip;
- pinch grip;
- cylindrical grip;
- hook grip.
2. Sensation
3. Function; examples of functional components of assessment
include:
- pouring water from a jug to a glass;
- writing name;
- picking up small objects and placing in a container;
- buttoning and unbuttoning a garment;
- tying a shoelace;
- opening and closing a zip;
- moving different size and shaped objects from one position
to another.
In some assessments the functional component is timed or scored.

Additional information is needed, as appropriate, about the client's
medical condition, and their social situation. The methods for
recording the above information will vary depending upon the
assessment used. It is essential that a standardized and valid assess-
ment procedure is used and that, as far as is possible, the same
therapist carries out each assessment to reduce inter-observer error.
Having completed an assessment it is possible to identify the aims
and objectives of the splinting programme and the most appropriate
type of splint to make.
Fabrication of splints
Having identified the appropriate splint, therapists must then choose

the material in which the splint is to be made, design the pattern and
then make the splint. There are a wide range of splinting materials
165
SPLINTING
on the market most of them compnsmg thermoplastic materials

which become maleable when heat is applied to them, at a variety
of temperatures, and resume their rigid state when cooled.
High temperature materials cannot be moulded directly onto the
client and therapists need to make a plaster of Paris mould on to
which the material can be applied. This process requires several
visits to the department as a negative mould is taken first which is
then filled with plaster of Paris to provide a positive mould of the
client's limb on to which the material can be moulded. Splints
produced by this method are usually very resilient and strong, and
it is used, therefore, when a splint is required for permanent use, as
in a footdrop splint, or is needed to be strong.
The more common splinting materials used are medium and low
temperature materials which can be moulded directly onto the client,
some requiring a protective layer of gauze, or lubrication between
the material and the client's skin. The time taken for the material to
cool will vary allowing different working times. Some materials also
have the characteristic of memory and when reheated will return to
being flat enabling them to be reused, not all materials have
memory. Materials become extremely maleable when heated allow-
ing the material to be draped over a limb and moulded into the
required shape. Some materials can be moulded utilizing gravity and
when draped over a limb will use gravity to attain the desired shape
requiring very little moulding on the therapist's behalf. While such
material may take a while to become familiar this facility can be
beneficial as an excellent fit can be achieved with very little
moulding. It does however depend upon the client's ability to main-
tain the necessary position, i.e. for a foot drop splint clients are
required to lie on their stomach, which can be difficult. The
materials are heated with either dry or moist heat, and this may
dictate choice of material in some working situations.
Plaster of Paris is used less frequently but provides a cheap alter-
native which is valuable in some situations.
The factors influencing the choice of material include:
1. specific requirement of the splint being made (need to be

modified; rigidity; strength; weight; flexibility; size of area being
splinted);
2. length of time the splint will be used;
3. speed of which the splint is required;
4. location in which the splint is being made;
5. equipment available;
166
SPLINTING
6. cost of material;
7. skills of the therapist;
8. condition of the client's skin, allergies, open wounds, etc.
Having identified the type of splint and material to be used the

next stage is to make the pattern for the splint. Some materials
include patterns for standard splints in their packaging and some
materials are purchased already cut into standard splint shapes, but
these must be checked, if used, on the client for correct fitting.
Tracings and measurements are essential to ensure the correct fit of
a splint, to avoid pressure areas or boney prominences and to
decrease wastage of materials.
When moulding splints directly onto clients therapists must involve
the client in the whole procedure. The time taken can be used to
pass on information regarding the purpose of the splint, when it is
to be used and precautions which may need to be taken. Enabling
the client to watch the material being heated is a good way of show-
ing them what will happen if they try to wash it with boiling water
or place it near direct heat. Clients should also be reassured about
the temperature of the material. It can be frightening to see
something being removed from an oven and knowing that it is about
to be placed on your hand. Some of the common components of
splints for the hand include:
1. transverse metacarpal arch support, supports the anatomical arch;

2. wrist extension bar, stabilizes the wrist;
3. forearm bar, acts as the long lever of the splint;
4. C bar, maintains the web space between thumb and index finger;
5. finger pan, supports all the joints of the fingers, eliminating
movement;
6. deviation bar, prevents ulnar or radial deviation;
7. outriggers, extends from the splint to hold dynamic component of
splint.
When the splint has been moulded minor alterations may be

needed by spot heating. Straps, and if appropriate, padding or lining
will be needed. Clients must be able to fit and remove the splint
independently and this must be checked. Therapists must also ensure
that the client and, if appropriate, nursing staff check the skin for
pressure marks after the splint has been worn for a period of time,
especially if the splint is dynamic. If there is evidence of pressure
marks the splint should be adjusted accordingly.
167
SPLINTING
Splints should be re-evaluated after a period of use to ensure that

they are fulfilling the need and that correction or alteration is not
needed. Clients must be told how to look after their splint, cleaning
methods, when to wear it, appropriate types of exercise to carry out
and how to check for pressure problems.
COMMON SPLINTS FOR CLIENTS WITH RHEUMATOID DISEASE
Resting splint
This splint is designed to extend from the mid forearm to the tips
of the fingers, supporting the palmar aspect of the hand. It is used
to maintain the hand in a functional position providing rest to the
joints and decreasing inflammation.
The splints are fabricated with varying degrees of wrist extension
which should not exceed 30 0 , and should be within a painfree range.
If a client has carpal tunnel syndrome the wrist should be maintained
in a neutral position. The fingers are slightly flexed. An ulnar ridge
may be needed if clients have ulnar deviation to maintain the fingers
in the correct alignment. The thumb is opposed and abducted.
Functional wrist splint
This splint is frequently used to immobilize the wrist during activity

ensuring that the MCPs and the thumb can still be used
unobstructed. Clients often find the support beneficial when carrying
out activities of daily living.
To ensure unobstructed use of the hand the splint should not
extend, on the palmar aspect of the hand, beyond the proximal
palmar crease and must also allow a cutout around the thenar
eminence. The splint extends up to the mid forearm. These splints
are often made commercially with strong stretch elastic material and
a reinforced brace extending from the palmar crease down over the
wrist to the forearm, on the palmar aspect. However, as they are
usually provided in standard sizes the fit must be checked. Clients
are often present with ill-fitting splints which impair their hand func-
tion, usually because they extend beyond the proximal palmar
crease.
168
FURTHER READING
Corrective splints
One form of corrective splint used in conjunction with a programme

of physiotherapy is a back slab which is used for clients who have
developed reversible knee contractures. They are used to maintain
stretch gained therapeutically and are usually applied after
physiotherapy. The position of the splint must be altered frequently
to ensure that it is maintaining the increased extension achieved
during treatment.
Corrective splints are used to re-align fingers and overcome func-
tional problems created by ulnar drift.
Splints are always used as a component of a therapeutic
programme which includes, not only assessment of the hand but
evaluation of the effectiveness of the splint in improving range of
movement or function, decreasing pain or preventing or improving
deformity. Splints should be used in conjunction with exercise, and
assessment may also indicate the need for education in relation to
joint protection or energy conservation.
FURTHER READING
N. Barr (1975) The Principles and Techniques of Simple Splint Making in

