Chapter

1 The Living World

Life is a unique, complex organization of molecules, expressing Levels of Organization

through chemical reactions which lead to growth, development,
responsiveness, adaptation and reproduction. The living world can be organized into different levels. For example,
many individual organisms can be organized into the following
levels:
PROPERTIES OF LIVING ORGANISMS yy Cell: Cell is the basic unit of all living things.
yy Tissue: Tissues are group of cells of the same kind.
1. Growth yy Organ: Organs are structure composed of one or more
yy It is the increase in mass and number of cells. types of tissues.
yy In plants, growth by cell division occurs continuously yy Organ system: They are group of organs that work together
throughout their life span. to do a certain job.
yy In animals, growth is only up to a certain age. However, cell yy Organism: Organisms constitutes individual living thing
division occurs in certain tissues to replace lost cells. that may be made up of one or more organ systems.
yy Non-living objects grow by accumulation of material on the There are also levels of organization above the individual
surface. In living organisms, growth is from inside. organism. These levels are:
2. Reproduction yy Population: Organisms of the same species that live in
yy It is the production of progeny similar to those of parents. the same area make up a population. For example, all of
yy Organisms reproduce asexually and sexually. the goldfish living in the same area make up a goldfish
yy Growth is the increase in cell number or mass. Hence in population.
unicellular organisms, growth and reproduction are same. yy Community: All of the populations that live in the same
yy Many organisms do not reproduce (e.g. mules, worker bees, area make up a community. The community that includes
infertile human couples, etc). Hence, reproduction is not a the goldfish population also includes the populations of
perfect defining characteristic of living organisms. other fish, coral, and other organisms.
3. Metabolism
yy It is the sum total of all biochemical reactions taking place
inside a living system.
yy Isolated metabolic reactions in vitro are not living things
but are living reactions.
4. Cellular organization
yy All living organisms are made up of cells. They may be
unicellular (single celled organism) or multicellular (multi
celled organism).
5. Consciousness
yy It is this ability of organisms to sense their environment
and respond to the environmental stimuli (like light, water,
temperature, other organisms, chemicals, pollutants, etc.).
yy Therefore, all organisms are ‘aware’ of their surround-
ings. Fig. Levels of organization in nature, from the
yy Human is the only organism having self-consciousness. individual organism to the biosphere
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2 BIOLOGY

yy Ecosystem: An ecosystem consists of all the living things yy Nomenclature (naming): It is the providing of standardized
in a given area, together with the non-living environment. names to the organisms such that a particular organism is
The non-living environment includes water, sunlight, and known by the same name all over the world.
other physical factors. yy The system of naming with two components (Binomial
yy Biome: A group of similar ecosystems with the same general nomenclature) is proposed by Carolus Linnaeus.
type of physical environment is called a biome. According to binomial nomenclature, each scientific name
yy Biosphere: The biosphere is the part of earth where all has two components - Generic name + Specific epithet.
life exists, including all the land, water, and air where yy Botanical names are based on the rules provided in
living things can be found. The biosphere consists of many International Code for Botanical Nomenclature
different biomes. (ICBN).
yy Zoological names are based on International Code for
DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN).

yy The Biodiversity of the earth is enormous. CLASSIFICATION

yy Biodiversity is the term used to refer the number of varieties
It is the process by which anything is grouped into conventional
of plants and animals on earth. There is a great diversity
categories based on some easily observable characters.
among living organisms found on the planet earth. They
differ in their structure, habit, habitat, mode of nutrition, Need for classification
and physiology.
yy The number of species that are known and described ranges yy To organise the vast number of plants and animals into
between 1.7-1.8 million. categories that could be named, remembered, studied and
yy Even though there is such a variety and diversity among understood.
them, the living organisms show a lot of similarities and yy Study of one organism of a group gives the idea about rest
common features so that they can be arranged into many of the members of that group.
groups. In order to understand them and study them yy Classification allows us to understand diversity better.
systematically, these living organisms, mainly the plants
and animals are grouped under different categories. History of classification
yy In the 3rd and 4th century BC Aristotle and others categorized
TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS organisms into plants and animals. They even identified a
few thousand or more of living organisms.
yy Taxonomy (Systematics) is the branch of biology that yy Hippocrates (460-377 BC), the Father of Medicine listed
deals with identification, nomenclature of living organisms organisms with medicinal value.
and their classification on the basis of their similarities and yy Aristotle and his student Theophrastus (370-282 BC) made
differences. the first attempt to classify organisms without stressing their
yy It was the Swiss-French botanist Augustin-Pyramus de medicinal value. They tried to classify the plants and animals
Candolle (1778-1841) who coined the word Taxonomy, the on the basis of their form and habitat.
science of naming and classifying of organisms. yy It was followed by Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) who
yy Systematics (Latin ‘systema’) means systematic placing introduced the first artificial system of classification in his
of organisms into groups or taxa on the basis of certain book ‘Historia Naturalis’.
relationships between organisms OR Study of principles yy John Ray an English naturalist introduced the term species
and procedures of classification. for the first time for any kind of living things.
yy It was Carolus Linnaeus who used this word first in his yy It was then Carolus Linnaeus the Swedish naturalist of 18th
book ‘Systema Naturae’. century now known as Father of Taxonomy developed the
yy The term “New systematics” was proposed by Sir Julian Binomial System of Nomenclature which is the current
Huxley in 1940. scientific system of naming the species. In his famous book
‘Species Plantarum’(1753) he described 5,900 species of
Processes of Taxonomy plants and in “Systema Naturae’(1758) he described 4,200
species of animals.
yy Characterization: It is the understanding of characters of
organisms such as external and internal structure, structure Advantages of classification
of cell, development process, ecological information etc.
yy Identification: Identification is the correct description of an (i) Classification helps us identify the living organisms
organism and its recognition in its scientific name. easily.
(ii) It makes study of such wide variety of bio life in systematic
yy Classification: It is the grouping of organisms into
manner.
convenient categories (taxa) based on characters.
 The Living World 3

(iii) It helps us learning different plants and animals, similarities ↑

and dissimilarities among them. Class - Mammalia
(iv) It enables us understand how complex organisms evolve ↑
over the time. Order - Primata
(v) It helps us understand the inter-relationships among different ↑
groups. Family - Hominidae
(vi) It provides a systematic way to identify known and unknown ↑
organisms. Genus - Homo
(vii) Classification systems are adapted internationally. This aid ↑
communication between scientists. Species - sapiens
yy Species: Species is the basis unit of classification. It is a
group of individual organisms with fundamental similarities.
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE It is defined as the group of individuals which resemble
in their morphological and reproductive characters and
Nomenclature is the process of giving scientific names to plants interbreed among themselves and produce fertile offsprings.
and animals. Carolus Linnaeus devised a binomial system of This is the biological concept of species proposed by
nomenclature in which an organism is given two names. Mayr.
(i) A generic name which it shares with other closely related Example: Crow. We have two types of crows. One is the
organisms which has features similar enough to place them common house crow found in plains around our houses. The
in the same group. other is the hill or the jungle crow. The two crows differ in
(ii) A specific name which distinguished the organism from the intensity of black colour on the neck, and in the size and
all other species. No other organism can have the same shape of the beak.
combination of genus and species. Both are crows but they cannot interbreed. Thus, they are
The scientific name derived by using the system of nomenclature different species.
is followed all over the world as they are guided by a set of rules Common Name Generic Name Specific Epithet
stated in the International Code of Nomenclature.
Mango Mangifera indica
Universal Rules of Binomial Nomenclature Potato Solanum tuberosum

yy Scientific names are generally in Latin and written in Nightshade Solanum nigrum
italics. Lion Panthera leo
yy The first word is genus name (Generic name) and second Peepal Ficus religiosa
word is the species name (Specific epithet).
Modern man Homo sapiens
yy When handwritten, the names are underlined.
yy The names are printed in italics. Cat Felis domesticus
yy The first name (Genus) starts with capital letter and the Tiger Felis tigris
second name (Species) starts with small letter. E.g. Homo Honey bee Apis indica
sapiens. Homo represents the genus name and sapiens
represents the species name. Housefly Musca domestica
yy Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, Rubber plant Ficus elastica
i.e., at the end of the biological name and is written in an House crow Corvus splendens
abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera indica Linn. It indicates
that this species was first described by Linnaeus. yy Genus: It is the aggregates of closely related species.
It consists of a group of related species which has more
characters in common in comparison to species of other
TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES genera. Examples:
²² Potato, tomato and brinjal are species of genus
yy Classification involves hierarchy of steps in which each Solanum.
²² Lion (Panthera leo), leopard (P. pardus) and tiger
step represents a rank (taxonomic category or taxon). All
(P. tigris) are species of genus Panthera. This genus
categories together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy. differs from another genus Felis which includes cats.
yy Each taxon represents a unit of classification. yy Family: It is a group of related genera with less number of
Taxonomic hierarchy with example similarities as compared to genus and species.
Kingdom - Animalia Examples:
↑ ²² Family Solanaceae includes Genus Solanum, Genus
Phylum - Chordata Petunia and Genus Datura.
(Division in case of plants) ²² Family Felidae includes Genus Panthera and Genus
Felis.
 EBD_7051
4 BIOLOGY

yy Order: It is the assemblage of related families. Archaea  • Archaebacteria

Examples:
²² Order Polymoniales includes Family Convolvulaceae Domains Eubacteria  • Monera
• Protista
and Family Solanaceae. Eukaryota  • Mycota
²² Order Carnivora includes Family Felidae and Canidae • Plantae
(dog). • Animalia
yy Class: It is the assemblage of related orders.
Examples:
TAXONOMICAL AIDS
²² Order Primata, Carnivora etc. is placed in class (a) Herbarium
yy It is a store house (repository) of collected plant specimens
Mammalia. that are dried, pressed and preserved on sheets and are
²² Order Polymonials and Order Sapindales etc. is placed arranged according to universally accepted classification.
in class Dicotyledonae. yy The herbarium sheets are labelled with information about
yy Phylum (in animals) or Division (in plants): It is the date and place of collection, english, local and botanical
assemblage of related classes. names, family, collector’s name etc.
Examples: (b) Botanical gardens
²² Classes Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia etc. come yy These are specialized gardens having collections of living
under phylum Chordata. plants for reference and identification purposes.
²² Class dicotyledonae and class monocotyledonae is yy Each plant is labelled with its botanical name and family.
place under division Angiospermae. yy Famous botanical gardens are:
yy Kingdom: The assemblage of various phyla. It is the highest ²² Royal Botanical Garden, Kew (England).
category. ²² Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah (India).
Examples: Kingdom Plantae, Kingdom Animalia etc. ²² National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow
Organisms with their Taxonomic Categories (India).
(c) Museum
Common Man Housefly Mango Wheat yy Museum is a collection of preserved plants and animals
name for study and reference.
yy A museum contains specimens preserved in preservative
Biological Homo Musca Mangifera Triticum solutions in containers or jars.
name sapiens domestica indica aestivum yy Plant and animal specimens are preserved as dry
specimens.
Genus Homo Musca Mangifera Triticum yy Insects are preserved in insect boxes after collecting, killing
Family Hominidae Muscidae Anacardiaceae Poaceae and pinning.
yy Stuffed larger animals like birds and mammals are also
Order Primata Diptera Sapindales Poales preserved.
yy It also has collections of animal skeletons.
Class Mammalia Insecta Dicotyledonae Monocotyledonae (d) Zoological Parks (Zoos)
Phylum/ Chordata Arthropoda Angiospermae Angiospermae yy These are the places where live wild animals are kept in
Division protected environments under human care.
yy It enables to learn about their food habits and behaviour.
PHYLOGENY (e) Key
yy It is the device used to identify each species in a group of
yy The evolutionary history of a particular taxon like species organisms based on similarities and dissimilarities.
is called phylogeny. yy The keys are based on the contrasting characters generally
yy The classification based on the basis of evolution is called in a pair called couplet. It represents the choice made
phylogenetic classification. between two opposite options. This results in acceptance
yy Phylogenetic classification is not always possible since of only one and rejection of the other. Each statement in
the key is called a lead.
there are several gaps in the fossil records which form the
basis of phylogenetic studies and also evolution is never FLORA, MANUALS, MONOGRAPHS AND
unidirectional. CATALOGUES
yy Classification not explicitly based on evolutionary
yy These are some other means of recording descriptions.
relationships is called artificial, for example, organisms are yy They also help in correct identification.
grouped according to usefulness (economic plants), size yy Flora contains the actual account of habitat and distribution
(herbs, shrubs), colour (flowers), ecological role (ground of plant species of a given area.
cover) and so-forth. yy Manuals help in providing information for identification
of names of species found in an area. They also provide
THREE DOMAINS OF LIFE information about keys, description of family, germs and
species.
yy All of life can be divided into three domains, which tell you yy Monographs contain comprehensive information on any
the type of cell inside of an organism. one taxon at a given time.
yy The three domains are Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya. yy Catalogues provide information about new additions and
yy It is proposed by Carl Woese in 1990 who also proposed update the seconds. The catalogues are also the means for
the six kingdom classification for living organisms. recording information for taxonomy.
 The Living World
The Living World

Living Diversity in living world Taxonomic Categories Taxonomical AIDS

One which respires There is great difference It is based on the Its aid is to know resources
Zoological Parks
reproduce, grow, have in species, some are classification of species and diversity of plants,
ability to sense large, some are small according to kingdom, animals and other At these places wild
environment, ability to some varies in colour, phylum or division, organism in agriculture, animals are kept in
self replicate, self- place, activity etc. these class, order, family, forestry, industry, etc. protected environments
organise, interact etc. is are known as diversity. genus species, etc. under human care.
known as living.

Species Genus Family Order Herbarium Botanical Garden

Taxonomy It is a group of It has a group of It is the It is a store house It is collection of
considers the related species related genera assemblage of of collected plants living plants for
difference of one which has more with still less families which specimens that are reference ex-kew
species from the characters in number of exhibit few dried, pressed and (England) etc.
other, closely common in similarities as similar characters preserved on
related species comparison to compared to sheets.
based on distinction species of other genus and species.
in morphology. genera.

Kingdom Phylum Class Key Museum

Animals belongs It is based on It includes related It is another This is a
to various phylla common features order, ex-order taxonomical aid collection of
are assigned to the like presence of primata used for preserved plant
highest category notochord and comprising identification of and animal
called kingdom. dorsal hollow monkey, gorilla plants and animals specimens for
neural system, and gibbon is based on study and
included in placed in class similarities and reference.
phylum chordate. mammalia. dissimilarities.
5
 Chapter
Biological
2 Classification
Biological classification is the grouping of organisms into groups (ii) Natural system of classification: It is the system of
and sub groups based on their similarities and dissimilarities. classification which takes several morphological characters for
grouping of organisms, so as to bring out natural similarities
and dissimilarities and hence natural relationships among the
IMPORTANCE OF CLASSIFICATION organisms.
yy The natural system of classification has specific advantages
(i) It makes the study of large number of living organisms easy.
over the artificial system of classification.
(ii) It gives an idea of whole range of diversity found in
²² It avoids the heterogeneous grouping of unrelated
organisms.
organisms.
(iii) It provides information about inter-relationships among
²² It helps in placing only related groups of organisms
organisms.
together.
(iv) It gives an idea of evolution of various groups of organisms.
²² It indicates the natural relationships among
(v) It gives a system for identification of known and unknown
organisms.
organisms.
²² It also provides a clear view on the evolutionary
relationship between different groups of living
THREE TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION organisms.
(iii) Two kingdom classification: The natural system of
(i) Artificial system of classification: It is a system of classification classification was given by the Swedish biologist, Carolus
which uses one or two morphological characters for grouping Linnaeus (1707-1778).
of organisms. Evolution of classification
yy For example, Aristotle in 350 BC tried to classify the
1. Two Kingdom Classificaiton Kingdom: Plantae (All plants)
organisms on the basis of their form and habitat. He used (Carolus Linnaeus, 1758) Kingdom: Animalia (All animals)
simple morphological characters to classify plants. He 2. Three Kingdom Kindgom: Protista (Unicelluar organisms)
divided plants into herbs, shrubs and trees. He divided Classification (Ernst Kingdom: Plantae (Multicellular plants)
animals into those with RBC’s and those who do not have it. Haeckel, 1866)
Kingdom: Animalla (Multicellular animals)
yy There are many other examples of ancient classification 3. Four Kingdom Classification Kingdom: Monera (Prokaryotic organisms)
(Copeland, 1966)
systems that are based mainly on superficial characteristics. Kingdom: Protista (Primitive eukaryotes)
Kingdom: Metaphyta (Advanced eukaryotic plants)
yy Therefore this artificial system of classification has some
Kingdom: Metazoa (Advanced eukaryotic animals)
serious drawbacks like:
4. Five Kingdom Classification Kingdom: Monera
²² The criteria used for classification are superficial and (Whittaker R.H., 1869) Kingdom: Protista
do not reflect the natural relationships. Kingdom: Mycota (Exclusively for fungi)
²² The system does not reflect the evolutionary relationship Kingdom: Metaphyta
between the organisms. Kingdom: Metazoa
²² Many unrelated organisms are placed in the same
group on the basis of their habitats (dwelling place) yy Linnaeus is known as father of classification as he, for the
(For example, whales and fishes in the same group). first time, classified the living organisms in a systematic way.
²² Closely related organisms have been placed in
different groups because of the differences in their
habitat, feeding habits, etc.
 16 BIOLOGY

TWO KINGDOM CLASSIFICATIONS THREE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION

Linnaeus classified all the living organisms under two large yy Haeckel in 1866 proposed three kingdom classifications.
kingdoms. yy He divided the living organisms into three kingdoms: Plantae,
Protista and Animalia.
yy Kingdom Plantae: This kingdom includes bacteria
(Prokaryotes), photosynthetic plants and non-photosynthetic
fungi. FOUR KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
yy Kingdom Animalia: This kingdom includes unicellular
protozoans and multi-cellular animals or metazoans. yy Copeland in 1956 created a separate kingdom of Monera.
Limitations of Two Kingdom System of Classification are This divided the living world into four kingdoms- Monera,
Protista, Plantae and Animalia.
(i) Certain organisms like Euglena and Sponges, share the
yy In this system fungi continued to remain with kingdom
characteristics of both plants and animals.
Plantae.
For example,
²² In Euglena, some species have chlorophyll and are
autotrophic like plants. A few species of Euglena lack FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
chloroplasts and are therefore colourless and non-
photosynthetic (heterotrophic). yy R.H. Whittaker (1969), an American Taxonomist divided all
the organisms into 5 kingdoms based on their evolutionary
²² They have a saprotrophic mode of nutrition, carrying
relationship among themselves.
out extra-cellular digestion. Other colourless forms
The five kingdom classification is based on the following criteria
ingest small food particles and carryout intracellular yy Complexity of Cell structure – Prokaryote to Eukaryote
digestion (holozoic nutrition). yy Mode of nutrition – Autotrophs and heterotrophs
²² Euglena is also characterized by the presence of an yy Body organization - Unicellular or multi-cellular
animal pigment as taxanthin in the eye spot. yy Phylogenetic or evolutionary relationship
(ii) Fungi and moulds were placed under Kingdom Plantae but The five kingdoms are
they possess many characters not common to plants. Fungi (a) Monera: Prokaryotes. E.g. Bacteria and cyanobacteria.
lack chlorophyll. They are heterotrophic like animals. (b) Protista: Unicellular eukaryotes. E.g. Unicellular algae,
(iii) Bacteria and Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) have many diatoms and protozoa.
similarities between them and are quite different from other (c) Plantae: Multicellular producers. E.g. Plants.
organisms. Thus, it is difficult to place them in their plant (d) Fungi: Multicellular decomposers. E.g. Fungi and moulds.
(e) Animalia: Multicellular consumers, E.g. Animals.
or animal kingdom.
(iv) The status of virus whether they are living or non-living is
a point of debate even today.
Characteristics of Five Kingdom System of Classification

Characteristics Five Kingdoms

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell Mostly unicellular Mostly unicellular Multicellular Mostly Mostly
organization and unicellular Multicellular (Tissue/ Multicellular (Tissue/
Organ system) organ/organ system level)
Cell wall Non-cellulosic May or may not be Present (without Present (cellulose) Present
(Polysaccharide + amino present. cellulose)
acid)
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Autotrophic by Heterotrophic by
Nutrition (Chemosynthetic and Heterotrophic (Saprophytic and photosynthesis ingestion
Photosynthetic) parasitic)
Heterotrophic (Saprophytic
and Parasitic)
Motility Motile or non-motile Motile or non-motile Non motile Mostly non-motile Mostly motile
Reproduction Conjugation/ Transduction/ Syngamy and meiosis, Fertilization and Fertilization and Fertilization and meiosis
Transformation or None conjugation or None meiosis. Dikaryosis meiosis
or none
 Biological Classification 17

Merits of five kingdom classification are (d) Palisade Bacillus (in the form of a stack)
(iii) Vibrio (comma shaped)
yy It reflects better relationship among organisms with regard (iv) Sprillum (spiral shaped).
to levels of organization and mode of nutrition.
yy It reflects better evolutionary trend indicating gradual
evolution of complex organisms from simpler ones.
yy It gives better placement to certain controversial groups like
cyanobacteria, fungi, Euglena, etc.
yy Separation of kingdom Fungi from plants seems to be
justified as fungi bear own type of structural, physiological
as well as biochemical characters.
Fig. Bacteria of different shapes
Demerits of five kingdom classification are
Structure of a bacterial cell
yy The position of virus is not clear.
yy Cell wall: It is the outermost covering of the bacterial cell.
yy Kingdom Protista includes organisms having diverse form,
Cell wall is rigid, which protects and gives shape to the cell.
structure and life cycle, hence does not seem to be proper
The cell wall is made of compound peptidoglycan.
grouping.
yy Some organisms included under Protista (e.g. Dinoflagellates) yy Plasma Membrane: Plasma membrane, present below the
are not eukaryotic rather mesokaryotic. cell wall, encloses the cytoplasm and other cell contents. It
yy Slime moulds placed under Protista differ considerably from is made up of lipids and proteins.
the rest of protists. yy Pili: Pili are short and thin thread like structures projecting
yy The three higher kingdoms are Plantae, Fungi and Animalia out from the cell wall in some bacteria.
seem to be polyphyletic. yy Flagella: Some bacteria move with the help of one or two
However, despite of all these demerits Whittaker’s five kingdom flagella. Flagella have 9+1 arrangement of microtubules.
system is widely accepted. Flagella are longer and thicker than pili.

KINGDOM MONERA (Kingdom of prokaryotes)

This kingdom includes all prokaryotic organisms i.e. mycoplasma,
bacteria, actinomycetes (filamentous bacteria) and cyanobacteria
(commonly known as blue green algae).
yy They are microscopic.
yy Monera is the only prokaryotic kingdom. They do not
possess a true nucleus. They lack membrane bound
organelles.
yy Bacteria were the first organisms to evolve on planet earth
after life originated around 3.5 billion years ago. They are
the most numerous of all living organisms.
yy All bacteria and cyanobacteria are unicellular (Single-celled
organisms).
The branch of study that deals with bacteria is called Bacteriology.

Shapes of bacteria
Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape.
(i) Coccus (spherical): They can be further distinguished into
(a) Monococcus (occur singly)
(b) Diplococcus (occur in pairs) Fig. Structure of a bacterial cell
(c) Tetracoccus (occur in groups of four)
yy Genetic material (DNA): Bacteria have one circular
(d) Streptococcus (occur in the form of a filament) and
chromosome made of a double helical molecule of DNA. It
(e) Staphylococcus (occur in the form of sheets).
is located in a region of the cytoplasm called nucleoid. Since
(ii) Bacillus (rod-shaped): They may be further distinguished
the chromosome is not lodged within a true nucleus, bacteria
into
are termed prokaryotes. Apart from the chromosome many
(a) Monobacillus (single)
species of bacteria possess rings of DNA called plasmids,
(b) Diplobacillus (in pairs)
which replicate along with bacterial chromosome and bear
(c) Streptobacillus (in filamentous form) and
genes for antibiotic resistance, sex factor etc.
 18 BIOLOGY

yy Cell organelles: The cell has ribosomes but no membrane Respiration

bound organelles.
yy Respiration in bacteria may be either
Note: (i) Aerobic i.e. using oxygen for respiration or
(ii) Anaerobic i.e. respiration in the absence of oxygen.
Prokaryotes have no nuclear membrane around genetic
Example: Some monerans like Archaebacteria.
material and no cell organelles. They have only the
yy Cellular respiration or breakdown of food to release energy
ribosomes. occurs in mesosomes which are the inner extensions of the
cell membrane.
Gram staining
yy A Danish physician Christian Gram, in 1884 devised a Reproduction
technique of differential staining called gram staining for (i) Asexual Reproduction: Bacteria reproduce asexually
bacterial cells.
by binary fission under favourable conditions. During
yy Gram staining is one method used to classify bacteria.
binary fission, the chromosome copies itself, forming two
Bacteria are differentiated into Gram-positive and Gram- genetically identical copies. Then, the cell enlarges and
negative based on the ability to retain a purple dye. The divides into two new daughter cells. The two daughter cells
ability to retain the dye depends on the type of cell wall and are identical to the parent cell. Binary fission can happen
outer membrane the bacterium has. very rapidly. It takes about 20 minutes for one bacterium
yy Gram-positive bacteria stains purple with Gram stain. This is to divide into two by binary fission.
because they have a thick cell wall (made of peptidoglycan) (ii) Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction does not
without an outer membrane. occur in bacteria. But not all new bacteria are clones. This
Examples: Cyanobacteria, Treponema pallidum, is because bacteria can still combine and exchange DNA.
Escherichia coli, Shigella sp., Yersinia pestis, Vibrio This exchange occurs in three different ways:
cholerae. (a) Conjugation: Conjugation involves transfer of DNA
yy Gram-negative bacteria stains red with Gram stain. This from one bacterium to another through an extension
is because they have a thin cell wall (peptidoglycan layer) on the surface.
with an outer membrane composed of Lipopolisakarisa (b) Transformation: In transformation, bacteria pick up
(LPS) and protein. pieces of DNA from their environment.
Examples: Salmonella, Corynebacterium diptheriae, (c) Transduction: In transduction, viruses that infect
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. bacteria carry DNA from one bacterium to another.
Nutrition Beneficial and harmful bacteria
The four nutritional categories found in bacteria are: They harm us by causing many diseases. On the other hand some
(i) Autotrophs: Some bacteria are autotrophic and are bacteria are very useful.
photosynthetic i.e. they can synthesize their organic food
in the presence of sunlight e.g. Spirillum. Beneficial Activities of Bacteria
(ii) Chemotrophs: Some bacteria are chemosynthetic Bacterium Function
i.e. they can synthesize their organic food by deriving
energy from some chemical reactions. e.g. Nitrosomonas Rhizobium It is found in roots of legumes (peas, grams, pulses etc).
and Nitrobacter. Many other bacteria like Rhizobium, It fixes atmospheric nitrogen as ammonia, which is then
converted into useful amino acid.
Azotobacter and Clostridium can fix atmospheric nitrogen
into ammonia. This phenomenon is called biological Azotobacter It makes the soil fertile. It fixes atmospheric nitrogen
nitrogen fixation. in the soil.
(iii) Saprotrophs: Some bacteria feed on dead and decaying Streptomycetes It is used to produce the antibiotic called Streptomycin.
matter. Lactobacillus It ferments lactose (milk sugar) to lactic acid. This helps
(iv) Symbionts (Mutualism): Some use food from other in setting of milk into curd.
living organisms with which they are associated for mutual
benefit. For example, some bacteria live in the roots of Methanogenic It helps in sewage treatment.
legumes, such as pea plants. The bacteria turn nitrogen- Diseases Caused by Bacteria
containing molecules into nitrogen that the plant can use.
Meanwhile, the root provides nutrients to the bacteria. In Bacterium Disease caused
this relationship, both the bacteria and the plant benefit, so Vibrio cholerae Cholera
it is known as a mutualism.
Salmonella typhi Typhoid
(v) Parasites: Some are parasitic. They absorb food from living
organisms and cause harm to them. Clostridium tetani Tetanus
Corynebacterium diptheriae Diphtheria
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis
 Biological Classification 19

Cyanobacteria KINGDOM PROTISTA (Kingdom of unicellular

These were earlier called the blue green algae. It is a very eukaryotes)
successful group on primitive earth. They carried out the process
of photosynthesis and released oxygen on the earth’s atmosphere, yy It forms a link between plants, animals and fungi.
which in turn gradually increased the level of oxygen in the yy This kingdom includes eukaryotic unicellular mostly aquatic
atmosphere. cells. Protozoan, diatoms and algae are included in it.
Structure of protists
How Bacteria is Different from Cyanobacteria 1. They have a typical Eukaryotic cell organization.
2. They have membrane bound organelles such as nucleus with
Bacteria Cyanobacteria chromosomes enclosed in nuclear membrane, mitochondria,
They are smaller in size. They are comparatively larger cells. chloroplast (in photosynthetic protists only), Golgi bodies
and endoplasmic reticulum.
They may have flagella. They do not have flagella. 3. They have mitochondria as respiratory organelles.
Some bacteria (green) carry out They all carry out photosynthesis in Locomotion in protists
photosynthesis in a different way the usual manner as in green plants 4. They often bear cilia or flagella for locomotion, having
and do not release oxygen. and release oxygen. 9+2 microtubules unlike those of bacteria which have 9+1
arrangement of microtubules.
Kingdom Monera includes two groups: Archaebacteria and 5. Types of locomotion found in protista:
Eubacteria (i) Pseudopodial locomotion: It is performed with the
(i) Archaebacteria: It includes bacteria that live in unusual help of protoplasmic outgrowths called pseudopodia.
environments particularly at low levels of oxygen. E.g. sarcodines and slime moulds.
Types of Archaebacteria are: (ii) Flagellar locomotion: In this flagella show whip
(a) Halophiles: They are salt-loving bacteria. like movement. E.g. dinoflagellates, euglenoids and
(b) Thermoacidophiles: They are the bacteria that live zooflagellates.
in hot springs. (iii) Ciliary locomotion: In this, cilia show oar-like
movement. E.g. Paramecium.
(c) Methanogens: They are the bacteria that are found
(iv) Wriggling locomotion: It is a slow worm like
in marshy areas (sewage) and intestinal tracts of
movement with the help of a wave of contraction and
ruminants. Methanogens are responsible for production expansion in the body. E.g. sporozoans, non flagellates,
of methane gas from the dung of ruminants. euglenoids.
(ii) Eubacteria: They are known as true bacteria. It includes: (v) Locomotion by mucilage propulsion: In this,
(a) Photosynthetic autotrophs like Cyanobacteria. movement occurs through secretion of mucilage. E.g.
Cyanobacteria often forms bloom in polluted areas. diatoms.
Some of these like Anabaena and Nostoc have Nutrition in Protists
specialised cells called heterocysts for nitrogen 6. Autotrophic or holophytic: Most of them are photosynthetic
fixation. autotrophs. They form the chief producers of food in oceans
(b) Chemosynthetic autotrophs bacteria oxidise various and in fresh water. E.g. dinoflagellates, diatoms, euglenoids.
inorganic substances like nitrates/nitrites, ammonia 7. Holozoic: Zooplanktons are mostly predatory. They show
and use released energy for their ATP production. They holozoic mode of nutrition as in Amoeba. In this mode,
individual captures and ingests the food like animals. E.g.
play an important role in recycling of nutrients.
many protozoans like Amoeba and Paramecium.
(c) Heterotrophic bacteria: They help in making curd,
8. Saprophytic: In this mode, organisms absorb food from
production of antibiotics, Nitrogen fixation etc. Some organic matter. E.g. Slime moulds.
are pathogens and cause diseases like cholera, typhoid, 9. Parasitic: Some protists are parasitic. They obtain food
tetanus etc. from the body of other organisms. E.g. Trypanosoma,
Plasmodium, Entamoeba etc.
Mycoplasma 10. Symbiotic: Some protists are symbionts. E.g. zooflagellates
yy It completely lacks cell wall. like Trichonympha live as symbionts in the intestine of
yy It is the smallest known living cells and is about 0.1 µm. termites.
yy It can survive without oxygen. 11. Mixotrophic (Halophytic + Holozoic or saprobes):
Euglena, a protozoan has two modes of nutrition. In the
yy Some are pathogenic in animals and plants.
presence of sunlight it is autotrophic and in the absence of
yy An older name for Mycoplasma was Pleuro Pneumonia-
sunlight it is heterotrophic. This mode of nutrition is known
Like Organisms (PPLO).
 20 BIOLOGY

as Mixotrophic and hence they form a border line between

plants and animals and can be classified in both. Note:
Reproduction in Protists • Gonyaulax is often known as red dinoflagellates. They undergo
12. They reproduce both asexually and sexually. such rapid multiplication that they make the sea appear red.
(a) Asexually reproduction: This is often referred as red tide. Red tide refers to the red
colour imparted to the sea water by the rapid multiplication
(i) Binary fission: It is the division of parent body
of dinoflagellates like Gonyaulax. The toxins released by such
into two equal daughter individuals by mitosis. large number of Gonyaulax may sometimes kill other marine
E.g. Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena. animals such as fishes.
(ii) Multiple fission: It is the division of parent body • Noctiluca is a colourless dinoflagellate. This alga is famous for
into several daughter individuals. E.g. Amoeba, its bioluminescence.
Plasmodium.
(iii) Plasmotomy: It is the division of multinucleate (iii) Euglenoids
protist into two or more multinucleate offspring by yy Most of them are freshwater organisms found in stagnant
the division of cytoplasm without nuclear division. water.
E.g. Opalina. yy Instead of cell wall. They have protein rich layer ‘pellicle’
(iv) Spore formation: Some protists reproduce which makes body flexible.
asexually by forming spores. E.g. Slime moulds. yy They are photosynthetic in presence of sunlight but become
(v) Budding: E.g. Arcella (a sarcodine). heterotrophs if they do not get sunlight.
(b) Sexual reproduction: yy They have two flagella- one short and one long.
Syngamy: It involves fusion of two gametes to produce yy Example: Euglena, Paranema, Phacus.
a diplod zygote. Syngmay is of three types:
(iv) Slime Moulds
♦♦ Isogamy: In this, the two fusing gametes are
yy They are saprophytic protists.
similar. E.g. Monocystis.
yy Slime moulds possess the characters of both animals and
♦♦ Anisogamy: In this, the two fusing gametes are
fungi. Therefore they are commonly called fungus-animals.
dissimilar. E.g. Ceratium.
yy They are found in decaying twigs and leaves, feeding on
♦♦ Oogamy: In this, large non-motile gametes
organic matter.
are fertilized by smaller motile gametes.
yy Under suitable condition, they form an aggregation called
E.g. Plasmodium.
plasmodium, which may grow and spread several feet.
Classification of Protista yy Under unfavourable conditions, plasmodium forms fruiting
bodies bearing spores on their tips. Spores have true walls
(i) Chrysophytes (Has diatoms and golden algae-desmids) which are extremely resistant and survive for many years.
yy Cell walls are embedded with silica and form two thin yy Example: Plasmodium.
overlapping shells, which fit together like a soap box. Thus (v) Protozoans (Unicellular animal-like protist.)
their walls are indestructible.
yy Habit and Habitat: They occupy a vast array of habitats
yy The siliceous frustules of diatoms do not decay easily. They
and niches and have organelles similar to those found in
pile up at the bottom of water reservoirs and form big heaps
other eukaryotic cells as well as specialized organelles.
called ‘Diatomaceous Earth’.
Protozoans are found in moist environments. If you were
yy Being gritty, this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils to pick up wet decaying leaves from the edge of a pond
and syrups. and place them under a microscope, you would discover
yy Diatoms are chief producers in the oceans. They are very the small world inhabited by protozoans. They can be
good pollution indicators. Examples: Triceratium, Navicula, both free-living (can live outside of a host) or parasitic
Amphipleura etc. (colonize host cell tissues). Many are able to exist in
(ii) Dinoflagellates extreme environments, from Polar Regions to hot springs
yy They are mostly marine, and photosynthetic. and desert soils.
yy They are variously coloured depending on the main yy Body form: They are small, microscopic organisms with
pigments present in their cell. varied forms. The body is unicellular, however they are
yy Their cell wall has cellulose. preferably be referred to as a cellular because the single cell
yy Most of them have two flagella-one longitudinal and other performs all the life activities and is functionally equivalent
transversely in a furrow between wall plates. to the whole metazoan animal.
yy Example: Gonyaulax, Ceratium, Noctiluca.
Biological Classification 21

yy Animals are microscopic so known as animalcules. (a) Mastigophora

yy Symmetry: All symmetries are represented in the group. yy Members of the phylum Mastigophora move about by using
yy Germ layer: No germ layer present. one or more whip like flagella.
yy Level of organization: They have no organs or tissues, but yy The genus Euglena contains flagellated species.
specialized organelles found. yy Members are freshwater protists with typical eukaryotic
yy Nutrition: Nutrition is holozoic or holophytic or properties, including two flagella, reproduction by mitosis,
osmotrophic. Euglena shows mixotrophic nutrition. and flexible nutritional requirements.
yy Digestion: Digestion is intracellular. Protozoa may absorb
yy Euglena species also possess chlorophyll within chloroplasts.
food via their cell membranes, some, e.g., Amoebas,
This pigment allows the organisms to synthesize organic
surround food and engulf it, and yet others have openings
compounds in the presence of sunlight. When no sunlight is
or “mouth pores” into which they sweep food, and that
available, the organism feeds on dead organic matter in the
engulfing of food is said to be phagocytosis. All protozoa
digest their food in stomach-like compartments called surrounding environment. Thus, the organism is autotrophic
vacuoles. and heterotrophic. Some biologists consider Euglena to be
yy Respiration and excretion: Respiration and excretion the basic stock of evolution for both animals and plants.
occurs by plasmalemma. yy Certain species of Mastigophora are zooflagellates, while
yy Osmoregulation: Contractile vacuole is present for os- some are phytoflagellates.
moregulation (It is absent in parasitic protozoa and marine yy The zooflagellates live within the bodies of animals and are
protozoa). typified by the wood-digesting flagellates in the intestines
yy Motility: They move around with whip-like tails called of termites. Among the pathogenic zooflagellates are those
flagella, hair-like structures called cilia, or foot-like that cause sleeping sickness, trichomoniasis, and giardiasis.
structures called pseudopodia. Others do not move at all. yy The phytoflagellates have photosynthetic abilities.
yy Some species of Mastigophora organize themselves into
colonies. Members of the genus Volvox are typical colonial
forms. The cell colonies are not differentiated into tissues
or organs, but the colonies show how a preliminary step in
evolutionary development might have occurred.
yy Examples:
²² Euglena gracilis: It is the simplest protozoan and most
primitive animal. It forms the connecting link between
plants and animals.
²² Noctiluca: It is bioluminescent in nature and has
luciferin.
Fig. Protozoans ²² Ceratium: It is bioluminescent in nature. Binary fission
is oblique.
yy Reproduction: A sexual reproduction by binary or multiple ²² Mastigamoeba: It is the connecting link between
fissions or plasmotomy or budding. Sexual reproduction sarcodina and mastigophora.
occurs by syngamy or conjugation.
²² Leshmania donovani: It causes kala-azar or
yy Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Microsporidium have
leishmaniasis or dum–dum fever. Vector of this disease
become major concerns in the drinking water Industry.
is sand fly (Phlebotomus)
yy The protozoa are subdivided into four phyla depending on
²² Trypansoma gambiense: It is the parasite of sleeping
their method of locomotion: Mastigophora (flagellates),
sickness.
Sarcodina (Amoebas), Ciliophora (Ciliates), and
Sporozoa. Three of the groups—amoebas, flagellates, and Euglena
ciliates—are grouped according to the way they move. The
yy It is a freshwater flagellate. It is abundantly found in stagnant
fourth group, sporozoans, are grouped together because
waters such as pools, ponds, and ditches etc. containing
they are parasites.
decaying organic matter.
 22 BIOLOGY

yy Two interesting Amoebas are the foraminiferans and the

radiolarians. Both are marine Amoebas that secrete shells.
Their shells have been identified as markers for oil deposits
because both were present in the ocean communities that
became the organic deposits that, under pressure, became
oil fields.