Rehabilitation, Butterworth, Guildford.
R. Cailliet (1982) Hand Pain and Impairment, 3rd edn, F.A. Davis
Company.
Fess and Philips (1987) Hand Splinting Principles and Methods, 2nd edn,
The C.V. Mosby Company, St Louis.
C. Moran (1986) Hand Rehabilitation, Churchill Livingstone, London.
169
9
Relaxation and pain control
Pain is the most predominant symptom of rheumatoid disease and the

most frequent reason for seeking medical assistance. The most
common form of pain relief for clients with rheumatoid disease is
the prescription of analgesia. Many clients, however, express
concern about the long term implications of prolonged use of
analgesia and seek alternative methods of control. Some of these
have been discussed already, the use of heat and ice and joint protec-
tion, others extend into the field of complimentary medicine. It is
now acknowledged widely that the explanation and definition of pain
is a complex issue which is no longer sought purely on the basis of
a physiological cause. Recent theories of pain have acknowledged
the fact that they must account for:
1. the high degree of physiological specialization of receptor-fibre

units and of pathways in the central nervous system;
2. the role of temporal and spatial patterning in the transmission of
information in the central nervous system;
3. the influence of psychological processes on pain perception and
response;
4. the clinical phenomena of spatial and temporal summation, spread
of pain and persistence of pain after healing (Melzack, 1982).
This multi-dimensional approach is evident in the management of

pain. Pain clinics are establishing management approaches which
include the use of drugs, behaviour modification, relaxation, bio-
feedback, exercise and activity. Approaches vary considerably but it
is now apparent that the skills of paramedics are important in helping
clients to manage their pain.
The experience of pain, as has already been stated, is subjective
and as such is difficult for clients to explain and clinicians to
measure. As one client said, 'I hate it when my doctor asks if I am
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RELAXATION AND PAIN CONTROL
in pain because if I say yes I know he will ask me to describe it

and it is impossible'; the word ache or stabbing or burning can mean
so many different things and the way in which they are interpreted
will vary also. The subjective nature of pain means that everyone
will experience and react to it in different ways. Many factors other
than an underlying pathology can influence the experience of pain,
including the amount of attention paid to the pain, previous
experiences of pain and observation of the reaction of other people
to pain, not only in relation to the client but those around them.
The way in which a parent responds to a child who falls over or
knocks themselves serves to reinforce behaviour, as does the way
children observe their parents reacting to pain. Many clients will
relate how sleeping is a problem because pain seems worse during
the night often the basis for this is that there is no distraction and
attention focuses solely on the pain increasing its perceived intensity.
A person's perceived ability to cope with their rheumatoid disease
can also affect their perception of the pain they are experiencing, for
example, a client with active disease may be functioning relatively
well at home until a crisis occurs in the home and then the pain they
are experiencing can increase and their coping ability decrease. The
disease activity does not alter necessarily but their ability to cope
with the perceived increase in pain has. The reverse is also true as
well, on a day to day basis, if a client has something to achieve they
will work through their pain to achieve it and will often relate how
the pain they experienced was reduced, especially if the activity is
highly valued or absorbing. The extreme examples of the scope of
psychological interventions to control pain are the operations which
have been performed, and televised, without the use of anaesthetics
as a result of using hypnosis, or the rituals practised in some
cultures during religious festivals.
Behavioural therapists refer to 'pain related behaviour' which
some clients have evolved and can be reinforced by interaction with
society and the family, often unintentionally. When a person is
experiencing acute pain recognition is given to the pain by others
and allowances made, when the pain is chronic other people's reac-
tion will change over a period of time and recognition may be lost
unless it is actively sought. Attention can be drawn to the pain a
client may be experiencing by grimacing, wincing and complaining
and can have the desired effect of drawing attention and gaining
sympathy, avoiding doing specific tasks or receiving medication. A
behavioural approach to pain-related behaviour is to replace the
negative pain behaviour with more positive responses, teaching the
171
client to approach their pain in a positive way rather than constantly

seeking empathy, sympathy and concern. Comprehensive pro-
grammes are available which serve to modify pain related behaviour
and reinforce more appropriate responses conveying other positive
coping strategies, such as exercise, relaxation and bio-feedback.
Some of these programmes also aim to reduce the amount of medica-
tion a client is taking. Three questions have been raised in relation
to such programmes.
1. Does the patient actually feel less pain or have they simply learnt
to complain less?
2. How do the programmes compare to the placebo effect? Such
programmes usually necessitate constant attention and hospital
admission.
3. Such programmes are expensive to implement and run and if the
programmes are effective will they be available to everyone?
(Melzack, 1982)
Most clients with rheumatoid disease will experience a variety of

different types and intensities of pain. The pain may be acute, as
during a flare or as the result of an infected joint, or chronic, a
background pain which is present for much of the time. Total pain
relief is something which most clients do not experience, the medica-
tion they take usually brings the pain down to a level at which it can
be tolerated and activities carried out, there is still often a
background pain. The most obvious source of pain for clients with
rheumatoid disease is the inflammatory process occurring in their
joints but the multi-systemic nature of rheumatoid disease can lead
to pain arising from a variety of different sources:
1. referred pain, hip pain can be referred to the thigh muscles;

2. pain arising from nerve entrapment or compression, as in carpal
tunnel syndrome;
3. pain arising from vascular disease, as in Raynauds Disease or as
a result of vasculitis;
4. pain resulting from surgical procedures. The pain experienced
following a knee replacement can be intense and needs to be well
controlled to enable therapy to commence.
The treatment of pain in relation to rheumatoid disease can be

categorized as follows:
1. cutaneous stimulation, i.e. massage, to relieve spasm and tension;
172
2. thermal modalities, heat, ice or a combination of both;

3. transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS);
4. pharmacological;
5. relaxation techniques;
6. rest;
7. mechanical methods such as traction (Smith-Pigg, 1985).
The way in which rest and joint protection can be used to reduce
pain have already been discussed but an area not previously covered
is the use of relaxation techniques. Most techniques require very little
equipment, other than a quiet room with comfortable chairs or floor
mats, and can be used easily at home. They aim to reduce muscle
tension, lower the heart rate, respiratory rate and blood pressure and
help clients cope with stress which is present when coping with
rheumatoid disease. Before embarking upon relaxation sessions it is
essential that clients understand the rationale behind the use of the
technique and the expected outcome. Emphasis should also be placed
upon the fact that relaxation is a skill which can be learnt and that
it may take several sessions for a relaxed state to be achieved.
Relaxation sessions should be carried out in an environment which
is free' from distraction (something which can be difficult in a busy
hospital setting) warm and comfortable. Some clients will be unable
to lie on the floor and will be more comfortable sitting in a chair
but it should provide good head and arm support and be the correct
height. The use of foot stools may provide more comfort.
The most common types of relaxation used in a clinical setting
are:
1. guided imagery and visualization;

2. progressive muscle relaxation;
3. controlled rhythmic breathing;
4. biofeedback;
5. yoga.
Guided imagery
This method entails evoking images of relaxation, calm and peaceful

situations. Therapists usually provide an introduction focusing the
client's attention on their breathing and muscles, taking deep breaths
and feeling the weight of their limbs. Clients are then slowly
introduced to a setting such as a beach drenched with the warmth
173
of the sun, being in a meadow or wood or gliding and drifting in

the sky. Having built up some of the imagery around the situation
clients are then allowed time to develop their own imagery further
before being brought back to the room in which the session is being
held. Some therapists use music to add to the imagery and evoke a
relevant mood. However some people feel this can be intrusive as
peoples' taste in music varies so much that it could be a distrac-
tion.
Autogenic techniques can also be used in conjunction with this
technique by asking clients to feel the warmth of the sun on their
body or the heaviness of their limbs. Clients should be encouraged
to develop their own imagery and take themselves to a place which,
for them, is identified with calm and peace. Visualization is very
similar to guided imagery but clients are asked to visualize tension
and pain leaving their body, so the pain may be visualized and
placed into an object which is watched moving away.
Progressive muscle relaxation
This method concentrates on specific muscle groups working through

the body tensing and relaxing them. Usually the programme begins
with the feet and works up the body. Muscles are tensed while in-
haling and relaxed while exhaling. The advantage of this technique
is that it provides a contrast between tension and relaxation enabling
clients to distinguish between the two. The disadvantage is that
some clients may find that tensing muscle groups elicits pain and
discomfort in which case the benefits of the relaxation will be lost.
Controlled breathing
This method focuses directly on lowering the respiratory rate by

asking clients to concentrate on their breathing taking deeper breaths
in and slowly exhaling. Sometimes a word is used as a focus on
exhaling such as 'peace' or 'calm'.
Biofeedback
Biofeedback provides an excellent visual feedback for a client on

their ability to control heart rate, muscle tension, blood pressure or
174
body temperature. A simple form of biofeedback utilizes a small

hand-held thermometer. As the client becomes more relaxed the
temperature increases. Electronic feedback can also be provided by
the use of monitors enabling the client to see how using a relaxation
technique, for example, lowers their heart rate or reduces tension
in muscles. They can be shown read-outs for a state of muscle
tension and muscle relaxation and learn how to develop their relaxa-
tion skills to achieve a relaxed state and influence the readings.
Biofeedback provides the client with specific information about their
ability to influence their body and also enables the distinction to be
made between a state of relaxation and tension.
Yoga
When yoga is suggested to many clients they have visions of being

twisted and contorted into strange positions or of being asked to
achieve the lotus position. However, participating in yoga classes
can enable clients to learn controlled breathing techniques, relaxation
techniques and good posture. This combination of relaxation, atten-
tion to posture and controlled exercise may be beneficial to many
clients. As has already been stated pain and discomfort can lead to
a flexed posture, round shoulders and muscle tension, it can also
impair respiration and so attention not only to tension but also to
posture can be beneficial. With the growing popularity of yoga some
instructors are now extending their training to develop the skills
necessary to teach yoga to people with a physical disability. While
the above techniques can be used in the quiet of the home, yoga is
an activity which is carried out in many recreation centres or as a
component of adult education courses and so has the added benefit
of social contact.
Relaxation is a coping strategy which can be presented to clients
as a method of pain control and of coping with the effects of stress.
It is not seen as something which is different or obscure as it is a
popular means of dealing with stress, tension and pain which is well
publicized in the popular press and on television. It is inexpensive
and is easily carried out at home, either during the day or night. It
can be used for five minutes or half an hour depending on the
technique being used. One of the factors contributing to the
experience of pain is a feeling of not being in control of it. Relaxa-
tion is a method for gaining some control back and is used not only
175
to deal with pain but also the stress, anxiety and tension that can
result from living with rheumatoid disease.
FURTHER READING
Dr R. Sternbach (1987) Mastering Pain, Arlington Books.
176
10
Personal and sexual relationships
Personal and sexual relationships can be affected profoundly by the

onset or progression of a chronic disease. This can be due either to
the physical symptoms of pain, stiffness, limitation of movement and
fatigue or the psychological impact of the disease which can effect
a person's sexuality by lowering self-esteem, leading to a decreased
interest in sexual activities as a result of stress, anxiety and depres-
sion, or changes in body image can lead to a client to perceive
themselves as unattractive. Social contact may be decreased by any
of the above factors limiting opportunities to meet potential partners.
Problems can also arise due to a partner's fear of causing pain or
damage to a joint, their increased fatigue due to an increase of work-
load and having to take on extra responsibilities. It may also take
partners a while to come to terms with the onset of deformities and
the way in which their partner is changing bodily.
This potential problem area should be considered with clients
regardless of age or whether the client is married, in a stable rela-
tionship or single. The ways in which a chronic disease can affect
sexuality have already been discussed and emphasis placed upon the
fact that sexual function can not be considered purely in relation to
the mechanical act of sexual intercourse but must be considered in
relation to sexuality as well. Some of the issues which therapists
need to consider in relation to personal and sexual relationships are
the communication of information to the client and if appropriate
their partner, concepts of sexuality and sexual fulfilment, practical
advice and contraception.
Communication
The issue of communication needs to be considered both in relation

to communication between therapist and client and between partners.
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PERSONAL AND SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS
The communication of infonnation regarding personal and sexual

relationships between therapists and clients is often an area of
concern for both people. In many instances the topic is omitted from
routine assessment and the onus is then placed upon the client to
draw any problems to the attention of the therapist. The outcome of
this is that sexual problems frequently remain unexpressed.
Reasons for this are related usually to therapists feeling unable to
deal with problems if they are expressed and questioning their own
ability to cope with this issue. It is necessary to consider, however,
the implications of not acknowledging the sexuality of a client and
the messages implicit in avoidance of the subject. It may serve to
reinforce a client's feeling of becoming asexual and unattractive and
lead to suppression of a lot of anxiety and stress. 'They feel I am
past it' is an unspoken message which can be conveyed.
Communication between partners is essential to cope with the
changes in their sexual relationship which may be occurring. The
ease of communication will to some extent depend upon how the
couple communicated regarding their sexual relationship before the
onset of rheumatoid disease. If it was a subject which was never
discussed, facing changes and overcoming problems may be difficult
for both partners and they may need some assistance in addressing
any problems which arise. The progression of the disease may lead
to a need to change the way in which sexual feelings are expressed
and for both partners to consider alternative ways of providing
pleasure for each other. In any relationship when this occurs partners
need to feel confident with each other to explore alternative methods
and not feel pressurized into participating in something they feel
uncomfortable with. The needs of both partners have to be
considered and alternatives found which they both feel happy
with.
Experimentation of new positions or new ways of providing
pleasure may identify dislikes as well as likes and new methods may
not work at first. In this situation the ability to discuss any problems
which may have arisen or the fact that one partner was not happy
with what occurred, without feeling a sense of failure is essential.
It is easy for one failure to place pressure upon clients the next time
they have intercourse leading to tension in the female which can
cause pain and discomfort during intercourse and inability to attain
or maintain an erection for the male. This pressure in itself can
exacerbate problems and make sexual functioning more difficult. The
majority of clients referred to sex therapists have psychological
rather than physical problems which interfere with their sexual
178
functioning. If clients do express sexual difficulties assumptions

should not be made that these are due to purely physical reasons.
Concepts of sexual fulfilment
Concepts of sexual fulfilment differ greatly but are equated

frequently to sexual intercourse. However many people participate in
sexually fulfilling relationships using a whole range of sexual expres-
sion which includes attention to sensuality as well as sexual inter-
course. The environment, comfort, and the use of pleasuring are all
important components of a sexual relationship and the method by
which an orgasm is attained does not necessarily have to be via
penetration of the penis into the vagina.
When sexual relationships are discussed it is easy for attention to
be paid to penetrative sex and for other means of sexual expression
to be ignored. Limitation in movement can mean that penetrative sex
is difficult or painful and that alternatives need to be found. This
may include oral sex or the use of vibrators or other sex aids, or
experimentation with different positions.
Partners who have always been used to penetrative sex and have
not experimented very much in their sexual relationship may feel
anxious about change. They may feel that some of the alternatives
are perceived as being 'kinky' or approaching the boundaries of
normal sexual relationships. This needs to be established in discus-
sion by the therapist so that suggestions are not made in an inap-
propriate way that may shock or offend the client or their partner.
In such circumstances discussion and reassurance can relieve a lot of
anxiety.
It is essential to remember that the sexual response is unlearned
but that sexual behaviour is learned. The extent of peoples' sex
education is extremely variable and assumptions should not be made
that clients are familiar with the terminology being used or that their
understanding of phrases is the same as yours. If, as a small group
exercise, a list was drawn up of all the names which are used to
describe either sexual organs or sexual intercourse the margin for
misconceptions to occur would be seen to be great. Therapists should
ensure that the language they use is the same as the client and adapt
their own terminology accordingly.
Many images and expectations of sexual relationships and activity
are learnt from the media. The stereotypical relationship is of an
earth moving and multiple orgasmic experience for both partners.
179
Clients should be reassured that the important factor is what they

find mutually fulfilling and are both happy with: there is no such
thing as a 'normal' sexual relationship.
Practical advice
Some of the problems encountered by clients are associated with

aspects of sexuality and personal relationships which may be resolved
by counselling, either for the client or the client and their partner.
Other problems may be dealt with by access to practical information
and advice. Often a combination of both may be required.
Improving self-image is an issue which can be addressed with
clients. Outward appearance can affect the entire way in which we
function in society and the non-verbal messages which are conveyed.
When a person embarks upon a new personal relationship or is feel-
ing good about the way they look people pick up these messages
without any verbal prompting. Confidence in appearance can affect
the gait, posture and communication. While counselling can help a
client come to terms with changes in body image, time can also be
spent helping a client to make the most of their assets. A change in
make-up, clothes and hairstyle can all boost a person's confidence
and self-esteem which is usually conveyed in social interactions. It
is easy for everyone to point out their limitations and more difficult
to sit down and consider assets and ways in which these can be
capitalized upon. Such activities are an ideal topic for groups to
address as the sharing process can provide support and confidence.
Enhancing aspects of a person's appearance can draw attention away
from deformities, posture or gait.
Pain and stiffness can interfere with sexual activities and ways in
which these can be alleviated may need to be considered. It is
sometimes necessary to give thought to the timing of sexual inter-
course, identifying the best time of the day or planning to take
meditation beforehand. A warm bath or shower may also help to
relieve pain and stiffness as may massage. These can be incorporated
as part of making love.
Finding a comfortable position is often a question of partners
being creative and experimenting. Male clients may seek positions
which do not require bearing all their body weight through their
arms and legs and women may seek positions in which they are not
required to externally rotate or flex their hips and knees to a great
degree or bear a lot of weight.
180
Cushions and pillows can be used to provide support and padding.