Amoeba
yy Amoeba is commonly found in the mud in fresh water ponds
and ditches containing decaying leaves.
yy They have pseudopodia for locomotion.
yy It captures food by pseudopodia to form a food vacuole.
yy Amoeba has a contractile vacuole for osmoregulation.
yy Amoeba reproduces asexually by binary fission. Sexual
reproduction is absent.

Fig. Structure of a Euglena

Structure of Euglena
yy Pellicle: Euglena has elastic body which is covered by a
covering called pellicle. Pellicle is made up of protein.
yy Cytostome and Reservoir: Cytostome is the cell mouth
leading into a tubular cytopharynx which opens into a vesicle
called reservoir.
yy Stigma: Stigma is a prominent red pigment spot. It is
sensitive to light.
yy Contractile vacuole: Euglena has contractile vacuole for Fig. Amoeba
osmoregulation.
Entamoeba
yy Flagellum: It has flagellum for propulsion in water.
yy Chloroplast: It has chloroplast containing green coloured yy Entamoeba histolytica cause amoebic dysentery in humans.
chlorophyll for photosynthesis. It is amoeboid in form. The symptoms of amoebic dysentery
yy Euglena reproduces asexually by binary fission. are abdominal pain, nausea, blood and mucus with stool.
(b) Sarcodina (Rhizopoda) (c) Ciliophora (Ciliata)
yy Members of the phylum Sarcodina are the Amoebas and yy Members of the phylum Ciliophora move by means of cilia.
their relatives. yy The organisms are all heterotrophic and have specialized
yy Amoebas consist of a single cell without a definite shape. organelles in their cytoplasm.
They feed on small organisms and particles of organic yy Ciliates show nuclear dimorphism or two types of nuclei-
matter, and they engulf the particles by phagocytosis. ²² A large macronucleus: Macronucleus controls meta-
Extensions of the cytoplasm called pseudopodia (the bolic activities and growth. It is also called vegetative
singular is pseudopodium) assist phagocytosis and motion nucleus.
in the organisms. ²² A number of smaller micronuclei: The micronuclei
yy Pseudopodia are of four types: carry the genetic information of the cell. Hence, it is
²² Lobopodia (broad and blunt)- E.g. Amoeba termed as reproductive nucleus.
²² Filopodia (slender without any support and yy Examples: Paramecium, Opalina (multinucleated,
independent)- E.g. Euglypha endoparasite in rectum of frog), Nyctotherus (endoparasite
²² A x o p o d i a ( S l e n d e r w i t h a x i a l s u p p o r t ) - in rectum of frog), Balantidium, Vorticella (Commonly
E.g. Actinophyrs known as bell animalcule).
²² R e t i c u l o p o d i a ( S l e n d e r a n d r e t i c u l a t e ) -
Paramecium (The slipper animalcule)
E.g. Globigerina
yy Amoebas are found in most lakes, ponds, and other bodies yy The ciliate Paramecium typifies the phylum Ciliophora.
of fresh water. They move by a creeping form of locomotion yy This organism has a slipper-shaped body with a covering
called amoeboid motion. One amoeba called Entamoeba called a pellicle.
histolytica causes a type of dysentery in humans.
 Biological Classification 23

yy Defensive organelles called trichocysts are present in the ²² Babesia: It causes Texas fever or red water fever in
pellicle. cattles.
yy Mouth is known as cytostome and anus is known as ²² Monocystis: It is the parasite in seminal vesicle of
cytopyge. earthworm.
yy The organism reproduces by mitosis and by an elaborate ²² Gregerina: It is present in intestine of cockroach.
form of sexual behaviour called conjugation, which occurs ²² Nosema: It is the parasite of silk moth.
when two Paramecium join to one another in the oral region ²² Eimeria: It is found in epithelium of liver of rabbit.
and exchange nuclear material.
yy The cilia of Paramecium provide a precise form of motion Plasmodium
not provided by flagella or pseudopodia. The cilia can propel yy One of the best-known members of the group is the
the Paramecium either forward or backward and move it Plasmodium species, which are the agents of malaria.
in a spiral manner. yy The organisms spend portions of their life cycle within
mosquitoes. After being injected into the human bloodstream
by the mosquito, the parasites invade the red blood cells,
undergo numerous changes, and emerge from the red blood
cells, destroying them. The infected human experiences a
malaria attack soon after.
yy Plasmodium has two hosts:
²² Female Anopheles mosquito: In this, sexual phase of
the malarial parasite occurs. Hence, it is considered
as primary host of malarial parasite.
²² Human beings: In man, asexual phase of the malarial
parasite occurs. Hence, it is considered as secondary
host.
yy Two phases found in life cycle of Plasmodium:
²² Sexual cycle produces sporozoites in body of
mosquito. Meiosis occurs just after zygote formation
Fig.: Paramecium (zygotic meiosis).
Difference between Cilia and Flagella ²² Sporozoites infect a human and reproduce asexually,
first in liver cells and then in red blood cells. Malaria
Flagella Cilia is spread by Anopheles mosquito, which ingests
They are larger and longer. They are smaller and shorter. gametocytes along with human blood, then, when
They are rarely more than a They are always found in large biting another victim, leaves sporozoites in new
dozen found on a cell. numbers on a cell. wound.
They may carry various additional They do not carry additional structures
structures. (but may be fused together into
structures).
KINGDOM FUNGI (Kingdom of multicellular
When more than one is present, They almost always act with a high decomposers)
they rarely act in a coordinated degree of coordination.
fashion. This kingdom includes moulds, mushrooms, toad stools, puffballs
and bracket fungi.
The most common activity is a The most common activity is an
spinning/whipping motion. oarlike stroke somewhat like a
swimming human’s arm. Characteristic Features
yy They have eukaryotic cell organization.
(d) Sporozoa
yy Their body is made up of numerous filamentous structures
yy Members of the phylum Sporozoa are exclusively parasites.
called hyphae. A hypha may be divided into cells by
They are so named because some members produce spore
partitions called septa. Hypha has many nuclei. Yeast,
like bodies.
however, is single celled.
yy Often they have an amoeboid body form, but they are not
yy A group of hyphae forming a network is called mycelium,
related to the Sarcodina.
mycetos meaning fungus.
yy Sporozoans are generally parasitic organisms with complex
yy Cell wall is made of chitin and polysaccharides
life cycles involving several stages.
yy Their mode of nutrition is heterotrophic since they lack
yy Examples:
the green pigmentchlorophyll. Some fungi like Puccinia
²² Plasmodium: It is the smallest animalcule and
are parasites while others like Rhizopus are saprotrophic
commonly known as malaria parasite.
 24 BIOLOGY

and feed on dead organic matter. They can also live as ²² Peronospora parasitica causes downy mildew in
symbionts – in association with algae as lichens and with number of plants like pea, mustard, onion etc.
roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza. (b) Zygomyctes (The conjugation fungi)
yy Reproduction in fungi is both asexual and sexual yy The mycelium is coenocytic (multinucleate and aseptate).
²² Asexual reproduction in fungi: yy Hyphal wall contains chitin or fungus cellulose.
(i) Vegetative means by fragmentation, fission and yy Motile cells are absent.
budding. yy Mitospores are non-motile and called sporangiospores as
(ii) Asexually by spores called conidia, sporangiospores, the sproes are formed inside sporangia born at the tips of
or zoospores. sproangiophores.
(iii) Sexually by oospores, ascospores, and
yy Sexual reproduction occurs through conjugation.
basidiospores.
yy The product of sexual reproduction is diploid spore called
²² Sexual reproduction in fungi: It involves three
steps: zygospores.
(i) Plasmogamy: It involves fusion between two yy E.g.
motile or non-motile gametes. Sometimes two ²² Rhizopus stolonifer: It is popularly known as black
haploid hyphae come together and fuse. bread mould.
(ii) Karyogamy:It involves fusion of two nuclei. In ²² Mucorcaninus coprophilus. It is also known as dung
some fungi two haploid cells immediately fuse and mould.
form diploid cells while in some (e.g. ascomycetes ²² Rhizopus and Mucor are the common saprotrophic
and basidiomycetes) a dikaryotic (n+n)occurs fungi that attack a variety of food stuffs. Both of them
which later become diploid. Such phase is called are commonly used in alcoholic fermentation.
dikaryophase. (ii) Ascomycetes (The sac fungi)
(iii) Meiosis in zygote: Fungi from fruiting bodies in yy It is also known as ‘sac fungi’.
which reduction division occurforming haploid yy They are mostly multicellular (e.g. Penicillium) or rarely
spores. unicellular (e.g. Saccharomyces- yeast)
yy E.g., Puccinia (rust causing), Penicillium. yy Mycelium is branched and septate. Yeast is an exception
yy The branch of biology that deals with the study of fungi is in that they are basically unicellular. They may however,
known as Mycology. form short temporary filamentous structure called
pseudomycelium.
Classes of Fungi yy Asexual spores are called conidia produced exogenously
(i) Phycomycetes (Lower or Algal fungi) on the conidiophores.
yy They are found in aquatic habitats and grow on decaying yy Sexual spores are called ascospores produced endogenously
wood in moist and damp places. in sac like ascus. Asci are produced inside fruiting body
yy Mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic. called Ascocarp.
yy Asexual reproduction occurs by zoospores (motile) or yy E.g., Aspergillus, Neurospora, Claviceps.
a planospores (non-motile). yy Neurospora crassa is known as the Drosophila of plant
yy Spores are produced endogenously. kingdom. It is used extensively in biochemical and genetic
work.
yy e.g., Rhizopus (bread mould), Albugo.
Phycomycetes is divisible into two groups: Oomycetes and yy Aspergillus flavus, growing on stored grains, groundnut and
Zygomycetes. bread produces toxin called aflatoxin, which is carcinogenic
(a) Oomycetes (The oogamous fungi) to humans.
yy Mycelium is coenocytic (multinucleate and aseptate). yy Claviceps purpurea produces ergot of rye and other cereals
yy A sexual reproduction involves formation of spore contain in which ears come to have sclerotia of fungus. Eating of
infected cereals produces ergotism.
sac or sporangia.
yy Morels and Truffles are edible ascomycetes.
yy Zoospores are biflagellate.
(iii) Basidiomycetes (The club fungi)
yy Sexual reproduction is by gametangial contain where male
yy The commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are
sex organs or antheridium passes its products into female
mushroom, bracket fungi.
sex organ or oogonium.
yy Mycelium is branched and septate.
yy The product of sexual reproduction is oospore. yy Asexual spores generally are not found.
yy E.g. yy Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation.
²² Phytophthora infestans: It causes late blight of potato yy Sexual reproduction is by plasmogamy. It involves fusion
and tomato.
of vegetative or somatic cells of different strains to form
²² Albuga candida: It causes white rust.
 Biological Classification 25

basidium. Basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called yy The deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores
basidiocarp. known as conidia.
yy Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium yy They are saprophytic, parasitic or decomposers.
producing four basidiospores. The basidiospores are yy E.g.,
exogenously produced on the basidium. ²² Colletotrichum falcatum produces red rot of sugarcane.
yy E.g., Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), Puccinia ²² Helminthosporiumoryzae produces sesame or brown
(rust fungus). leaf spot of rice.
(iv) Deuteromycetes ²² Alternaria causes early blight of potato and tomato.
yy It is commonly called as ‘Fungi Imperfecti’ as only asexual ²² Trichoderma is a soil fungus used in biological control
or vegetative form of this fungus is known. of other fungi.
yy Mycelium is septate and branched.
KINGDOM MYCOTA

Sexual Reproduciton not Identified Sexual Reproduciton Identified

Fungi imperfecti or DUETEROMYCETES Primitive Fungi OOMYCOTA Advance Fungi EUMYCOTA

e.g. Cercospora, Fusarium (Mycelium Aseptate) (Mycelium Septate)

PHYCOMYCETES PHYCOMYCETES ASCOMYCETES BASIDIOMYCETES

Algal Fungi) (Conjugation Fungi) (Sac Fungi) (Club Fungi)

E.g.: Phytophthora, Albugo E.g.: Mucor, Rhizopus E.g.: Yeast, Candida E.g.: Puccinia, Agaricus

Importance of Fungi

Harmful Fungi
1. Puccinia graminis (Wheat Rust): It causes brown patches
on leaf and stem of wheat. It decreases the yield of wheat
and makes it unfit for human consumption.
2. Rhizopus or (Bread Mould) grows on bread. If the bread
is exposed to warm and humid conditions a cottony mass
develops in few days. This white cotton mass later develops
a greyish black colour.
yy The whitish network on bread is called mycelium.
yy The mycelium contains thread like structures called hyphae.
yy The root-like structures growing out of the hyphae penetrate
the bread, and secrete digestive enzymes (extracellular
digestion) and absorb the digested food.
yy Greyish black colour of the mould develops due to formation
of sporangium which releases dark coloured spores. The
spores scatter bywind and germinate after falling out a
suitable place. This is asexual reproduction.
Fig.: Structure of fungi
 26 BIOLOGY

yy Sexual reproduction takes place by conjugation between

KINGDOM ANIMALIA (Kingdom of
two neighbouring hyphae to produce a zygospore which
after a period of rest produces a sporangium. When mature, multicellular consumers/metazoa)
the sporangium bursts to release spores which germinate This kingdom includes all multi-cellular eukaryotic organisms.
on meeting favourable conditions and produce a new They are also referred to as metazoans.
mycelium. Characteristic features
3. In human, skin diseases like ringworm and athlete’s foot yy They are motile or mobile as they have to search for their
are caused by fungi. Some ear infections are also caused food. However sponges and corals are exception.
by fungi. yy All animals show heterotrophic mode of nutrition. They
Beneficial Fungi form the consumers of an ecosystem.
yy They have contractibility of the muscle cells.
yy Certain Mushrooms (Agaricus campestris) are edible. yy They can transmit impulses due to the presence of nerve
yy Yeasts are used for fermentation during manufacture of cells.
bread, beer, soya sauce, cheese and wine. yy Some groups of animals are parasites e.g. Tapeworms and
yy Mycorrhizae are fungi associated with roots of plants. Roots roundworms.
benefit in getting minerals from the environment while fungi yy They lack cell wall.
gets food from the plant in return through such association. yy They stores food reserves as fat or glycogen.
yy Reproduction is mostly sexual.
yy Neurospora has been a favourite experimental material in
Genetics.
yy Various antibiotics are derived from fungi. Penicillin is VIRUSES
obtained from Penicillium notatum. Its antibiotic effect
was discovered by chance by Alexander Flemming in 1927. They did not find a place in classification. They show both living
and non-living characters. Hence viruses are regarded as a separate
entity. It is not taken into account in Whittaker’s five kingdom
 INGDOM PLANTAE (Kingdom of
K classification.
multicellular producers/metaphyta)
Living characteristics of virus
yy It includes multi-cellular plants of land and water. yy It has the ability to multiply inside a host plant or animal cell.
yy The major groups of Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, yy It has the ability to cause diseases.
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms belong to this kingdom. yy It possesses nucleic acid, protein, enzyme etc.
Characteristic features yy It has the ability to undergo mutation.
yy They are chlorophyll containing multicellular eukaryotes.
yy The cells have a rigid cell wall made up of cellulose. Non-living characteristics of virus
yy They show various modes of nutrition. Most of them are yy Virus is unable to multiply extra cellular.
autotrophs since they have chlorophyll. Some plants are yy It does not have any metabolic activity.
heterotrophs. For e.g. Cuscuta is a parasite. Nepenthes and yy It lacks protoplasm.
Drosera are insectivorous plants. yy It can be crystallized.
yy Life cycle shows alternation of generation having Viruses are defined as ultramicroscopic, disease causing intra
cellular obligate parasites. They have no cellular organization and
gametophytic (n) and sporophytic (2n) phase.
have no machinery for any metabolic activity. They are obligate
How Fungi and Plants Differ from each other intracellular parasites and they multiply within their host cells. Once
1. Fungi cannot make their own food like plants can, since outside the host cell they are completely inactive.
they do not have chloroplasts and cannot carry out
photosynthesis. Fungi are more like animals because they History of discovery of virus
are heterotrophs. They have to obtain their food from outside yy Pasteur coined the term ‘Virus’ i.e., poisonous fluid.
sources. yy It attracted the attention of investigators only in the 19th
2. The cell walls in many species of fungi contain chitin. Chitin century when a virus called Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
is tough carbohydrate found in the shells of animals such caused severe damage to commercially important tobacco
as beetles and lobsters. The cell wall of a plant is made of crop.
cellulose, not chitin. yy D.J. Ivanowsky found out that certain microbes caused
3. Unlike many plants, most fungi do not have structures that Tobacco Mosaic Disease in tobacco plant.
transfer water and nutrients. yy Dutch microbiologist Beijerinek (1898) confirmed the
findings of Iwanowsky and called the fluid “contagium
vivum fluidum” which means contagious living fluid. This
 Biological Classification 27

was later on called virion (poison) and the disease causing (ii) Nucleic acid: The nucleic acid forms the central core.
agent as virus. Unlike any living cell a virus contains either DNA or
yy W. M. Stanley in 1935 showed viruses could be crystallised RNA as genetic material which may be single or double
to form crystals of protein which are inert outside their stranded. Usually plant viruses have single stranded RNA;
specific host. bacteriophages have double stranded DNA and animal
yy Viruses are ultramicroscopic. They can be seen only under viruses have single or double stranded RNA or double
electron microscope. They are measured in millimicrons stranded DNA. The infective nature of the virus is attributed
(1 millimicron = 1/1000 micron). (1 micron = 1/1000 to the nucleic acid while host specificity is attributed to the
millimeter). Generally they vary from 2.0 mm to 300 mm protein coat.
in size.
According to the type of the host they infect, viruses are classified
yy The branch of science that deals with study of virus is
mainly into the following types.
known as virology.
(i) Plant Viruses
Structure of Virus They infect plants and cause diseases. Some common plant viral
diseases are:
A virus is composed of two major parts: Capsid (the protein coat) yy Mosaic diseases of tobacco (TMV), cucumber (CMV),
and Nucleic acid. cauliflower.
(i) Capsid: The capsid is the outer protein coat. It is protective yy Bunchy top of banana
in function. It is often composed of many identical subunits yy Leaf-roll of potato
called capsomeres arranged in helical or polygeometric yy Spotted wilt of tomato
forms. Some of the viruses have an outer covering called yy Generally, plant viruses have RNA with the exception of
envelope. E.g. HIV. They are called enveloped viruses. some viruses such as cauliflower mosaic virus which has
Others are called naked viruses or non- enveloped viruses. DNA.
The capsid is in close contact with the nucleic acid and (ii) Animal Viruses
hence known as nucleocapsid. yy They infect animals and cause diseases. The nucleic acid is
either DNA or RNA. some of the diseases caused by viruses
in human beings are: common cold, measles, small pox (now
extinct), chicken pox, Jaundice, herpes, hepatitis A, B, C,
D, E, G, influenza, polio, mumps, rabies, AIDS and SARS.
yy Viruses also cause diseases in cattle. E.g. Foot and mouth
disease (FMD) in cattle, encephalomyelitis of horse, rabies
etc.
yy Viruses that cause diseases in fungi are called mycophages
and viruses that attack blue green algae/cyanobacteria and
cause diseases are called cyanophages.
Fig. Structure of tobacco mosaic virus
(iii) Bacteriophages
Virus that infects bacteria is called bacteriophage or simply
phage. It is tadpole like and the nucleic acid is DNA e.g. T2,
T4, T6 bacteriophages.
DNA containing viruses are called deoxy viruses while RNA
containing viruses are called ribo viruses. Each of them has two
subtypes, double stranded and single stranded.
Genetic material Examples
dsDNA T2, T4 bacteriophges, coliphage lambda,
adenovirus, herpes virus, cauliflower mosaic,
pox virus.
ssDNA Coliphge MS 2, coliphage fd, coliphage f 174
dsRNA Reovirus, tumor virus.
ssRNA Polio virus, food and mouth disease virus,
influenza virus, Tobacco mosaic virus, HIV, Rous
sarcoma virus etc.
Fig. Bacteriophage
 28 BIOLOGY

Note: INTERFERONS (IFNS)

Retrovirus is a virus whose genes are encoded in RNA instead yy They are the host coded proteins of cytokine family that
of DNA. They synthesize complementary DNA through reverse inhibit viral replication.
transcriptase. Others have RNA → RNA replication. yy They are produced by intact animal or cultured cells in
The most well-known retrovirus that infects humans is HIV. response to viral infection or other inducers.
yy They are believed to be the part of body’s first line of defense
against viral infection.
VIRION
An intact, infective virus particle which is non-replicating outside
LICHENS
a host cell is called virion. yy It is the symbiotic association of algae and fungi.
yy Algal part is called phycobiont and fungal part is called
mycobiont.
VIROIDS yy Phycobiont is autotrophic. Its main function is photosynthesis.
It prepares food for fungi (Mycobiont).
yy Viroids were discovered by T.O. Diener. yy Mycobiont is heterotrophic. It provides shelter and absorbs
yy It is the smallest self-replicating particles. mineral and water for alga.
yy A viroid is a circular molecule of ss RNA without a capsid. yy It acts as pollution indicator i.e. it does not grow in polluted
yy It lacks protein coat. area. Lichen cannot tolerate air pollution expecially due to
yy It has a free RNA of low molecular weight. sulphur dioxide.
yy Viroids are known to cause diseases in plants only. E.g. yy Lichens are of three types:
Potato spindle tuber disease, Citrus exocortis. (i) Crustose: It is the curst like and closely appressed to
the substratusm and attached to it at several places.
E.g. Graphis, lecanora, Rhizocarponetc
PRIONS (ii) Foliose: The body of foliose lichen is flat, broad, and lobed
and leaf like which is attached to the substratum at one or
yy Stanley Prusiner did most of the work on prions and was a few places. E.g. Parmelia, Dictyonema, etc.
awarded Nobel Prize in 1998. (iii) Fructicose: This type of lichen is branched like a bush and
yy They are very unique among infectious agents because they attached to the substratum by means of disc. E.g. Cladonia,
Evernia, Usnea.
contain no genetic material i.e. DNA/RNA.
yy They are proteinaceous infectious particles.
yy They are the causative agents for about a dozen fatal MYCORRHIZAE
degenerative disorders of the central nervous systems of
yy It is the mutual beneficial or symbiotic association of a
humans and other animals. fungus with the root of a higher plant.
yy Eg. Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD), Bovine Spongiform yy Here, the fungus is dependent upon the higher plant for
Encephalopathy (BSE)-Commonly known as mad cow shelter and food while fungus absorbs mineral and water for
disease, etc. the plant. The fungus also seems to be essential for proper
growth of the plant having mycorrhiza.
 Chapter

3 Plant Kingdom

CHARACTERISTICS FEATURE OF KINGDOM PLANTAE yy Natural system of classification

²² It was given by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton
yy The Kingdom Plantae includes plants which are multicellular Hooker.
eukaryotes. ²² It was based on natural affinities among the organisms
yy All plants contain plastids. Plastids are double membrane and considers not only the external features, but
organelle that possess photosynthetic pigments. They are also internal features, like ultrastructure, anatomy,
called chloroplasts. embryology and phytochemistry.
yy Phylogenetic system of classification
yy They are usually autotrophic. Chloroplast contains a green
²² This is accepted system of classification as it is based
colour pigment called chlorophyll and prepares its own food
on evolutionary relationship between the organisms.
by the process of photosynthesis.
²² This assumes that organisms belonging to the same
yy The cell walls possess mainly cellulose. taxa have a common ancestor.
yy The plant body may be thalloid or differentiated into root, yy Numerical taxonomy
stem and leaves. ²² It is based on all observable characteristics.
yy They may be non-vascular or vascular. ²² Numbers and codes are assigned to all characters
yy They have two stages in their life cycle- a haploid, and the data are then processed. In this way each
sexually reproducing gametophytic generation and a character is given equal importance and at the same
diploid, asexually reproducings porophytic generation. time hundreds of characters can be considered.
The two generations alternate. This is called alternation ²² Easily carried out using computers.
of generations. yy Cytotaxonomy
²² It is based on cytological information such as
CLASSIFICATION WITHIN ANGIOSPERMS chromosome number, structure, behaviour.
yy Chemotaxonomy
yy Artificial system of classification ²² It is based on chemical constituents of plant to resolve
²² It was given by Linnaeus. doubts and confusions.
²² They were based mainly on vegetative characters and
androecium structures.
²² This artificial system classification separated the KINGDOM PLANTAE
closely related species since they were based on a
few characteristics. They gave equal importance to yy Kingdom plantae shows a lot of diversity, because of which,
vegetative and sexual characteristics, which is not it has been divided into four divisions: Algae, Bryophyta,
acceptable since we know that often the vegetative Pteridophyta, and Spermatophyta (Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms).
characters are more easily affected by environment.
 Plant Kingdom 43

Classification of Kingdom Plantae

Plant Kingdom

Cryptogamae (Plants Phanaerogamae

without seeds) (Plants with seeds)

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnospermae Angiospermae

e.g. Marchantia, Do not produce seeds (bear naked seeds) (Seeds enclosed inside fruit)
Funaria e.g., Dryopteris, Adiantum e.g., Pinus, Cycas

Algae Fungi Monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae

e.g., Spirogyra, (e.g., Agaricus) (Seeds with one cotyledon) (Seeds with two cotyledons)
Chlamydomonas e.g., Maize, Onion, Rice, Wheat e.g., Sunflower, Mango, Hibiscus

Cryptaegamae and Phanerogamae Sub-Division Algae

In 1883, Eichler divided the kingdom plante into two sub-kingdoms, yy Habit and habitat: Algae are largely aquatic either
Cryptogamae and Phanerogamae. freshwater or marine organisms. Some members of algae
occur in association with fungi (lichens) and animals (on
Sub-kingdom Cryptagamae (Greek-cryptos- sloth bear).
hidden, gamos-marriage) yy Characteristic features:
(i) These include lower plants that do not bear flower or seed. ²² Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid,
They are known as seedless plants. autotrophic organisms.
(ii) The reproductive organs are inconspicuous. ²² Their size ranges from microscopic unicellular forms
(iii) The embryo, if present, is naked and called spores. such as Chlamydomonas to colonial forms such as
(iv) It includes three divisions: Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Volvox and to filamentous forms such as Ulothrix and
Pteridophyta. Spirogyra. Massive plant-like bodies are seen in some
marine forms (such as kelps).
Sub-kingdom Phanerogamae (Greek-phaneros- ²² Their body is unicellular (Chlamydomonas), Colonial
visible, gamos-marriage) (Volvox) or filamentous (Spirogyra) or thalloid
(Sargassum).
(i) These include plant that bears flowers and seeds. ²² Algae are covered over by mucilage, which protects
(ii) The plant body is well differentiated into true stem, leaves them from epiphytic growth and decaying effect of
and roots. water.
(iii) Main reproductive organ is seed. Seeds are formed as result yy Reproduction: The algae reproduce vegetatively, asexually
of sexual reproduction. The male and female gametes and sexually.
fuse together inside the ovary (female part of flower) and ²² Vegetative Reproduction: Vegetative reproduction
develop into seed. In some plants seed is not produced is by fragmentation. Each fragment develops into a
inside an ovary. thallus.
(iv) It includes a single division of spermatophyte. ²² Asexual Reproduction: It takes place by means of
different kinds of spores like zoospores, aplanospores
and akinetes. Zoospores are naked, flagellated and
DIVISION THALLOPHTA (GREEK: THALLOS motile. (E.g. Chlamydomonas). Aplanospores are thin
UNDIFFERENTIATED, PHYTON-PLANT) walled and non-motile (E.g. Chlorella).
²² Akinetes are thick walled and non-motile spores (E.g.
yy Plants of this division comprise the simplest plants that do Pithophora).
not have well-differentiated body design. ²² Sexual reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves
yy The body design is simple i.e. not differentiated into stem, fusion of two gametes. If fusing gametes belong to the
root and leaves. It is often called thallus. same thallus it is called homothallic and if they belong
yy They are unicellular. to different thalli it is heterothallic. Fusing gametes
yy Thallophyta includes a single sub-division of algae. may be isogametes or heterogametes.
 44 BIOLOGY

yy Isogamy: It is the fusion of two morphologically and type of fusion the male gamete is usually referred to as
physiologically similar gametes. E.g. Spirogyra and some antherozoid which is usually motile and smaller in size and
species of Chlamydomonas. the female gamete which is usually non- motile and bigger in
yy Anisogamy: It is the fusion of two gametes which are size is referred to as egg. The sex organ which produces the
morphologically dissimilar but physiologically similar antherozoids is called antheridium and the egg is produced
(both motile or both non-motile). E.g. some species of in oogonium. The fusion product of antherozoid and egg
Chlamydomonas. is called zygote. The zygote may germinate directly after
yy Oogamy: It refers to the fusion of gametes which are both meiosis or may produce meiospores which in turn will
morphologically and physiologically dissimilar. In this germinate. E.g., Volvox, Fucus.