The systemic effects of rheumatoid disease can lead to decreased
vaginal secretions and clients may need to use a lubricant to make
entry into the vagina more comfortable.
In some situations penetrative sex may be too difficult and other
methods of providing sexual satisfaction needed. Masturbation is one
way of achieving an orgasm for couples or people who are not
involved in a relationship. If a client's hands are affected the aid of
a vibrator may be required. Oral sex is another way of providing
pleasure for a partner and positions can be found which are comfort-
able and place no pressure upon painful joints.
There are several publications which graphically describe aspects
of sexual relationships and cover topics such as pleasuring, different
positions and communication. They are widely available in
bookshops and do not have a special emphasis on sexual relation-
ships for people with disabilities. Mail order catalogues can be used
to purchase a whole variety of sex aids as many sex shops are inac-
cessible.
It is also worth remembering that some medication can decrease
a person's libido and also contribute to men not being able to attain
. an erection. While some clients may only need access to information
others may be experiencing a more complex problem and require
counselling or sex therapy.
Contraception
Clients with limited manual dexterity may be experiencing

difficulties in using some forms of contraception. A diaphragm,
especially when coated with a spermicidal jelly, can be slippery and
difficult to hold and insert. Men may experience similar difficulties
using a condom, but partners can assist. While intra-uterine devices
do not present problems in insertion they may present problems for
some women in coping with heavier periods which may be a result
of use. Some of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and other
medication which may be prescribed can affect the effectiveness of
birth control pills. Clients should be advised to check with their
doctor if they think this may be a problem.
Advice regarding sexual relationships may be required following
joint replacement surgery. A person having undergone a total hip
arthroplasty will need guidance as to when they can resume previous
levels of sexual activity. The length of time during which surgeons
181
wish clients to refrain from sexual intercourse varies and should be

confirmed with individual surgeons.
To enable clients to discuss sexual and personal relationships,
therapists should include this aspect of function in routine functional
assessments. As assessments include elements relating to personal
hygiene and cover cleansing after using the toilet or the use of
sanitary protection, sexual activity fits into this area of assessment
without appearing false. In a clinic, ward or department literature
can be left easily accessible so that clients will know that this is a
subject which is open for discussion if they should so wish. In view
of the courage it takes to initiate discussion on this topic it is correct
to place the onus upon the therapist to provide an atmosphere in
which sexual problems can be discussed freely if the client wishes.
If a therapist feels unable to deal with these problems they must
inform themselves of other colleagues within the team or within
other agencies who are willing to see clients in relation to sexual
problems.
Consideration should be given to the way in which clients are
referred on to colleagues or other agencies. One client seen in an
out-patient clinic expressed problems she was having in her sexual
relationship and was immediately told 'I think you should go and
see. . .'. She was not given an opportunity to discuss her problems
in a generalized way and felt that her trust had been betrayed. She
never did go to the outside agency as she had never heard of it, did
not know where it was and did not feel able to discuss her problem
with a total stranger. The experience reinforced the fact that sexual
relationships were not a subject to discuss. The reaction she received
was an outward expression of an inward panic felt by many profes-
sionals when sexual relationships are brought up in discussion. It is
interesting to examine the attitudes, prejudices and feelings which
are expressed when the reasons behind such responses are explored
with groups of professionals. There is no reason why everyone
should feel able to deal with client's sexual problems but everyone
should be able to acknowledge a client's sexuality and possible need
of assistance in this area and be able to refer to it in a way which
is sensitive and ensures that the client's problem is not purely
suppressed.
182
FURTHER READING
FURTHER READING
W. Greengross (1976) Entitled to Love, The Sexual and Emotional Needs of

the Handicapped, Malaby Press.
W. Stewart (1979) The Sexual Side of Handicap, A Guide for the Caring
Professions, Woodhead-Faulkner.
183
11
Community care
The topic of community care is an extremely pertinent issue in rela-

tion to both the management of rheumatoid disease and the changing
emphasis of healthcare from a hospital into a community setting. The
underlying philosophies and objectives of community care are central
to the management of rheumatoid disease, which while managed
clinically in a hospital setting, is predominantly a community issue.
As has been shown throughout the preceding chapters while the
underlying disease process causes impairment it is far from the only
cause of disability and handicap. The nature and level of support
available to the client and their carers, access to information,
resources and facilities in relation to education, employment and
recreation, and the availability of appropriate housing will all affect
greatly the quality of life for clients with rheumatoid disease. Most
of these, it is argued, depend upon the availability of funds but the
way in which resources are used and the attitudes, values and
policies of those who control them is crucial.
The way in which resources are being used is a topic of increasing
concern not only amongst government and management circles but
also amongst people with disabilities who are no longer prepared to
play a passive role in relation to issues which have major implica-
tions on the way in which they live their life. This changing climate
has been set against almost a decade of reports, reviews and legisla-
tion relating to the practice of healthcare and changes in social
policy. The major contributions have been made by:
1981 Care in Action. A Handbook of Policies for the Health and

Personal Social Services in England;
1985 Living Options. Guidelines for those Planning Services for
People with Severe Physical Disabilities;
1986 Physical Disabilities in 1986 and Beyond. Report of the Royal
College of Physicians;
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COMMUNITY CARE
1986 Review of Artificial Limb and Appliance Centre Services.

McColl Report;
1986 Disabled Persons (Services, Consultation and Representation)
Act;
1988 Last on the List. Community Services for People with a
Physical Disability, Kings Fund Institute Report;
1988 Living Options Lottery. Housing and Support Services for
People with Physical Disabilities. The Princes of Wales'
Advisory Group on Disability;
1988 Community Care. An Agenda for Action;
1988 A Positive Choice. Report of the Independent Review of
Residential Care;
1989 Working for Patients. Government White Paper;
1989 Caring for People. Community Care in the Next Decade and
Beyond. Government White Paper.
The picture painted of the state of existing services by the majority

of the above reports and reviews is extremely bleak raising many
issues relating to the services and provision for clients with a chronic
disability between the ages of 16-65 years. One of the issues which
is raised several times is that while there has been a development of
services for people with a mental illness, mental handicap or for the
elderly, services for clients falling into the young chronic sick age
group have fallen behind. This is not to say that services for the
other three groups are satisfactory. It is necessary to define
community care before embarking upon a closer examination of
some of the issues raised. The DHSS definition of community care
states that it is:
a matter of marshalling resources, sharing responsibilities and

combining skills to achieve good quality modem services to
meet the actual needs of real people in the ways those people
find acceptable and in places which encourage rather than
prevent normal living.
The principles are defined precisely as:
• to enable an individual to remain in his own home, wherever

possible, rather than being cared for in a hospital or residential
home;
• to give support and relief to informal carers (family, friends and
neighbours) coping with the stress of caring for a dependent person;
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COMMUNITY CARE
• to deliver appropriate help, by the means which cause the least

possible disruption to ordinary living;
• to relieve the stresses and strains contributing to or arising from
physical or emotional disorder;
• to provide the most cost effective package of services to meet the
needs and wishes of those being helped;
• to integrate all the resources of a geographical area in order to
support the individuals within it.
This was expanded to include 'the need for assessment of the

individual in his or her own situation, taking account of all the
resources that may be available and the gap which may exist between
the assistance those resources provide and the individual's needs' and
the preventative and rehabilitative role of community care.
Throughout the legislature and government reviews the role of the
statutory services has been identified as supporting existing social
networks this was made clear in a statement to the House of
Commons:
The great bulk of community care will continue to be provided

by family, friends and neighbours. The majority of carers take
on these responsibilities willingly and I admire the dedicated and
self-sacrificing way in which so many members of the public
take on serious obligations to help care for elderly or disabled
relatives and friends. Our proposals are aimed at strengthening
support for those many unselfish people who care for people in
need (Clarke, 1989).
This view is not necessarily one shared by groups representing

people with disabilities. The demands made upon carers and families
can be huge and a continuing debate is whether it is acceptable to
withhold statutory support from clients with husbands/wives or
teenage children. One client was extremely upset when she was told
that she could not receive home help because she had teenage
children living at home with her. Her constant question was 'why
should my children be penalized by my disability?' Therapists are
constantly confronted with such questions which are often difficult to
answer. This issue has also cropped up with a client with rheumatoid
disease who had been receiving support services until he was
married and then they were withdrawn.
The consistent picture which has emerged of community services
is one of fragmentation, huge discrepancies in service provision and
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COMMUNITY CARE
lack of co-ordination within a system which does not consistently