Reproduction

Vegetative Asexual Sexual

(fragmentation) (Zoospores (Fusion gametes)
Example - Spirogyra

Isogamous Anisogamous Oogamous

• Gametes similar in size • Gametes dissimilar in size • One gamete large and non-
• Example - Chlamydomonas • Example - some species of motile (female)
Chlamydomonas • Other gamete smaller and
motile (male)
Example - Volvox, Fucus

Economic Importance of Algae (a) Class I– Chlorophyceae (Green algae)

²² The members of chlorophyceae are commonly called
Algae have diverse economic uses. They perform half of the total green algae.
carbon dioxide-fixation on earth by photosynthesis, acting as the ²² The plant body may be unicellular, colonial or
primary producers in aquatic habitats. filamentous.
yy Food source: Many species of marine algae such as ²² The major pigments are Chlorophyll a and b. The
Porphyra, Sargassum, and Laminaria are edible. Chlorella pigments are localised in definite chloroplasts.
and Spirulina are rich in proteins. Thus, they are used as ²² Most of the members have one or more storage bodies
food supplements.
called pyrenoids located in the chloroplasts. Pyrenoids
yy Commercial importance: Agar is used in the preparation
contain protein besides starch.
of jellies and ice-cream. It is obtained from Gelidium
²² Stored food : They store their food in the form of
and Gracilaria. Carrageenin is used as an emulsifier in
starch. Some algae may store food in the form of oil
chocolates, paints, and toothpastes. It is obtained from the
droplets.
red algae. Algin from Laminaria, Fucus, and Sargassum is
²² Cell wall composition : Green algae usually have a
used in stabilising emulsions i.e. shaving creams, shampoos,
rigid cell wall made of an inner layer of cellulose and
ice creams etc.
an outer layer of pectose.
yy Medicines: Many red algae such as Corallina are used in
yy Reproduction:
treating worm infections.
²² Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by
yy Sewage disposal: Chlamydomonas and Chlorella are used
fragmentation or by formation of different types of
for sewage disposal. They are the algae of sewage oxidation
tanks which provide aerobic conditions for disposal of spores.
sewage by decomposers. ²² Asexual reproduction is by spores. The common
The algae are divided into three classes based on their asexual spores are flagellated zoospores produced in
main pigments: Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae, and zoosporangia, aplanospores, hypnospores, akinetes
Rhodophyceae. etc.
yy These divisions are based on the following factors: ²² The sexual reproduction may be isogamous,
²² Major photosynthetic pigments present anisogamous or oogamous.
²² Form of stored food E.g. Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra,
²² Cell wall composition Chara, etc.
 Plant Kingdom 45

(b) Class II– Phaeophyceae (Brown algae) (c) Class III­– Rhodophyceae (Red algae)
²² The members of Phaeophyceae are commonly called ²² Common name: Rhodophyta are commonly called
brown algae. red algae because of the predominance of the red
²² Habit and habitat: Brown algae are found primarily pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body.
in marine habitats. ²² Habit and habitat: Majority of the red algae are
²² Size and Form: They show great variation in size marine except for a few fresh water species. They
and form. Body consists of branched, filamentous occur in both well-lighted regions close to the surface
structures (e.g. Ectocarpus) to profusely branched of water and also at great depths in oceans where
forms as represented by kelps, which may reach a relatively little light penetrates.
height of 100 metres.
²² Major pigments: They possess chlorophyll a and b,
²² The plant body is usually attached to the substratum
and phycoerythrin. The red colour of the red algae is
by a holdfast, and has a stalk, the stipe and leaf like
due to abundant formation of phycoerythrin.
photosynthetic organ called the frond.
²² Major pigments: They possess chlorophyll a, ²² Stored food: The food is stored as floridean starch.
c, carotenoids and xanthophyll pigment, called Its constituent is very similar to amylopectin and
fucoxanthin. The brown colour of algae is due to the glycogen in structure.
presence of large amount of xanthophyll pigment. ²² Cell wall: It is made of cellulose, pectin, and
²² Stored Food : Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, polysulphate esters. Some red algae have an incrustation
which may be in the form of laminarin or mannitol. of calcium carbonate over their walls. They appear
²² Cell wall composition: The cells have a cellulosic coral like and are called coralline. Corallina algae
wall usually covered on the outside by a gelatinous produce limestone and are important component of
coating of algin. reef formations along with corals.
yy Reproduction ²² Flagella is absent in members of this class.
²² Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmenta- ²² Reproduction:
tion. ♦♦ The red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by
²² Asexual reproduction is by biflagellate zoospores fragmentation.
that are pear-shaped and have two unequal laterally ♦♦ They reproduce asexually by non-motile spores.
attached flagella.
♦♦ They reproduce sexually by non-motile gametes.
²² Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous Sexual reproduction is oogamous. The male sex
or oogamous. In isogamy and anisogamy both the organ is called antheridium. It produces non
gametes are motile while in oogamy, only the male flagellate male gametes called spermatium. The
gametes are motile or flagellate. The female gametes female sex organ is flask shaped and is termed
are non-motile. The union of gametes may take place carpogonium. It possesses an elongated receptive
in water or within the oogonium (oogamous species). organ called trichogyne. Male gamete is carried
The gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) and bear two by water currents to trichogyne for effective
laterally attached flagella. fertilization.
E.g. Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Fucus, Sargassum, Lami-
E.g. Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria, Gelidium
naria,
Divisions of algae and their main characteristics

Classes Common Major pigments Stored food Cell wall Flagellar number Habitat
name and position of
insertions
Chlorophyceae Green algae Chlorophyll a, b Starch Cellulose 2-8, equal, apical Fresh water, brackish water,
salt water
Phaeophyceae Brown algae C h l o r o p h y l l a , c , Mannitol, Cellulose and 2, unequal, lateral Fresh water (rare), brackish
fucoxanthin laminarin algin water, salt water

Rhodophyceae Red algae C h l o r o p h y l l a , d , Floridean starch Cellulose Absent Fresh water (some), brackish
phycoerythrin water, salt water (most)
 46 BIOLOGY

DIVISION BRYOPHYTA (Greek: Bryon-Moss, ²² The sporophyte reproduces asexually by producing

spores. Meiosis takes place during spore formation,
Phyton-Plant) hence they are haploid. These spores germinate to
yy Habit and habitat: They usually occur in cool, damp, produce the gametophyte.
and shady areas. They are known as amphibians of plant ²² Bryophytes show distinct alternation of gametophytic
kingdom since they live on land, but depend on water for generation with sporophytic generation.
sexual reproduction.
yy Characteristics: Gametophyte and Sporophyte
²² Bryophyte is a division of non-vascular plants having Gametophyte (Greek-gametos-spouse, phyton-plant): Gameto-
an embryo stage in their developmental process. phyte is a haploid plant structure that produces gametes directly.
²² Plant body is more differentiated than algae. Sporophyte (Greek-Sporos-seed, phyton-plant): Sporophyte is
²² The plant body is thallus-like and is attached to diploid (2n) plant structure that produces haploid spores. Sporophyte
substratum by rhizoids. Rhizoids may be unicellular is formed form diploid zygote or fusion of gametes.
or multicellular. Roots are absent.
²² Bryophytes lack true roots, stem and leaves; They
may possesses root-like, stem-like, and leaf-like
structures
²² They have no specialized tissue for the conduction of
water and other substances from one part of the body
to another.
²² The dominant phase in the life cycle is haploid game-
tophyte. It may be a flattened thallus or differentiated
into stem-like, root-like and leaf-like structures. The
root-like structures are called rhizoids.
²² The gametophyte bears sex organs. Sex organs are
multicellular and jacketed.
²² They are of two types: Fig.: Life history of bryophytes
♦♦ The male sex organ is called antheridium, which yy Economic Importance of Bryophytes
produces biflagellate antherozoids or sperms. ²² Food: Some mosses are good source of food for
♦♦ The female sex organ is called archegonium. herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals.
Archegonium is flask-shaped and produces a ²² Peat: Sphagnum in form of peat is used as fuel and
fertile egg or oosphere. also used for trans-shipment of living material as it has
²² The antherozoid fuses with the egg to produce zygote. water holding capacity, prevent soil erosion, along with
The zygote produces a multicellular body called a lichens are first colonisers on barren rocks.
sporophyte. ²² Soil formation: Mosses along with lichens are the
²² The sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the first organisms to colonise rocks and hence, are of
photosynthetic gametophyte and derives nourishment great ecological importance. They decompose rocks
from it. That means, the sporophyte is dependent on making the substrate suitable for the growth of higher
the gametophyte. plants.
²² Prevention of soil erosion: Bryophytes especially
mosses form dense mats on the soil, reduce the impact
of falling rain and prevent soil erosion.
yy The bryophytes are divided into three classes:
♦♦ Hepaticopsida (Liverworts): e.g. Riccia,
Marchantia, Pellia, Sphaerocarpos.
♦♦ Anthocerotopsida (Hornworts): e.g. Anthoceros,
Notothylas.
♦♦ Bryopsida (Mosses): e.g.Funaria, Sphagnum,
Polytrichum.

Liverworts
yy Characteristics:
²² Habit and habitat: The liverworts grow usually
Fig. Life cycle of a bryophyte in moist, shady habitats such as banks of streams,
 Plant Kingdom 47

marshy ground, damp soil, bark of trees and deep in Difference between Liverworts and Moss
the woods.
²² Body features: The plant body of a liverwort is Liverworts Moss
thalloid, e.g., Marchantia. The thallus is dorsi-ventral They have unicellular rhizoids. They have multicellular rhizoids.
and closely appressed to the substrate. Scales are present very often Scales are absent
²² Reproduction:
They are generally thalloid, with They are foliage, with lateral
♦♦ Asexual reproduction: It takes place by fragmen-
dichotomous branching. branching.
tation of thalli, or by the formation of gemmae.
Gemmae are small green, multicellular, asexual Gemma cups are present Gemma cups are absent
buds, which are borne dorsally inside gemma cups Sporophyte has very little Sporophyte has abundant
located on the thalli. The mature gemmae separate photosynthetic tissue photosynthetic tissue
from the parent body and germinate to form new
individuals. DIVISION PTERIDOPHYTA (Greek. Pteris-fern,
♦♦ Sexual reproduction: The male and female phyton-plant)
sex organs are produced either on the same or
on different thalli. Fertilization produces zygote yy Habit and habitat: The pteridophytes are found in cool,
which grows to form diploid sporophyte. Each damp, shady places though some may flourish well in
sandy-soil conditions.
sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and
yy Characteristic features:
capsule. After meiosis, spores are produced within
²² They are first terrestrial plants which possess vascular
the capsule. These spores germinate to form free-
tissue i.e. xylem and phloem.
living gametophytes.
²² It is a division of seedless vascular plants. Hence
²² Common examples: Riccia, Marchantia etc.
commonly known as vascular cryptogams.
Mosses ²² They have well developed vascular system (sylem
and phloem).
yy Characteristics: ²² The dominant plant body is sporophyte, which is
²² The predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves. These
the gametophyte which consists of two stages. organs possess well-differentiated vascular tissues.
♦♦ Protonema stage: It is the first stage and develops ²² The leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) as
directly from a spore. It is a creeping, green, in Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns.
branched and frequently filamentous stage. ²² The sporophytes bear sporangia that develop in associ-
♦♦ Leafy stage: It is the second stage, which develops ation with leaf-like appendages called sporophylls.
from the secondary protonema as a lateral bud. ²² In some pteridophytes, sporophylls form distinct,
They consist of upright, slender axis bearing compact structures called strobili or cones (Selaginella,
spirally arranged leaves. They are attached to the Equisetum).
soil through multicellular and branched rhizoids. ²² Seeds are absent. They produce naked embryos called
This stage bears the sex organs. spores.
²² Reproduction ♦♦ Homosporous pteridophytes: They bear spores
♦♦ Vegetative reproduction: It is by fragmentation that are of same type. They produce bisexual
and budding in the secondary protonema. gametophytes. E.g. Pteris, Adiantum,Nephrolepis,
♦♦ Sexual reproduction: In mosses, the primary Lycopodium.
♦♦ Heterosporous pteridophytes: They bear two
protonema (developed in the first stage) develops
kinds of spores-microspores (small) and me-
into the secondary protonema. Both these stages
gaspores (large). They produce unisexual gameto-
are haploid or gametophytic. The secondary
phytes. E.g. Selaginella, Salvinia, Marsilea.
protonema bears the sex organs antheridia and
²² The sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore
archegonia, which produce gametes. These gametes
mother cells.
fuse to form a zygote. The zygote develops into a ²² The spores germinate to give rise to inconspicuous, small
sporophyte, consisting of foot, seta and capsule.
but multicellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic
The capsule contains spores. Many spores are
thalloid gametophytes called prothallus.
formed as a result of the reduction division taking
place in the capsule of this sporophyte. ²² The gametophyte, prothallus bear male and female
²² Common Examples: Funaria, Polytrichum and sex organs called antheridia and archegonia, respec-
Sphagnum etc. tively.
²² Antheridia are small and sessile. Archegonia are
48 BIOLOGY

partially embedded. Archegonial neck is four-rowed.

²² Sperms are motile and require an external supply of
water to reach archegonia.
²² Fusion of male gamete with the egg present in the
archegonium result in the formation of zygote.
²² Zygote thereafter produces a multicellular well-
differentiated sporophyte which is the dominant phase
of the pteridophytes.
²² Spores may be similar (homosporous) as in majority of
pteridophytes. However, few plants are heterosporous.
They produce two types of spores-microspores and
megaspores.
²² The megaspores and microspores germinate and give
rise to female and male gametophytes, respectively.
The female gametophytes in these plants are retained
on the parent sporophytes for variable periods. The
development of the zygotes into young embryos takes
place within the female gametophytes.

Fig. Graphical representation of life cycle of pteridophytes

yy The pteridophytes are divided into four classes:
²² Psilopsida (Whisk ferns): E.g.Psilotum, Rhynia.
²² Lycopsida (Club mosses): E.g. Lycopodium,
Selaginella.
²² Sphenopsida (Horse tails): E.g. Equisetum, Hyenia
²² Pteropsida (Ferns): E.g. Pteris, Adiantum,
Dryopteris.
Life Cycle of a Fern (Dryopteris)
yy Dryopteris is a common fern with pinnately-compound
leaves.
yy The main plant-body is sporophytic. Many sporangia are
borne on the lower surfaces of its mature leaves.
yy Each sporangium has spore mother cells which undergo
meiosis to produce haploid spores.
Fig. : Life cycle of a fern yy On maturing, these spores dehisce and germinate to give
rise to a heart-shaped gametophyte called prothallus.
yy The prothallus bears the male and female sex organs called
antheridia and archegonia respectively.
yy The antheridia produce sperms that swim in water to reach
the archegonia. The egg is produced by the archegonia.
yy Fusion of male gamete with the egg present in the
archegonium result in the formation of zygote.
yy The zygote forms an embryo, which in turn develops
into a new sporophyte. The young plant comes out of the
archegonium of the parent gametophyte.
Heterospory
yy Heterospory evolved first in pteridophytes such as
Selaginella and Salvinia and is considered an important step
in evolution as it is a precursor to the seed habit.
yy Heterospory is a phenomenon in which two kinds of spores
are borne by the same plant. These spores differ in size.
The smaller one is known as microspore and the larger
one is known as megaspore. The microspore germinates to
 Plant Kingdom 49

form the male gametophyte and the megaspore germinates yy Male and female gametophytes are distinct. They are small
to form the female gametophyte. The male gametophyte and dependent on sporophyte for their nutrition.
releases the male gametes and these reach the female yy They have well-developed vascular tissues throughout the
gametophyte to fuse with the egg. The development of the plant body.
zygote takes place inside the female gametophyte. yy The reproductive process produces seeds which on
yy This retention and germination of the megaspore within germination forms a new plant.
the megasporangium ensures proper development of the yy Plants show heterospory or two types of meiospores,
zygote. The zygote develops into the future sporophyte. microspores and megaspores.
The evolution of the seed habit is related to the retention yy Spores are produced in two types of sporangia,
of the megaspore. microsporangia (pollen sacs) and megasporangia. They are
borne on two distinct sporophylls called microsporophylls
Economic Importance of Pteridophytes and megasporophylls respectively.
(i) Food: Pteridophytes form a good source of food to animals. yy The gametophytes are completely parasitic.
E.g. Marsilea, a water fern is cooked and eaten by certain yy Fertilization occurs with the help of a tube formed by male
tribals. gametophytes, called pollen tube. The process is known as
(ii) Soil binding: Pteridophytes bind the soil along hill slopes siphonogamy.
and also protect the soil from erosion. The gametophyte is reduced to two microscopic structures:
(iii) Nitrogen fixation: Some pteridophytes like Azolla, a yy a pollen grain – a tiny male gametophyte containing
water fern has a symbiotic association with N2 fixing sperm.
cyanobacterium called Anaebaena azollae. yy a small portion inside an ovule – a tiny female gametophyte
(iv) Ornamentals: Ferns are grown as ornamental plants for containing an egg cell. After pollination, an ovule develops
their delicate and graceful leaves. into a seed.
Spermatophyta has two sub-divisions- Gymnospermae and
Difference between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes Angiospermae.
Bryophytes Pteridophytes Sub- Division Gymnospermae (Gymnos – Naked,
The main plant body is gametophyte. The main plant body is Sperma – Seeds)
sporophyte.
Vascular tissues (i.e. Xylem and Vascular tissues are present. Characteristic Features
phloem) are absent. yy The term gymnosperm refers to plants with naked seeds,
Sporophytes are parasitic over Both sporophyte and i.e., the seeds (ovules) are not enclosed inside a fruit. They
gametophyte. gametophyte are independent. are naked.
Plant body can be thalloid or foliose Plant body is differentiated yy All gymnosperms are perennial and woody. The plant-body
into stem, leaves and roots. ranges from medium to tall trees and shrubs.
Instead of roots, rhizoids are present. Roots are present.
yy The root system consists of tap roots.
yy Roots in some genera show symbiotic associations.
Haploid gametophytic phase is long Diploid sporophytic phase is
²² Mycorrhiza shows association of fungi with Pinus
lived while sporophytic phase is long lived while gametophytic
short lived.. phase is short lived.
roots.
²² The small specialized roots, in Cycas called
Antheridium is stalked and Antheridium is sessile and
coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen-fixing
archegoniumis commonly exposed. archegoniumis partially
embedded.
cyanobacteria.
yy The stem can be branched (as in Pinus and Cedrus) or un-
yy The first three divisions of plantae, namely algae, bryophyta branched (as in Cycas).
and pteridophyta are often collectively called non-flowering yy The leaves can be simple (as in Pinus) or compound (pinnate
plants. They do not produce any flowers or seeds. in Cycas).
yy The leaves are needle-like, with a thick cuticle and sunken
stomata. These help in preventing water loss.
DIVISION SPERMATOPHYTA yy Gymnosperms are heterosporous. They bear two kinds of
(Greek. Sperma: Seed, Phyton: Seed) spores, haploid microspores and megaspores.
yy The two kinds of spores are produced within sporangia.
Characteristics: Sporangia are borne on sporophylls, microsporophylls and
yy It is a division of seed-producing plants. A seed has an megasporophylls that are usually aggregated to form distinct
embryo that contains reserve food for its future growth. cones or strobili.
yy The main plant body is sporophyte which is differentiated ²² The strobili bearing microsporophylls and microspo-
into stem, leaves and roots. rangia are called male strobili or male cone.
50 BIOLOGY

²² The microspores develop into a male gametophytic yy Pollination occurs mostly through wind and pollen grains
generation which is highly reduced and is confined reach the pollen chamber of the ovule through the micropyle,
to only a limited number of cells. This reduced borne on megasporophylls.
gametophyte is called a pollen grain. yy The pollen tube carrying the male gametes grows towards
²² The development of pollen grains takes place within archegonia in the ovules and discharges their contents near
the microsporangia. the mouth of the archegonia. Following fertilisation, zygote
²² The strobili bearing megasporophylls with ovules or develops into an embryo and the ovules into seeds. These
megasporangia are called female strobili or female seeds contain haploid endosperms and remain uncovered.
cone. yy The megaspore mother cell is differentiated from one of the
²² The male or cones or strobili may be borne on the same cells of the nucellus.
tree (Pinus) or on different trees (Cycas). yy The nucellus is protected by envelopes and the composite
yy The male gametophyte produces two male gametes and structure is called an ovule.
female gametophyte contains archegonia. yy The ovules are borne on megasporophylls which may be
yy External water is not required for transport of male gametes. clustered to form the female cones.
Instead, the male gametophyte produces pollen tube to carry yy The megaspore mother cell divides meiotically to form
the male gametes towards archegonia. The process is known four megaspores.
as siphonogamy. yy One of the megaspores enclosed within the megasporangium
yy Unlike bryophytes and pteridophytes, in gymnosperms (nucellus) develops into a multicellular female gametophyte
the male and the female gametophytes do not have an that bears two or more archegonia or female sex organs.
independent free-living existence. yy The multicellular female gametophyte is also retained within
yy They remain within the sporangia retained on the megasporangium.
sporophytes. The pollen grain is released from the
microsporangium.

Mature
Sporophyte
Cross section
Meiosis Through Ovule
Ovules
Female Cone
Spore Sac Surviving
Spores (n) Spore (n)
Male cone with Meiosis Mitosis
Many spore sacs Mitosis
Young
Sporophyte Male Gametophytes
(2n) (Pollen grains)

Female
Food Reserves Mitosis Seed
Gametophyte
(Gametophyte
tissue) Fertilization Eggs (n)
Key Sperm (n) are Released
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n) from Pollen Grain
Zygote (2n)
Embryo (2n)

Fig. Life cycle of gymnosperm

yy The gymnosperms are divided into three classes- ²² Medicinal uses: An anticancer drug Taxol is obtained
²² Cycadopsida: E.g. Cycas from Taxus. Many species of Ephedra produce
²² Coniferopsida: E.g. Pinus, Cedrus, Sequoia ephedrine, which can be used in the treatment of
²² Gnetopsida: E.g. Gnetum, Ephedra, Ginkgo asthma and bronchitis.
yy Cycas is also called living fossil because it possesses a ²² Food source: The seeds of Pinus gerardiana (known
number of characters of extinct pteridophytes and cycads. as chilgoza) are edible.
yy Economic importance of gymnosperms ²² Source of resins: Resins are used commercially for
²² Construction purposes: Many conifers such as manufacturing sealing waxes and water-proof paints.
pine, cedar, etc., are sources of the soft wood used in A type of resin known as turpentine is obtained from
construction and packing. various species of Pinus.
 Plant Kingdom 51

Sub-Division Angiosperms (Greek. Angios- male gametes are discharged. One of the male gametes
fuses with the egg cell (syngamy) and forms a diploid
cover, spermae - seed)
zygote. The other male gamete fuses with the diploid
yy Habit and habitat: The angiosperms are an exceptionally secondary nucleus to form primary endosperm nucleus
large group of plants occurring in wide range of habitats. (PEN), which is triploid in nature. Since, two types
yy Size: They range in size from tiny, almost microscopic Wolfia of fusion, syngamy and triple fusion takes place
to tall trees of Eucalyptus, which is over 100 metres. in the embryo sac, the process is known as double
yy Characteristic features: fertilisation.
²² Angiosperms are also known as flowering plants ²² After fertilization, zygote develops into an embryo
which bear flowers and produce fruit enclosing the (with one or two cotyledons) and the primary
seeds. They are the most recently and highly evolved endosperm nucleus develops into endosperm which
plants. provides nourishment to the developing embryo. Later,
²² The plant body is a sporophyte which differentiated the synergids and antipodal cells degenerate. During
into underground root system and aerial shoot these events the ovules develop into seeds and the
system. ovaries develop into fruit.
²² They have sporophyll that aggregate to form flowers
Difference between Syngamy and Triple Fusion
with the perianth.
²² Both microsporophylls and megasporophylls are Syngamy Triple fusion
specialised. It is the process of fusion of the It is the process of fusion of the male
male gamete with the egg in an gamete with the diploid secondary
²² A microsporophyll or stamen or androecium consists
angiosperm. nucleus in an angiosperm.
of a slender filament with an anther at the tip. The
A diploid zygote is formed as a A triploid primary endosperm is
anthers produce pollen grains by meiosis. result of syngamy. formed as a result of triple fusion.
²² The megasporophylls are delicate and rolled, forming Zygote forms the embryo. Primary endosperm cell produces a
carpels or pistils or gynoecium. Pistil contains the food laden endosperm.
ovary, style, and stigma. The ovules are present
inside the ovary. A highly reduced haploid female Difference between Reproductive Organs of
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
gametophyte called embryo sac develops inside the
ovule. Gymnosperms Angiosperms
²² The embryo-sac formation is preceded by meiosis. The sporophylls are aggregated to Sporophylls are aggregate to form
Hence, each of the cells of an embryo-sac is haploid. form compact cones. flowers with the perianth.
²² Each embryo-sac has a three-celled egg apparatus – The microsporophylls are broad The microsporophylls consist of
and are not distinguished into stamens containing pollen sacs.
one egg cell and two synergids, three antipodal cells
filaments and anthers. These sacs bear the male gametes
and two polar nuclei. called pollen grains.
²² The polar nuclei eventually fuse to produce a diploid The megasporophylls are woody The megasporophylls are delicate
secondary nucleus. and lack the ovary, style, and stigma, and rolled, forming carpels that
yy The pollen grain itself is not, the male gamete. It is a structure because of which the ovules lie contain the ovary, style, and stigma.
exposed. The female gametophyte The ovules are present inside the
which produces male gametes; therefore pollen grain is the consists of archegonia. ovary.
male gametophyte. The fertilisation process involves Two male gametes enter the egg
²² Pollination: Pollen grains, after dispersal from the fusion of a male gamete with the apparatus at the time of fertilisation.
the anthers, are carried by wind or various other female gamete. Their endosperm is One male gamete fertilises the
haploid. egg and the other fuses with the
agencies to the stigma of a pistil. This is termed as
diploid secondary nucleus to
pollination. form an endosperm. The resulting
²² Fertilization: The pollen grains germinate on the endosperm is thus triploid.
stigma and the resulting pollen tubes grow through The seeds are naked as there is no Seeds are covered inside the ovary
the tissues of stigma and style and reach the ovule. fruit formation. part of the carpel.
The pollen tubes enter the embryo-sac where two
 52 BIOLOGY

Fig. Life cycle of an angiosperm

Angiosperms are divided into two classes: (ii) Monocotyledonae: They are characterised by having one
(i) Dicotyledonae: They are characterised by having two cotyledon in their seeds. E.g: grasses, coconut, maize,
cotyledons in their seeds. E.g: Mustard, bengal gram, pea, wheat, rice, sugarcane, banyan etc.
potato, rose, banyan, apple etc. yy Monocots and dicots can be differentiated through their
morphological and anatomical characteristics.

Characteristic features Monocot Dicot

Morphological characters
Flowers Flowers are usually trimerous. Flowers are generally pentamerous or tetramerous.
Cotyledons in seed The seeds contain one cotyledon. The seed contains usually two cotyledons.
Venation Leaves possess parallel venation with few exceptions. Leaves possess reticulate venation.
Roots Root is short lived forming fibrous root system. Root is long lived forming tap root system.
Anatomical features
Vascular bundles in Vascular bundles of monocot stem are scattered and Vascular bundles of stem are arranged in a ring form. They
stem possess closed cambium. possess open cambium, so that secondary growth is possible.
No of vascular bundles Vascular bundles are many, more than 8. Vascular bundles are few (2-6).
Leaves Leaves are isobilateral Leaves are dorsi-ventral.

PLANT LIFE CYCLES AND ALTERNATION OF Types of Life Cycles in Plants

GENERATIONS Different plant groups complete their life cycle in different
yy There is alternation of generations between haploid patterns.
gametophyte and diploid sporophyte in the life cycle of 1. Haplontic life cycle
a plant.
yy In plants, both haploid and diploid cells can divide by yy In the haplontic life cycle the multicellular organism is
mitosis.Hence, there are two different plant bodies - haploid haploid and the zygote is the only diploid stage. In this
and diploid.The haploid plant body produces gametes by life cycle, after the egg and sperm join to form zygote
mitosis and represents a gametophyte. meiosis takes place to produce haploid cells called spores.
yy Mitotic division is encountered in diploid cells when zygote The spores undergo mitosis and produce a multicellular
divides by mitosis to produce sporophytic plant body after individual which is haploid. The multicellular organism
fertilization. releases egg and or sperm (sometimes from the same
yy This sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis. Spores individual, sometimes different individuals) that fuse and
in turn undergo mitosis to form haploid plant body. become the zygote.
 Plant Kingdom 53

yy Thus, in haplontic life cycle, the dominant and photosynthetic 3. Haplodiplontic life cycle (Alternation of Generations):
phase is the free-living haploid gametophyte. The yy Haplodiplontic cycle is an intermediate condition of
sporophytic generation (diploid stage) is represented haplontic and diplontic life cycles. Both gametophytic
only by the one-celled zygote. There are no free-living (haploid) and sporophytic phases (diploid) are multicellular
sporophytes. and often free-living. However, they differ in their dominant
yy In this type of life cycle, zygotic meiosis occurs. phases.
yy Example - Algae such as Spirogyra. yy The diploid generation is called a sporophyte and it produces
spores via meiosis. The spores than undergo mitosis to form
a multicellular haploid organism called the gametophyte.
Zygote The gametophyte then produces the haploid gametes.
Sy (2n) Meiosis
ng
am
Gametes come together in fertilization to form a zygote. The
Spores
y
(n) zygote undergoes mitosis to form the diploid sporophyte
generation. There is thus a clear alternation of generations
A between a haploid gamete producing gametophyte and a
B
Gametogenesis diploid spores producing sporophyte in diplohaplontic life
cycle.
Haplontic
yy Thus, it represents true alternation of generation. This type
of life cycle is found in bryophytes, pteridophytes and in
some algal like ectocarpus, Polysiphonia.

Gametophyte
(n)
Sporophyte
(2n)
Zygote
2. Diplontic life cycle (2n)
Sy
ng
yy In diplontic life cycle, diploid sporophyte is the dominant, am
y
photosynthetic, independent phase of the plant. The A
gametophytic phase is represented by the single celled
Gametogenesis
(gametes) to few-celled haploid gametophyte. Metosis
yy In this life cycle, cells within the multicellular, diploid
Haplo-diplontic
(2n) mature organism undergo meiosis and become eggs B
and sperm. An egg and sperm fuse (fertilization) to form Spores
(n)
a 2n zygote. The zygote undergoes mitotic divisions and
cytokinesis to form the embryo and eventually develops and
grows into a mature individual. The only haploid portions Gametophyte (c)
(n)
of the life cycle are the single celled gametes, the egg and
the sperm.
yy In this type of life cycle, gametic meiosis occurs.
yy Example: All seed-bearing plants, gymnosperms, and
angiosperms, some algae-like Fucus.

Sporophyte
(2n)

Diplontic

A
Zygote (2n) y B
m
nga
Sy
Metosis

(n)
Gametogenesis (b)
te
etophy
Gam
 Chapter
Animal Kingdom
4
Classification is a system of categorizing living things. mouth for intake of food and anus for egestion of undigested
food. It is found in Coelentrates and flatworms.
(c) Tube within a tube plan: In this, the body has two tubes;
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION one formed by the body wall and other formed within it by
the digestive tract.
It is of two types: Protostomic plan and Deuterostomic plan.
1. Levels of Organisation
(i) Protostomic Plan: In this type of plan, mouth develops
Organisation is the structural differentiation of animal body. Based first and anus later on in the embryo. The animals which
on organization of cells, it is divided into three levels: possess this body plan are called protostomes. It occurs in
(a) Cellular level of organization: In this, the cells are arranged Roundworms, annelids, mollusks and arthropods.
as loose cell aggregates. (ii) Deuterostomic plan: In this type of plan, anus develops
Examples:Poriferans (Sponges). first and mouth later on in the embryo. The animals which
(b) Tissue level of organization: In this, the cells performing possess this plan are called deuterostomes. It is found in
the same functions are arranged into tissues. Echinodermates, hemichordates and chordates.
Examples: Coelenterates and Ctenophores.
(c) Organ level of organization: In this type, the tissues 3. Body Symmetry
are grouped together to form organs and the organs are Based on symmetry, animals are two types: Asymmetrical and
associated to form organ systems. Each system performs a Symmetrical.
specific physiological function. It is the arrangement of similar body parts on two sides of main
Examples: All higher animals (from Platyhelminthes to axis of body.
chordates). (a) Asymmetrical: In this, body cannot be divided into equal
Organ systems of different animals show complexities. halves through median plane. The simplest animals have no
Examples: symmetry.
²² Digestive system of cnidarians and Platyhelminthes Examples: Sponges, Snails etc.
is incomplete i.e. it has only a single opening which (b) Symmetrical: In this, body can be divided into two similar
serves as both mouth and anus. Complete digestive parts. It is of two types.
system has 2 openings i.e. mouth and anus. (i) Radial symmetry: Body can be divided into 2 similar
²² Circulatory system is of 2 types: Open and closed. parts by any plane along oral \aboral axis of body.
♦♦ In open type, blood is pumped out through heart. Examples: Some Poriferans, Cnidarians, Ctenophores
Cells and tissues are directly bathed in it. and Echinoderms.
♦♦ In closed type: Blood is circulated through (ii) Bilateral symmetry: Body can be divided into two
vessels. identical right and left halves by a section passing
through the longitudinal axis.
2. Body Plan
Examples: Annelids, arthropods and all vertebrates.
Animals have three types of body plans. The body of bilaterally symmetrical animal has an
(a) Cell Aggregate Plan: In this, the body consists of upper or vertebral dorsal side, a lower ventral side,
aggregation of cell. It is usually found in Sponges. left and right lateral sides, anterior (cephalic) side and
(b) Blind sac Plan: In this, the body has a single cavity with posterior (anal) side.
one opening to the outside. The single opening act as both
 Animal Kingdom 69

(a) Acoelomate: They have no coelom. The space between

body wall and digestive cavity is filled with matrix
(parenchyma).
Examples: Poriferans to Platyhelminthes.
(b) Pseudocoelomate: They have no true coelom. They have a
body cavity partially surrounded by mesoderm. Mesoderm
is present in scattered pouches between ectoderm and
endoderm.
Example: Aschelminthes.
Fig. (a) Radial Symmetry (b) Bilateral symmetry (c) Coelomate (True coelomate or Eucoelomate): They have
body cavity completely surrounded by mesoderm. Coelom is
lined by peritoneal layer and is filled with coelomic fluid.
4. Germ layers
Examples: Annelids to chordates.
yy These are layers of gastrula from which all the body organs
are formed.
yy All cells of the adult organism can be traced to one of
the three germ layers. Some animals have only the inner
and outer germ layers but more complex animals have
mesoderm as well.
Three types of germ layers:
(a) Ectoderm - It is the inner layer which gives rise to the outer
covering of the animal (skin, hair, nails, feathers, and scales)
and the nervous system.
(b) Mesoderm - It gives rise to muscles, skeleton, circulatory
system, kidney, reproductive system
(c) Endoderm - It gives rise to digestive tract and associated
organs.
Fig. 4.3 Diagrammatic sectional view of: (a) coelomate
yy Based on the number of germ layers, animals are two types-
(b) Pscduocoelomate (c) Acoelomate
Diploblastic and Triploblastic.
(i) Diploblastic animals: Cells are arranged in two germ yy Haemocoelomates: Here, the true coelom is reduced and is
layers- outer ectoderm and inner endoderm. Mesoglea may filled with blood. Examples: In Arthropods and molluscs
be present in between ectoderm and endoderm yy Functions of coelom:
Examples:Sponges and Coelenterates. ²² It accommodates visceral organs
(ii) Triploblastic animals: They have three germ layers- Outer ²² Coelomic fluid gives moist environment to visceral
ectoderm, middle mesoderm and inner endoderm. organs, thereby reducing the friction.
Examples: Platyhelminthes (Flat worms) to Chordates ²² It acts as shock absorber.
(mammals). yy True coelom is of two types: Schizocoelom and
Ectoderm Enterocoelom.
Mesoglea (i) Schizocoelom: It develops as a split in the mesoderm sheet.
Endoderm
It occurs in Annelids, Arthropods, and Molluscs.
(ii) Enterocoelom: In this, the mesoderm arises from the wall
of the embryonic gut as hollow outgrowths. It occurs in
Echinoderms, Chordates.