seek to establish client needs or respond to them and from a users
point of view a system about which there is little information and
from which there is little consultation. Similar criticisms have also
been made in relation to rehabilitation services. The main type of
support clients need is in relation to social support. Social support
services include:
1. personal assistance;
2. household management;
3. special housing;
4. aids and equipment;
5. day care;
6. respite for carers;
7. counselling and advice (Beardshaw, 1988).
The need for flexible personal support services is expressed

frequently by clients with rheumatoid disease. The condition itself is
variable and this may mean that variable amounts of support are
required. During an exacerbation more frequent help may be needed,
or help of a different kind. In some areas this flexibility is being
increased by the introduction of domiciliary care attendants whose
remit is far wider than home helps including personal assistance as
well as household chores.
This generic approach to care also serves to reduce the number of
people calling to assist one client. The total number of support
workers calling on one house can be large making it more difficult
for individuals to get to know the needs of the client, which can be
complex in some cases. The amount of communication between
services and agencies is seen as minimal leading to a fragmented
approach.
There is an acute lack of special housing in many areas, with
waiting lists being immense. A similar picture is painted for the
provision of equipment and housing adaptations. The time that
clients have to wait is too long and the service with which they are
provided falls short, often, of their expectations. The supply of
equipment is made more complicated by the number of agencies
involved. In some areas joint finance is used to provide a centrally
co-ordinated equipment store but other areas still have distinctions
between equipment supplied by the health service, usually commodes
and nursing consumables, and equipment provided by social
services. This system is confusing for clients and professionals.
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COMMUNITY CARE
Access to day-care for clients in this younger group is minimal,

compared to other priority groups, as is the availability of respite
care. One fact that has also been raised is that clients tend to receive
services when they reach a crisis point and cannot carry on as they
have been doing.
Clients are not sure how the system works and are frequently
disappointed when their expectations of what they perceive to be the
system is not met. Clients are not always told when their case has
been closed and do not understand the implications of what this may
mean. Clients are frequently met who cannot understand why the
therapist or social worker has not called to see them for over a year
and are unaware that they have to re-refer themselves if a subsequent
problem arises. Many clients have the expectation that once in
contact with social services that contact will continue. Lack of infor-
mation and communication is one of the most frequent causes of
dissatisfaction and distress.
While some of the issues raised can be seen as a result of inade-
quate levels of provision and funding many others are reflective of
working practices of the service providers. Perhaps these issues are
raised even less because of the personal implications for profes-
sionals, ' ... these include problems of communication with clients
and poor co-ordination with other professionals, which combine with
rigid approaches to treatment to result in a general failure to adapt
interventions to individual needs.' This problem is seen not only in
relation to social support services but also primary health care and
disability services. The responsibility for changing working practices
can be off loaded onto higher levels of management or onto the
availability of resources, but the bottom line is that it also starts with
the practice, attitudes and skills of healthcare professionals like
occupational therapists.
Community care is a much greater issue than service provision and
encompasses full integration into all aspects of community life,
participation in the identification of needs and the planning of
services and personal choice. Therapists may feel that these issues
are only of relevance to management but this is not the case. The
following principles can be applied throughout the whole structure of
healthcare.
Choice
As to where to live and how to maintain independence without over-
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COMMUNITY CARE
protection, or the risk of unnecessary hazards. This includes help in

learning how to choose from the options available - a skill that
needs to be acquired from an early age.
Consultation
On services as they are planned and knowledge that such services

will be based on the views of people with disability, their carers'
families and voluntary organizations with special expertise.
Particular note should be taken of the views of those from differing
cultural backgrounds.
Information
Clearly presented and readily available to the most severely disabled

consumers and their families, these service providers and those
responsible for planning.
Participation
In the life of local and national communities in respect of both

responsibilities and benefits. Full integration can only exist when
equal opportunities are available in the fields of access, housing,
employment, education, mobility and leisure.
Recognition
That long-term disability is not synonymous with illness and that the
medical model of care is inappropriate in the majority of cases.
Autonomy
That is, freedom to make decisions regarding the way of life best
suited to an individual disabled person's circumstances (Fielder,
1988).
These guidelines should be fundamental to the planning and execu-
tion of any service related to people with rheumatoid disease and an
honest examination of both personal practice and the functioning of
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COMMUNITY CARE
a team or department with these in mind is often a salutary

experience.
Clients do not have such a degree of social mobility if they need
housing adaptations when they move. How much consultation is
carried out on the type of equipment purchased by a social services
department? The decisions are usually taken purely on a financial
basis with little evaluation about the effectiveness or the perfor-
mance, by people who very rarely use equipment. Clients often have
strong opinions regarding the equipment they use every day but are
consulted rarely. Their experience and contribution is a valuable
learning process for any therapist who may have a totally different
concept of the equipment.
There is often little choice about the type of care a client receives
and when it is given. Support services are inflexible and not always
available when the client needs them. Clients needing assistance
going to bed may receive nursing services any time from 7.00pm
onwards due to pressure of work. Examples do exist where clients
have individual choice being given the money by a local authority
to purchase their own care as and when required, these situations
usually arise as a result of determination on the client's behalf or a
forward thinking authority and shows that it is possible for obstacles
to be removed.
Another key element to choice is the emphasis on the fact that
choosing options is a skill. It is not enough to merely present choices
to clients without explaining the options and the implications. Clients
are often outside the system, do not know how it works or have
access to all the information that professionals have and this
imbalance must be redressed if choice is to become a reality .
Disability forums are emerging as are other representative groups in
many local areas and such groups should be given assistance to learn
skills related to chairing meetings, taking minutes, speaking in public
and so on. Professionals have access to numerous training days to
learn such skills and these opportunities should be available to clients
to enable them to contribute in a meaningful way in consultation
procedures.
Choice, consultation and participation are all reliant upon access to
information and access in its widest sense of physical access to
buildings where the information is kept and access in terms of the
presentation of information in an appropriate format. Information
should not only be available to clients but also to healthcare profes-
sionals who find the systems, policies and procedures as confusing.
There is a need for a greater understanding of different professional
190
FURTHER READING
roles and a sharing of information in team situations. This becomes

even more important when information needs to cross from a
hospital setting into the community. The larger the team the more
difficult communication of information becomes, but unless this
happens a planned approach to management is difficult with people
aiming for different goals.
The above principles are not seen as an idealistic utopia, they can
become a reality even within a climate of financial constraint and
cut-backs. While the provision of services and housing at realistic
levels may need finance, the availability of which is usually a
political question, choice, consultation, information, participation,
recognition and autonomy largely relate to attitudes, philosophies and
working practice. The bar to them, all too frequently, is the attitudes
of professionals who conform to a system without questioning the
rationale behind policies and procedures accepting them as tablets of
stone which cannot be changed.
One of the challenges and frustrations of working with clients with
rheumatoid disease is the enormous number of questions which
remain unanswered. This challenge has led many therapists into
research to try and find answers to specific questions and has
likewise led therapists into examining their practices of work. It is
hoped that as long as questions are being asked of and from
therapists their contribution to the management of rheumatoid disease
will deVelop, providing a service which seeks to identify and respond
to the needs of clients and their carers and maintains the client as
the central component of the team, not merely as a recipient of treat-
ment and information, but as the focus.
FURTHER READING
V. Beardshaw (1988) Last on the List, Community Services for People with
Physical Disabilities, Kings Fund Institute, London.
M. Bulmar (1987) The Social Basis of Community Care, Unwin Hyman.
B. Fiedler Living Options Lottery, Housing and Support Services for People
with Severe Physical Disabilities, 186/88, The Prince of Wales Advisory
Group on Disability.
c. Hicks (1988) Who Cares? Looking After People at Home, Virago Press,
London.
191
References
Anderson, K., Bradley, C., Young, L. and McDaniel, L. (1985)

Rheumatoid arthritis: review of psychological factors related to aetiology,
effects and treatment, Psychological Bulletin, 98 (2) 358-87.
Arthritis and Rheumatism Council Information Booklets, Arthritis and
Rheumatism Council, 41 Eagle Street, London.
Arthritis and Rheumatism Council Booklet, Are You Sitting Comfortably?,
ARC, 41 Eagle Street, London.
Baum, J. (1982) A review of the psychological aspects of rheumatic
diseases, Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism, 11 (3), 352-61.
Beardshaw, V. (1988) Last on the List, Community Services for People with
Physical Disabilities, Kings Fund Institute.
Brattstromm, M. (1987) Joint Protection and Rehabilitation in Chronic
Rheumatic Disorders, 3rd edn, Wolfe Medical Publications Ltd, London.
Breakwell, G. (1986) Coping With Threatened Identities, Methuen, London.
Burnard, P. (1989) Counselling Skills for Health Professionals, Therapy in
Practice No.9, Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 88-96.
Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Act, 1970.
Clarke, K. (1989) Statement to Parliament.
Cohen, F. and Lazarus, R. (1979) Coping with the stresses of illness, in
Health Psychology: A Handbook (eds G.C. Stone, F. Cohen and N.E.
Adler), Josey Bass, San Francisco.
Cordery, J.C. (1965) Joint protection a responsibility of the occupational
therapist, American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 19, 285-94.
Cox, T. (1978) Stress, Macmillan Education, London, p. 25.
DHSS (1984-5) Government response to the second report from the social
services committee, community care.
DHSS (1984-5) Evidence to the House of Commons Committee on Social
Services (HC13).
DHSS, Equipment Evaluation Programme.
Disabled Living Foundation Equipment Lists, Disabled Living Foundation,
380-4 Harrow Road, London, W9 2HU.
Disabled Persons (Services, Consultation and Representation) Act, 1986.
Eakin, P. (1989) Problems of Assessments of Activities of Daily Living,
British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 52 (2), 50-4 and pp. 11-15.
Equipment for Disabled People Series, Mary Marlborough Lodge, Nuffield
Orthopaedic Centre, Oxford, OX3 7LD.
Ferguson, K. and Boyle, G. (1978) Family support, health beliefs and
therapeutic compliance in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, Patient
Counselling and Health Education, Winter/Spring pp. 101-5.
Fielder, B. (1988) Living Options Lottery, The Prince of Wales Advisory
Group on Disability.
Fries, J., Spitz, P., Kraines, G. and Holman, H. (1980) Measurement of
Patient Outcome in Arthritis, Arthritis and Rheumatism, 23 (2), 137-45.
Furst, G., Gerber, L. and Smith, C. (1982) Rehabilitation Through Learn-
ing: Energy Conservation and Joint Protection. A Workbook for Persons
192
REFERENCES
with Rheumatoid Arthritis, US Department of Health and Human Services.

Griffiths, R. (1988) Community Care: Agenda for Action, DHSS.
Halpern, A. and Fuhrer, M. (1984) Functional Assessment in Rehabilitation,
P.H. Brookes Publishing Company, Baltimore.
Hayward, A. and Sparks, J. (1986) The Concise English Dictionary, Omega
Books, Herts.
Kaye, R. and Hammond, A. (1978) Understanding Rheumatoid Arthritis,
Journal of the American Medical Association, 239 (23), 2466-7.
Kelman, H. and Willner, A. (1962) Problems in Measurement and Evalua-
tion of Rehabilitation, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation,
Kiel, J. (1983) Basic Hand Splinting. A Pattern Designing Approach, Little

Brown and Company.
Kie1hofner, G. (1982) Theoretical Foundations of Occupational Therapy,
Proceedings of 8th International Congress of the World Federation of
Occupational Therapists, 2, 1265-72.
Kielhofner, G. (1985) A Model of Human Occupation, Theory and Applica-
tion, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, pp. 3-4.
Landau North, M. and Duddy, S. (1985) Self-Help Through the Looking
Glass, Leicester Council for Voluntary Services.
Locker, D. (1983) Disability and Disadvantage, the consequences of chronic
illness, Tavistock Publications, London, pp. 131-5.
Liang, M. and Jette, A. (1981) Measuring Functional Ability in. Chronic
Arthritis: a critical review, Arthritis and Rheumatism, 24, 80-6.
Lorish, C., Parker, J. and Brown, S. (1985) Effective patient education,
Arthritis and Rheumatism, 28 (11), 1289-97.
Mechanic, D. (1977) Illness Behaviour, Social Adaptation and the Manage-
ment of Illness: A Comparison of Educational and Medical Models, Jour-
nal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 165 (2), 79-87.
Meenan, R., Yelin, E., Nevitt, M. and Epstein, W. (1981) The impact of
chronic disease, a sociomedical profile in rheumatoid arthritis, Arthritis
and Rheumatism, 24 (3), 544-9.
Meenan, R. (1982) The Arthritis Impact Measurement Scales: Further
Investigations of a Health Status Measure, Arthritis and Rheumatism, 25
(9), 1048-53.
Melvin, J. (1977) Rheumatic Diseases: Occupational Therapy and
Rehabilitation, F.A. Davis Company.
Melzack, R. (1975) The McGill Pain Questionnaire: Major properties and
scoring methods, Pain, 1, 277-99.
Melzack, R. and Ward, P. (1982), The Challenge of Pain 2nd edn, Penguin
Books, London, p. 60.
Melzack, R. and Wall, P. (1982) The Challenge of Pain Penguin Books,
London, p. 222 and pp. 234-6.
Mosey, A. (1986) Psychosocial Components of Occupational Therapy,
Raven Press, New York.
Naidoo, J. (1986) Limits to Individualism, in The Politics of Health Educa-
tion (eds S. Rodmell and A. Watts) Routledge and Keagan Paul, London.
Nelson Jones, R. (1988) Practical Counselling and Helping Skills 2nd edn,
Cassel, London, pp. 13-14.
Oakes, T., Ward, J., Gray, R., Klauber, M. and Moody, P. (1970) Family
193
REFERENCES
expectations and arthritis patient compliance to a hand resting splint

regime, Journal of Chronic Disability, 22, 757-64.
Pavlou, M., Harting, M. and Davis, F. (1978) Discussion groups for
medical patients, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 30, 105-15.
Pearlin, L. and Schooler, C. (1978) The structure of coping, Journal of
Health and Social Behaviour, 19, 2-21.
Potts, M., Weinberger, M. and Brandt, K. (1984) Views of patients and
providers regarding the importance of various aspects of an arthritis treat-
ment programme, The Journal of Rheumatology, 11 (1), 71-5.
Richardson, A. (1984) Working With Self-Help Groups: A Guide for Profes-
sionals, Bedford Square Press.
Rimon, L. (1985) Life stress and rheumatoid arthritis, Psychotherapy and
Psychosomatics, 43 (1), 38-43.
Ritchie, D., Boyle, J. and McInnes, J. Clinical Studies with an Articular
Index for the Assessment of Joint Tenderness in Patients with Rheumatoid
Arthritis, Quarterly Journal of Medicine, 37, 393-406.
Rogers, M., Laing, M. and Partridge, A. (1982) Psychological care of
adults with rheumatoid arthritis, Annals of Internal Medicine, 96, 344-8.
Shearer, A. (1981) Disability: Whose Handicap?, Blackwell, Oxford.
Seiger, M. (1984) Splints, Braces and Casts, in Rheumatic Diseases,
Rehabilitation and Management (eds G. Riggs, E. Gall) Butterworth
Publishers, London.
Shapriro-Slonaker, (1984) Joint Protection and Energy Conservation, in
Rheumatic Diseases, Rehabilitation and Management, (eds G. Riggs, E.
Gall) Butterworth Publishers, Guildford, p. 256.
Smiles, S. (1958) Self-Help, with illustrations of Character, Conduct and
Perseverance, Centenary edition.
Smith-Pigg, J., Webb, P., Driscoll, W. and Caniff, R. (1985) Rheumatology
Nursing, A Problem Oriented Approach, Wiley Medical Publications,
Oxford, p. 115-7 and pp. 132-5.
Smith-Pigg, J., Webb, P., Driscoll, W. and Caniff, R. (1985) Rheumatology
nursing, a problem-oriented approach, J. Wiley and Sons, Oxford, pp.
284-6.
Spiegel, J., Hirshfield, M. and Spiegel, T. (1985) Evaluating Self-Care
Activities: Comparison of a Self-Reported Questionnaire with an Occupa-
tional Therapist interview, British Journal of Rheumatology, 24, 357-61.
Steinbrocker, 0., Traeger, C.and Battherman, R. (1949) Therapeutic criteria
in rheumatoid arthritis, Journal of American Medical Association 140
659-62.
Townsend, P. and Davidson, N. (1982) Inequalities in Healthcare, Penguin
Books, London.
Trombly, C.A. (1983) Occupational Therapy for Physical Dysfunction, 2nd
edn, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore/London.
World Health Organization (WHO) (1980) The international classification of
impairments. disabilities and handicaps - a manual of classifications
relating to the consequences of disease, WHO Geneva.
194
Index
Relevant figures are indicated by page numbers in italics
Access to house, see Stairs and Banstead Place Mobility Centre