6. Segmentation (Also known as Metamerism)

yy Segmentation is the division or differentiation of the body
(a)
Mesoderm
(b) into distinct proportions called segments.
yy Examples: Annelids, Arthropods.In vertebrates: only
Fig. Germinal layers: (a) Diploblastic (b) Triploblastic internal metamerism is seen.
yy It is of two types:
5. Coelom (Body cavity) (a) Metameric segmentation (True metamerism): In this,
the body is often divided both externally and internally into
yy It is the space between body wall and gut wall. Coelom number of segments (metameres). E.g. Annelids, arthropods
separates the muscles of gut and body wall. and chordates.
yy On the basis of nature of coelom, animals are of 3 types:
Acoelomate, Pseudocoelomate, and Eucoelomate.
 70 BIOLOGY

(b) Pseudometamerism (False metamerism): In this, the body 11. Fertilization

is not internally divided. For e.g. the proglottids (segments
of tapeworms) are budded off from the neck and are not of yy Fertilization is the union of male and female gametes. It is
embryonic origin. of two types:
(a) External fertilization: When fertilization occurs outside
7. Notochord the female body, it is called external fertilization. For e.g.
yy Notochord is a rod-like structure formed during embryonic Starfish, frog etc.
development on the dorsal side. (b) Internal fertilization: When fertilization occurs inside the
yy It is mesodermally derived. female body, it is called external fertilization. E.g. Reptiles,
yy Animals with notochord are called chordates while those birds, mammals.
without notochord are called non-chordates.
12. Development
8. Digestive tract
yy It is the changes that an organism undergoes from its
yy It is the passage where food is taken for digestion, absorption beginning to maturity. It is of two types:
and elimination. It is of two types: (a) Direct development: In this, the young ones resemble
(a) Incomplete digestive tract: It has a single opening called the adults in all respects except colour, size. There is no
mouth that takes food as well as eliminates the undigested intermediate stage in direct development. E.g. Hydra,
food. It is found in Cnidarians and Platyhelminthes.
Earthworm and silver fish.
(b) Complete digestive tract: It has two openings; mouth for
(b) Indirect development: In this, the young ones do not
intake of food and anus for elimination of undigested food.
It is found in Nemathelminthes to chordates. resemble the adults. The young ones usually pass through
one or more intermediate stages before obtaining the shape
9. Digestion of the adults. E.g. Silk moth, housefly, frog.
Metamorphosis: It is the phenomenon of passing through
yy Digestion is the breaking down of complex food molecules
into simple organic form. different juvenile stages before attaining the adult form. E.g.
It is of two types: Silk moth, housefly, Frog, Butterfly
(a) Intracellular digestion that occurs within the cells. In this,
the digestive enzymes are poured into the food vacuoles,
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
where digestion of food takes place. It occurs in protozoans
and sponges. Characteristic features of kingdom Animalia:
(b) Extracellular digestion that occurs outside the cell in yy All animals belonging to kingdom Animalia are multicellular
a cavity. In this the digestive enzymes are poured into
eukaryotes.
the cavity for digestion to take place. It occurs in higher
yy They have heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
invertebrates and all vertebrates.
yy Almost all animals are mobile and they move about in search
10. Excretion of food or for other needs, except for sponges and corals.
They are sedentary.
yy It is the removal of metabolic wastes from the body.
yy It is most diverse group than the plant kingdom.
yy Animals are classified into three types on the basis of
removal of nitrogenous wastes. Broad classification of kingdom Animalia based on
(a) Ammonotelic animals: They excrete ammonia. E.g. common fundamental features
Amoeba, Hydra, Sycon, Earthworm, Crocodiles etc.
(b) Urotelic animals: They excrete urea. E.g. Cartilaginous
fishes, semi-aquatic amphibians, turtles, alligators, mammals
including man.
(c) Uricotelic animals: They excrete uric acid. E.g. Most
insects, some land crustaceans, land snails, lizards, snakes
and birds.
(d) Aminotelic animals: They excrete excess amino acids. E.g.
some mollusks like Limnaea, Unio, some echinoderms
(Asterias).
(e) Guanotelic animals: They excrete guanine. E.g. Spider
 Animal Kingdom 71

PHYLUM PORIFERA (Animals Bearing Pores- The dispersed spongin fibres and number spicules. It also
contains Amoebocytes. They carry nutrients to other
Sponges) cells, aid in reproduction, and produce chemicals that
help make up the spicules of sponges.
yy Members of this phylum are also called sponges.
²² Canal system:In water canal system, water enters
yy Habit and Habitat: They are mainly marine, aquatic
through minute pores (ostia) in the body wall into a
animals. They are sedentary.
central cavity (spongocoel), from where it goes out
yy Body form: Sponges have a porous body wall. The pores
through osculum. Three types of canal systems are
or holes allow water to pass through this animal. Floating
found in sponges.
food particles are caught once they are inside the sponge.
(a) Asconoid type: It is the simplest type of canal system
The pores are of two types: Inhalent pores are called ostia
which is found in Leucosolenia and a few other
while exhalent pores are called oscula.
sponges.
yy Levels of organization: They show cellular level of orga-
(b) Syconoid type: It is more complex than the ascon
nization. The body is little more than a mass of specialized
type. It is found in sycon and some other sponges.
cells, not organized into tissues.
yy Germ layers: The sponges are diploblastic, which means
they have two germ layers. No mesoderm is present.
yy Symmetry: They are asymmetrical, which mean no definite
shape.
yy Coelom: Poriferans are acoelomate. (c) Leuconoid type: It is most complex canal system
yy Body wall: The body of sponges consists of three layers: which is found in Spongilla and some other sponges.In
²² Pinacoderm: It is an outer layer of flattened contractile class Demospongia the leuconoid condition is derived
epithelial cells called pinacocytes. from a larval stage called rhagon.
²² Choanoderm: It is an inner layer of flagellated collar
cells (choanocytes) that circulate sea water within and
through the sponge to bring in food and reproductive
products and help discharge waste products.
²² Mesohyl layer: It is a non-cellular layer found in
between Pinacoderm and choanoderm. It has fine

Fig.: Types of canals system found in sponges

yy Skeleton: Almost all sponges possess an internal skeleton. yy Circulatory system: Circulatory system is absent. Distri-
It may consist of calcareous or siliceous spicules or fine bution of food from the ingesting cells to others is brought
sponging fibres or of both, location in the mesohyl layer. about by wandering amoebocytes of mesohyl layer.
yy Digestion and Digestive system: Digestive system is yy Respiratory system: Respiratory system is absent.
absent. Digestion is intracellular. They have water canal Exchange of gases occurs by diffusion through the plasma
system to gather food. membranes of the cells as in protozoans.
 72 BIOLOGY

yy Excretory system: Excretory system is absent. Removal ectoderm is the outside layer while the endoderm is found
of metabolic wastes also occurs by diffusion through the on the inside layer. A jellylike material is found between
plasma membranes of the cells as in protozoans. Ammonia these 2 layers.
is chief excretory waste. yy Symmetry: They have radial symmetry. This means that
yy Nervous system: It is absent. they can be divided along any plane, through a central axis,
yy Reproductive system: into roughly equal halves.
²² Asexual reproduction is quite common, and occurs yy Coelom: They are acoelomate.
in one of two ways: yy Body wall: The body wall consists of two layers of
♦♦ Fragmentation: Fragments that break off from the cells-outer epidermis and inner gastrodermis. Epidermis
parent animal may become new sponges OR consists of Cnidoblasts or stinging cells.A cnidoblast has
♦♦ Gemmules: Collections of amoebocytes within a nematocysts, a stinging organ which is used for defence
hard, protective outer layer. and offence.
²² Sponges are hermaphrodites. This means male yy Digestive system:
and female sex organs are seen in same individual. ²² The digestive system is incomplete which means
But produce eggs and sperm at different times to that coelenterates have just one opening to the
avoid self-fertilization. This is called sequential digestive cavity. This single opening serves as both
hermaphroditism. its mouth and anus. Digestion is both intracellular
²² Fertilization is internal. and extracellular.
²² The development is indirect and includes a free ²² Food is digested in a gut (gastrovascular cavity) and
swimming larva, the amphiblastula (in sycon) or the resulting particles are absorbed by cells. This
parenchymula (in Leucosolenia) for dispersal of the allows the animal to digest something larger than its
species. own cells. The extracellular digestion of food is an
yy Other features: evolutionary development.
²² Millions of minute pores (ostia) are present. ²² The single opening (mouth/anus) is a two-way
²² Spongocoel (body cavity) and canals are lined with digestive system.
choanocytes(collar cells). yy Mode of nutrition:
²² Body wall is supported by a skeleton made of spicules ²² They are carnivores which capture food with tentacles
and spongin fibres. surrounding the mouth. They capture their prey using
yy Examples: nematocysts.
Leucosolenia (Simplest colonial sponge) ²² A nematocyst is a capsule that contains a coiled,
Sycon (Scypha), threadlike tube. The tube can be sticky or barbed. It
Spongilla (freshwater sponge) also may contain toxic substances. Nematocysts are
Euspongia (Bathsponge) located in cells on the tentacles.
Euplectella (The Venus’Flower basket) ²² Cnidocytes (stinging cells) on the tentacles paralyze
Hyalonema (The glass rope sponge) prey which is then brought into the mouth.Cnidoblasts
Cliona (The Boring sponge) are certain ectodermal defensive cells with a capsule
Chalina (The deadman’s Fingers or The Mermaid’s called nematocyst containing poisonous fluid. They
gloves) are present on the tentacles and the body and is used
for anchorage, defense and to capture prey.
yy Respiratory system: It is absent.
PHYLUM COELENTERATA (Cnidaria) yy Circulatory system: It is absent.
yy Excretory system: Waste products are removed through
yy Members of this phylum are also called Cnidarians.
the body surface.
yy Habit and Habitat: They are mostly marine, aquatic
yy Nervous system: A cnidarian has a simple nervous
animals. They are usually marine, sessile or free-
system. It does not have a control center or brain such as
swimming.
other animals. The nervous system consists of a nerve net
yy Body forms: It varies considerably. Most of them are
that conducts impulses to and from all parts of the body.
polymorphic. Occurrence of more than one type of
Statocyst is a sense organ for balance which is first time
individuals in their colonies performing different functions
developed in cnidarian.
is called polymorphism. E.g. Obelia. Obelia is trimorphic,
yy Skeleton: In coelenterates, body is supported by calcareous
having three kinds of zooids- polyps, blastostyles and
exoskeleton or endoskeleton.
medusa.
yy Reproductive system:
yy Levels of organization:Cnidarians have tissue level of
organization. ²² Reproduction is both by asexual (budding) and
yy Germ layers: They are diploblastic. Their body wall is sexual methods. The cnidarian life cycle begins with
made of 2 cell layers called the ectoderm and endoderm. The the larval form, known as the planula, which is a
 Animal Kingdom 73

small, free-swimming ciliated organism. Following yy Germ layers: They are diploblastic, having ectoderm and
this stage, some cnidarians go through a polyp and a endoderm.
medusa stage. During the polyp stage they produce yy Symmetry: They show biradial (Radial + bilateral)
asexually, whereas during the medusa stage they symmetry. The arrangement of comb plates gives the
produce sexually. These various stages allow the appearance of radial symmetry while the tentacles and
cnidarians to have rapid asexual reproduction (by branching of gastrovascular canals are of bilateral type.
the polyp), dispersal and genetic recombination (by yy Coelom: They are acoelomate.
the medusa), and habitat selection (by the planula yy Digestive system: Digestive system is incomplete.
larva). Digestion is both intracellular and extracellular.
²² Polyp reproduces asexually (budding) and medusa yy Respiratory system: Respiratory system is absent.
sexually. yy Circulatory system: It is absent.
²² Sexes are separate as in jellyfish but lower cnidarians yy Excretory system: Removal of waste products occurs
like the hydra show asexual (budding) as well. Hydra through body surface.
has a great power of regeneration. yy Locomotion: comb like eight ciliary plates called comb
²² Fertilization is external. plates are present on the body. The cilia of these plates help
²² Development is indirect. in swimming. Hence, ctenophores are called comb jellies.
yy Other features: yy Nervous system: They have only a network of neurons.
²² Corals have a skeleton made up of calcium yy Reproductive system:
carbonate. ²² They are hermaphrodite (monoecious).
²² They have a central gastrovascular cavity (coelenteron) ²² They show only sexual reproduction.
with a single opening (mouth) on hypostome. ²² Fertilization is external.
²² Coelenterates exhibit two body forms: polyp and ²² Development is indirect with a ciliated spherical
medusa e.g., Hydra, Aurelia. cydippid larva.
♦♦ Polyp is tubular attached form, with upwardly yy Other features:
directed mouth and tentacles. It represents the ²² Body has eight vertical external rows of ciliated comb
asexual stage. (e.g., sea anemone). plates for locomotion.
♦♦ Medusa is umbrella shaped body called a bell. It ²² They have tentacles present.
is free-swimming form, with downwardly directed ²² They show bioluminescence. Bioluminescence is the
mouth and tentacles. It represents the sexual stage. property of living organism to emit light from body.
e.g., jellyfish. yy Example: Ctenoplana, Pleurobrachia (The sea gooseberry),
²² They exhibit polymorphism and alternation of Hormiphora (The sea walnut).
generation between body forms. This phenomenon
is called as Metagenesis. It occurs in Obelia where
polyp produces medusae asexually and medusae form PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES (Flat Worms)
the polyps sexually.
yy Specialized Cells: yy Members of this phylum are also called as ‘flat worms’.
²² Most coelenterates have tentacles that contain stinging These animals are given their name because of their flattened
cells (Cnidoblasts)that are used for protection and bodies.
capturing food. yy Habit and Habitat: They are mostly endoparasites. Some
²² Their bodies contain a nerve network that allows are free living. Flatworms (e.g., planaria) can be found in
movement of the tentacles and body. marine or aquatic environments, as well as damp terrestrial
yy Examples: Hydra, Obelia (Sea fur), Physalia (Portugese habitats. They are mostly endoparasites in animals including
man of war), Aurelia (The jellyfish), Adamsia (Seaanemone), human beings.
Pennatula (Sea pen)), Gorgonia (Sea fan), Astraea (The star yy Body forms: the body is dorso-ventrally flattened and is
coral), Meandrina sinuosa (The brain coral), Pennatula (The without true segments.
sea pen or sea feather) etc. yy Levels of organization: This phylum shows the first
appearance of organs - a group of tissues that function
as one unit. Thus, they show organ system level of
PHYLUM CTENOPHORA organization.
yy Germ layers: They are triploblastic. Flatworms have 3
yy They are also called as sea walnuts or comb jellies.
distinct tissue layers called the ectoderm, endoderm, and
yy Habit and Habitat: They are exclusively marine. They are
mesoderm or middle layer. Each layer gives rise to the
solitary and pelagic.
various organs and systems of this animal.
yy Body form: Body form is variable.
yy Levels of organization: They show tissue level of yy Symmetry: Flatworms have bilateral symmetry and they
organization. have a definite head and tail region. Bilateral symmetry
allows both the specialization of different body parts and
74 BIOLOGY

cephalization. Cephalization allows animals to move ²² The knob-shaped head of a tapeworm is called a
through and experience their environment head first. scolex. The tapeworm’s body is made of detachable,
yy Coelom: They are acoelomate (without coelom). individual sections called proglottids. A proglottid
yy These acoelomates have a thin body to allow diffusion of contains muscles, nerves, flame cells, and male and
gases and nutrients. femalereproductive organs.
yy Digestive system: In free-living species of flatworms yy Specialized Structures
the digestive system is incomplete which means that the ²² The planaria has a pair of eyespots at its anterior
digestive cavity has only a single opening. The parasitic or front end. These eyespots detect light which
tapeworm has no need for a digestive system because it the planaria avoids so they are less visible to their
absorbs nutrients that are already digested by the host in predators.
which it lives. ²² The tapeworm like other parasitic worms has a thick
yy Respiratory system: It is absent. protective cuticle on the outside of its body. The cuticle
yy Circulatory system: It is absent. protects the worm from being digested by the strong
yy Excretory system: Excess water is removed from the digestive enzymes of its host.
planarian’s body by a system of flame cells. The water yy Examples:Taenia solium (Tape worm), Fasciola (Liver
from flame cells collects in tubules and leaves the body fluke), Planaria.
through pores on the body surface. Thus, flame cells helps
inexcretion and Osmoregulation
yy Nervous system: Nervous system is ladder like. It consists PHYLUM ASCHELMINTHES (Roundworms)
of the brain and two main longitudinal nerve cords connected
at intervals by transverse commissures. yy They are also called ‘round worms’.
yy Sensory organ: yy Habit and Habitat: They are free living, aquatic and
²² At the head, eyespots can detect the presence or terrestrial or parasitic in plants and animals.
absence of light. Primitive eye spots allow planarians yy Body form: They appear circular in cross section. Hence,
to distinguish light and dark. known as round worms. They are unsegmented. Their
²² Sensory cells detect chemicals and movement in water. cylindrical bodies are tapered at both ends and are covered
On each nerve cord, near the head, is a small swelling by a protective cuticle.
called a ganglion (plural, ganglia). The ganglion yy Levels of organization: They show organ system level of
receives messages from the eyespots and sensory cells. organization
The ganglion then communicates with the rest of the yy Germ layers: They are tripoloblastic as they have three
body along the nerve cords. Messages from the nerve tissue layers; ecto, endo and mesoderm.
cords trigger responses in a planarian’s muscle cells. yy Symmetry:They show bilateral symmetry with an anterior
yy Reproductive system: end and a posterior end.
²² Planarians can reproduce asexually. If a planarian is yy Coelom: Roundworms have a pseudocoelom, a fluid-filled
damaged, it has the ability to regenerate, or regrow, bodycavity partly lined with mesoderm.
new body parts. yy Digestive system: Roundworms have a complete digestive
²² Regeneration is the replacement or regrowth of system with well-developed muscular pharynx. Their
missing body parts. Missing body parts are replaced digestive tract has 2 openings; a mouth to ingest food and
through cell division. an anus to egest waste.Having a separate mouth and anus
²² Planarians are sexual hermaphrodites with the creates a one-way digestive system.
reproductive system only appearing during mating yy Respiratory system: It is absent.
season. yy Circulatory system: It is absent.
²² Fertilization is internal. yy Excretory system: Wastes are removed through excretory
²² Development is indirect with many larval stages. In pore. In Ascaris, renette cell is present.
liver fluke miracidium, sporocyst, redia, cercaria, yy Nervous system: It is present.
and metacercaria larvae are present. In tapeworm, yy Reproductive system:
onchosphere, hexacanth and cysticercus larvae are ²² S e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n w i t h s e p a r a t e s e x e s
found. (Dioecious).
yy Other features ²² Fertilization is internal.
²² Some members like Planaria have high regeneration ²² Development may be direct (where young ones
capacity. resemble the adult) or indirect. Filariform larva is
²² Members have unsegmented, dorso-ventrally flattened present in Ancylostoma (hook worm), microfilaria
body (except in tape worms). larva is found in Wuchereria (filarial worm) and
²² Hooks and suckers are present in parasitic forms.
Rhabditiform larva is present in Ascaris and Enterobius
²² Some of them absorb nutrients from the host through
(pin worm).
their body surface.
 Animal Kingdom 75

yy Other features yy Excretory system: Nephridia are excretory structures that

²² They have syncytialepidermis. eliminate metabolic wastes from nearly every segment.
²² They have thick cuticle. yy Nervous system: Neural system consists of paired ganglia
²² Members belonging to this phylum show sexual (sing. ganglion) connected by lateral nerves to a double
dimorphism, where male and female show ventral nerve cord. Nerve cords connect the brain to nerve
morphological difference. Often females are longer centers that are found in each segment of the worm. These
than males. nerve centers are called ganglia.
Examples yy Locomotory organs are setae (in earthworm) or parapodia
yy Ascaris lumbricoides (Roundworm), Ancylostoma (in Neries).
duodenale (Hookworm), Wuchereria bancrofti (Filarial yy Reproductive system:
worm), Enterobius vermicularis (pin worm). ²² Annelids show sexual reproduction.
yy Trichinella (The Trichina worm): It is found in the small ²² Nereis is dioecious and aquatic annelid while
intestine of human beings. The disease caused by them is earthworm and leeches are monoecious.
called trichinosis. ²² Development is indirect. It includes trochophore
larva.
²² Some annelids show separate sexes while some are
PHYLUM ANNELIDA (The segmented animals) hermaphrodites.
yy Other features
yy They are also called as “segmented worms”. Body is
²² Annelids show true segmentation.
metamerically segmented, hence the phylum name Annelida
²² Animals have longitudinal and circular muscles in
(Latin, annulus: little ring).
both body wall and the wall of the alimentary canal
yy Habit and Habitat: They may be aquatic or terrestrial,
for locomotion.
free-living or parasitic.
²² They have haemoglobin in the plasma.
yy Body Plan: They have metameric segmentation. Annelids
yy Examples
have similar shape as the roundworm but the body is
²² Neanthes (Nereis), Pheretima (Earthworm),
segmented both internally and externally which allows for
Hirudinaria granulosa. (Blood sucking cattle
a quicker response for movement. Each segment has its
Leech).
own muscles and are called metameres. By using these
separated muscles, a worm can shorten and lengthen its
body to move. PHYLUM ARTHROPODA (Animals with jointed legs)
yy Segmentation also allows for specialization of body tissues.
Groups of segments work together for a particular purpose or yy Numbers: Arthropods are the most successful of any animal
function. Certain segments have adaptations or modifications group. This is mainly due to the success of insects, which
for sensing surroundings and for reproduction. has more than a million different species.
yy The evolutionary advantage is that by changing one yy Adaptations for success:
segment, it can create a new body part without affecting ²² Segments have specialized functions.
other parts. ²² Well defined head with excellent sensory apparatus.
yy Although segmentation is continued through all other phyla ²² Jointed appendages. Some are sensory while some are
(including humans) it is not always obvious. Examples of for feeding, manipulating, and moving.
segmentation in humans are seen in muscles and in the ²² Exoskeleton.
spine. ²² Waste from the blood is excreted as solid crystals.
yy Levels of organization: They show organ system level of yy Habit and Habitat: They are cosmopolitan. Arthropods
organization. are found in all habitats and are the most numerous and
yy Germ layers: They are triploblastic. diverse of invertebrates.
yy Symmetry: They have Bilateral symmetry: anterior and yy Body form: Arthropods have a segmented body with paired
posterior ends; dorsal and ventral surfaces. jointed appendages. The body consists of head, thorax and
yy Coelom: They are coelomate. They are the first animal to abdomen.
have a true schizocoelomic coelom. yy Levels of organization: They have organ system level of
yy Digestive system: Segmented worms have a complete organisation.
digestive system and this set-up is often referred to as a yy Germ layers: They are triploblastic.
tube-within-a-tube body plan. yy Symmetry: They show bilateral symmetry.
yy Respiratory system: They have cutaneous respiration yy Coelom: The true coelom is greatly reduced and is filled
(skin). Some have branchial (gill) respiration. with blood. They are haemocoelomates.
yy Circulatory system: Circulatory system is closed. There is yy Exoskeleton:The exoskeleton is rigid and made of chitin. It
no real heart but the muscular sections of some blood vessels provides protection and limits water loss. The exoskeleton is
are the beginnings of a more advanced system. strong but its weight limits the size of arthropods. To become
76 BIOLOGY

larger, animals require a strong, flexible endoskeleton. A yy Other features

disadvantage is that the exoskeleton does not grow.An ²² This is the largest phylum of kingdom Animalia.
exoskeleton must be shed periodically. Shedding the old ²² Jointed appendages are a major advancement because
exoskeleton is called moulting. they can be specialized for different functions.
yy Digestive system: Digestive system is complete and well ²² Body is covered by chitinous cuticle (exoskeleton).
developed. Arthropods show a wide variety of feeding ²² Sensory organs (antennae, compound &simple eyes,
strategies that are dependent on their feeding appendages. statocysts or balance organs) are present.
yy Mouth parts: The mouth parts of most arthropods include yy Examples: Palamneus (Scorpion), Aranea (Spider),
one pair of jaws called. The mandibles are adapted for Palaemon (Prawn), Peripatus (The walking worm): It is a
holding, chewing, sucking, or biting the different foods connecting link between annelida and arthropoda.
eaten by arthropods. Economically important insects: Apis (honey bee), Bombyx
yy Respiratory system: Respiration takes place either by gills, (silk worm),Laccifer (lac insect).
book gills, lungs or tracheal system. Vectors: Mosquitoes (Anopheles, Culex and Aedes),
²² Aquatic arthropods (crustaceans) use gills to get Housefly etc.
oxygen from the water and release carbon dioxide Gregarious pest: Locusta (Locust).
into the water. Living fossil: Limulus (King crab). Horseshoe crabs
²² Land arthropods either have a system of tracheal (Limulus) are considered to be living fossils.
tubes or book lungs. Most insects have tracheal Trilobites are fossil arthropods, about 600 million years
tubes, a network of hollow air passages that carry air old.
throughout the body. Muscle activity helps pump the
air through the tracheal tubes. Air enters and leaves
the tracheal tubes through openings on the thorax and PHYLUM MOLLUSCA (Soft Bodied Animals)
abdomen called spiracles.
²² Arachnids (like spider) exchange gases through a yy The members of this phylum are also known as soft-bodied
simple lung. animals.
yy Circulatory system: Circulation is open type. yy Common features found in all molluscs: Bilateral
yy Excretory system: Excretion occurs either by Antennary symmetry, a coelom, a digestive tract with two openings, a
glands or Malpighian tubules or coxal glands. muscular foot, and a mantle.
yy Nervous system:Well-developed overall.A nerve ring yy Habit and Habitat: They are generally aquatic. Few are
followed by a double ventral ganglionated nerve cord terrestrial.
²² Crustaceans are able to detect tiny vibrations in the yy Body Plan: Molluscs have a soft, unsegmented body
water and have compound eyes able to form crude and often move with a strong muscular foot on its ventral
images. surface. All molluscs, except for the bivalves, show clear
²² Insects have highly developed sensory gear and cephalization. The heavy shell makes these animals largely
most can detect stimuli outside the human range of sessile so cephalization is not required. Neopiliana is a
detection. Most have a few simple eyes and a pair of segmented mollusc.
compound eyes which enable them to form images. yy Levels of organization: They show organ system level of
They cannot focus well but are excellent for detecting organisation.
movement. Some insects have tiny hairs which detect yy Germ layers: They are triploblastic.
air vibrations. yy Symmetry: They show bilateral symmetry. In some
yy Endocrine system: Endocrine glands are present which mollusks like Pila due to torsion (twisting) during growth,
secrete hormones. Some arthropods particularly insects the adults become asymmetrical.
excretes pheromones. Pheromones are chemicals released yy Coelom: Coelom is greatly reduced. They are
by one individual to affect the behaviour of another Haemocoleomates.
individual. Sex pheromones are used to attract a mate. yy Nutrition: Snails and many other mollusks use a radula
yy Reproductive system: to obtain food. A radula is a structure located in the mouth
²² Sexes are separate. of mollusks. Similar to a rough file, the radula is a tongue
²² External fertilization in aquatic forms. Internal fertil- like organ with rows of teeth. Molluscs use their radulas
ization in land forms. Mostly oviparous. Development to drill, scrape, grate, and even to cut food. Octopuses and
is director indirect. In indirect development, there is squids capture food with their tentacles. They use their
metamorphosis. radulas to tear up the food they have caught. Some mollusks
yy Parthenogenesis: It is the process of development of an are grazers. Others, including bivalves, are filter feeders.
egg into a complete individual without fertilization by a They do not have radulas. Instead, they filter their food
sperm. E.g. Male honey bees (Drones) are produced by from the water.
parthenogenesis. yy Digestive system: Digestive system is complete and well
developed.
Animal Kingdom 77

²² The longer digestive tract with specialized organs teeth and is used to scrape food from the surface of
allows better digestion and more diverse food. plants and rocks. It is absent in bivalves.
²² Gastropods scrape food from surfaces. Bivalves ²² The mantle: The mantle is a fold of skin that surrounds
use the gills to filter food particles from the water. the body organs. The mantle acts like a gland because
Cephalopods are predators with a hard beak for tearing it is capable of secretion. These secretions harden to
and biting. help form the shells of mollusks.
yy Respiratory system: They have gills (ctenidia) in aquatic ²² Body is covered by calcareous shell. It is unsegmented
forms and pulmonary sac in terrestrial forms.Gills are over visceral hump.
specialized parts of the mantle. They are a system of tiny ²² Shell is secreted by mantle. Mantle is the soft and
strands that contain a rich supply of blood for transporting spongy layer of skin, which covers visceral hump. The
gases. Gills increase the surface area where carbon dioxide mantle encloses a cavity called mantle cavity.
and oxygen are exchanged. In snails and slugs that live on yy Examples: Pila (Apple Snail), Achatina (Land snail),
land, the mantle cavity appears to have become a primitive Pinctada (Pearl Oyster), Sepia (Cuttlefish), Loligo (Squid),
lung. Octopus (Devil fish), Aplysia (Sea Hare), Dentalium
yy Circulatory system: Circulatory system is open type. (Elephant’s Tusk shell),Chaetopleura (Chiton), Unio (Fresh
²² A large body cavity requires the development of a water Mussel),
circulatory system. A fluid (often blood) is circulated Neopilina is a connecting link between annelida and
by the contraction of a muscular heart (or hearts). mollusca
Blood carries nutrients and oxygen to cells and carries
wastes and carbon dioxide away.
²² Only cephalopods (cuttle fish) have a closed circulatory PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA (The Spiny Skinned
system with a heart and blood vessels. The other Animals)
molluscs have an open circulatory system.
²² Blood is usually blue due to the presence of copper yy They are also known as spiny bodied organisms.
containing blue respiratory pigment called haemo- yy Habit and Habitat: All are exclusively marine living
cyanin. mainly on the ocean floor.
yy Excretory system: excretory organs are one or two pairs yy Echinoderms are deuterostomes. Echinoderms have a
of sac like kidneys. Gills are also excretory in function. close relationship to chordates because chordates are also
Ammonia is chief excretory matter. deuterostomes.
yy Nervous system: Molluscs have simple nervous systems. yy Body:The body is star shaped, spherical or cylindrical. It
²² The nervous system is highly developed in cephalopods lacks head. Echinoderms have an internal, limy skeleton
because they are predators. They have a highly and a spiny outside surface or skin. These structures give
developed brain which allows them to learn and solve both support and protection.
problems. Their image-forming eyes give them quite yy Levels of organization: They show organ system level of
good vision. organisation.
²² Octopuses have complex eyes that are similar to the yy Germ layers: They are triploblastic.
eyes of humans. In some mollusks, eyes are present yy Symmetry: The adults are radially symmetrical but larvae
over stalks called ommatophores. are bilaterally symmetrical.
²² Osphradium is present in some molluscs for testing yy Coelom: They are coelomate animals.They have true
chemical and physical nature of water. enterocoelic coelom.
yy Reproductive system: yy Pedicellariae and Spines: Echinoderms bear spines and
²² Most molluscs show sexual reproduction with separate pedicellariae. Spines are protective in function while
sexes. pedicellariae keep the body surface clear of debris and
²² Development is indirect. It includes a characteristic minute organisms.
larva, veliger, trochophore or glochidium. yy Digestive system: Digestive system is complete. Mouth
²² They are oviparous. is present on the lower (ventral) side and anus on upper
²² Young care is highly developed in the octopus. (dorsal) side.
yy Other Features        yy Respiratory system: Respiratory organs are dermal
²² Molluscs are second largest phylum of animals and branchiae (gills) or papulae and tube feet.
second most successful land animals, next to insects. yy Circulatory system: Circulatory system is reduced and
There are more terrestrial molluscs than terrestrial open type.
vertebrates. yy Excretory system: Excretory system is absent. Diffusion
²² They have univalve or bivalve calcareous shell. through gills. Ammonia is the chief excretory matter.
²² The radula: Molluscs are well known for their tongue- yy Nervous system: An echinoderm has a simple nervous
like organ called the radula which has many rows of system. It consists of a nerve ring that surrounds the mouth.
 78 BIOLOGY

Echinoderms do not have heads or brains. Nerves extend yy Reproductive system:

from the nerve ring down into each ray. Nerves in the rays ²² It is mostly sexual.
are called radial nerves. The radial nerves branch out into ²² Sexes are separate.
a network of nerves. This nerve network provides sensory ²² Fertilization external.
information to the animal. ²² Development is indirect through a free swimming
yy Reproductive system: tornaria larva.
²² Sexes are separate. yy Examples: Balanoglossus (Tongue worm), Saccoglossus,
²² Fertilization is external. Rhabdopleura.
²² Development is indirect with free swimming larva.
yy Other Features
²² Calcareous Endoskeleton (ossicles) present. PHYLUM CHORDATA
²² The skeleton of all echinoderms is mostly calcium
Characteristic Features
carbonate, the compound that makes up limestone.
²² A thin epidermis, or outer layer of skin, covers the yy Habit and Habitat: They are marine, freshwater, or
endoskeleton. terrestrial.
²² All echinoderms have water vascular system for yy Symmetry: Chordates have bilateral symmetry.
locomotion, respiration, food capture and transport. yy Characteristic features of chordates:
²² Water-vascular System (Ambulacral system): ²² Chordates have a flexible, supporting rod or notochord
Echinoderms like sea stars and sea urchins are well
on their dorsal side. In the invertebrates the notochord
known for their water-vascular system which consists
of water-filled tubes that run through their body. By remains stiff and flexible. In the vertebrates, cartilage
moving water in and out of these tubes echinoderms or bone replaces the notochord to form a supporting
can move on “jets” of water or use their tubed feet backbone.Notochord is a flexible rod located in the
as suction cups. In water vascular system, sea water mid dorsal line between the alimentary canal and the
enters through a porous plate called madreporite. It nerve cord in the embryo.
consists of radiating canals and tube feet (podia) filled ²² They have dorsal hollow nerve cord.
with water. ²² They have paired pharyngeal gill slits.
²² Echinoderms have great power of autotomy and ²² Heart is ventral.
regeneration. ²² They have post anal tail.
yy Examples: Asterias (Starfish), Echinus (Sea Urchin),
Echinocardium, Antedon (Sea Lily), Cucumaria (Sea
Cucumber), Ophiura (Brittle Star).

PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA
yy It consists of small worm-like organisms.
yy Hemichordates were earlier placed as a sub-phylum under
Phylum Chordata. Fig. Chordata characteristics
yy Habit and Habitat: The members belonging to this group
are exclusively marine. Differences between Chordata and Non-Chordata
yy Body form: Body is cylindrical, and composed of an
Chordata Non chordata
anterior proboscis, acollar and a long trunk.
yy Levels of organization: They have organ system level of Notochord is found in embryonic Notochord is absent.
organization. stage
yy Germ layers: They are triploblastic. Central nervous system is dorsal, Central nervous system is ventral,
yy Symmetry: They have bilateral symmetry. hollow and single. solid and double.
yy Coelom: Hemichordates are enterocoelous. Pharyngeal gill slits are present. Pharyngeal gill slits are absent.
yy Digestive system: Digestive system isComplete.
Chordates have ventral heart. They have dorsal heart. (If present).
yy Respiratory system: Respiration takes place through
gills. Post anal tail is present. Post anal tail is absent.
yy Circulatory system: Circulatory system is open type. Phylum Chordate is Divided into Three Sub Phyla: Urochordata,
yy Excretory system: Excretory organ is proboscis gland. Cephalochordata, and Vertebrata.
yy Nervous system: Nervous system is simple.
 Animal Kingdom 79

1. S ub Phylum: Urochordata (Also known as Classification of sub phylum Vertebrata

Tunicata; uro:tail) Vertebrata

Division
Characteristic Features
yy Habit and Habitat:They are exclusively marine. Agnatha Gnathostomata
(lacks jaw) (bears jaw)
yy Notochord is present only in larval tail.
yy Body is covered by test made up of tunicin Super Class
yy They show retrogressive metamorphosis. Tetrapoda
Pisces
Note: Transformation of a larva into an adult is known as (bear fins) (bear limbs)
metamorphosis. If the adult loses some advanced characters
Class Class Class
of the larva, it is called retrogressive metamorphosis. 1. Cyclostomata 1. Chondrichthyes 1. Amphibia
yy Reproduction: They are hermaphrodite (Male and female 2. Osteichthyes 2. Reptilia
3. Aves
sex organs are seen in same individual). 4. Mammals
yy Examples: Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum, Herdmania (Sea
squirt), Ciona, Botryllus (colonial Urochordata), Pyrosoma Sub phylum Vertebrata has 2 divisions- Agnatha and Gnathostomata
etc. A. Sub Division: Agnatha (Jawless Vertebrates)
yy Pyrosoma is bioluminescent colonial Urochordata.
Includes 1 class: Cyclostomata
2. Sub Phylum: Celphalochordata (Cephalo: head) Class : Cyclostomata (Circular mouthed fishes)
Characteristic Features
Characteristic Features
yy Habit and Habitat: All members of the class live as
yy Notochord extends from head to tail region and is persistent ectoparasites on some fishes.
throughout the life. yy They have elongated body.
yy Habit and Habitat: They are exclusively marine. yy They have sucking and circular mouth without jaws.
yy They are fish-like. yy Body is devoid of scales and paired fins.
yy Their cranium and vertebral column are cartilaginous.
yy Coelom: They have no definite coelom.
yy Respiratory system: Cyclostomes have 6-15 pairs of gill
yy Sexes are separate. slits for respiration.
yy Examples: Branchiostoma (Amphioxus or Lancelet) yy Circulatory system: Circulation is of closed type.
yy Endoskeleton: Endoskeleton is cartilaginous.
3. Sub Phylum: Vertebrata yy Reproduction: They are usually marine, but migrate for
spawning to fresh water. After spawning, they die. Their
Characteristic Features larvae, after metamorphosis,return to ocean.
yy All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not yy Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).
vertebrates.
B. Sub Division: Gnathostomata (The Jawed Vertebrates)
yy Notochord: They possess notochord only during the
embryonic period. Notochord gets replaced by a cartilaginous Includes 2 super classes: Pisces and Tetrapoda
or bony vertebral columnin the adult. i. Super Class: Pisces (Fishes- Bear Fins):
Super class Pisces has 2 classes: Chondrichthyes and
yy Coelom:Coelom is well developed.
Osteichthyes.
yy Cephalization: There is high degree of cephalization.
(a) Class Chondrichthyes (The cartilaginous fishes)
yy Digestive system: Digestive tract is complete
yy Habit and Habitat:They are usually marine animals.
yy Circulatory system: It is closed type. It consists of blood
yy General Characters:
vascular and lymphatic systems. They have ventral muscular
²² They have a superior, streamlined design for
heart.
swimming.
yy Respiratory system: Respiratory organs may be gills, skin, ²² They have cartilaginous endoskeleton.
buccopharyngeal cavity or lungs. ²² They have heterocercal caudal fin.
yy Excretory organ: They have kidneys for excretion and ²² They have gill slits and without operculum, except
osmoregulation. Chimaeras.
yy Skeletal system: They all have paired appendages which ²² Skin is tough with placoid scaled that are dermal in
may be fins or limbs. origin.
²² Jaws are well developed. Mouth is located ventrally.
 80 BIOLOGY

Development of the moveable jaw allowed these huge surface area. Water is then forced out slits in the
animals to eat larger prey and become top predators. side of the throat.
²² Teeth are modified placoid scales which are backwardly ²² Heart is 2 chambered (1 auricle + 1 ventricle).
directed. ²² Kidneys are mesonephric. Ammonia is the chief
²² They lack air bladder.Thus, they have to swim nitrogenous waste.
constantly to avoid sinking. ²² The lateral line system is well-developed.
²² They are cold blooded animals (Poikilotherms). Cold ²² The nervous system is quite developed to allow for
blooded animals lack the capacity to regulate the body some complex behaviours and movement.
temperature. ²² Although their vision is not great, they have quite a
²² Heart is 2-chambered. (1 Auricle + 1 Ventricle). Blood good sense of smell.
that no longer has oxygen flows into one chamber ²² Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external.
of the heart from the body tissues. The second heart ²² They are mostly oviparous and development is
chamber pumps blood directly to the capillaries located direct.
in the fish’s gills. Oxygen is picked up from the water ²² Examples:
passing over the gills. ♦♦ Marine fishes: Exocoetus(flying fish),
²² They have very keen sense of smell. They can detect Hippocampus (sea horse), Sardine,Mackeral,
a drop of blood in 100 L of sea water. Tuna,Echeneis(suckerfish), Pomfret,Cybium,
²² The lateral line - a series of small pits along the Lophius (Angler fish).
animal’s body allow the animals to detect vibrations in ♦♦ Fresh water fishes: Labeo (Rohu),Catla (Katla),
the water. The sound receptors of terrestrial vertebrates Clarias (Magur), Anguilla, Mystus, Heteropneustes,
may have evolved from these organs. Tilapia, Anabas (Climbing perch)
²² Sexes are separate. In males, pelvic fins bear claspers, ²² Lung fishes have three chambered heart. (2 auricles
which are used for copulation. + 1 ventricle).
²² Fertilization is internal which is advanced for a fish.
²² Many of them are viviparous. Eggs generally develop Super class: Tetrapoda (Bear Limbs)
inside the female’s body, and young are born alive. It has 4 classes: Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia
²² Some of them have electric organs (e.g. Torpedo), and
some possess poison sting (e.g. Trygon). (a) Class Amphibia (amphi: dual, bios: life)
²² Examples: Scoliodon (Dogfish), Pristis (Saw fish), yy Characteristic features:
Trygon (Sting ray), Torpedo (Electric ray), Rhinobatus yy Amphibians are the first tetrapods to invade the land. The
(Guitar fish), Chimaera, etc. juvenile phase of the life cycle is dependent on water,
where gas exchange occurs through gills. The adult phase
(b) Class Osteichthyes (The Bony fishes) is less dependent on water and gas exchange occurs through
yy Habit and Habitat:They include both marine and fresh lungs.
water fishes. yy Amphibians have aquatic larval life and terrestrial adult
yy Characteristic features: life.
²² Bony fishes developed a heavy skeleton made yy They require a watery environment for breeding.
completely of bone. A backbone surrounds the spinal yy Body is divisible into head and trunk.
cord and the brain is fully encased in a protective yy Skin is moist without scales.
skull. yy Eyes have eyelids.
²² They have homocercal caudal fin. yy A tympanum represents ear.
²² Mouth is terminal. yy Two pairs of limbs are used for locomotion except for
²² They have four pairs of gills covered by an operculum caecilians.
on each side. yy Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts opens into
²² Skin is covered with cycloid, ctenoid and ganoid a Cloaca which opens to exterior.
scales. yy They are Poikilotherms (cold blooded animals).
²² They have air bladder which regulates buoyancy. yy Respiration is by gills (in larva), lungs and skin (in
²² Their swim bladder is a gas-filled sac that allows the adults).
animal to float at any depth in the water (sharks must yy Amphibians have a three-chambered heart (2 auricles + 1
move through the water to avoid sinking). ventricle). Blood from the lungs (pulmonary circuit) goes
²² The body is covered with a layer of mucous to to one atrium while blood from the body (systemic circuit)
facilitate gliding through the water and to protect goes to the other atrium. Both atria empty into the ventricle
from parasites. where the blood is mixed.
²² Gills extract dissolved oxygen from the water around yy The advantage of this system is that there is higher pressure
them. Water is brought in through the mouth and passes in vessels that lead to both the lungs and body.
over filaments rich in blood vessels which provide a yy Kidneys are mesonephric. Larvae and tailed amphibians
 Animal Kingdom 81

(e.g. salamanders) are ammonotelic. Frogs and toads are tissues. Land animals require more energy than aquatic
ureotelic. animals.
yy Fertilisation is external. However in Salamander and ²² Crocodiles are ammonotelic. Turtles and alligators
Ichthyophsis fertilization is internal. areureotelic. Lizards and snakes are uricotelic.
yy They are mostly oviparous, except for Salamandra ²² Most have a good sense of smell but poor eyesight.
salamandra, which is viviparous. ²² Snakes and lizards also have a keen sense of smell.
yy Development is indirect. The Jacobson’s organ is a pit like structure located
yy External fertilization requires that sperm swim through in the roof of the mouth in both snakes and lizards.
water to the egg so the animals must stay in or near water Special cells in the Jacobson’s organ help the animal
for reproduction. identify and differentiate the smells found in the air
yy The eggs do not have an outer covering or shell and therefore molecules.
are not protected against drying out. ²² Snake do not possess ears. Most do not have hearing
yy Adaptations to live on land as we think of it. They have membranes on the sides
²² Legs for movement and to support body weight. of the head to detect vibrations.
²² Lungs replaced gills because the thin filaments of the ²² Most reptiles reproduce by laying eggs on dry land.
gills would clump together out of water. Some snakes give live birth to well-developed
²² Improved heart to deliver more oxygen to walking young.
muscles. ²² All reptiles have internal fertilization.
²² Eggs are laid in water to prevent them drying out. ²² They are oviparous.The amniotic egg is encased in a
²² Most species live close to water to prevent the skin water-tight, leathery shell covering.
from drying out. ²² Development is direct.
yy Examples: Bufo (Toad), Rana(Frog), Hyla (Treefrog), ²² Most reptiles do not care for their young.
Salamandra(Salamander),Ichthyophis(Limblessamphibi Examples: Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise), Chameleon
a),Ambystoma (Tigersalamander), Rhacophorus (Flying (Treelizard), Calotes (Garden lizard), Crocodilus (Crocodile),
frog), Necturus (Mud puppy), Amphiuma (Congo eel), Alligator, Gavialis (gharial), Hemidactylus (Walllizard),
Salamandra, Siren (Mud eel), Ambystoma, Triturus Sphenodon (Tautara), Draco (flying dragon or flying lizard),
(newt),Uraeotyphlus, Ichythyopis (Blind worm) etc. Phrynosoma (hornedlizard), Varanus (monitor).
Poisonous snakes: Naja (Cobra), Bangarus (Krait), Vipera
(b) Class Reptilia (Latin. Repre: to crawl-Creeping
(Viper), Crotalus (rattle snake), Enhydrina (sea snake)
vertebrates)
etc.
yy Habit and habitat: They are mostly terrestrial. Non-poisonous snakes: Python,Typhlos (blind snake),
yy Characteristic features: Dryophis (tree snake).
²² Reptilians first evolved during the Carboniferous
time (c) Class Aves (Latin. Avis:bird)
²² Mesozoic Era is called the Age of Reptiles yy Habit and Habitat: They are mostly terrestrial.
²² They have creeping and crawling mode of locomo- yy Characteristic features:
tion. ²² They have spindle shaped body to offer minimum
²² Body is covered by dry and cornified skin, and resistance to the wind.
epidermal scales or scutes. ²² Members of this class have feathers. Most of them
²² Tympanum represents ear can fly except for few birds. Birds that cannot fly are
²² Limbs are 2 pairs (if present). known as flightless birds. Example: Ostrich, Emu,
²² They are poikilotherms (cold blooded animals). Kiwi and Penguin.
²² Snakes and lizards shed their scales as skin cast. ²² Their success is derived from the development of
the feather which allows them to fly. Feathers are
²² Reptiles have more efficient lungs than amphibians.
lightweight, modified protein scales. Feathers provide
Reptiles do not need to use their skin for gas exchange
insulation and enable a bird to fly. Birds frequently run
because the lungs are sufficient.
their bills or beaks through their feathers. This process,
²² They have a thick, scaly skin with keratin that makes called preening, keeps the feathers in good condition
skin impermeable to water and gases. for flight. When it preens, a bird also rubs oil from a
²² Most reptiles, like amphibians, have three-chambered gland located near the tail onto the feathers. Water
hearts. birds must do this in order to waterproof their feathers.
²² Some reptiles, including crocodiles and alligators, ²² Scales on their legs and feet and claws on their toes
have four chambered hearts. A four-chambered are reptilian characteristics. These are made of keratin.
heart completely separates the supply of blood with ²² The beak and feet are adapted to suit the bird’s
oxygen from the blood that does not have oxygen.
lifestyle.
This separation allows more oxygen to reach body
²² Forelimbs are modified into wings.
82 BIOLOGY

²² Hind limbs have scales and are modified for walking, ²² The skeleton is made of hollow bones to reduce
swimming, or clasping tree branches. weight.
²² Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the ²² The breastbone is enlarged for attachment of strong
base of the tail. flight muscles.
²² Birds have no teeth.Birds eat small amounts of food ²² Females have only one ovary.
often and digestion is very fast to minimize the yy Fossil Record: Archaeopteryx is the earliest known bird in
weight during flight. Birds must consume enough the fossil record. It is considered the possible link between
food to provide the energy needed for endothermy birds and reptiles.
and flight. Examples: Corvus (Crow),Columba (Pigeon),Psittacula (Parrot),
²² Digestive tract has additional chambers- the crop and Struthio (Ostrich), Pavo (Peacock), Gullus (Fowl), Bubo, (Owl),
Aptenodytes (Penguin), Neophron (Vulture), Apteryx (Kiwi), Rhea,
gizzard.
Dromaius (Emu) etc.
²² Respiration is by lungs. Air sacs are connected to lungs
to supplement respiration. (d) Class Mammalia (Latin. Mamma:breast)
²² They have bony endoskeleton.
Characteristic Features
²² Bones are long, hollow and pneumatic, which assist
in flying. yy These animals have mammary glands (milk producing
²² They are homoiotherms (warm-blooded animals). glands) to nourish young ones.Young are born relatively
Homoiotherms can maintain a constant body helpless but are fed milk and cared for by one or both
parents. Most young are born live.
temperature.
yy Milk is 95% water but is rich in fat, sugar, protein.
²² Birds have a double circulatory system with 2 atria
yy They are homoiotherms (warm blooded animals).
and 2 ventricles. yy They have 2 pairs of limbs adapted for walking, running,
²² They don’t have urinary bladder, except for Rhea. climbing, burrowing, swimming or flying.
²² Nervous system is highly developed with excellent yy All mammals have hair. Mammal hair is made of the protein
vision. This is required for flight. keratin. Hair may have evolved from scales.
²² Smell and taste are not as good although hearing is yy Functions of hair:
excellent. yy Hair provides insulation and waterproofing, which conserve
²² The well-developed cerebrum allows for complex body heat. If body heat becomes too high, mammals have
behaviour and learning. The cerebellum is also well- internal mechanisms that signal the body to cool off.
developed to allow the complex muscle movements yy Note that marine mammals have blubber in addition to
required for flight. or instead of hair. The lack of hair minimizes drag in the
²² Birds have internal fertilization and produce hard- water.
shelled, amniotic eggs. yy It provides camouflage.
²² Development is direct. yy Whiskers function as sensory structures.
yy It may serve as defensive weapons as in porcupines.
²² Birds exhibit complex behaviour including parental
yy Mammals cool by panting and through the actions of sweat
care.
glands. Panting releases water from the nose and mouth, this
²² T.H. Huxley said “birds are glorified reptiles”. result in a loss of body heat. Sweat glands secrete moisture
²² The bird Albatross can fly throughout the day without onto the surface of the skin. As the moisture evaporates, it
flapping its wings even once. transfersheat from the body to the surrounding air.
yy Anatomical features related to flight yy Mammals have a diversity of teeth for different kinds of
²² Forelimbs have developed into wings and feathers foods.
provide lift. Flight muscles are called pectorals and yy They have different types of teeth in jaw- Heterodont,
are attached to wing and keeled sternum. thecodont, diphyodont. Fish, amphibians, and reptiles have
²² The breast bone is called the sternum. The sternum teeth that are all similar
supports the thrust and power that the muscles produce yy Mammals walk more efficiently than reptiles because their
when the wings move to get the bird off the ground. legs are positioned further under their body.
Feathers and wings are adaptations that allow birds yy Respiration is by lungs.More efficient breathing results from
to fly. the diaphragm muscle.
²² Furculum or wish bone is a fused collarbone that yy Mammals have a four chambered heart. Renal portal system
is absent.
stabilizes bird in flight.
yy Mammals have well-developed sense organs and a large
²² The bony or cartilaginous tail has been replaced by
brain with a large cerebrum.
feathers.
Animal Kingdom 83

yy They have external ear (Pinnae) to some mouse and wolf relatives in Australia. Marsupial
yy Sexes are separate. young begin development in the female’s body.
yy Fertilisation is internal. (iii) Placental mammals give birth to well-developed young.
yy They are viviparous (except for Echidna and Platypus). Nutrients, water, and oxygen pass from mother to foetus
Echidna and Platypus are egg laying mammals. while wastes pass from foetus to mother.
yy Development is direct. Examples: Ornithorhynchus (Platypus), Macropus (Kangaroo),
yy Types of mammals: Pteropus (flyingfox), Camelus (Camel), Macaca (Monkey), Rattus
(i) Monotremes (one hole) are egg-laying mammals which (Rat), Canis (dog), Felis (Cat), Elephas (Elephant), Equus (Horse),
include the duck-billed Platypus and spiny anteater. Delphinus (Common Dolphin), Pantheratigris (Tiger), Panthera
(ii) Marsupials (marsupium, L - pouch) are pouched-mammals leo (lion).
which includes opossums, kangaroos, and koalas in addition
 Chapter
Morphology of
5 Flowering Plants

yy Morphology is the branch of biology which deals with the

study of form, structure and relative position of different
organs.
yy Flowering plants (or angiosperms) are seed bearing plants in
which seeds are always enclosed in a ovary inside the fruits
and the sporophylls are organized into flowers.
yy These plants have been classified into monocots and
dicots.
yy Plant morphology refers to the study of external form and
structure of plants.
yy The flowering plants consists of an axis, root system and
shoot system.
Fig. (a) Tap root, (b) Fibrous root,
yy Shoot system lies above the ground and the root system lies
(c) Adventitous Root
below the ground.
yy Shoot system bears branches, leaves, flowers and fruits.
yy The root, leaves and branches constitute the vegetative parts Functions of Root
of the plants. (i) Roots help in absorption of water and minerals from the
yy The flowers, fruits and seeds form the reproductive parts of soil.
the plants. (ii) It provides a proper anchorage to the plant parts.
(iii) It helps in storage of reserve food materials.
(iv) It helps in synthesis of plant growth regulators.
THE ROOT
The root is underground part of the plant and develops from Regions of the Root
elongation of radicle of the embryo. A root has the following regions:
There are three types of root system: (i) Root cap: It is a thimble like structure that covers the root at
(i) Tap root system: It originates from radicle. The direct apex. Its main function is to protect the tender apical part.
elongation of the radicle leads to the formation of primary (ii) Region of meristematic activity: It lies above the root cap.
root, which grows into the soil. The cells of this region are very small, thin-walled and with
Primary root bears several lateral roots termed as secondary dense protoplasm. They divide repeatedly.
roots, tertiary roots etc. E.g. all dicot plants like gram, pea, (iii) Region of elongation: It lies above the region of
mango. meristematic activity. Cells in this region undergo rapid
(ii) Fibrous root system: It originates from the base of the elongation and enlargement and are responsible for the
stem. The primary root is short lived and is replaced by a growth of the root in length.
large number of roots. E.g. all monocot plants like wheat, (iv) Region of maturation: It lies above the region of elongation.
paddy, and grass. The cells of the elongation zone gradually differentiate and
(iii) Adventitious root system: The root develops from any mature. Epidermal cells of this region form delicate thread
part of the plant other than radicle. E.g. Grass, banyan tree, like root hair, which helps in the absorption of water and
Monstera etc. minerals from the soil.
 Morphology of Flowering Plants 101

Modification of Roots
Roots in some plants change their shape and structure and become
modified to perform certain functions like support, storage of food
and respiration.
(i) Food storage: The tap roots of turnip (Brassica rape) help
in the storage of food. Similar food-storing roots are found
in radishes, carrots, and sweet potatoes.
(ii) Support: The banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis) has massive
pillar-like adventitious roots arising from the aerial part of
the stem. These roots grow towards the ground and provide
support to the tree. Such roots are called prop roots.
(iii) Respiration: The roots of mangrove plants grow vertically
upwards from the soil for the absorption of oxygen from
the atmosphere as the soil is poorly aerated. These types of
roots are called pneumatophores.
Fig. The regions of the root-tip
Different forms of modified Roots

Underground Roots (Modified for storage of food) Aerial roots

Tap root Adventitous Roots Modified for mechanical support Modified for vital functions
Fusiform root -Swollen in the Tuberous roots – without definite Prop roots- Grows vertically down- Floating roots
middle, tapers towards both ends. shape. wards from branches. E.g. Banyan, E.g. Jussiaea
E.g. Radish E.g. Sweet Potato Rubber plant.
Napiform Root- Swollen at base, Fasciculated roots- Tuberous roots Stilt roots- Grows from basal Epiphytic roots E.g. Vanda,
suddenly tapering towards apex. in clusters. nodes. Orchids.
E.g. Beet root, turnip E.g. Dahlia, Asparagus E.g. Maize, sugarcane, Pandanus
Conical root – Broad at base, Nodulose roots- Swollen at tips. Climbing roots E.g. Betel Assimilatory roots- Green and
gradually tapering towards apex. E.g. Mango, Ginger p h o t o s y n t h e t i c . E . g . Tr a p a ,
E.g. Carrot Tinospora
Moniliform root – Swollen at Parasitic or Haustorial roots. E.g.
regular intervals. Cuscuta
E.g. Momordica, Portulaca
Annulated root- Rings at regulate
intervals. E.g. Ipecacuanha

Fig. Modifications of Roots

 102 BIOLOGY

THE STEM (ii) For support: The stem in some weak plants bear thin,
slender, and spirally-coiled structures called tendrils
yy Stem is the ascending part of the axis growing above the that help the plant get attached to nearby structures for
soil-bearing leaves, fruits, and flowers. support. Tendrils are found in cucumbers, melons, and other
yy It develops from the plumule of the embryo of a germinating members of the family Cucurbitaceae.
seed. (iii) For protection: The stem in Bougainvillea and citrus plants
yy The stem bears nodes and internodes. The regions of (like lemon and orange) bear sharp, pointed structures
the stem where leaves are born arecalled nodes while called thorns, which provide protection to the plant from
internodes are the portions between two nodes. herbivores.
yy The stem bears buds, which may be terminal or axillary. (iv) For vegetative propagation: Underground stems of
grass, strawberry, lateral branches of mint and jasmine are
Functions of Stem propagated vegetatively.
(v) For assimilation of food: The stem in the Opuntia is green.
(i) It conducts water and minerals from the roots and food from
It carries out the process of photosynthesis in the absence
the leaves.
of leaves.
(ii) It helps in spreading out branches bearing leaves, flowers
(vi) Others stem modifications
and fruits.
(a) In some plants, underground stems such as grasses
(iii) Some stems perform the function of storage of food, support,
spread in the soil and help in perennation. These stems
protection and of vegetative propagation.
are called runners.
Modifications of Stem (b) The short lateral stem called the offset in some aquatic
plants (such as Eichhornia) bears leaves and tufts of
Stems are modified to perform different functions. roots at the node and gives rise to new plants.
(i) For food storage: Rhizomes and corms are underground
stems, modified for the storage of food.
Stem Modifications

Underground stem modifications Sub aerial stem modifications Aerial stem modifications
i. Rhizome i. Runner i. Tendril
E.g. Ginger (Zingiber officinale), turmeric E.g. Oxalis E.g. Passiflora, grapevine
ii. Tuber ii. Sucker ii. Thorn
E.g. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) E.g. Mentha, Chrysanthemum E.g. Duranta, Citrus
iii. Corm iii. Stolon iii. Phylloclade
E.g. Colocasia, Alocasia, Amorphophallus E.g. Fragaria, Jasminum E.g. Opuntia
iv. Bulb iv. Offset iv. Cladode
E.g. Onion (Allium cepa), Garlic (Allium sativum) E.g. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia) E.g. Asparagus, Ruscus
v. Bulbil
E.g. Dioscorea, Agave

THE LEAF
yy The leaf is a lateral, flattened photosynthetic structure that
develops from the shoot apical meristems.
yy It develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil. The
axillary bud later develops into a branch.
yy Leaves are arranged in an acropetal order.
yy The main function of the leaves is to carry out the process
of photosynthesis.
yy A typical leaf consists of a leaf base, petiole and lamina.
²² Leaf base: It attaches the leaf with the base of stem. It
may bears two lateral, small leaf-like structure called
stipules.
♦♦ In monocots, leaf base expands to form a sheath
that covers the stem totally or partially.
♦♦ In some leguminous plants, leaf base is swollen
Fig. Modification of stem and called pulvinus.
 Morphology of Flowering Plants 103

²² Petiole: Petiole holds the leaf base to light. It allows

the leaves to flutter and thus, bringing fresh air to the
leaf surface.
²² Lamina or leaf blade: It is the green expanded
part of the leaf with midrib and veins. Midrib is the
middle prominent vein. Veins provide rigidity to the
leaf and also help in the transport of water, minerals,
and food.

Fig. Compound leaves (A) Pinnately compund leaf

(B) Palmately compound leaf

Fig. Parts of a leaf Phyllotaxy

yy Phyllotaxy is the pattern of arrangement of leaves on the
Venation stem or branch.
yy It is divided into three types: Alternate, opposite and
Venation is the arrangement of the veins and the veinlets in a leaf.
whorled phyllotaxy.
It is of two types: (i) Alternate phyllotaxy: In this type, a single leaf arises
VENATION at each node in alternate manner. E.g. China rose,
mustard and sun flower plants.
(ii) Opposite phyllotaxy: Plants with opposite phyllotaxy
Reticulate Venation Parallel Venation have two leaves arising from the node in opposite
The veins are arranged in a The veins are arranged parallel directions. E.g. Calotropis and guava plants.
net like manner, e.g., Dicots. to each other, e.g., Monocots. (iii) Whorled phyllotaxy: Plants with whorled phyllotaxy
have three or more leaves arising from the node, which
form a whorl. E.g. Alstonia.

Types of the leaves

Fig. Leaf Arrangement
A leaf may be simple or compound depending upon the incision
of lamina.
yy Simple leaf : In simple leaf lamina is not divided completely Modification of Leaves
into distinct leaflets. Leaves are often modified to perform functions other than
yy Compound leaf : In compound leaf, incision of leaf blade photosynthesis.
goes down to the rachis so the leaf is broken up into number (i) Tendrils: The leaves of a pea plant are modified into tendrils
of segments called leaflets. The compound leaves are of two that help the plant in climbing.
types-pinnate and palmate. (ii) Spines: The leaves in cactus are modified into sharp spines
²² Pinnate: These are feather like leaves. The that act as an organ of defense (protection).
segmentation of the leaf-blade is towards the mid- (iii) Phyllode: The leaves of some Australian Acacia are short-
rib, so that the leaflets are borne laterally by midrib lived and soon replaced by flattened, green structures called
or rachis. phyllodes that arise from the petiole of the leaves. The
²² Palmate: They are fan-like having leaflets which are petioles in these plants synthesize food.
borne at the tip of the petiole. In palmate compound (iv) Pitcher: The leaves of the pitcher plant are modified into
leaves the segmentation of the leaf extends from the pitcher-like structures, which contain digestive juices and
apical margin to the petiole so that the leaflets are help in trapping and digesting insects.
articulated to the tip of the petiole like fingers on a palm.
 104 BIOLOGY

(v) Bulb: The fleshy leaves of onion and garlic store

FLOWER
food.
yy A flower is a modified shoot. It is the main reproductive
unit in angiosperms.
THE INFLORESCENCE yy Flowers carry out sexual reproduction in angiosperms.
yy The arrangement of flowers on floral axis is known as yy A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged
inflorescence. successively on the swollen end of the stalk (or pedicel),
yy Flower is a modified shoot. Several modifications take called thalamus (receptacle).
place in the shoot to give rise to inflorescence. These are yy The different kinds of whorls are: Androecium, Gynoecium,
as follows: Calyx and Corolla.
²² Shoot apical meristem changes to floral meristem.
²² Internodes do not elongate and axis gets condensed.
²² The apex produces different kinds of floral appendages
at nodes in place of leaves.
²² When shoot tip is modified into flowers, the flower is
always solitary.
yy Based on arrangement on the floral axis, inflorescence is of
two types:Racemose and Cymose.
(i) Racemose inflorescence: In racemose inflorescence, the
main axis continues to grow. The flowers are borne laterally
in an acropetal succession, which means the older flowers
are at the base and younger flowers are near the apex.
E.g. radish, mustard, Amaranthus.
(ii) Cymose inflorescence: In cymose inflorescence, the axis
terminates in a flower, hence, is limited in growth. The
flowers are borne in a basipetal order, which means older
flowers are at the apex and younger flowers are near the
base. E.g. cotton, jasmine, Calotropis.

Fig. Parts of a flower

(i) Calyx: Calyx forms the outermost whorl of a flower, which
contains sepals. They are green, leaf–like structures that
cover and protect the flowers during the bud stage. When
the sepals of a flower are free, they are called polysepalous,
while fused sepals of a flower are called gamosepalous.
(ii) Corolla: Corolla of a flower is a layer that lies inside the
calyx. It contains coloured petals, which help in attracting
insects for pollination. When the petals are free, they
are called polypetalous, while fused petals are called
gamopetalous.
(iii) Androecium or the stamen: It is the male reproductive
Fig. Racemose inflorescence part of a flower. It consists of two parts, the filament and
the bilobed anther. The bilobed anther is the site for meiosis
and the generation of pollen grains.
(iv) Gynoecium: It represents the female reproductive part of
a flower. It consists of an ovary. The ovary is connected by
a long tube (called style) to the stigma. The ovary bears
numerous ovules attached to the placenta.

Fig. Cymose inflorescence

 Morphology of Flowering Plants 105

FLOWER WHORLS

Accessory organs Reproductive organs

Calyx Corolla Androecium (male) Gynoecium (female)

• Members called sepals • Members called petals
• Generally green in color • Brightly coloured
• Protects the plant in bud stage • Attract insects for pollination

Gamosepalous Polysepalous
• Sepals united • Separate Sepals

Gamopetalous Polypetalous
• Petals united • Petals separate

yy A flower that contains all four floral parts is called a (ii) Perigynous flowers (Half inferior ovary): In this, the
complete flower. ovary is situated at the centre and other floral parts are
yy Perianth: If calyx and corolla are not distinguishable, arranged on the rim of the thalamus. The ovary here is said
together they are called perianth. E.g. in lily. to be half inferior. E.g., plum, rose, peach.
yy Based on sexuality, flowers are divided into two types: (iii) Epigynous flowers (Inferior ovary): In this, the thalamus
Unisexual and Bisexual. grows around the ovary fusing with its wall. The other floral
²² Unisexual flowers:Unisexual flowers are those which parts are present above the ovary. Hence, the ovary is said
contain either gynoecium (stamen) or androecium to be inferior. E.g., flowers of guava and cucumber.
(carpels).
²² Bisexual flowers: Bisexual flowers are those which
contain both androecium (carpels) and gynoecium
(stamens).
yy Based on symmetry, flowers are divided into three types:
Actinomorphic, Zygomorphic and Asymmetrical.
(i) Actinomorphic flowers: Actinomorphic flowers can be
divided into two radial halves by any radial plane passing
through its centre. E.g. Chilly, mustard, Datura Etc. Fig. Position of flower parts on thalamus
(ii) Zygomorphic flowers: Zygomorphic flowers are those
flowers which can be divided into two similar halves by a Aestivation
single vertical plane. E.g. Pea, beans, Gulmohar etc.
yy It is the mode in which sepals or petals are arranged in a
(iii) Asymmetrical flowers: Asymmetrical flowers are those
floral bud with respect to other floral members.
flowers which cannot be divided by any plane equally. E.g.
yy There are four types of aestivation in plants: Valvate,
Canna.
twisted, imbricate, and vexillary.
yy Based on presence or absence of Bracts, flowers are divided
(i) Valvate: When sepals or petals in a whorl just touch one
into two types: Bracteate (with bracts) and Ebracteate
another at the margin, without overlapping it is known as
(without bracts). Bracts are reduced leaf found at the
valvate aestivation. E.g. as in Calotropis.
pedicel base.
(ii) Twisted: If one margin of the appendage overlaps that of
yy A flower may be trimerous, tetramerous or pentamerous,
the next one and so on it is called twisted aestivation.
based on the number of floral appendages. They are
E.g. as in China rose, lady’s finger and cotton.
multiples of 3, 4, and 5 respectively.
(iii) Imbricate: If the margins of sepals or petals overlap one
yy Based on the position of the calyx, corolla, and androecium
another but not in anyparticular direction, the aestivation
(with respect to the ovary on the thalamus), the flowers
is called imbricate. E.g. as in Cassia and gulmohur.
are divided into three types: Hypognous, perigynous, and
(iv) Vexillary: In vexillary aestivation, the largest (standard)
epigynous.
overlaps the two lateral petals (wings) which in turn overlap
(i) Hypogynous flowers (Superior ovary): In this, the ovary
the two smallest anterior petals (keel). E.g. In pea and bean
occupies the highest position on the thalamus while other
flowers, which have five petals.
floral parts are situated below it. In such flowers, the ovary
is superior. E.g., China rose, mustard etc.
 106 BIOLOGY

yy After fertilisation, the ovules develop into seeds and the

ovary matures into a fruit.

Placentation
yy The term ‘placentation’ refers to the arrangement of ovules
within the ovary of a flower.
yy It is primarily of five types: Marginal, basal, parietal, axile,
and free central.
(i) Marginal placentation: The ovary in which the placenta
Fig. Diferent types of aestivation fo calyx and corolla
forms a ridge along the ventral suture of the ovary and the
(A) Valvate, (B) Twisted, (C) Imbricate,
ovules develop on two separate rows is known to have
(D) Quincuncial (E) Vexillary
marginal placentation. E.g. Peas.
(ii) Parietal placentation: When the ovules develop on the
Androecium inner walls of the ovary, the ovary is said to have parietal
yy Androecium is the male reproductive part composed of placentation. E.g., mustard and Argemone.
stamens. (iii) Axile placentation: In axile placentation, the placenta is
yy Each stamen consists of a filament and an anther. axial and ovules are attached to it. E.g. China rose, lemon,
yy Anther is bilobed. Each lobe has 2 chambers called pollen and tomato.
sacs where pollen grains are produced. (iv) Basal placentation: The ovary in which the placenta
yy Sterile stamen is called a staminode. develops from its base and a single ovule is found attached
yy Classification of stamens based on attachment: to the base is said to have basal placentation. E.g. marigold
²² Epipetalous:When stamens are attached to the petals, and sunflower.
they are called epipetalous. E.g.as in brinjal. (v) Free central placentation: In free central placentation,
²² Epiphyllous: When stamens are attached to the the ovules develop on the central axis while the septa are
perianth, they are known as epiphyllous. E.g. as in absent. E.g. Dianthus and primrose.
the flowers of lily.
²² Polyandrous: When stamens in a flower may remain
free, it is known as polyandrous.
²² Monoadelphous: When stamen may be united into one
bunch or one bundle, it is known as monoadelphous.
E.g. as in China rose.
²² Diadelphous: When stamens are united into two
bundles. E.g. as in pea.
²² Polyadelphous: When stamens are united into more
than two bundles. E.g. as in citrus.
yy There may be a variation in the length of filaments within
a flower, as in Salvia and mustard.

Gynoecium
yy Gynoecium is a female reproductive part made up of
carpels.
yy Carpel is made up of three parts: Stigma, style and ovary.
yy The stigma is usually at the tip of the style and is the Fig. Types of placentation
receptive surface for pollen grains.
yy The style connects the ovary to the stigma.
yy Ovary is the enlarged basal part, on which lies the elongated THE FRUIT
tube, the style. Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached
to a flattened, cushion-like placenta. yy It is the matured or ripened ovary developed after
yy Classification of carpel: fertilization.
²² Apocarpous:When more than one carpel is present, yy Fruits formed without fertilization of ovary are called
they may be free and are called apocarpous. E.g. as parthenocarpic fruits.
in lotus and rose. yy Generally a fruit consists of two parts: Pericarp (walls) and
²² Syncarpous: When carpels are fused. E.g. as in seeds.
mustard and tomato. yy The pericarp may be dry and fleshy.
 Morphology of Flowering Plants 107

yy Fleshy pericarp is further divided into three parts: Outer Structure of Monocot Seed
epicarp, middle mesocarp and inner endocarp.
yy In mango and coconut, the fruit is known as drupe. Drupe yy Generally, monocot seeds are endospermic. Endosperm is
develops from monocarpellary superior ovaries. bulky and stores food. But in some as in orchids are non-
yy In mango, the pericarp is differentiated into an outer thin endospermic.
epicarp, middle fleshy edible mesocarp and an inner stony yy In the seeds of cereals(such as maize) the seed coat is
hard endocarp. In coconut, the mesocarp is represented by membranous and fused with the fruit wall.
the fibrous part. yy The outer covering of endosperm separates the embryo by
a proteinous layer called aleurone layer.
yy The embryo is small and situated in a groove at one end of
the endosperm.
yy Embryo consists of
²² One large and shield shaped cotyledon known as
scutellum
²² Embryonal axis with a plumule and a radicle.
yy The plumule is enclosed in a sheath called coleoptile while
radicle in coleorhiza.
Fig. Parts of a fruit: (a) Mango (b) Coconut

THE SEED
yy Seeds develops from ovule after fertilization.
yy Seed is made up ofseed coat and an embryo.
yy An embryo is made up of an embryonicaxis havingPlumule
and radicle with one or two cotyledons.
yy Based on number of cotyledons, seeds can be divided into:
Monocotyledon and Dicotyledons.
SEEDS

Monocotyledon (Single cotyledon) Dicotyledon (Two cotyledons)

Example - Wheat, rice Example - Gram and peas

Structure of Dicot Seed

Fig. Structure of monocotyledonous seed
yy The outermost covering of a seed is the bilayered seed
coat. The seed coat has two layers, the testa (outer) and
Difference between dicot seed and monocot seed
the tegmen (inner).
yy The hilum is a scar on the seed coat where the developing Dicot seed Monocot seed
seed was attached to the fruit.
yy Above the hilum is a small pore called the micropyle. The seed possess two cotyledons. The seed possess a single
yy Embryo lies within the seed coat and consists of embryonal cotyledon.
axis and two cotyledons. The cotyledons are often fleshy The food may be stored inside The food may be stored inside
and full of reserve food materials. cotyledon or endosperm. endosperm except for in Orchids.
yy At the two ends of the embryonal axis are present the radicle
Aleurone layer is absent. Aleurone layer of special protein
and the plumule.
rich cells is found on outside of
yy In some seeds, cotyledons are replaced byendosperm formed endosperm.
as a result of double fertilisation. E.g. Castor.
yy Mature seeds without endosperm are known as non­ Coleoptile and Coleorhiza are The embryo tips may bear special
endospermous. E.g. Bean, gram and pea. absent. sheaths, coleoptile over plumule
and coleorhiza over radicle.
Plumule lies in between the two Plumule lies at one end near the
cotyledons. cotyledon.
Embryo occupies one side of the Embryo occupies the whole interior
seed. or only the central part of the
seed.
Fig. Structure of dicotyledonous seed
 108 BIOLOGY

FLORAL DIAGRAMS AND FLORAL FORMULAE

yy The floral formula is represented by some symbols. Some of them are:

Characteristics of flower Symbols Characteristics of flower Symbols

Bracts Calyx K
• Present (Bracteate) Br • Polysepalous K5
• Absent (Ebracteate) EBr • Gamosepalous K(5)
Symmetry of the flower Corolla C
• Actinomorphic ⊕ • Polypetalous C5
• Zygomorphic % • Gamopetalous C(5)
Nature of the flower Essential Whorls
• Bisexual Androecium A

• Unisexual • Stamens-free A10

 Male flower • United
 Female flower • Monadelphous A(10)
Non-essential whorls • Diadelphous A(9) + 1
• Perianth P • Infinite A∞
• Tepals (Free) P3 • Epipetalous
• Tepals (united) P(3) Gynoecium G
Carpels
• Apocarpous (free) G5
• Syncarpous (united) G(5)
Ovary
• Hypogynous (superior) G
• Epigynous (inferior) G

Floral Diagram DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES

yy A floral diagram provides information about the number of
1. Family Fabaceae/Papilionaceae (Pea plant)
parts of a flower, their arrangement and the relation they
have with one another. yy Fabaceae/Papilionaceae is a sub-family of the Leguminoseae
yy The position of the mother axis with respect to the flower is family.
represented by a dot on the top of the floral diagram. yy Vegetative features:
yy Calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium are drawn ²² Habit: Pinnately compound, alternately arranged with
in successive whorls, calyx being the outermost and the leaf tendrils with the pulvinus present at the leaf base
gynoecium being in the centre. along folacious stipules.
²² Root: Tap root system with root nodules.
yy Floral features:
²² Inflorescence: Racemose, generally axial than
terminal.
²² Flower: Zygomorphic and bisexual flowers are
found.
²² Calyx: It contains five sepals which are gamosepalous
while aestivation is imbricate.
²² Corolla: It contains five petals (polypetalous) with
vexillary aestivation.
²² Androecium: It consists of ten anthers that are
diadelphous with dithecous anthers.
²² Gynoecium: Monocarpellary superior ovary which is
unilocular with marginal placentation.
²² Fruit: Legume pod with non-endospermic seeds
yy Floral formula: % K(5) C1 + 2 + (2) A(9)+ |G|
Fig. Floral diagram yy Economic importance: Peas are used as vegetables for
making various culinary preparations.
 Morphology of Flowering Plants 109

3. Family Liliaceae
Commonly called the ‘Lily family’. It is a characteristic
representative of monocotyledonous plants.
yy Vegetative features:
²² Habit: Perennial herbs
²² Leaves: Mostly basal, alternate, linear, exstipulate with
parallel venation.
²² Stem: Underground bulb, corm or rhizome
yy Floral features:
Fig. Floral diagram of family fabaceae ²² Inflorescence: Solitary and cymose
²² Flowers: Actinomorphic, bisexual flowers
2. Family Solanaceae ²² Perianth: It is composed of six tepals (3 + 3) that are
united into tube. Aestivation is valvate.
yy Vegetative features ²² Androecium: It consists of six (3 + 3) stamens.
²² Habit: Erect, herbaceous plant. ²² Gynoecium: It consists of tricarpellary syncarpous
²² Leaves: Simple, exstipulate leaves with reticulate superior ovary and trilocular with many ovules. Axile
venation. placentation.
²² Stem: Erect stem with numerous branches. ²² Fruits: Capsule rarely berry.
yy Floral features ²² Seeds: Endospermous.
²² Inflorescence: Solitary and axillary yy Floral formula: Br ⊕ P3+3 A3+3 G(3)
²² Flowers: Actinomorphic, bisexual flowers yy Economic importance: Many plants are good ornamentals.
²² Calyx: Calyx is composed of five sepals that are united E.g. Tulip, Gloriosa, source of medicine (Aloe vera),
and persistent. Aestivation is valvate. vegetables (Asparagus) and colchicine (Colchicum
²² Corolla: Corolla consists of five united petals with autumnale).
valvate aestivation.
²² Androecium: It consists of five epipetalous stamens.
²² Gynoecium: It consists of bicarpellary, syncarpous
superior ovary with axile placentation.
²² Fruits: Berry
²² Seeds: Numerous, endospermous
²² Floral formula: ⊕ K(5) C(5).A5 G(2)
²² Economic importance: Used for medicinal
purposes.