access to house 143
Acromegaly 3 Bathrooms 63, 122, 127-31,
Adaptive techniques 103-4 155-8
Age 5, 185 bathrooms and seats 127
early adulthood (20-35 years) hoists 130, 157
10, 32-3 limited movement 130
middle adulthood (35-60 years) mechanical aids 128
33-4 personal hygiene and care 63,
post-retirement (60 years 130, 155
onwards) 33-4 Beds
Agencies 28, 43, 45, 69, 73, 94, comfort and pressure relief
187 136-7
see also Councils for Voluntary problems and considerations
Services 135-6
Ankylosing spondylitis 8-10, 9, transfers 136
12 Biofeedback 35, 174-5
extraarticular features 8-9,
12 Calcification 12
Anxiety 14, 15, 16, 17,20,27, Can openers 143-4
35, 39, 65, 68, 110, 175, Carers 12, 17, 18, 28-9, 121-3,
177, 179 129, 130
see also Coping, ways of see also Family
Appearance, see Self-image Carpel tunnel syndrome 162,
Appliances 154-5 172
Arthritis, see Rheumatoid diseases Cars, adaptations of
Arthritis and Rheumatism Council 142-3
74, 88, 126 Cartilage
Arthritis care 74, 93 degeneration 3, 12, 106,
Arthritis impact measurement scale 162
(AIMS) 64 diarthrosis 1, 2
Assessment processes 51-2, see also Knee; Peripheral
67-71 joints
assessment 69-70 Casual factors 36, 38
false motivation 60 Chairs
initial interview 68-9 adaptation of existing 125
referral 67 purchasing new 125-6
Autoimmunity 6, 10 seating problems 124
195
INDEX
Chairs continued skills

self-lift 126 listening 98-9
see also Mobility reflection 99
Chondrocalcinosis 4 specific problems 99-100
Clinical assessments 2, 51-5 stages 98
see also Functional Cultural factors 29-30
assessments
Clinical management, see Holistic Deformity 4, 10, 37, 54, 59,
management 108, 120, 142, 162, 164,
Clothing 177
appliances 20 avoiding positions of 105-6
coping with 134, 138-9 'bamboo' spine 9, 10
Cooking 63, 145, 154 contractures 119, 120,
Commodes, see Toilets 169
Communication 147, 188, 189 visual 16, 17, 18, 19,20,
of information 47, 73-4, 75, 22
103, 169, 178, 190-1 see also Splints
with patient 44, 68, 81, 103 Depression 15, 35, 36-7, 65,
see also Self-help groups 110, 177
Community care 43, 46, 49, 60, see also Coping, ways of
160-1, 184-91 Diarthrosis 1, 2, 85
assessments (in home) 70 structure of diarthrodial joint
guidelines 188-9 1
publications 184-5 Diet 42, 85
social support services 186-8, Disabled Living Centres 124,
190 140, 160
support team 45 Disabled Living Foundation
Contraception, see Relationships 123-4
Control, see Disease management Disability Scale of the Health
Controlled breathing 174 Assessment Questionnaire
Coping, ways of 37-8, 41, 72, 62
86, 104 Disablement Services Authority
see also Educational 139, 140
programmes; Relaxation and Disease
pain control management 4, 5, 8, 10, 14,
Councils for Voluntary Services 38-40
94 process 17-19
Counselling 35, 36, 96-101, Drugs 42, 89
180 causative 4, 11, 19
aims of team 101 preventative 4, 5
data and research 98 DSA, see Disablement Services
groups 77, 100-1 Authority
individual 98-100
psychotherapeutic interviews Economic factors 46, 117, 123,
97 148
196
INDEX
Educational programmes 74-5, 78 parents 32, 33, 66

behavioural change approach 76, partner 17, 26, 27-8, 32, 33,
77 34, 136, 170, 177-81
client-directed approach 76-7 see also Carers; Roles
developing aims and objectives Family history, see Heredity
83 Feet, see Peripheral joints
educational approach 77-8 Fibrosis 10
questionnaires 82 Financial constraints, see Economic
use of 78-80 factors
medical approach 75 Fries 62,64
methods of evaluation 75, 84, 87 Functional assessments 55-64
sample programme 84-7 areas of function covered 62-4
social change approach 75 components of 56
Elbows 5, 112-13, 125-6, 164 effect of environment 59-60, 61
see also Rheumatoid arthritis effect of impairment on
Employment, see Work behaviour 25-6, 59
Energy conservation 103-4, 109, interpretation of data 62
110-7 measurement scales 56-7
balance between work and rest Funding, see Economic factors
(pacing) 25, 105, 111-14
forward planning 114-16 Gout 4
activities lists 115-16 Group therapy 18, 78-80, 81, 82,
work simplification 116-17 84, 87, 103
delegations 117 see also Self-help groups
Entheses 1, 2, 8 Guided imagery relaxation 173-4
Environmental factors 1, 123,
160 Haemoglobin 11
Equipment Hands, see Peripheral joints
choice of 120-3, 187 Health care structure 188-91
economic restrictions 123 autonomy 188
knowing range available 123-4 choice 188-9, 190
use of assistive 19, 60, 85, consultation 189, 190
107-10, 117-18 information 189, 190
see also Baths; Beds; Chairs; participation 189, 190
Splints; Toilets recognition 189
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate 11 Health education 73
ESR, see Erythrocyte sedimentation Health Education Authority 86
rate Health Status Questionnaires 64
Exercise, see Movement and Heberden's nodes, see Osteoarthritis
exercise Hepatocytes 11
Heredity 7, 10, 36
Fatigue, see Energy conservation Hips 3, 4, 5, 9, 106, 151, 172
Family 23, 26-9, 39, 66, 78, 79, see also Ankylosing Spondylitis;
97, liS, 121-2, 136, 152 Osteoarthritis; Rheumatoid
children 27, 34 diseases
197
INDEX
HLA region of gene 7, 10 deformity 109

Hoists, see Bathrooms destruction 4,5,7, 12, 108
Holistic management 41-3, 72 inflammation 1-10, 112, 113
by occupational therapists 48-50 invlvement 3, 9, 119, 120
liaison between members of team characteristic patterns 2
43 loss of function 4, 8
multi-disciplinary terms 43-6 protection 89, 103-4
Home assessments, see Community replacement 4, 8, 10, 12, 74,
care 80, 108, 117, 119, 181
Home, assistive devices 143-6 see also Cartilage; Equipment,
see also Kitchens use of; Splints
Hospital 31-2,43,49, 60, 68-70
support team based in 45 Kettles 144
Houchard's nodes, see Osteoarthritis Kitchens 63, 143-5, 150-4
House adaptation 60, 147-61, 187 use of 151-2
assessment and identiifcation of storage units 152
need 148-50 work surfaces 153
types that can be adapted 148 Knee 3,3,4,5,9, 106, 151, 169,
see also Home, assistive devices 172
Housework 63 see also Ankylosing spondylosis;
Osteoarthritis; Rheumatoid
Immunity 1, 6, 7, 11 diseases
Inflammation, see Joints
Information, see Communication Laboratory assessment 11-12,41
Information mediums 73-4, 87-91 Legislation 44, 47, 148-50, 184
computer programmes 90-1 Ligaments 1, 106, 162
tape-based mediums 89-90 Locus of control
videos 90 external 38, 39
written publications 86-7, 88-9, internal 38-9
100, 181 Loss of movement 3-10, 17, 18,
books 89 112-13, 119-20
pamphlets and booklets 88
workbooks 88-9 Major conflict group 36
Intergroup strategy 37, 38 Massage, see Pain treatment
The International Classification of Mechanic 38, 39
Impairment Disability and Metacarpophalangeal joints 3, 3,
Handicap 59 106, 165, 167, 168
Interpersonal strategy 37 Metatarsophalangeal joints 3, 3, 4,
Interphalangeal joints 5, 5, 128, 138
distal 3 Mobility 135, 151-4, 155, 156,
proximal 3, 5 164-5
Intraphysical strategy 37 walking aids 138-9
see also Cars; Chairs;
Joint Wheelchairs
assessment of tenderness 53, 54 Monoarthritis, see Osteoarthritis
198
INDEX
Monosodium urate crystals 4 Perceptions, see Self-image

Movement and exercise 85, 106, Periarticular osteoporosis 12
107, 115, 165, 179 Peripheral joints 3, 4, 5, 10, 12,
assessment of range 54-5 18-19, 106, 151, 162, 164,
avoiding sustained positions and 168
activities 107 see also Splints
exercise programmes 10, 74, 76, Personal hygiene, see
89, 111-13 Bathrooms
Multisystem diseases 1, 6, 8-9, Phalangeal joints 165
11, 172 Physical environment challenges
Musculoskeletal examination 54 30
Plugs 144
Needs and expectations Political factors 47, 91, 186
of clients 81, 82, 83, 95, see also Legislation
118-24, 188, 191 Polyarthritis 1-2, 4, 5
of professionals 82, 85 see also Ankylosing spondylitis;
Non-conformist group 36 Osteoarthritis; Rheumatoid
diseases
Ochronosis 3 Prejudice 22
Orthoses 19, 20 Preventative medicine 73
Osteoarthritis 3, 3-4 Progressive muscle relaxation
Osteophytes, see Osteoarthritis 174
Out-patient clinic 81 Psychological assessment 64-5
Psychosocial factors 14-15, 36,
Pacing, see Energy conservation 49, 120-1
Pain 4,54, 108, 113, 119-20, Publications, see Information
151, 170-3 mediums
and stiffness 7, 10, 20, 52-3,
110, 128, 180 Radiology 4, 7, 12
five point scale 52 Ramps 158-9
McGill pain questionnaire 53 Relationships, personal and sexual
visual analogue scale 52 177-83
non-pharmaceutical control 42, communication 177-9
170, 171, 172 contraception 181-2
pharmaceutical control 41, 42, practical advice 180-1
170 sexual fulfilment 179-80
pain-related behaviour 171-2 sexual methods 178
respect for 104-5 Relaxation and pain control 35, 41,
treatment 172-3 86, 112, 114, 170-6
types of 105 Renal impairment 4
see also Drugs; Relaxation and Research support team 45
pain control Resources
Pannus 7 psychological 39
Passive roles, by clients 100-1 social 39
Passivity 38 specific 39
199
INDEX
Rheumatoid diseases Skills, development 41, 72-3

arthritis 5, 5-8, 12, 14 Spine 3, 4, 8, 12
extraarticular features 6, 8 atlas-axis 9
Sjogren's syndrome 5, 6 cervical 3, 3, 5
see also Splints lower 3, 9, 10
Rheumatoid factors, in blood 6-7, see also Ankylosing spondylitis;
11 Osteoarthritis; Rheumatoid
The Ritchie Articular Index, see disease
Joint, tenderness, assessment Splints 19, Ill, 162-9
of classification
see also Joint, tenderness, by design 162-3
assessment of by function 163
Rogerian theory 97 corrective 163
Roles 23 functional 163
of patient 31-2 resting 163
of peripheral potential resources common type for rheumaoid
42-3 diseases 168-9
related to employment 26-9 corrective 169
within the community 29-31 functional wrist 168-9
resting 168
Sacroiliac joints 8, 9, 12, 127, dynamic 162, 163, 168
130 fabrication of 165-8
see also Ankylosing spondylitis patterns 167
Sanitary protection, see Toilets plaster-of-paris 166
Saucepans 144 thermoplastic materials 166
Sclerosis 12 hand assessment 164-5
Scooters 141-2 post-operative 163
Seating, see Chairs static 162, 163
Self-concept 15-20 Society
Self-esteem, see Self-concept adaptation to 39
Self-help, see Coping, ways of factors (social) 24,47,66-7
Self-help groups 49,74,77,91-6 integration within 30-1
therapists involvement 94-6 reaction to disabilities 28, 31
see also Communications Social contacts 65
Self-image 15-17, 19,20-3,31, Stairs and access to house 63,
180 158-9
Self-management programmes 32, The Stamford Disability
80-7, 103 Questionnaires 64
see also Educational programmes Stamford Index 57
Sex, see Relationships Stiffness, see Pain and stiffness
Sexual identity 17 Stress 14, 15, 16, 18, 27, 28, 29,
see also Relationships 34-6, 39, 65, 68, 110, 160,
Showers 155, 156-7 175, 177
Sjorgen's syndrome, see Synovial fluid 1, 2
Rheumatoid diseases Synovial joint, see Diarthrosis
200
INDEX
Taps 131, 144 Utensils 145

Tendons 1, 2, 7, 106, 162
nodules 5 Victim blaming 76
Tension, see Stress Voluntary help 44, 45, 46, 73-4,
The Media 73 92,96
Thumb 165, 167, 168 see also Councils for Voluntary
Tissue destruction 1 Services
Toilets 62-3, 122, 129, 131-5,
157, 158 Weight loss 4, 6, 42, 76
cleansing after use 134 Wheelchairs 133, 150, 151, 153,
flushing 134 158
public 135 manual 139-40
sanitary protection 134 powered 126, 140-2
Transcutaneous electrical nerve Work 24, 25, 32, 33, 34, 63-4,
stimulation (TENS), see Pain, 109, 113, 115
treatment of simplification 116-17
Treatment programmes 19-20, 41,
45,49,70 X-Rays, see Radiology
see also Educational programmes;
Holistic management; Pain; Yoga 175
Relaxation and pain control
201

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OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY IN RHEUMATOLOGY

Occupational Therapy for the Brain-Injured Adult

Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.

© Lynne Sandles 1990

Typeset in 10112pt Times by Mayhew Typesetting, Bristol

ISBN 978-0-412-31560-2 ISBN 978-1-4899-3081-1 (eBook)

AII rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

This book is written primarily for occupational therapists and

techniques used by therapists in the field of rheumatology remain

STRUCTURE OF DIARTHRODIAL JOINTS

Joints which possess a synovial-lined cavity are called diarthrodial

TYPES OF CHRONIC ARTHRITIS

The chronic arthritides involve tissue destruction and persistent

Figure 1.1 Diagram of a diarthrodial joint

Synovial inllma --"*-~~

clinical manifestations of the involvement of other systems may

Figure 1.2 Distribution of joint involvement in osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is the most common of the chronic arthritides. It occurs

The predominant symptoms are pain and loss of function. Pain

The crystal related arthropathies

A variety of types of crystal have been found in inflamed and

Figure 1.3 Distribution of joint involvement in rheumatoid arthritis

present the other mechanisms which determine the pathogenicity of

Rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome and related diseases

Rheumatoid arthritis is characterized by a chronic, destructive,

systemic involvement, with malaise, weight loss, anaemia and

One prominent feature of these diseases is the chronic activation of

bind antibodies of the IgG subclass. The term seropositive is used

combination of physical, social and psychological disability, each

Ankylosing spondylitis and related diseases

Ankylosing spondylitis characteristically involves the sacro-iliac

Figure 1.4 Distribution of joint involvement in ankylosing spondylitis

Certain other diseases (notably psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, inflam-

be expected by chance. The HLA region makes an important genetic

LABORATORY AND RADIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS

The most important aspect of diagnosis is the clinical history and

Parameters measured in peripheral blood

The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is the simplest and most

Parameters measured in synovial fluid

In arthritis, synovial fluid contains a variety of types of inflam-

however, the only two circumstances for which examination of the

X-rays are used for diagnosis, to monitor disease progress, and to

Advances in biochemistry, immunology and molecular biology are

The unique response of individuals to illness is an indication that

In rheumatoid arthritis, as with other illnesses, a unique interac-

The uniqueness of this interaction presents a challenge to any

Healthcare professionals need to gain an understanding of these

Self-concept is a collective name for various aspects of 'self' relating

largely by societal influences which impose posItIve and negative

may equally be the result of embarrassment about appearance or

1. the disease process;

The disease process, which progresses often towards deformity, is an

giving pleasure or their actions to be clumsy may be concealing one

It should be acknowledged that some of the treatment programmes

One of the most frequently expressed losses, in relation to

A person's perception of themself as handicapped depends on many

yet having some limitations and possibly being in need of some

It is difficult to convey such feelings in clinical terms but hopefully