Fig. Floral diagram of family liliaceae

Fig. Floral diagram of family Solanaceae

 Chapter
Anatomy of
6 Flowering Plants
THE TISSUES Location: Meristematic tissues are found in those regions which
need to grow continuously. For example, root tips and stem tips
Tissue is a group of cells with common origin, structure and contain meristematic tissues.
function that work together to perform a particular function. For On the basis of location in the plant body, meristematic tissues
example, xylem, phloem, parenchyma etc. are different types of are divided into three types:
tissues found in plants. yy Apical Meristems: They are found at the growing tips of
Based on cell’s capability to divide, tissues are classified into roots and stems. The shoot apical meristem is present at
two main groups which are as follows: Meristematic tissue and the tip of the shoots and its active division results in the
Permanent tissue. elongation of the stem and formation of new leaves. The
1. Meristematic tissues (Dividing tissues): It consists of root apical meristem helps in root elongation.
undifferentiated actively dividing cells. yy Lateral Meristems: They occur in the mature region of
2. Permanent tissues (Non-dividing tissues): It consists of roots and shoots. They are called secondary meristems
differentiated cells that have lost the ability to divide. as they appear later in a plant’s life. It helps in adding
secondary tissues to the plant body and in increasing the
1. Meristematic Tissues
girth of plants. E.g. Fascicular cambium, inter fascicular
Meristematic tissues are thin-walled compactly arranged, immature cambium and cork cambium.
cells that keep on dividing continuously. The new cells produced are yy Intercalary Meristems: It is present between the masses of
initially meristematic. Slowly, they grow, differentiate and mature mature tissues present at the bases of the leaves of grasses.
into permanent tissues. It helps in the regeneration of grasses after they have been
yy Meristems are region within plant body that is involved in grazed by herbivores. Since the intercalary meristem and the
formation of new meristematic cells. apical meristem appear early in a plant’s life, they constitute
yy Primary meristems appear early in the life of a plant and the primary meristem.
are responsible for the formation of primary plant body.
Primary growth involves development of new parts of a
plant and growth in length of a particular part. It includes
apical meristem and intercalary meristem.
yy Axillary bud: These are the buds constituted by some
apical meristem left behind during the elongation of stems
and leaves. Axillary buds are capable of forming branches
and flowers.
Characteristic features of Meristematic tissues:
yy The meristematic cells are spherical, or polygonal in
shape.
yy The cells are compactly arranged without inter-cellular
spaces.
yy The cell wall is thin, elastic and is made of cellulose.
yy Each cell has abundant cytoplasm and prominent nuclei.
Vacuoles may or may not be present.
Functions: Meristematic tissue divides continuously to form a
number of new cells and help in growth of tissue. Fig. Location of meristematic tissue
 Anatomy of Flowering Plants 125

2. Permanent Tissues: ²² It may contain chlorophyll. Parenchyma containing

chlorophyll is called chlorenchyma. It is the seat of
Permanent tissues are tissues that have lost the ability to divide, and photosynthesis.
have attained a definite form and size. They are actually derived from ²² Parenchyma that encloses large air cavities is known
meristematic cells. Different type of permanent tissues is formed as aerenchyma. Aerenchyma provides buoyancy to
due to differences in their specialization. aquatic plants.
Characteristic features of Permanent tissue:
Nucleus
yy The cells of permanent tissues normally do not divide.
yy The cells may be thin walled (living) or thick walled Intercellular
(dead). space
yy Permanent cells are specialized to perform a particular
Vacuoles
function.
yy The cells have attained definite shape and size.
Cytoplasm
Difference between Meristematic Tissue and
Permanent Tissue

Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue Fig. Parenchyma tissue

It is composed of cells that divide It is composed of cells that Functions
continuously. divide that are derived from ²² Parenchyma store and assimilate food.
meristematic tissue. ²² They give mechanical support to the plant body by
Cells are small, undifferentiated and Cells are large, differentiated maintaining turgidity.
isodiametric in shape. with different shapes. ²² Presence of intercellular spaces in between parenchyma
Cell wall is thin and living. Cell wall may be thin (living) or
cells helps in exchange of gases.
thick (dead). ²² It prepares food if chlorophyll is present.
²² It stores waste products like gum, crystal, tannin and
Cells are compactly arranged without Intercellular spaces are often resins.
inter-cellular spaces. present. 2. Collenchyma: Collenchyma is a strong and flexible tissue
Nucleus is large and prominent. Nucleus is less conspicuous. that provides flexibility to soft aerial parts. They are found
Cells of Meristematic tissue take part Permanent tissue provides below the epidermis in leaf stalks, leaf mid-ribs, and
in growth. protection, support, conduction herbaceous dicot stems.
of substances, storage, Characteristics features
photosynthesis etc. ²² Collenchyma cells are elongated cells with thick
primary walls.
Depending on the structural differences (type of cells), permanent ²² Cell wall is unevenly thickened with cellulose at the
tissues are divided into two types: Simple tissue and Complex corners.
tissue. ²² Intercellular spaces are absent.
²² Nucleus is present and hence the tissue is living.
A. Simple Permanent Tissues: ²² Few chloroplasts may be present in the cells.
Thickening on corners
Simple permanent tissue is made up of only one kind of cells due to deposition of
forming a uniform mass. The cells are similar in structure, origin cellulose and pectin
and function.
Simple permanent tissues are of three types: Parenchyma,
Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma
1. Parenchyma: Parenchyma is widely distributed in plant
body such as stem, roots, leaves and flower. They are found
in the cortex of root, ground tissue in stems and mesophyll
of leaves.
Characteristic features
²² Cells are isodiametric i.e. equally expanded on all
sides.
²² Cells may be oval, round or polygonal in outline. Fig. Collenchyma tissue
²² Nucleus is present and hence, living. Functions
²² The cell walls are thin and made of cellulose. ²² Collenchyma provides mechanical support to the
²² Cytoplasm is dense with a central vacuole. growing parts of the plant such as young stem and
²² Cells are loosely packed with large intercellular spaces petiole of a leaf.
between the cells.
 126 BIOLOGY

²² It provides flexibility to soft aerial parts so that they Functions

can bend without breaking. yy Sclerenchyma gives mechanical support to the plant by
²² Collenchyma cells may contain chloroplasts and thus giving rigidity, flexibility and elasticity to the plant body.
take part in photosynthesis. yy It forms a protective covering around seeds and nuts.
3. Sclerenchyma: Like collenchyma, sclerenchyma is also a B. Complex Permanent Tissues:
strengthening tissue. It is found in and around the vascular
Complex tissue is made up of more than one type of cells that work
tissue, under the skin i.e. the epidermis in dicot stems. together to perform a particular function.
Characteristics feature Complex tissues are of two types: Xylem and Phloem.
²² Cells are long, narrow, thick and lignified usually (a) Xylem (Greek xylo= wood): Xylem is a complex
pointed at both ends. permanent tissue that conducts water and mineral upward
²² The cell wall is evenly thickened with lignin. Lignin from root to the plant. It is also known as wood.
is a water proof material. Xylem is composed of four different kinds of elements,
²² Intercellular spaces are absent. namely, tracheids, vessels, xylem fibres and xylem
²² Nucleus is absent and hence the tissue is made up of parenchyma.
dead cells. (i) Tracheids: Tracheids are long, tubular dead cells with
²² Middle lamella i.e. the wall between adjacent cells is wide lumen and tapering ends. The cell wall is thick
conspicuous. with lignin. They have pores in their walls.
(ii) Vessels: Vessel is a long, cylindrical tube like structure
Lignified
secondary that are placed one above the other end to end. It is
wall Empty lumen
(No living a non-living cell with lignified walls. They generally
content) possess pits. Vessel members are interconnected
through perforations in their common walls. The
presence of vessels is a characteristic feature of
angiosperms.
Function: Tracheids and vessels both are main water
transporting elements. Vessels are more efficient than
tracheids.
Simple
pit
(iii) Xylem fibers: They are long, non-living cells with
very thick lignin deposition on the walls. They have
narrow lumen and tapering ends.
Function: Xylem fibers provide mechanical support
Fig. Sclerenchyma tissue
to the plant.
On the basis of variation in form, structure, origin and development, (iv) Xylem parenchyma: They are living cells with
Sclerenchyma cells are of two types: cellulosic cell wall.
(i) Fibers: They are long, narrow, thick walled and pointed Function: They help in storage of starch or fats and other
cells. materials like tannins. They also help in lateral conduction
Location: Fibers are found in and around the vascular of water by the ray parenchymatous cells.
tissue. It may also occur below the epidermis. Fibers help
in transportation of water in plant.
(ii) Sclereids: They are spherical, oval or cylindrical, highly Nucleus
thickened dead cells with very narrow cavities. The cells are
hard and strongly lignified. They are shorter, iso-diametric Pits
or irregular cells.
Location: These are commonly found in the fruit walls of Pits
nuts; pulp of fruits like guava, pear and sapota; seed coats Cytoplasm
of legumes and leaves of tea. Sclereids give firmness and
hardness to the part concerned.

(a) Tracheid (b) Vessel (c) Xylem parenchyma

Fig. (a) Tracheid (b) Vessel (c) Xylem Parenchyma
yy Primary xylem is of two types: protoxylem and
metaxylem.
yy The first formed primary xylem elements are called
(b)
Fig.: (a) protoxylem and the later formed primary xylem is called
metaxylem.
 Anatomy of Flowering Plants 127

²² In stems, the protoxylem lies towards the centre ♦♦ Primary phloem is of two types: Protophloem and
(pith) and the metaxylem lies towards the periphery metaphloem.
of the organ. This type of primary xylem is called ♦♦ Protophloem is the first formed primary phloem,
endarch. which consists of narrow sieve tubes while the
²² In roots, the protoxylem lies towards periphery and later formed phloem, which has bigger sieve tubes,
metaxylem lies towards the centre. Such arrangement is referred to as metaphloem.
of primary xylem is called exarch.
(b) Phloem (Greek = Phloeis = inner bark): Phloem is a
complex permanent tissue that conducts food synthesized in TISSUE SYSTEMS
the leaves to different parts of the plant body. Unlike, xylem,
On the basis of their structure and location, there are three types
conduction of food occur both in upward and downward
of tissue systems.
directions (From leaves to storage organs and from storage
1. Epidermal tissue system,
organs to growing organs).
2. Ground or fundamental tissue system and
Phloem in angiosperms is composed of sieve tube elements,
3. Vascular or conducting tissue system
companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
Gymnosperms have albuminous cells and sieve cells. They 1. Epidermal Tissue System:
lack sieve tubes and companion cells.
(i) Sieve tubes: Sieve tubes are elongated, cylindrical Epidermal tissue system forms the outer-most covering of the whole
tubes with perforated end walls between adjacent sieve plant body and comprises epidermal cells, stomata and the epidermal
tube cells. Sieve tube cells are placed end to end in a appendages such as the trichomes and hairs.
linear row. The perforated end walls are called as sieve (a) Epidermis: Epidermis is the outermost protective layer of
plates. Sieve tube cells have vacuolated cytoplasm plant body. It is usually single layer. The cells are elongated
and lacks nucleus. The functions of sieve tubes are and closely packed without any intercellular spaces between
controlled by the nucleus of companion cells. them. The outermost layer of cell is covered with a water
(ii) Companion cells: Companion cells are associated proof coating or layer called cuticle. Cuticle is made up of
with sieve tubes. They are thin walled cells which lie a waxy substance called cutin, which prevents the loss of
on the sides of sieve tube cells. Companion cells have water. Cuticle is absent in roots.
dense cytoplasm and prominent nucleus. (b) Stomata: At places the epidermis is not continuous and
Functions: They help sieve tubes in the conduction of bears minute pores called stomata. Stomata consist of an
food material by maintaining a proper pressure gradient opening called stomatal opening which is surrounded by
in the sieve tube cells. two specialized kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
(iii) Phloem Parenchyma: The phloem parenchyma cells Guard cells are specialized epidermal cells.
are thin-walled and living. As guard cells become turgid, they create a pore in between
Functions: They help in storage and slow lateral their thick inner walls. Pores help in exchange of gases. It
conduction of food. is also the seat of transpiration.
(iv) Phloem fibers: They are the only non-living (dead) Guard cells are kidney shaped in dicots and dumb-bell
component of phloem. They are thick-walled elongated shaped in monocots. They are thicker on the inner side and
and spindle shaped cells with narrow lumen. thinner on the outer side.
Functions: Phloem fibers provide mechanical support The guard cells possess chloroplasts and regulate the opening
to the tissue. Phloem fibers are source of commercial and closing of stomata. Sometimes, a few epidermal cells,
fibers. E.g. Jute, hemp, flax etc. in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialized in their
shape and size and are known as subsidiary cells.
Sieve plate The stomatal aperture, guard cells and the surrounding
subsidiary cells are together called stomatal apparatus.
Sieve tube

Phloem
parenchyma

Companion cell

Fig. Components Fig. A stomal aperture with guard cells

Components of phloemof phloem
 128 BIOLOGY

(c) Epidermal appendages: The cells of epidermis bear a ANATOMY OF DICOT AND MONOCOT ROOTS
number of hairs. The root hairs are unicellular elongations
of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and minerals T.S. of Dicot Root
from the soil. On the stem the epidermal hairs are called yy Epidermis: It has a single layer of epidermal cells, many of
trichomes. The trichomes in the shoot system are usually which protrude in the form of unicellular root hairs.
multi-cellular. They may be branched or unbranched and yy Cortex: The cortex consists of several layers of thin-walled
soft or stiff. The trichomes help in preventing water loss parenchyma cells with intercellular spaces.
yy Endodermis: The innermost layer of the cortex is called
due to transpiration.
endodermis. It comprises a single layer of barrel-shaped
cells without any intercellular spaces. The tangential as well
2. The Ground Tissue System
as radial walls of the endodermal cells have a deposition of
yy All tissues except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute water impermeable, waxy material suberin in the form of
the ground tissue. casparian strips.
yy It consists of simple tissues such as parenchyma, yy Pericycle: Next to endodermis lie a few layers of thick-
walled parenchymatous cells known as pericycle. Pericycle
collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
is responsible for initiation of lateral roots and vascular
yy Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,
cambium during the secondary growth.
pericycle, pith and medullary rays, in the primary stems yy Pith: The pith is small or inconspicuous.
and roots. yy Vascular bundles: Vascular bundles is single (Monoarch).
yy In leaves, the ground tissue consists of thin-walled There are usually two to four xylem and phloem patches.
chloroplast containing cells called mesophyll. Later, a cambium ring develops between the xylem and
phloem.
3. The Vascular Tissue System yy Conjunctive tissue: The parenchymatousm cells which lie
between the xylem and the phloem are called conjuctive
 he vascular system consists of vascular bundles, the phloem and
T tissue.
the xylem. yy Stele: All tissues on the innerside of the endodermis such as
There are two types of vascular bundles: pericycle, vascular bundles and pith constitute the stele.
Root
(i) Open vascular bundles: In open vascular bundles, hair
Epible
cambium is present between phloem and xylem. Such Root hair
vascular bundles possess the ability to form secondary Epiblema
xylem and phloem tissues because of the presence of Cortex

cambium. It is found in dicotyledonous plants. Co

(ii) Closed vascular bundles: Closed vascular bundles
lack cambium. Hence, since they do not form secondary Endodermis
Pericycle
tissues they are referred to as closed. It is found in the
Phloem End
monocotyledons plants. Protoxylem Pericy
Metaxylem
Xylem and phloem can be arranged in two different kinds of Pith Phloem
arrangement within a vascular bundle. Metax
(a)
(i) Radial arrangement: When xylem and phloem within Fig.: T.S. of young root of Gram (dicotyledonous roots) Protoxyle
a vascular bundle are arranged in an alternate manner Pith
on different radii, the arrangement is called radial. Such T.S. of Monocot Root (b)

vascular bundles are common in roots. The anatomy of the monocot root is similar to the dicot root in
(ii) Conjoint arrangement: When the xylem and phloem many respects.
are situated at the same radius of vascular bundles, the yy Epidermis, cortex, and endodermis: Same as that of
dicot root.
arrangement is called conjoint. Such vascular bundles are
yy Pericycle: Monocotyledonous roots do not undergo any
common in stems and leaves. secondary growth.
The conjoint vascular bundles usually have the phloem yy Pith: Pith is large and well developed.
located only on the outer side of xylem. yy Vascular bundle: There are usually more than six (polyarch)
xylem bundles in the monocot root.
 Anatomy of Flowering Plants 129

Root sclerenchyma.
hair
Epiblema yy Vascular bundles: A large number of vascular bundles
Root hair are arranged in a ring. This arrangement is characteristic
Epiblema
Cortex
of dicot stem. Each vascular bundle is conjoint, open, and
with endarch protoxylem.
Cortex yy Medullary rays: In between the vascular bundles there are
a few layers of radially placed parenchymatous cells, which
Endodermis constitute medullary rays.
Pericycle
yy Pith: A large number of rounded, parenchymatous cells with
Endodermis
Phloem
Protoxylem Pericycle large intercellular spaces which occupy the central portion
Metaxylem
Pith Phloem of the stem constitute the pith.
Metaxylem
(a)
Protoxylem
Pith
(b)
Fig. T.S. of Maize (Monocotyledonous root)

ANATOMY OF DICOT AND MONOCOT STEMS

T.S. of Dicot Stem
yy Epidermis: It is the outermost protective layer of the stem,
covered with a thin layer of cuticle. It may bear trichomes
and a few stomata.
yy Cortex: The cells arranged in multiple layers between
epidermis and pericycle constitutes the cortex. Fig. (a) T.S. of sunflower
It consists of three sub-zones: Hypodermis, cortical layers (b) Detailed structure of a portion of T.S.
and endodermis. of sunflower stem
²² Hypodermis: The outer hypodermis consists of a
T.S. of Monocot Stem
few layers of collenchymatous cells just below the
epidermis. It provides mechanical strength to the yy Epidermis: Same as that of dicot stem.
young stem. yy Cortex: Cortex contains few layers of sclerenchymatous
²² Cortical layers: It is found below hypodermis and cells.
consist of rounded thin walled parenchymatous cells yy Pericycle: Same as that of dicot stem.
with conspicuous intercellular spaces. yy Vascular bundles: A large number of scattered vascular
²² Endodermis: The innermost layer of the cortex is bundles are present. Vascular bundles are conjoint, closed
called the endodermis. The cells of the endodermis with peripheral vascular bundles generally smaller than the
are rich in starch grains and the layer is also referred centrally located ones. Each vascular bundle is surrounded by
to as the starch sheath. sclerenchymatous bundle-sheath cells. Phloem parenchyma
yy Pericycle: It is present on the inner side of the endodermis is absent, and water-containing cavities are present.
and above the phloem in the form of semi-lunar patches of yy Pith: Pith is absent in monocot stem.
Cuticle
Epidermis
Gr ound tissue

Sclerenchyma
Cuticle
Parenchyma
Epidermis
Hypodermis
Vascular
bundles
Vascular bundle

Bundle sheath
Protophloem
Metaphloem
Ground Metaxylem
tissue Protoxylem
(a)
Lysigenous
cavity
(b)
Fig. (a) Diagrammatic representation of T.S. of maize stem (b) Detailed structure of a portion of T.S. of maize stem
 130 BIOLOGY

ANATOMY OF DICOT AND MONOCOT LEAF

T.S. of Dicot Leaf
Dorsiventral leaves are found in dicots. The vertical section of a
dorsiventral leaf contains three distinct parts.
yy Epidermis: Epidermis is present on both the upper
surface (adaxial epidermis) and the lower surface (abaxial
epidermis). The epidermis on the outside is covered with a
thick cuticle. Abaxial epidermis bears more stomata than the
adaxial epidermis.
yy Mesophyll: Mesophyll is a tissue of the leaf present between
the adaxial and abaxial epidermises. It is differentiated into Fig. T.S of monocot leaf
the palisade parenchyma (composed of tall, compactly-
placed cells) and the spongy parenchyma (comprising oval
SECONDARY GROWTH IN STEM AND ROOT
or round, loosely-arranged cells with inter cellular spaces).
Mesophyll contains the chloroplasts which perform the yy The growth of the roots and stems in length with the help
function of photosynthesis. of apical meristem is called the primary growth.
yy Vascular system: The vascular bundles present in leaves are yy Increase in girth exhibited by most of the dicot plants is
known as secondary growth.
conjoint and closed. They are surrounded by thick layers of
yy The tissues involved in secondary growth are together
bundle-sheath cells. known as lateral meristem.
Parenchyma Cuticle yy Lateral meristem consists of vascular cambium and cork
Upper cambium.
Epidermis
Palisade
Parenchyma
Bundle sheath
Xylem
Phloem
Spongy parenchyma
Sub-stomatal
Stoma cavity

Fig. T.S. of dicot, leaf of mango

T.S. of Monocot Leaf

yy Isobilateral leaf is found in monocot leaf.
Fig. Primary and secondary growth in stems
yy The anatomy of isobilateral leaf is similar to that of the
dorsiventral leaf in many ways. (i) Vascular Cambium
yy It shows the following characteristic differences.
yy It is the meristematic tissue that is responsible for cutting
²² In an isobilateral leaf, the stomata are present on both
off vascular tissues – xylem and phloem.
the surfaces of the epidermis.
yy In the young stem, it is present in patches as a single layer
²² The mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and between the xylem and phloem. Later it forms a complete
spongy parenchyma. ring.
yy Bulliform cells, which are modified adaxial epidermal cells, yy Formation of cambial ring
are present along the veins, which absorb water and make ²² In dicot stems, the cells of cambium present between
the cells turgid. primary xylem and primary phloem is the intrafascicular
yy When they are flaccid due to water stress, they make the cambium.
leaves curl inwards to minimize water loss. ²² The interfascicular cambium is formed from the cells
yy The parallel venation in monocot leaves is reflected in the of the medullary rays adjoining the interfascicular
near similar sizes of vascular bundles (except in main veins) cambium, as they become meristematic.
as seen in vertical sections of the leaves. ²² This results in the formation of a continuous ring of
cambium.
 Anatomy of Flowering Plants 131

yy Activity of the cambial ring: Medullary

Formation of Cortex Periderm ray Primary
²² The cambial ring becomes active and cuts off new
cells, towards its either sides. cambium phloem
Epidermis Secondary
²² The cells present toward the outside differentiate into Primary
phloem
the secondary phloem, while the cells cut off toward xylem
the pith give rise to the secondary xylem. Cambium
²² The amount of the secondary xylem produced is more Secondary
than that of the secondary phloem. xylem
²² The cambium is generally more active on the inner side Primary
than on the outer. As a result, the amount of secondary phloem Primary
xylem produced is more than secondary phloem and xylem
(a) (b)
soon forms a compact mass.
yy The primary and secondary phloem gets gradually crushed Fig. : (a) and (b) showing secondary growth in dicot root.
due to the continued formation and accumulation of
secondary xylem. Spring Wood and Autumn Wood
yy The primary xylem however remains more or less intact, in
or around the centre. At some places, the cambium forms The activity of cambium is under the control of many physiological
a narrow band of parenchyma, which passes through the and environmental factors.
secondary xylem and the secondary phloem in the radial yy Spring wood (Early wood): In the spring season, cambium
directions. These are the secondary medullary rays.
is very active and produces a large number of xylary
yy The secondary growth in plants increases the girth of plants,
increases the amount of water and nutrients to support the elements having vessels with wider cavities. This wood
growing number of leaves, and also provides support to is called spring wood or early wood. The spring wood is
plants. lighter in colour and has a lower density
yy Autumn wood (Late wood): In winter, the cambium is less
active and forms fewer xylary elements that have narrow
vessels. This wood is called autumn wood or late wood.
The autumn wood is darker and has a higher density.
yy Annual ring: When two kinds of wood appear as alternate
concentric rings, it is known as annual ring. Annual rings
(A) (B) seen in a cut stem give an estimate of the age of the tree.

(D)

Fig. :The activity of cambium ring

Heartwood and Sapwood
Secondary Growth in Dicot Root
Heartwood
yy In the dicot root, the vascular cambium is completely yy It is composed of dead elements with highly lignified
secondary in origin. walls.
yy It originates from a portion of pericycle tissue, above the yy It imparts dark brown colour to the older trees, due to the
protoxylem and below phloem bundles. deposition of organic compounds like tannins, resins, oils,
yy They form a complete and continuous wavy ring, which gums, aromatic substances and essential oils in the central
later becomes circular.
or innermost layers of the stem.
yy Further events are similar to those already described above
yy It makes the plant hard, durable and resistant to the attacks
for a dicotyledonous stem.
yy Secondary growth also occurs in stems and roots of of microorganisms and insects. The heartwood does not
gymnosperms. However, secondary growth does not occur conduct water but it gives mechanical support to the
in monocotyledons. stem.
 132 BIOLOGY

Sapwood yy Bark is divided into two types: Early (or soft bark) and late
yy It constitutes the the peripheral region of the secondary (or hard bark).
xylem. ²² Early or soft bark: Bark that is formed early in the
yy It is lighter in colour. season is called early or soft bark.
yy It is involved in the conduction of water and minerals from ²² Late or hard bark: Bark that is formed towards the
root to leaf. end of the season late or hard bark is formed.

(ii) Cork Cambium (Or Phellogen):

yy As secondary growth starts due to the activity of vascular
cambium, the outer cortical and epidermis layers break
down.
yy These are replaced down to provide new protective cell
layers. Hence, sooner or later, another meristematic tissue
called cork cambium or phellogen develops, usually in the
cortex region.
yy Phellogen is composed of thin-walled, narrow and
rectangular cells.
yy Phellogen cuts off cells on its either side.
²² The cells cut off toward the outside give rise to the
phellem or cork. The suberin deposits in its cell wall
make it impervious to water.
²² The inner cells give rise to the secondary cortex or
phelloderm. The secondary cortex is parenchyma-
tous. Lenticles
yy Phellogen, phellem, and phelloderm are collectively known yy At certain regions, the phellogen cuts off closely arranged
as periderm. parenchymatous cells on the outer side instead of cork cells.
yy Due to activity of the cork cambium, pressure builds up on These parenchymatous cells soon rupture the epidermis,
the remaining layers peripheral to phellogen and ultimately forming lens-shaped openings called lenticels.
these layers die and slough off. yy Lenticels permit the exchange of gases between the outer
atmosphere and the internal tissue of the stem.
Bark yy It is found in most woody trees.
yy It is a non-technical term that refers to all tissues exterior
to the vascular cambium, therefore including secondary
phloem.
 Chapter Structural

7 Organisation in
Animals
ANIMAL TISSUES Epithelial tissues are of two types: Simple and Compound.

yy Tissue is a group of cells with common origin, structure and 1. Simple Epithelium
function that work together to perform a particular function. It is composed of a single layer of cells. It lines body cavities,
For example, Blood, bone, cartilage are some examples of ducts and tubes.
animal tissues. Based on structural modification of cells, simple epithelium
yy The study of tissue is called histology. The term was coined is divided into three types.
by Meyer. (a) Squamous epithelium
²² It consists of a single layer of flat cells with irregular
Importance of Tissue in Living Organisms boundaries.
²² It is found in the walls of the blood vessels and in the
yy It brings about division of labour in multicellular organisms. lining of alveoli.
The division of labour increases the survival rate of multi Nucleus
Cytoplasm
cellular organism.
yy Tissues become organized to form organs, which in
turn forms organ systems. It increases the efficiency of Basement
membrane
multicellular organisms.
Fig. Squamous epithelium
yy Tissue decreases the workload of individual cells.
Animal tissues are 4 types: Epithelial, Connective, Function
Muscular, and Neural. ²² It protects the underlying structures from mechanical
injury and germs.
²² As squamous epithelium lines the Bowman’s capsule,
A. EPITHELIAL TISSUE (Also Called as it helps in ultrafiltration.
²² In blood capillaries, the epithelium helps in exchange
Epithelium) of materials between blood and tissue.
²² In alveoli of lungs, epithelium helps in exchange of
yy Epithelial tissue is the simplest animal tissue that forms
gases between blood and atmosphere.
the continuous sheet of closely packed cells that covers all (b) Cuboidal (cubical) epithelium
external and internal surface of the animal body. Thus, it is ²² The cuboidal epithelium is made up of cube like cells,
also known as covering tissue. which are square in section but their polygonal in
yy The epithelial cells lie close together with little or no surface view.
intercellular substance. The cells are held together by ²² The nucleus is centrally placed and round in
various types of junctions and small amount of cementing structure.
materials. The epithelial membrane rests over an extra- ²² Microvilli may be present on the free surface which
increases the surface area of absorption.
cellular layer of white, non-elastic collagen fibres called
²² They are found in the uriniferous tubules, thyroid
basement membrane. This membrane connects the epithelial vesicles, salivary and pancreatic ducts.
tissue to the underlying connective tissue.
 Structural Organisation in Animals 147

Cytoplasm Functions:
²² The beating of cilia helps to keep the unwanted particles
from entering into the lungs.
²² Cilia also help in pushing the ovum in oviduct.

Cilia
Nucleus
Basement membrane
Columnar
Fig. Cuboidal epithelium cell
Functions Nucleus
²² The cuboidal epithelium helps in secretion, excretion
and absorption. Basement
membrane
²² It also provides mechanical support to the part where
they are found.
(c) Columnar epithelium
²² Columnar epithelium is tall and pillar-like. The nucleus Fig. Ciliated columnar epithelium
is oval and lies at the base. (ii) Glandular Epithelium
²² The free surface bears a number of tiny finger like ²² Glandular epithelium is actually a modification of
projections called microvilli. Microvilli increase the columnar epithelium. The epithelium is infolded to
surface area for absorption. form multicellular glands.
²² They are found in the lining layer of stomach, intestine ²² The glandular epithelium is found lining the intestine
and their glands. They are also present in the salivary and glands.
glands, sweat glands, tear glands, and covering of ²² Function: The glands secrete sweat from sweat
epiglottis. glands, oil from oil glands, enzymes from digestive
Functions glands, hormones from endocrine glands, mucus from
²² Columnar epithelium lines the intestine and is mucus glands, etc.
specialized to absorb nutrients.
Goblet cell Ciliated columnar cell
²² Goblet cell is a modified columnar cell, which
produces mucus.
²² It also provides protection to the underlying tissues. Cilia

Basement
Columnar membrane
cell
Basal cell
Nucleus Connective
tissue
Basement
membrane
Fig. Glandular epithelium
They are of two types
Fig. Columnar epithelium yy Unicellular: Consists of isolated glandular cells. E.g. goblet
cells of the alimentary canal.
The modified columnar epithelium is known as pseudo-stratified
yy Multicellular: Contains cluster of cells. E.g. salivary
epithelium. It is found in the nasal and genital tracts.
glands.
On the basis of specific functions, the epithelial tissue is
classified into ciliated and glandular epithelium. Based on mode of pouring of secretions, glands are of two
(i) Ciliated Epithelium types:
²² Ciliated epithelium is cuboidal or columnar cells that yy Exocrine glands: Exocrine glands release their secretion
bear cilia at their free surface. like mucus, saliva, earwax, oil, milk, digestive enzymes etc.
²² Ciliated cuboidal epithelium is found in sperm ducts through ducts (tubes) at specific sites. For example, salivary
and uriniferous tubules. gland secretes saliva in the mouth through salivary duct.
²² Ciliated columnar epithelium is found in the inner yy Endocrine glands (Ductless glands): Endocrine glands
lining of respiratory tract (trachea or wind pipe) and secrete their secretions directly into the blood. They do not
oviducts (fallopian tube). have ducts. They produce hormones. For example, pituitary
gland, thyroid gland etc.
 148 BIOLOGY

2. Compound Epithelium yy Matrix is the ground substance and is secreted by the living
cells of the connective tissue. It may be jelly-like, fluid or
yy They are composed of more than one layer (multi-layered) solid.
of cells. yy In all connective tissues except blood, the cells (fibroblasts)
yy They cover the dry surface of skin, moist surface of buccal secrete fibres of structural proteins called collagen or elastin
cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and that provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to tissue.
pancreatic ducts. Functions of connective tissue:
yy Functions: It is involved mainly in the function of providing ²² It helps in binding the different structures of the body.
protection and has a limited role in secretion and absorption. For example, muscle with bone, bone with bone, and
They protect against chemical and mechanical stresses. muscle with skin.
Difference between simple epithelium ²² It forms the packing material in different organs.
and compound epithelium ²² Skeletal connective tissue like bones and cartilage
Simple Epithelium Compound Epithelium forms supportive framework of the body.
²² Fluid connective tissue like blood forms an internal
It is composed of only one layer It is composed of many layers of
of cells. cells.
transport system of the body.
²² The cells present inside connective tissue protect the
It is mainly involved in the function It is mainly involved in the function
body against microbes and toxins.
of absorption and secretion. of protection and has a limited role
in absorption and secretion.
²² It also forms shock absorbing cushions around organs
like eye, heart and kidneys.
It is present in the lining of the It is present in the lining of the
²² It helps in connecting, binding, packing and supporting
stomach, intestine. pharynx and buccal cavity.
different structures of the animal body. Thus, it helps
Specialized Junction between Epithelial Cells the body to function as an integrated whole.
(Cell Junctions) Based on the nature of matrix, connective tissue is divided into
three types:
These are the junctions that provide structural and functional links
(i) Connective Tissue proper (matrix is jelly-like, i.e. less rigid)
between adjacent cells. They are of three types.
(ii) Skeletal Tissue (matrix is solid i.e. rigid)
(i) Tight junctions: They help to stop substances from leaking
(iii) Vascular Tissue (matrix is a fluid called plasma)
across a tissue.
(ii) Adhering junctions: They perform cementing function to I. Connective Tissue Proper
keep neighbouring cells together.
It is type of connective tissue that has jelly-like matrix and three
They are of three types: Zonula adherens, Desmosomes
types of fibres- white collagen, yellow elastin and reticular fibres.
(Macula adherens) and Hemidesomsomes.
The living cells present may include fibroblasts, mast cells, plasma
(iii) Gap junctions: They facilitate the cells to communicate
cells, macrophages and lymphocytes.
with each other by connecting the cytoplasm of adjoining
cells, for rapid transfer of ions, small molecules and It is of two types
sometimes big molecules.
A. Loose Connective Tissue Proper
Microvilli
In this, cells (fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells etc.) and
Tight Junction
fibres are loosely arranged in a semi-fluid matrix. It has fewer
fibres and more of matrix. It is of two types: Areolar tissue and
Interlocking Adipose tissue.
Desmosome junctional
proteins
(a) Areolar Tissue: It is the most widely spread connective
tissue in the body. The non-living intercellular matrix
Plasma membranes Intercellular space contains irregular shaped cells and two kinds of fibers. The
of adjacent cells (a) Tight junction cells forming the tissue are:
Gap junction (i) Fibroblasts, which form the yellow fibers, made
of elastin and white fibers, made of collagen in the
matrix.
Extracellular
space between
Underlying (ii) Macrophages that help in engulfing the bacteria and
basement membrane
cells micro-organisms.
Fig. Cell junctions (iii) Mast cells that secrete heparin. Heparin helps in
clotting of blood.
B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE Location: Areolar tissues are found inside organs, around
yy Connective tissue is a fundamental animal tissue that has blood vessels, muscles and nerve. It also occurs below sub-
scattered living cells embedded in matrix. The matrix and cutaneous tissue and structures like muscles and skin.
cells are different in different connective tissues.
 Structural Organisation in Animals 149

Functions: B. Dense Connective Tissues

²² It helps in binding skin with underlying parts. In this, fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed. It has more
²² It provides packing material in various organs. of fibres and less amount of matrix. It is of two types:
²² It provides material for repair of injury. (a) Dense regular connective tissues: They show regular
²² Macrophages present in tissue feed on microbes, pattern of fibres. Collagen fibres are present in rows
produce antibodies to fight against infection. between many parallel bundles of fibres. E.g. tendons and
²² Mast cells in tissue are involved in allergic reac- ligaments.
tions. (i) Tendon: It is a tough, non- fibrous, dense, white fibrous
connective tissue. It has great strength but limited
Cilia flexibility.
Function: It joins a skeletal muscle to a bone, thereby
Columnar helping the bone to move on contraction and relaxation
cell
of the muscle.
Nucleus (ii) Ligament: It is a dense yellow fibrous connective tissue.
It has considerable strength and high elasticity.
Basement Function: Ligament binds a bone with another bone,
membrane thereby allowing bending and rotation movements over
a joint.
Sprain is caused by excessive pulling of ligaments.
Fig. Ciliated columnar epithelium
(b) Dense irregular connective tissues: They have irregular
(b) Adipose Tissue: It is a type of connective tissue that is pattern of fibres. It has fibroblasts and many fibres (mostly
specialized to store fat called adipose cells. The fats are collagen) that are oriented differently. This tissue is present
stored inside cells called adipocytes. Adipocytes are large in skin.
cells with one or more globules of fat and peripheral II. Supportive Connective Tissues (Cartilage &
cytoplasm with nucleus at one end. Like areolar tissue, the
adipose tissue has also soft jelly like matrix, living cells like Bones )
fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells etc. and two types of It is a connective tissue in which matrix is rigid and the living cells
fibers called collagen and elastin. occur in fluid filled spaces called lacunae.
Location: The tissue is found below the skin, around (a) Cartilage
internal organs and inside yellow bone marrow. yy Cartilage is a non-porous, firm but flexible supportive tissue.
Functions: Matrix is solid and pliable (due to chondroitin salts) and
²² Adipose tissue acts as storage tissue that stores fat in resists compression.
reserve for use when required. yy It has solid matrix which is composed of chondrin. Chondrin
²² It acts as shock absorbing cushion around certain is secreted by the chondrocytes. Chondrocytes lie in the
organs. matrix singly or in groups of two or four surrounded by fluid
²² It forms insulating layer below the skin. It keeps the filled space called lacunae. Cartilage is usually covered by
body warm. a tough fibrous membrane called perichondrium.
yy Most of the cartilages in vertebrate embryos are replaced
Connective by bones in adults.
Nucleus Cytoplasm Fat cell tissues fibers
yy Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, outer ear, joints in the
vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.
yy It provides support and flexibility to various parts of the
body.
Perichondrium Chondrocytes in lacunae

Blood Fat Connective

vessel globules tissue cells
Perichondrium Matrix Elastic Fibers
Fig. Adipose tissue
Fig. Elastic catilage
 150 BIOLOGY

(b) Bones yy Blood is a bright red coloured fluid connective tissue. It is

yy Bone is a strong, rigid and non-flexible tissue. Bone is the a complex of straw-coloured fluid called plasma in which
hardest tissue of the body. various kinds of cells are embedded. Plasma contains large
yy It consists of solid matrix with fluid filled lacunae having
number of proteins like fibroblast, albumin and globulin.
osteocytes or bone cells.
yy Matrix is composed of collagenous protein complex called yy The blood cells embedded inside plasma include erythrocytes
ossein and mineral matter like salts of calcium, phosphorus, (RBCs), leucocytes (WBCs), and thrombocytes (platelets).
and magnesium. These components form 45% of blood.
yy The hardness of bone is due to deposition of mineral matter
(calcium salts and collagen fibres). yy Mammalian erythrocytes are biconcave, coloured cells
yy The matrix in mammalian bone like in thigh bone is devoid of a nucleus. They help in transporting respiratory
arranged in concentric rings or lamellae around nutrient gases.
filled haversian canals. yy Leucocytes or white blood cells are nucleated cells. They
yy The osteocytes lie on the lamellae and give out branched
processes which join with those of the adjoining cells. can be divided into two types, granulocytes (neutrophils,
Some bones have a central cavity that contains a tissue that eosinophils, and basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes
produces blood cells. and monocytes). They help fight against various disease-
yy The soft connective tissue present in the bone cavity is
causing germs entering the body.
known as bone marrow. Sheath of bone is called peristeum.
A layer of osteoblasts or bone forming cells lie below it. yy Thrombocytes are cell fragments produced from
yy Bones are of two types megarkaryocytes of the bone. They play a major role during
(i) Spongy bone, in which bone cells are irregulary blood coagulation.
arranged. Such bones are found at the ends of the long
bones. Functions:
(ii) Compact bone, in which cells are arranged in circles ²² Blood transports gases like oxygen and carbon
or lamellae around a central canal, haversian canal. dioxide.
yy Location: Bones are found all around the body. It forms ²² It also transports food materials like glucose, amino
the supportive framework of the body.
Functions: acids and fatty acids.
²² It forms the supportive framework of the body. ²² Blood regulates body temperature by conducting heat
²² It provides surface for attachment to many muscles. within the body.
²² It forms joints that take part in body movement and ²² Blood transports excretory products like urea and uric
locomotion.
²² Red bone marrow of bones forms blood cells. acid to the kidneys.
²² Bone is a reservoir of calcium, phosphorus and other ²² White blood cells fight against infection and protect
minerals. body from foreign agents. They are basically soldiers
Concentric lamellae of the body.
Spongy bone ²² Blood platelets help in clotting of blood.
Osteon

C. MUSCLE TISSUE
Control canal
Periosteum

yy Each muscle is made of many muscle fibres.

yy The group of muscle fibers is known as muscles. The
Osteocyte
muscle fiber is covered by a sheath of membrane called
Canalicula
sarcolemma.
Nerve yy The cytoplasm of muscle fiber contains a large number
Lacuna
Blood vessel
of fine longitudinally running fibrils called myofibrils.
Myofibrils are actually the contractile elements of muscle
Fig. Bone
fibers. Each myofibril has two types of proteins filaments
called thicker myosin and thinner actin. The actin and
Fluid Connective Tissue
myosin filaments slide past each other to shorten the fibrils
It consists of cells and matrix without fibers. Plasma is the extra causing the whole muscle to contract. The cytoplasm is
cellular fluid of matrix, the ground substance. Blood is a type of called the sarcoplasm.
fluid connective tissue. yy Muscles take part in locomotion and movements.
 Structural Organisation in Animals 151

Sacroplasm
Myofibrills Sarcolemma
Nucleus
Striations

Nucleus Myofibrils

Filaments containing
actin and myosin
Fig. Structure of muscle fiber
yy The muscles used to smile are called voluntary muscles. We
can control smile to express how we are feeling. Fig. Smooth muscle fiber

Types of Muscle Fibres (iii) Cardiac muscle

yy They are involuntary muscle seen only in the heart.
On the basis of their location, structure and function, there are three yy Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle
types of muscle fibres: skeletal, smooth and cardiac. cells and make them stick together.
(i) Skeletal (striated or voluntary) muscle yy Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at some fusion
yy They are attached to skeletal bones. E.g. Biceps points allow cells to contract as a unit, i.e., when one cell
yy It bears striations in the form of alternate light and dark receives a signal to contract, other cells also contract.
bands.
yy Muscle fibres are bundled together in a parallel fashion. Intercalated Thin Branched
sarcolemma fibres
yy A sheath of tough connective tissue encloses several bundles disc
of muscle fibres.
yy The muscle has the ability to contract rapidly and thus is
responsible for quick movements.
yy The muscles are also known as voluntary because their
contraction is under the control of will.
yy They get fatigued soon.
yy They are found in the limbs, face, neck and body wall.

Myofibril
Sarcoplasm Nucleus
Sarcolemma

Fig. Cardiac muscle fiber

Nucleus

Dark
D. NEURAL TISSUE
bands
yy Nervous tissue is specialized to transmit messages in our
Sarcoplasm body. They can receive, integrate and transmit stimuli to
various parts of the body. It is devoid of matrix. Its cell is
surrounded by a special connective tissue cells.
Fig. Striated muscle fiber yy Nervous tissue contains two types of cells: Neuron and
neuroglial cells.
(ii) Smooth (non-striated or visceral) muscle
yy Each smooth muscle fiber is spindle-shaped, unbranched Neuron
and uni-nucleated cell.
yy The muscle fibers do not show striations. ²² It is the functional unit of nervous tissue. It is also known
yy Cell junctions hold them together and they are bundled as nerve cells. They are the longest cells of the body
together in a connective tissue sheath. reaching upto a metre in length.
yy They are known as involuntary muscles as their movement yy Each neuron is made of three parts:
is not controlled by the mind. (a) Cell body (Cyton): It is a broader nucleated part
yy Fatigue is rare in smooth muscle fibers. of neuron. Its cytoplasm is called neuroplasm.
yy They are seen in the wall of internal organs such as the Neuroplasm contains two special structure called
blood vessels, stomach and intestine. neurofibrils and Nissl granules.
 152 BIOLOGY

♦♦ Neurofibrils are fine fibrils involved in transmission LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION

of impulses.
♦♦ Nissl granules are ribosome containing structures. As evolution progressed and larger and larger organism appeared
They are made of RNA and protein. with enormous number of cells in the body, it became necessary
(b) Dendrons: Dendrons are small, branched protoplasmic that the bodies function are distributed among group of cells called
outgrowths of cell body. Like cyton, dendrites also possess tissues and even among group of tissues. Such higher and higher
neurofibrils and Nissl granules. Dendrons further branch grouping of cells or tissue is known as levels of organization. These
into many thin dendrites. levels are cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system and
Function: Dendrites receive impulses and transmit the same organism.
towards cyton. yy Cellular level: The chemicals are grouped together to
(c) Axon: Axon is a single, long, fiber like process generally form the cellular level. Cells are the smallest unit of life.
arising singly from the cell body of a neuron. It is devoid The cell has a very complex system of organelles and each
of Nissl granules. However, it contains neurofibrils. Axon organelle is concerned with a particular task. Thus there
is surrounded by a sheath called neurolemma of a special is a division of labour at the cellular level. E.g. nerve cell,
connective tissue called Schwann cells. muscle cell etc.
The axon forms fine branches at its terminal end called nerve yy Tissue level: The cells that are similar in structure, origin
endings. The nerve ending has knobbed ends in contact and function are grouped together to form tissues. There are
with muscles, glands, skin etc for providing an impulse four main types of tissues: Epithelial, connective, muscular
for activity. Each such junction is called synapse. Synapse and neural tissue.
is meant for transmission of impulse from one neuron to yy Organ level: Organ is a group of various tissues that
another. performs a specific function. For example, stomach and
Function: Axon carries impulses towards the cell body. intestine are organs to digest food. Similarly, lungs and
trachea are organs meant for respiration. All these organs
are collections of various tissues like connective, epithelial,
Dendrite Axon
terminal
muscular and nervous tissue.
button yy Organ system level: Various organs group together to form
Soma (cell body) even larger functional units called organ systems. Organ
Nucleus system is a combination of a set of organs all of which
are usually devoted to one general function. For example,
Respiratory system (consisting of lungs, trachea, bronchi,
diaphragm etc) in man are example of organ system that
Axon works in a coordinated way.
Myelin Sheath yy Organism level: The complete individual comprised of
different organ system is known as organism. For example,
Fig. Structure of a neuron Man, Dog, Cat or a Mustard plant.
yy The transmission of impulse is usually carried out with the Thus, the different level of organization of the living body is:
help of a neurotransmitter like acetylcholine. Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism
yy They are present in brain, spinal cord and nerves.
Functions:
²² It picks and conducts messages from one part of body MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY
to another. yy Morphology: It is the study of form or external features.
²² They also receive all types of sensations like sight, yy Anatomy: It is the study of morphology of internal organs
sound, smell, pain, touch etc. from the outside of animals.
environment and send the message to the brain and
the spinal cord. In turn, impulses from the brain and COCKROACH (Periplaneta americana)
spinal cord are carried to the various organs.
²² Nervous tissue provides responses to all types of yy Phylum: Arthropoda
stimuli. yy Class: Insecta
²² It exerts control over entire body activities by yy Genus: Periplaneta
coordinating the functioning of different body parts. yy Species: americana
They are nocturnal, omnivores that live in damp places.
 Structural Organisation in Animals 153

Morphology of Cockroach It contains female gonopore, spermathecal pores and

collateral glands.
²² In males, genital pouch lies at the hind end of abdomen
bounded dorsally by 9th & 10th terga and ventrally by
the 9th sternum. It contains dorsal anus, ventral male
genital pore (gonopore) and gonapophysis.
²² In both sexes, 10th segment bears a pair of jointed
anal cerci. Males bear a pair of short, thread like anal
styles.
Differences between male and female cockroaches

Male cockroach Female cockroach

Larger size. Smaller in size.
Wings extend beyond the tip of the Wings do not extent beyond the tip
abdomen. of the abdomen.
The abdomen is long and narrow. The abdomen is short and broad.
Anal styles are present. Anal styles are absent.
Fig. External features of cockroach Brood pouch is absent. Brood pouch is present.
yy The adults are about 34-53 mm long. Males have larger antennae. Females have shorter antennae.
yy Body is covered by a hard brown chitinous exoskeleton.
yy In each segment, exoskeleton has a hardened plate called Anatomy of Cockroach
sclerites (dorsal tergites and ventral sternites). They
are joined to each other by a thin and flexible articular Digestive System
membrane called arthrodial membrane. yy The alimentary canal is divided into three parts: foregut,
yy The body is divided into three regions – head, thorax and mid gut and hindgut.
abdomen.
(i) Head
²² It is the anterior most region of the body. Triangular
head is formed by the fusion of six segments. The
flexible neck allows the movement of head in all
possible directions.
²² Head bears a pair of thread like antennae, a pair of
compound eyes and biting and chewing type mouth
parts.
²² The biting and chewing type of mouth parts of
cockroach consists of a labrum (upper lip), 2
mandibles, 2 maxillae, hypopharynx (tongue), and a
labium (lower lip).
(ii) Thorax
²² It consists of three parts: Prothorax, mesothorax and
metathorax.
²² The head is connected with thorax by a neck. Neck is
the short extension of the prothorax.
²² Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs.
²² Two pairs of wings are found in cockroach Fig. Digestive system of cockroach
²² The first pair is forewings (mesothoracic) or tegmina. (i) Foregut: It is lined by cuticle. It consists of a mouth which
They are opaque dark and leathery and cover the hind opens into the tubular pharynx, leading into the oesophagus,
wings when at rest. which further opens into a sac-like crop that stores the food.
²² The second pair is hind wings (metathoracic). They are The crop leads to a gizzard (proventriculus).
transparent, membranous and are used in flight. Gizzard helps in grinding the food particles. It has an
(iii) Abdomen outer layer of thick circular muscles and thick inner cuticle
²² It consists of 10 segments. forming 6 chitinous plates (teeth).
²² In females, 7th sternum is boat shaped and together (ii) Mid gut (Mesenteron): It is not lined by cuticle. The
with 8th and 9th sterna forms a brood (genital) pouch. junction of the foregut and midgut has rings of 6 to 8 tubules
 154 BIOLOGY

called hepatic or gastric caecae, which secrete digestive spiracles. Spiracles are present on the lateral side of the
juices. body.
At the junction of mid gut and hindgut, there are 100-150 yy Thin branching tubes called tracheal tubes, subdivided
yellow coloured thin filamentous malpighian tubules. into tracheoles carry oxygen from the air to all the parts
Malpighian tubules are excretory in function. of the body.
(iii) Hindgut: It is broader than mid gut and lined internally by yy The opening of the spiracles is regulated by sphincters. Gas
cuticle. Hindgut includes ileum, colon and rectum. Rectum exchange takes place at the tracheoles by diffusion.
opens out through anus.
Excretory System
Circulatory System yy Cockroaches are uricotelic.
yy Blood vascular system is an open type i.e. the blood does yy Their main excretory organ is malpighian tubules.
not flow in the vessels, but moves through the internal open yy Each tubule is lined by glandular and ciliated cells. They
spaces called haemocoel and comes in direct contact with absorb nitrogenous waste products and convert them into
the body organs. uric acid which is excreted out through the hindgut.
yy Visceral organs located in the haemocoel are bathed in yy Fat body, nephrocytes and urecose glands also help in
blood (haemolymph). excretion.
yy Haemolymph= colourless plasma + haemocytes.
yy Heart consists of elongated muscular tube and lies mid- Nervous System
dorsally below the terga in the pericardial sinus. It consists yy The nervous system of cockroach consists of segmentally
of thirteen funnel shaped contractile chambers with ostia arranged ganglia joined by paired longitudinal connectives
on either side. on the ventral side. Three ganglia lie in the thorax, and six
yy Blood from sinuses enter heart through ostia and is pumped in the abdomen.
anteriorly to sinuses again. yy The head holds a bit of a nervous system while the rest is
yy There are 12 pairs of fan shaped and triangular alary situated along the ventral part of its body. So, if the head of
muscles. Their narrow ends are inserted into terga while a cockroach is cut off, it will still live for one week.
their broader ends are attached to dorsal diaphragm. yy The supra-oesophageal ganglion (brain) supplies nerves to
yy Alary muscles play an important role in the blood flow antennae and compound eyes.
from the heart to other haemocoelic spaces in blood
circulation. Sense Organs or Receptors
yy Cockroach has several types of sense organs- Antennae,
eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci, etc.
yy Antennae have sensory receptors that help in monitoring
the environment.
yy Each compound eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal
ommatidia. Using these, a cockroach can receive several
images of an object. This is known as mosaic vision. It has
more sensitivity but less resolution.
yy Being common during night, vision in cockroach is also
called as nocturnal vision.
Reproductive System
yy Cockroaches are dioecious.
Male Reproductive System
It consists of
yy A pair of testes lying one on each lateral side in the 4th -6th
abdominal segments.
yy Each testis → a thin vas deferens → seminal vesicle →
ejaculatory duct → male gonopore.
yy The main function of seminal vesicles is to store sperms.
Sperms are glued together in the form of bundles called
Fig. Open circulatory system of cockroach
spermatophores which are discharged during copulation.
Respiratory System yy Accessory glands include a mushroom gland (in 6th-7th
abdominal segments) and phallic gland. Their secretions
yy The respiratory system of cockroach consists of a network
nourish the sperms.
of trachea that open through 10 pairs of small holes called
 Structural Organisation in Animals 155

yy External genitalia include male gonapophysis or phallomere. yy Sperms are transferred through spermatophores. Their
Gonapophysis is a chitinous asymmetrical structure, fertilised eggs are encased in oothecae. Ootheca is dark
surrounding the male gonopore. reddish to blackish brown capsule, about 8 mm long.
Females produce 9-10 oothecae, each containing 14-16
eggs.
yy Development of P. americana is paurometabolous. It means
development is through nymphal stage. Nymphs look like
adults. They moult 13 times to reach the adult form. Only
adult cockroaches have wings. The next to last nymphal
stage has wing pads.

Fig. Male reproductive system

Female Reproductive System Fig. Female reproductive system

It consists of
yy Two large ovaries, lying laterally in the 2nd – 6th abdominal Economic Importance
segments. Each ovary is formed of 8 ovarian tubules called yy They are pests because they cause damage to the household
ovarioles, containing a chain of developing ova. materials like clothes, shoes, purses etc. They also eat and
yy Oviducts of each ovary unite into a single median oviduct destroy food and contaminate it with their smelly excreta.
(vagina) which opens into the genital chamber. yy They transmit bacterial diseases like cholera, typhoid,
yy A pair of spermatheca is present in the 6th segment which tuberculosis etc. by contaminating food material.
opens into the genital chamber.
 Chapter

8 Cell: The Unit of Life

Cell is the basic unit of life. A baby, a banyan tree and a bacterium, ²² Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of all
all look different from one another but they all are made of tiny living beings.
cells. The cell is the smallest unit of matter capable of independent ²² All cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell
existence and performing the essential functions of life. Although division.
a cell is tiny, it has a complex structure. yy Cells are totipotent. Totipotency is the ability of living cells
to form the whole organism, unless and until they have
become extremely specialized.
DISCOVERY OF THE CELL
yy In 1665, an English scientist named Robert Hooke saw ORGANIZATION OF CELLS IN LIVING BEINGS
the cells for the first time in a thin slice of cork with its
compound microscope. He observed the thin structure of a Cells in an organism are grouped together to make tissues, organs
thin slice of cork. Cork is a dead plant structure. He observed and organ systems. An arrangement of different organ systems
that cork had a several tiny compartments in it. He called working together forms the organism.
them cellulae or cells. The term ‘cell’ is derived from the
Latin word cellula meaning a small room. However the Variation in cell number, shape and size
cells discovered by Hooke, were dead and only cellulose There is a variety in cell number, shape and size in different
walls were visible. organisms. Even cells within the same organism show enormous
yy In 1674, Van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch scientist, studied diversity in size, shape, and internal organization.
living cells for the first time with the help of an improved
microscope, which he himself had made. Though, he was 1. Size of Cells:
the first one to observe “cells”, but he did not use the term yy Cells show a great range in their sizes. Most cells are
“cell”. microscopic and can be seen only under a powerful
yy Later in the nineteenth century, with the advancement of microscope. Few types of cells are large enough to be seen
technology and the improvement of microscopes, more through naked eye.
scientists studied about the cells. yy The largest cell is an egg of ostrich that measures as much as
yy A German botanist, Matthias Jacob Schleiden (1838), 6 inches in diameter with shell and 3 inches without shell.
observed different parts of the plants under the microscope yy The smallest cells so far observed is considered to be of
and found that all of them are made up of cells. PPLO (Pleuro pneumonia like organisms) or Mycoplasma
yy A German zoologist, Theodor Schwann (1839), observed i.e. 0.1 µm.
parts of the animal body and noticed that they were also yy The smallest cells in the human body are the red blood cells.
made up of cells. The longest cells are the nerve cells.
yy A German doctor and biologist, Rudolph Carl Virchow yy Cells are small in size for two reasons:
(1858), studied that all cells arise from the pre-existing cells. (i) The cell’s nucleus can only control a certain amount
In other words, the existing cells divide to form new cells. of active cytoplasm.
He stated this in Latin as Ömnis cellula-e-cellula”. (ii) Also, the cells are limited in size because of their
yy The research and observations of these scientists led to the surface area to volume ratio.
formulation of the cell theory. (iii) A group of small cells has a relatively larger surface
yy The main points of cell theory are: area than a single large area of same volume. It is an
²² All living things are made of cells. important factor as a cell requires nutrients, oxygen
 Cell: The Unit of Life 169

and other material for its survival and growth. Hence, yy Thread-like: Nerve cells are long and have a wire like
it is necessary that all these materials should enter branches coming out of it. This enables them to carry
through its surface. As cell grows larger at some point, impulses over long distances in the body. Also, the wire like
its surface area becomes too small to allow these branches helps it to make contact with and carry messages
materials to enter the cell quickly enough to meet the between brain and other parts of the body. Hence, nerve
cells’ need. Thus as cell increases in size, its surface to cells are specially adapted to transmit messages.
volume ratio decreases that causes the cell to function yy Cubical or rectangular: The cells of the leaf are cubical
less efficiently. or rectangular.
yy The cells in plants may be round, oval, cubical, rectangular
2. Cell Shape
and polygonal.
Cells come in a variety of shapes- depending on their function
they perform. Therefore, cells show a lot of variation in their
shape as follows:
yy Oval: This shape of the cell is found in the unicellular green
alga Chlamydomonas.
yy Irregular: The single-celled body of Amoeba is irregular in
shape. White blood cells are also irregular in shape which
helps them to engulf and destroy the harmful material in
the blood.
yy Oblong: Paramecium is slipper-shaped or oblong.
yy Elongated: Muscle cells are elongated and contractile
(capable of shrinking or contracting). They can become
Fig. Different shapes of plant cells
longer or shorter and thus help in the movement of bones.

Fig. Different shapes of animal cells

3. Number of Cells cells, there is no division of labour as the single cells have
The number of cells varies in all living organisms. Depending to perform all the activities.
on the number of cells, all organisms can be divided into two (b) Multicellular organisms (Multi-celled organisms):
groups. Organisms which are made up of more than one cell are
(a) Unicellular organisms (Single-celled organisms): called multicellular organisms. For example, Fungi, plants,
Organisms which are made up of a single cell are called animals are example of multicellular organisms. All the cells
unicellular organisms. Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, of multi-cellular organism have a similar basic structure and
bacteria, etc. are example of unicellular organisms. In these similar baisic life activities. These cells group together to
organisms the single cell controls all the body functions, form tissues. Tissues form organs and organ give rise to
like growth, movement, nutrition and reproduction. In these organ system that performs specialised functions.
 170 BIOLOGY

The increasing order of complexity in multicellular organisms is: ER are present in eukaryotes.
Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism
Examples, Plants and animals.
Difference between unicellular organisms and Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
multicellular organisms
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Unicellular Organisms Multi-cellular Organisms
An organized nucleus is absent. A well-organized nucleus is present.
The organisms made up of single The organisms made up of Hereditary material lies free It contains hereditary material
cell is called unicellular organism. large number of cells are called in cytoplasm and is known as covered by a nuclear membrane.
multicellular organisms. nucleoid.
There is no division of labour. There is division of labour. Cells A single chromosome is present Numbers of rod like chromosomes,
A single cell performs all the are specialized to perform different and is represented by a single with two or more several DNA
activities of the organism. functions. circular DNA only. molecules are present.
The life-span of the organism is The life-span of multi-cellular Membrane bound cell organelles Membrane bound cell organelles
short. organism is long. are absent. are present.
Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, Examples: Fungi, Plants, and Ribosome – 70 S Ribosome- 80 S
bacteria etc. animals. No compartments are found in Eukaryote cells possess a number
prokaryotes. of cellular compartments called
membranous organelles, each of
EUKARYOTES AND PROKARYOTES which has a particular function in
the cell.
1. Prokaryotes (Pro = primitive, karyotec = nucleus): Examples include Bacteria and Examples include Plants, animals
Organisms whose cells do not possess a well formed cyanobacteria. and Fungi.
nucleus is known as prokaryotes. Examples, Bacteria,
A prokaryotic cell (Bacterium) A eukaryotic cell (Plant)
cyanobacteria, etc.
Prokaryotes also lack membrane bound cell organelles.
Thus, cell organelles like mitochondria, golgi bodies, ER PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL
are lacking in prokaryotes.
Although many things are common between animal and plants cell
2. Eukaryotes (Eu = True, Karyotes = Nucleus): Organisms
but they differ in some way.
whose cells possess a nuclear membrane is known as
Animal cell differ from plant cells in terms of structure and
eukaryotes. Cell organelles like mitochondria, golgi bodies,
types of organelles.

Difference between Plant Cell and Animal Cell

Plant Cells Animal Cells

Plant cells are larger in size compared to animal cell. Animal cells are smaller in size.
They have cell wall surrounding their cell membrane. Cell wall is absent.
Adjacent cells are connected through plasmodesmata. Adjacent cells are connected through a number of cell junctions.
Plastids are present. Plastids are absent.
A single large vacuole is present. Few small vacuoles are present.
Golgi body present in the form of units known as dictyosomes. Golgi body is well developed.
Nucleus lies on one side in the peripheral cytoplasm. Nucleus lies in the center of the cell.
Centrosome and centriole are absent. Centrosome with centriole is present.
Glyoxysomes may be present. Glyoxysomes are absent.
Lysosomes are rare. Their activity may be performed by vacuoles. Lysosomes are present.
Food is stored in the form of starch. Food is stored in the form of glycogen.
Cytokinesis takes place by cell plate. Cytokinesis takes place by cleavage.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS The characteristics of prokaryotic cells are as follows:

yy Number of cells: Most of them are unicellular.
Prokaryotic cell is a unicellular organism lacking membrane-bound yy Size: They are generally small in size. The size of a
organelles. prokaryotic cell varies from 0.5 – 5 µm.
 Cell: The Unit of Life 171

yy Nucleus: The nuclear region of a prokaryotic cell is poorly- contains organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic
defined because of the absence of a nuclear membrane. reticulum, golgi bodies, lysosomes, vacuoles, plastids and
Hence, a prokaryotic cell lacks a true nucleus. ribosomes.
yy Nuclear material: The genetic materials of prokaryotic yy A typical cell, either a plant cell or an animal cell, is formed
cells are naked. They contain single, circular chromosomes. of three basic parts:
In addition to the genomic DNA, they have a small, circular ²² Plasma membrane or Cell membrane
plasmid DNA. Plasmids are used as vectors in genetic ²² Nucleus
engineering. ²² Cytoplasm
yy Mesosome: They have specialised membranous structures yy Plant cell, fungi and some bacteria contains an additional
called mesosomes. Mesosomes are formed by the covering called cell wall.
invagination of the cell membrane. Components of a cell
Functions of mesosomes:
²² These extensions help in the synthesis of the cell
wall, replication of DNA. They also help in the equal Cell membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus
distribution of chromosomes into the daughter cells.
²² It also increases the surface area of the plasma
membrane to carry out various enzymatic activities. Cell organelles
²² It helps in secretion processes as well as in bacterial
respiration.
yy Nuclear components: Membrane-bound cell organelles Membrane Non- membranous
such as mitochondria, plastids, and endoplasmic reticulum bound
are absent from a prokaryotic cell. Endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes
yy Cell envelope: Most prokaryotic cells contain a three- Golgi complex Cytoskeleton
layered structure – outermost glycocalyx, middle cell wall, Mitochondria Centriole
and the innermost plasma membrane. This structure acts as Plastids (Only in plant cells) (Only in animals cells)
a protective unit. Lysosomes (Only in animal cells)
yy Flagella and pili: Some bacterial cells have single-stranded
flagella for locomotion. Flagella are composed of three Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane
parts: Filament, hook and basal body. Some have non-motile
appendages called pili or fimbriae. Pili or fimbriae take part yy It is the outermost, extremely delicate elastic membranous
in attachment (e.g. Neisseria gonorrhoeae) and conjugation covering of each cell.
(e.g. Escherichia coli). yy It separates the cytoplasm of the cell from its
yy Ribosomes: They are associated with plasma membrane environment.
of the cell. Prokaryotes have 70 S ribosomes, which are yy Plasma membrane is a living, selectively permeable
made of two subunits- 50 S and 30 S. Ribosomes are the membrane that regulates the movement of substances in
site of protein synthesis. Several ribosomes may attach to and out of cell.
a single mRNA and form a chain called polyribosomes
or polysome. The ribosomes of a polysome translate the Structure of a plasma membrane:
mRNA into proteins The cell membrane is composed of lipid bilayer of phospholipids
yy Examples: Examples of prokaryotic cells include blue molecules into which variety of globular proteins are embedded.
green algae, bacteria, Pleuro pneumonia – like organisms, (a) Lipid bilayer:
Archaebacteria etc. (i) The lipid is a phospholipid and each molecule has a
polar “head” region and a nonpolar “tail” region.
♦♦ The head portion is hydrophobic (“water fearing”)
EUKARYOTIC CELLS and the tail portion is hydrophilic (“water
loving”).
yy A cell is the basic unit of life. It performs all basic life
♦♦ When such molecules are surrounded by water,
functions like intake of food, excretion, metabolism,
they align in a characteristic 2-layered sheet with
respiration, growth and reproduction. In eukaryotic cells,
the heads pointed outward and the tails pointed
there is no mixing up of different functions. Infact, there is a
inward and water excluded from the middle - lipid
division of labour. For this, a cell usually possesses a number
bilayer.
of components called cell organelles. Each cell organelles
♦♦ This layer is semi-permeable i.e.; it allows only
performs specific functions. Hence, a cell may be defined
certain molecules to pass through.
as a unit of protoplasm, bounded by a cell membrane or
(ii) Glycolipids are present on cell membrane surfaces and
plasma membrane.
they have a carbohydrate sugar chain attached to them.
yy Protoplasm is the life giving substance and includes
This helps in recognizing other cells of the body.
cytoplasm and nucleus. Cytoplasm, on other hand,
 172 BIOLOGY

(iii) Cholesterol is another lipid component of cell membrane. Membrane Proteins

It helps to stiffen the membrane. However, cholesterol is yy Structural proteins: These gives support and shape to the
not found in the cell membrane of the plants. cell.
(b) Proteins: Protein molecules are embedded in the lipid yy Receptor proteins: They help cells communicate with
bilayer that forms passage ways for materials.
their external environment through the use of hormones,
♦♦ Some are embedded in the outer surface, inner
neurotransmitters and other signalling molecules.
surface, and some extend all the way from one
side to another. Peripheral proteins or extrinsic yy Transport proteins (globular proteins): These proteins
proteins are present on the outer and inner surface transport molecules across cell membranes through
of lipid bilayer while Integral proteins or intrinsic facilitated diffusion.
proteins are embedded inside lipid bilayer partially yy Glycoproteins: They have a carbohydrate chain attached
or wholly. to them. They are embedded in the cell membrane and help
♦♦ These proteins often recognize specific materials in cell to cell communications and also helps transport of
and allow them to pass through the membrane or molecule across the membrane.
they transport them across. This is why plasma yy Channel proteins: These proteins allow molecules of
membrane is called selectively permeable certain size to pass through the membrane.
membrane.

Fig. (a) Enzyme activity (b) Cell-to-cell recognition (c) Cell signaling (d) Transport of materials
 luid Mosaic Model
F Functions of Cell Membrane:
Several models have been proposed regarding the arrangement of yy It provides definite shape to the cell.
proteins and lipids. The Fluid Mosaic Model proposed by Singer yy It functions as a mechanical barrier between external
and Nicholson is widely accepted. and internal environment of the cells. Thus, it protects
According to this model: intracellular organelles from the outside environment.
yy Membranes are fluid and are rather viscous, like oil. yy It selectively allows the molecules to move in and out of
yy The molecules of the cell membrane are always in motion, the cell. Gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen pass
so the phospholipids are able to drift across the membrane, through diffusion, while other small molecules such as
changing places with their neighbour. sugar pass through a process called passive transport.
yy Proteins, both in and on the membrane, form a mosaic, Ions such as sodium or potassium are transported through
floating in amongst the phospholipids. Because of this, a process called active transport (with the utilization of
scientists call the modern view of membrane structure the ATP). Movement of water molecules through the membrane
‘Fluid Mosaic Model’. takes place by osmosis.
yy The mosaic of proteins in the cell membrane is constantly yy It can also engulf or expel substances in and out of the
changing. cell through endocytosis or exocytosis respectively.
Endocytosis is the process through which cells take in
extra-cellular substances. Endocytosis represents both
phagocytosis (ingestion of whole food), and pinocytosis
(ingestion of water).
yy It establishes communication between cells.
Transport Across the Membrane:

Passive transport: The transport of substances across the
plasma membrane without expenditure of energy is known as
passive transport. It is of two types: Diffusion and Osmosis.
(a) Diffusion: The process of movement of substance from
the region of higher water concentration to the region
Fig. The fluid mosaic model for cell membranes
 Cell: The Unit of Life 173

of lower concentration, so as to spread the substance yy It protects the cell against mechanical injury and
uniformly in the given space is known as diffusion. pathogens.
The process does not require energy. yy It freely allows the passage of water and other chemicals
(b) Osmosis: It is defined as the diffusion of water from into and out of the cells.
region of higher concentration to region of lower yy Cell wall helps the plant cells to withstand a lot of variations
concentration across the semi-permeable membrane. in the surrounding environment.
This kind of movement is along concentration gradient. yy Cell wall prevents the bursting of cell on endosmosis as it
There is no expenditure of energy. is quite thick and rigid.
Cell Wall Cytoplasm
yy Cell wall is a rigid, non-living covering present outside the yy Cytoplasm occupies the major part of the cell. It is a living
plasma membrane in plant cells. Animal cells lack a cell component of cell, consisting of transparent, semi-fluid
wall. Fungi such as mushrooms and yeast also have cell granular substance. It is limited on the outside by the cell
walls, but these are made of chitin. membrane. Water is the main component of the cytoplasm.
yy The cell wall is freely permeable (porous), and so has no
direct effect on the movement of molecules into or out of Cytoplasm has two major parts:
the cell. (a) Cytosol: Cytosol is the fluid part of cytoplasm. It can exist
yy The rigidity of their cell walls helps both to support and in two states: plasmasol and plasmagel.
protect the plant. ²² Plasmagel is present below the plasma membrane and
yy Plant cell walls are of two types: is called ectoplast while
²² Primary (cellulose) cell wall - While a plant cell is ²² Plasmasol is known as endoplast.
being formed, a middle lamella made of calcium Cytosol is viscous, and contains a number of substances like
pectate, is formed and the cellulose cell wall develops water, ions, enzymes, vitamins, carbohydrates, lipids and
between the middle lamella and the cell membrane. proteins. All major biochemical reactions take place in the
As the cell expands in length, more cellulose is added, cytoplasm
enlarging the cell wall. When the cell reaches full size, Cytosol + organelles = cytoplasm.
a secondary cell wall may form.  Cytoplasmic streaming or cyclosis: It is a vital movement
²² Secondary (lignified) cell wall - The secondary cell that rakes place in the cytoplasmic matrix of eukaryotic cells.
wall is formed only in woody tissue (mainly xylem). It takes part in:
The secondary cell wall is stronger and waterproof (i) Movement of organelles inside the cell like chloroplasts
and once a secondary cell wall forms, a cell can grow in relation to light intensity.
no more – it is dead! (ii) Distribution of substances in the cells.
yy The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate. It (iii) Distribution of food vacuoles as in amoeba and
holds or glues the different neighbouring cells together. paramecium.
yy The cell wall and middle lamellae may be traversed (iv) Formation of pseudopodia in WBCs and Amoeba.
by plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of (v) Distribution of heat inside the cell etc.
neighbouring cells.
(b) Cell organelles: Cell organelles are tiny, sub-microscopic
structures that are specialized to perform specific functions.
In Eukaryotic cells, most organelles are surrounded by a
membrane, but in Prokaryotic cells there are no membrane-
bound organelles. The organelles are bounded by a
membrane to keep their contents separate from the external
environment. These organelles include mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, plastids, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, ribosomes and centrosomes.
On the basis of membranous covering, cell organelles are
divided into three types:
²² Membrane less organelles- Example: Ribosomes.
²² Single membrane bound organelles-
Fig. Cell wall
Example: Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies,
lysosomes, vacuoles.
Functions of Cell Wall:
²² Double membrane bound organelles- Example,.
yy Being rigid, it gives definite shape to the cells. Mitochondria and plastids.
yy It provides mechanical strength to plants.
 174 BIOLOGY

Endomembrane System (b) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER): It contains no

ribosomes and hence is smooth in appearance. The smooth
yy The endomembrane system is the grouping of some ER is where polypeptides are converted into functional
membrane organelles as their functions are coordinated. proteins and where proteins are prepared for secretion. It is
It includes endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi complex, also the site of lipid and steroid synthesis, and is associated
lysosomes and vacuoles. with the Golgi apparatus. Smooth ER is also involved in
yy The functions of the mitochondria, chloroplast and the regulation of calcium levels in muscle cells, and the
peroxisomes are not coordinated with the above components, breakdown of toxins by liver cells.
hence, these are not considered as part of the endomembrane Both types of ER transport materials throughout the
system. cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Functions of endoplasmic reticulum:
yy It is a network of tiny tubular structures scattered in the
yy Endoplasmic reticulum helps in intracellular and intercellular
entire cytoplasm. In some cells it is so big that one end of
transport of materials. It is the “transport system” of the cell.
it is connected to the cell membrane and the other to the
nuclear membrane. It transports chemicals between cells and within cells.
yy ER divides the intracellular space into luminal (inside ER) yy It provides large surface area for various metabolic
and extra-luminal (cytoplasm compartments). reactions.
yy ER can exist in three forms: yy RER is the site of protein synthesis.
²² Cisternae: They are flat interconnected sac like parts yy SER helps in lipid synthesis.
which are found in bundles where they lie parallel to yy SER in liver cells helps in detoxifying many drugs and
one another. It is connected to both the outer nuclear poisons.
membrane as well as cell membrane. yy Proteins and lipids synthesized on ER are used for making
²² Vesicles: Vesicles are oval or rounded sacs which cell membrane. The process is known as membrane
appear as small vacuole. They remain isolated in the biogenesis.
cytoplasm. Vesicles are also called as microsomes.
²² Tubules: Tubules are tube-like extensions which Golgi bodies
may be connected with cisternae or vesicles to form
reticular system. yy Golgi body consists of smooth, flattened, membrane bound,
sac-like structures called cisternae. The cisternae are stacked
together; placed one above another in parallel rows. It is
frequently surrounded by vesicles, which are discharged
from the cisternae.

incoming transport vesicle

cis face
cisternae lumen

trans face
newly forming vesicle secretory vesicle
Fig. Endoplasmic reticulum
Depending on presence or absence of ribosome on the surface Fig. Structure of golgi bodies
of ER, it is divided into two types: yy The cisternae are frequently curved to give a definite polarity
(a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): It is lined with to the Golgi apparatus. Its one face is convex and is called
80 S ribosomes and is rough in appearance, hence, named forming or cis face while the other face is concave and is
as rough endoplasmic reticulum. It is the site of protein known as maturing face or trans face.
synthesis. . It is an extension of the outer membrane of the yy The forming or cis face receives vesicles from ER. Their
nuclear envelope, so allowing mRNA to be transported content then passes through cisternae and ultimately reaches
swiftly to the 80s ribosomes, where they are translated in the maturing face where they bud off as secretion, coated
protein synthesis. vesicles or vacuoles.
 Cell: The Unit of Life 175

yy Golgi body is a single complex in animal cells while in plant (ii) Secondary lysosomes or Digestive vacuoles: They are
cells; it is formed of separate units called dictyosomes. formed by the fusion of food containing phagosome with
yy Membranes of Golgi body may develop connections with lysosomes having digestive enzymes. These digestive
membranes of ER to form complex called extra membrane enzymes break down the large food material into smaller
system. parts for easy digestion. The digested food passes out into
the cytoplasm while the secondary lysosome is left with
Functions of Golgi bodies
undigested food.
yy It is involved in the synthesis and repair of cell (iii) Residual Bodies: These are lysosomes that contain
membrane. indigestible food materials. The residual bodies pass
yy It is also involved in formation of lysosomes and outwardly and fuse with the plasma membrane to throw
peroxisomes. out the debris into external environment by a process called
yy Secretion is the major function of Golgi apparatus. All types exocytosis.
of substances that are secreted and excreted are packed in (iv) Autophagic vacuoles or Autophagosomes: Autophagosome
vesicles by Golgi bodies for passage to the outside. It is the is a secondary lysosome in which elements of a cell’s
secretory organelle of the cell. own cytoplasm are digested. It results from the fusion of
yy Golgi apparatus also takes part in storage, modification and a lysosome with an autophagic vacuole. It helps in the
packaging of various biochemical products produced by disposal of cell debris.
different components of the cell.
yy It works closely with the smooth ER, to modify proteins Functions of Lysosomes
for export by the cell. yy Lysosome helps in intracellular digestion of food particles
yy Golgi apparatus is the important site of formation of as they are rich in various digestive enzymes.
glycoproteins and glycolipids. yy They help in destruction of foreign particles, as in white
blood cells.
Lysosomes yy They help in cleaning up the cell by digesting damaged
yy Lysosomes are small, spherical vesicle covered by a single materials of the cell. Lysosomes are therefore called cellular
membrane. It is scattered all over the cytoplasm. It is scavengers.
produced by the rough ER and the Golgi. yy Lysosomes digest the cell’s own material when damaged
yy It contains powerful digestive enzymes (about 40 in number) or dead. Hence, they provide energy during cell starvation
that are capable of breaking down the organic material. by digesting cell’s own parts.
Thus, lysosome serves as an intracellular digestive system,
Vacuoles
and is called digestive bags.
yy Vacuoles are membrane bound fluid-filled cavities or
sacs present in the cytoplasm. They are surrounded by a
membrane called tonoplast. The vacuole is filled with a
liquid called “cell sap” that contains dissolved salts and
sugars.
yy A single, large vacuole is present in a plant cells. In animal
Lysosome cells, vacuole may or may not be present. If present, they
are numerous and smaller in size.

Fig. Lysosome Vacuoles are of three types:

(a) Sap vacuole: Sap vacuoles stores salts, sugar, amino acids,
yy The digestive enzymes contained in lysosomes are
salts and some proteins. Sap vacuole helps in maintaining
synthesized by RER, and are packed into lysosomes by
turgidity and rigidity of the cell. It also maintains the
Golgi bodies.
osmotic pressure of water.
yy Lysosomes are also called suicidal bags as enzymes
contained in them can digest the cell’s own material when Cell membrane
damaged or dead. They are a kind of waste disposal systems Nucleus (pressed close
of a cell. to cell wall)
Depending on their morphology and functions, lysosomes are Vacuole
(contains a fluid Cell wall
divided into four types:
called cell sap) Cytoplasm
(i) Primary lysosomes: They are newly pinched off vesicles
from the golgi body which generally fuse with some Chloroplasts
endosomes to become fully functional. They contain
hydrolytic enzymes in the form of granules.
Fig. Sap vacuole
 176 BIOLOGY

(b) Food vacuole: In single-celled organisms, like Amoeba, the head piece is a peripheral membrane protein complex
sacs containing ingested food fuse with lysosomes to form and contains the site for ATP synthesis from ADP
food vacuole. The process of digestion takes place inside and inorganic phosphate. F0 component is a part of
the food vacuoles. membrane protein complex, which acts as a channel
(c) Contractile vacuole: Contractile vacuole collects liquid for crossing of the protons from inner mitochondrial
from the cell, swells up and rises to the surface and burst membrane to the mitochondrial matrix.
to release their contents. They take part in osmoregulation The fluid inside the mitochondria is called the
and excretion. matrix.
Ectoplasm Food vacuole
Endoplasm

Food vacuole
Contractile
vacuole
Pseudopodium
Nucleus

Fig. Food and contractile vacuole

Functions of Vacuole:
In plant cells
yy Vacuoles help to provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell. Fig. Mitochondria
yy Vacuole acts as a store house of pigments and waste yy Mitochondria are commonly known as “Power house of
products. It also stores useful minerals and salts. the cell”. They contain enzymes necessary for the total
yy Sap vacuole maintains an osmotic concentration which is oxidation of food and for the release of large amount of
required for absorption of water. energy in the form of ATP molecules. The energy stored in
In animal cells this ATP is used for synthesis of new products and other
yy In single celled organisms, like Amoeba, food vacuole helps metabolic process.
in digestion of food particles. yy Mitochondria have the ability to make their own protein,
yy Contractile vacuole takes part in osmoregulation and as they contain their own DNA and ribosome. That is
excretion. why; mitochondrion is also known as semi-autonomous
yy They store materials such as food, water, sugar and waste organelle.
products. yy Mitochondria are more numerous in cells that have a high
energy requirement - our muscle cells contain a large number
Mitochondria of mitochondria, as do liver, heart and sperm cells.
yy Mitochondria are rod shaped cell organelles surrounded by yy Human mitochondrial DNA is a closed, circular molecule
a double membrane system. 16,569 nucleotide pairs long.
yy These membranes divide the lumen of the mitochondria into yy Mitochondria are also self-replicating. They “reproduce”
two compartments − the outer compartment and the inner by splitting in half.
compartment (matrix). Functions of Mitochondria
(a) Outer membrane: It is smooth and porous. A few
yy Mitochondria are the site of cellular (aerobic) respiration.
enzymes connected with lipid synthesis are located in
They use molecular oxygen from air to oxidize the
the membrane.
carbohydrates and fats present in the cell to carbon dioxide
(b) Inner membrane: It is folded into large number of
and water vapour.
finger like structures called cristae. Cristae increase
yy Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
the surface area of the inner membrane, which provides
(ATP)
more surface area for the metabolic reactions to take
yy Mitochondria provide energy in the form of ATP for various
place. The inner membrane as well as cristae possesses
metabolic activities of living cells. Since, the mitochondria
small particles called elementary particles, F0-F1
synthesize ATP, it is also known as power house of cell.
particles.
yy They have their own DNA and ribosomes (70S). Hence, they
Structure of elementary particle: Each elementary
are regarded as semi-autonomous organelles.
particle has a head (F1 subunit), a stalk and a base (F0
yy They have several enzymes, intermediately required for the
subunit). They are considered as the centres of ATP
synthesis of various chemicals such as fatty acids, steroids,
synthesis during oxidative phosphorylation. The F1
and amino acids.
 Cell: The Unit of Life 177

Plastids
yy Plastids are found only in plant cells. They are absent in
animal cells.
On the basis of pigments present in them, plastids are of
following three types:
(a) Leucoplasts: Leucoplasts are colourless plastids.
They are found in storage cells of roots, seeds and
underground stems. They take part in storage of
food.
Leucoplasts are of three types depending on the storage
products:
Amyloplasts stores starch, Aleuroplasts stores protein
while elaioplasts stores oil and fat. Fig. Chloroplast
(b) Chromoplasts: They are coloured plastids. The colour
yy Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have the ability to make
varies from red, orange, yellow etc. due to the presence
their own protein, as they contain their own DNA and
of carotenoids. They are mostly found in flowers and
ribosome (70 S). That is why; chloroplast is also known as
fruits. They provide colouration to organs for attracting
semi-autonomous organelle.
pollinators. yy The ribosome of the chloroplast is smaller (70S) than the
(c) Chloroplasts: Chloroplasts are green colour plastids, cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S).
found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves. The green
colour is due to the presence of chlorophyll. Functions of Chloroplast
Chlorophyll traps the solar energy which is used yy Chloroplasts trap solar energy, which is used to manufacture
for manufacturing food. They are the sites of food through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process
photosynthesis. So, chloroplasts are the “Kitchen of of synthesizing food (sugar) from carbon dioxide and water
the cells”. in the presence of sunlight.
Structure of Chloroplasts The reaction of photosynthesis
yy Chloroplasts are double-membrane-bound structures. They
are divided into outer and inner membranes, further divided
into two distinct regions: Grana and stroma.
yy Between the outer and inner membranes, inter membrane
space is present. 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
yy The inside of chloroplast is clearly marked into a colourless yy Chromoplasts provide colour to fruits and flowers to attract
ground matrix called stroma. insects for pollination.
(i) Stroma is homogenous matrix in which grana is yy Leucoplasts take part in storage of protein, starch and oil.
embedded. Stroma contains a variety of photosynthetic
enzymes, DNA and ribosomes. It is the site where Ribosomes
all chemical reactions occurs and starch (sugar) is yy Ribosomes are tiny, membrane-less organelle present in
synthesized. the cytoplasm. They are found either in free state in the
(ii) Grana are stacks of membrane bound, flattened cytoplasm or attached to the surface of ER. They are rich
sacs containing the molecules of chlorophyll. One in RNA and proteins. Ribosomes are the most common
thylakoid stack is known as granum. Each thylakoid organelles in almost all cells.
have chlorophyll molecules on their surface that trap
Nucleus
sunlight and take part in process of photosynthesis.
yy The stacks of grana are connected by stromal lamellae. The
lamellae act like the skeleton of chloroplast, keeping all sacs
in safe distance from the other sac. Grana are main functional Free
ribosome
units of chloroplasts. Ribosomes
associated with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum

Fig. Ribosomes
 178 BIOLOGY

yy They exist in two sizes: Cilia and Flagella

²² 70S are found in all prokaryotes, chloroplasts and
mitochondria, suggesting that they have evolved yy Cilia and flagella are hair-like outgrowths of the plasma
from ancestral prokaryotic organisms. They are free- membrane, where they assist in movement.
floating. yy Cilia (sing. cilium) are short, and numerous and hair-like.
²² 80S found in all eukaryotic cells – attached to the rough Cilia beat like tiny oars or pedals (as in a boat).
ER (they are rather larger). Groups of 80S ribosomes, yy Flagellae (sing. flagellum) are much longer, fewer, and
working together, are known as a polysome. bring about whip – like lashing movement.
yy Electron microscope study of the cilia and the flagella:
Functions of Ribosome ²² They are covered by the plasma membrane.
yy Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis. Hence, they are ²² Both are made up of contractile protein tubulin in the
known as protein factories of cell. form of microtubules.
²² The arrangement of the microtubules in termed
Cytoskeleton 9 + 2, that is, two central microtubules and nine set
surrounding them.
yy Cytoskeleton is filamentous, proteinaceous structures
present in cytoplasm.
yy Just as your body depends on your skeleton to maintain
its shape and size, so a cell needs structures to maintain its
shape and size.
yy In animal cells, which have no cell wall, an internal
framework called the cytoskeleton maintains the shape of
the cell, and helps the cell to move.
yy The cytoskeleton consists of three structures:
(i) Microfilaments: These are solid helical, contractile
rods composed mainly of the globular protein actin.
These filaments can help cells change shape and
move by assembling (adding subunits) at one end and
disassembling (losing subunits) at the other.
(ii) Intermediate filaments: They are made up of fibrous
proteins and have a rope-like structure. They often help Fig. Ultrastructure of Cillia and Flagella
to anchor organelles.
(iii) Microtubules: They are straight hollow tubes Functions
composed of globular proteins called tubulins. They
yy Cilia and flagella provide a locomotor mechanism for the
are very easily assembled and disassembled in various
cell by moving (bending) in a whip like fashion. Bending
parts of the cell.
results from small protein arms called dynein arms -
Functions of Microtubules:
from one microtubule doublet attaching to an adjacent
yy They provide rigidity and shape to various parts of the
microtubule doublet.
cell.
yy Sperm use flagellae (many, all fused together) to swim to
yy They also anchor organelles and act as tracts along which
the egg.
the organelles move.
yy Cilia line our trachea and bronchi, moving dust particles
yy Microtubules also guide the movement of chromosomes
and bacteria away from the lungs.
when cells divide.
yy They are the basis of ciliary and flagellar movement. Centrosome and Centriole
yy Centrosome is a small naked organelle found in the
cytoplasm near the outer surface of the nucleus. It consists
of two bundles of microtubules called centrioles that lie at
right-angles to each other. Centrioles are short cylinders
with a 9 + 0 pattern of microtubular triplets.
yy In plant cells, centrosome is absent and polar caps perform
the function of centrosome.
yy Structure of a centriole:
²² A centriole is made up of microtubule triplets that
are evenly spaced in a ring. The adjacent triplets are
Fig. Cytoskeleton linked together.
 Cell: The Unit of Life 179

²² There is a proteinaceous hub in the central part of nuclear pores, which allows exchange of materials between
a centriole. The hub is connected to the triplets via the nucleus and cytoplasm.
radial spokes. (b) Nucleoplasm (Nuclear sap): It is the colourless, cytoplasm
²² These centrioles help in organising the spindle fibres within nuclear membrane in which chromatin and nucleoli
and astral rays during cell division. are suspended.
(c) Nucleolus: It is the dense, spherical granular structure
found inside the nucleus. Nucleolus is not bounded by a
membrane. It is membraneless. It is the rich in proteins and
RNA. It disappears during cell division and reappears in
daughter cells. Basically, Nucleolus is the site of ribosome
formation. Ribosome, in turn helps in protein synthesis in
the cytoplasm.

Fig. Centrosome and centriole

Functions
yy Centrosome and centriole helps in formation of spindle
fibres during cell division. At the start of mitosis and
meiosis, the centriole divides, and one half moves to each
end of the cell, thereby form the spindle. The spindle fibres
are later shortened to pull the chromosomes apart. Hence,
they give orientation to the ‘mitotic spindle’ which forms
during cell division.
yy Centriole also produces basal bodies that form cilia and
flagella. Basal bodies direct the formation of cilia and Fig. Nucleus
flagella. (d) Chromatin Network: Chromatin is a network of fine
Nucleus thread like coiled filaments uniformly distributed in the
nucleoplasm. It is usually made of DNA and protein.
yy Nucleus is the prominent, spherical structure found at the center During cell division, chromatin become highly condensed,
of the cell. It is the largest organelle present in cell. Basically, thick and rod like structures known as chromosomes.
nucleus is the controlling centre of all cell activities and hence, On staining the chromosomes, two regions can be identified
it has been described as the brain of the cell. in the chromatin material: (a) Heterochromatin (dark) and
yy The DNA inside the nucleus is the cell’s heredity
(b) Euchromatin (light).
blueprint.
Heterochromatin has less DNA and genetically less active
yy In plant cell, nucleus lies towards the periphery due to
the presence of large central vacuole while in animal cell, than euchromatin which has more DNA and genetically
nucleus lies in the central position. more active.
yy While most cells have a single nucleus, some cells The chromosome contains genes, which are composed of
(macrophages, phloem companion cells) have more than DNA. A gene is the functional unit of a chromosome. These
one and fungi have many nuclei in their cytoplasm – they are arranged in a single linear order along the chromosome.
are coenocytic (= common cytoplasm throughout) One gene is responsible for single characteristic or a single
characteristic may be transmitted by a set of genes. Genes
Structure of Nucleus are responsible for storing and transmitting hereditary
It is made up of following parts characteristics from one generation to another.Number of
(a) Nuclear envelope: Nucleus is bound by a nuclear envelope chromosomes is fixed in an organism. During cell division
which consists of two membranes with perinuclear space chromosomes divide in a manner that the daughter cells
(10 − 50 nm) between them. Perinuclear space acts as a receive identical amounts of hereditary matter.
barrier for the flow of materials between the inside of
the nucleus and the cytoplast. The envelope separates Functions of Nucleus
the nucleus from the cytoplasm. It is mainly made up of yy Nucleus is the chief controlling center of cell. It contains
proteins and lipids. The outer membrane usually remains chromosomes which carry genes. Genes are responsible
continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum and also bears for transmission of hereditary characters from parents to
ribosomes on it. The membrane is perforated by several offspring.
 180 BIOLOGY

yy Nucleus controls all metabolic activities taking place in

the cell.
yy It participates directly in cell division to produce genetically
identical daughter cell by a process known as mitosis.
Chromosomes
yy Chromosome is a rod like or thread like structure that are
formed by condensation of chromatin fibers during cell
division.
yy A chromosome consists of two similar thread called Fig. Metacentric chromosome
chromatids. The two chromatids are attached to one
another at a point called centromere. (i) Sub-metacentric chromosome: The chromosome in
yy The two parts on either side of a centromere are known which the centromere is slightly away from the middle
as arms. The number of chromosomes is fixed in an region is known as a sub-metacentric chromosome. In
organism. In most organisms, chromosome occurs in this, one arm is slightly longer than the other.
homologous pairs.
yy In each pair, one chromosome comes from father and
other belongs to mother parent. The presence of two sets
of chromosomes is called diploid or 2N. For example,
Humans have 46 or 23 pairs of chromosomes. Similarly,
there are 20 or 10 pairs of chromosomes in Maize.
yy The presence of only a single set of chromosomes in gametes
Fig. Sub-metacentric chromosome
of diploid organisms is known as haploid or N. During cell
division, chromosomes divide in a manner that the daughter (ii) Acrocentric chromosome: The chromosome in which the
cells receive identical amount of hereditary material. centromere is located close to one of the terminal ends is
Chromosome known as an acrocentric chromosome. In this, one arm is
Nucleus Chromatid Chromatid extremely long and the other is extremely short.
Telomere

Centromere

Telomere
Cell
Fig. Acrocentric chromosome
(iii) Telocentric chromosome: The chromosome in which the
centromere is located at one of the terminal ends is known
as a telocentric chromosome.
Base Pairs Histones

DNA
(double helix)

Fig. Telocentric chromosome

Microbodies
Fig. Structure of chromosome yy These are small sac-like structures bounded by their membranes.
Function Example includes peroxisomes and glyoxysomes.
yy Chromosomes carry and help transfer of information for (a) Peroxisomes:
inheritance of characters from parents to offspring. yy Peroxisomes are found both in plant and animal cells.
Chromosomes are divided into four types based on the position of yy They are microbodies which contain enzymes for peroxide
the centromere. biosynthesis.
(i) Metacentric chromosome: The chromosome in which yy They often contain a central core of crystalline material
the centromere is present in the middle and divides the called nucleoid composed of urate oxidase crystals.
chromosome into two equal arms is known as a metacentric yy They are usually closely associated with E.R.
chromosome.
 Cell: The Unit of Life 181

Functions yy They are found in the cell of yeast and certain fungi and oil
yy They are involved in with photorespiration in plant cells. rich seeds in plants.
yy They bring about fat metabolism in cells. yy Functions
(b) Glyoxysomes ²² They contain enzyme for β- oxidation of fatty acids and
glyoxylate pathways.
yy Glyoxysomes are microbodies present in plant cells and are
morphologically similar to peroxisomes.

Let us Summarise the Structure and Functions of Various Cell Organelles

Cell organelle Structure Function

Cell membrane Composed of lipid and protein Protect and gives definite shape to the cell.
(found in all cells) Selectively permeable Regulates the movement of substances across the cell.
Cell wall Composed of cellulose and hemi-cellulose Provides mechanical strength and support to the cell.
(found only in plant cells) Rigid and strong. Makes the cell turgid.
Protects cell against pathogen and injury.
Nucleus Surrounded by double membrane and is composed of Stores genetic material.
(Control room of the cell) protein, phosphorus and DNA/RNA Controls all cellular activities.
Responsible for transmission of characters.
Directs protein synthesis
Nucleolus Mass RNA located within the nucleus. Center for organizing ribosomes and other product with
RNA.
Ribosomes Composed of RNA and proteins Involved in synthesis of proteins
Endoplasmic reticulum It is membranous network continuous with the cell and Provide supporting skeletal framework to cell.
(Transporting channel of the nuclear membrane RER plays role in synthesis and modification of
cell) Occurs in three forms: Cisternae, vesicles and tubules. protein.
It is of two types: SER and RER SER is involved in steroid synthesis, intercellular
transport and detoxification.
Golgi apparatus Consists of cisternae stacked together in parallel rows. Packages materials synthesized in cell and dispatches
(In plant cell, it is known as from cell across plasma membrane.
dictyosomes) Produces lysosomes.
(Packaging and dispatching
unit of the cell)
Mitochondria Organelles with membrane folds called cristae. Semi- Site of cellular respiration.
(Powerhouse of the cell) autonomous organelles Produces ATP (universal currency of energy) through
Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
Lysosome Tiny sac like structure surrounded by single, thin Contains digestive enzyme that helps in intracellular
(Digestive bag of the cell) membrane digestion.

Chloroplast Double membrane structure, which is divided into Site of photosynthesis.

(found only in plant cells) stroma and grana region. Store food in the form of carbohydrate.
(Kitchen of the cell) Semi-autonomous organelle
Vacuole Fluid filled structure bounded by tonoplast Provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cell.
(Storage sac of the cell) Take part in excretion and osmoregulation.
Microtubules and Long protein fibres Helps in cell support and movement.
Microfilaments
Centrioles Two short rods composed of microtubules located near Involved in movement of chromosomes during cell
the nucleus division.
Peroxisomes Contains oxidative and other enzymes Breaks down fatty acid
Cilia and Flagella 9+ 2 patterns of microtubules Helps in motility
 Chapter

9 Biomolecules

yy Biomolecules form the basic structural constituents of a yy Molecular formula and probable structure found by using
living cell. analytical techniques.
yy They include organic and inorganic compounds. yy All carbon-containing compounds are called biomolecules.
Major complex biomolecules of cells and their functions Analysis of Inorganic Compounds
yy Living tissue taken.
Biomolecules Building block Functions
yy It is dried to evaporate all water, and the remaining material
Carbohydrates gives its dry weight.
Polysaccharide Monosaccharide Storage yy The dried material is burnt.
(glycogen) (glucose) yy All organic and gaseous compounds will be removed to
Proteins Amino acids Fundamental basis of leave “ash”.
structure and function of cell. yy Ash contains many inorganic elements like Ca, Mg, S, P,
Lipids Fatty acids and Storage and structural etc. and inorganic compounds (SO4 2-, PO43- etc).
glycerol components of membrane
Primary and Secondary Metabolites
Nucleic acids
yy Primary metabolites are involved in growth, development,
Deoxyribo- Deoxyribonuc- Transmission of hereditary and reproduction of the organisms. The primary metabolite
nucleic acid leotides information
is typically a key component in maintaining normal
Ribonucleic Ribonucleotides Protein biosynthesis physiological processes. They are typically formed during
acid
the growth phase as a result of energy metabolism, and are
Average Composition of Cells very essential for proper growth.
yy Water: 70-90% Examples are ethanol, lactic acid, and certain amino
yy Protein: 10-15% acids.
yy Carbohydrates: 3% Secondary metabolites are typically organic compounds
yy Lipids: 2% produced through the modification of primary metabolite
yy Nucleic acids: 5-7% synthesis. They do not play a role in growth, development,
yy Ions: 1% and reproduction like primary metabolites do, and are
typically formed during the end or near the stationary phase
Analysis of Chemical Composition of growth. Many of the identified sec. metabolites have a
yy Chemical analysis is done to find out the types of organic role in ecological function, including defence mechanism
compounds (compounds containing carbons) found in (s), by serving as antibiotics and by producing pigments.
living tissues.
yy Living tissue taken
yy Grinded in trichloro acetic acid to obtain slurry. TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES
yy Slurry is filtered to get filtrate (acid-soluble fraction:
contains biomacromolecules) and retentate. Depending upon the molecular weight and solubility, biomolecules
yy Thousands of organic compounds found in filtrate. are divided into two categories: Biomicromolecules and
yy Separation techniques used for separating one compound biomacromolecules.
from another.
 198 BIOLOGY

I. Biomicromolecules Isoelectric Point

yy They are small sixed simple chemicals that have low Isoelectric point of the amino acid is defined as the point at which
molecular weight (less than 1000 Da), higher solubility and a molecule exists as zwitter ion with no net charge. Thus, at this
simple conformation. point, the molecule is electrically neutral; it has maximum solubility,
yy They are found in acid soluble pool. and least buffer capacity. All amino acids do not have the same
yy It includes amino acids, sugars, nitrogen bases, lipids etc. isoelectric point (PI). The PI value of protein is determined by the
1. Amino acids nature of ionisable groups of amino acids. By taking the average
yy Amino acids are organic compounds, which are the building pKa values of ionisable groups, PI can be calculated.
blocks of proteins. Depending on the structure and reaction, amino acids are divided
yy As many as 300 amino acids occur in nature. Among these, into seven types:
only 20 amino acids are known as standard amino acids that (i) Acidic amino acids: Amino acids that have an extra
commonly occur in proteins. carboxyl group. E.g. Glutamate (glutamic acid), aspartate
yy Incorporation of protein, amino acids are controlled by triplet (aspartic acid)
codes of DNA/mRNA. (ii) Basic amino acids: Amino acids that have an additional
yy A protein may also possess non-coded amino acids. Such amino group without forming amides. E.g. Arginine,
amino acids are called as rare amino acids. Rare amino acids lysine.
are derived from the coded ones through modifications. E.g. (iii) Neutral amino acid: Amino acid that have one amino
Hydroxyproline from proline, hydroxylysine from lysine group and one carboxylic group with non-cyclic
etc. hydrocarbon chain. E.g. Glycine, alanine, valine.
Structure and properties of amino acids: (iv) Sulphur containing amino acids: The amino acid which
yy A typical amino acid is formed of an amino group (-NH2), possess sulphur. E.g. Cysteine, methionine.
an acid group (-COOH), -H and a variable group (R). The (v) Alcoholic amino acid: Amino acids that have alcoholic
amino group (–NH2) is basic and a carboxyl group (-COOH) or hydroxyl group. E.g. Serine, threonine.
is acidic in nature and are attached to the same carbon atom (vi) Aromatic amino acid: Amino acids that possess cyclic
(α-carbon). structure with a straight side chain bearing carboxylic
yy They are represented by the general formula: and amino group. E.g. Phenylalanine, tryptophan or
H α carbon tyrosine.
(vii) Heterocyclic amino acid: Amino acid that have nitrogen
Carboxylic group
Side chain R C COOH in the ring structure. E.g. Histidine, proline.
R is different for different
Based on nutritional requirements, amino acids are grouped
NH2
amino acids into two classes: Essential amino acids and non-essential amino
R= H in glycine acids.
Amino group (i) Essential amino acids: Amino acids which cannot be
synthesized by the body and therefore, need to be supplied
Fig. a-amino acid
through the diet is called essential amino acids.
yy Based on R group, there are 21 amino acids. E.g. Arginine, valine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
♦♦ When R is H, Glycine. Glycine is the simplest amino methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, and tryptophan.
acid. Arginine and histidine are called semi-essential amino
♦♦ When R is CH3, alanine. acids as they can be partly synthesized in our body.
yy The chemical and physical properties of amino acids depend (ii) Non-essential amino acids: The amino acids that can be
upon the amino group, carboxyl group and R group. synthesized in our body to meet the biological needs are
²² More carboxyl group- acidic amino acid called as non-essential amino acids.
²² More amino group- basic amino acid E.g. Glycine, alanine, serine, cysteine, aspartic acid,
²² Equal amino and carboxylic group- neutral amino acid. glutamic acid, aspargine, glutamine, tyrosine, and
yy Amino acids are amphoteric compounds. They contain both proline.
a basic group and an acidic group.
yy Some amino acids have ionizable nature of –NH2 and Peptide Bond Formation
–COOH groups. Hence, in solutions of different pH, the When two amino acids combine with each other, the amino group
structure of amino acids changes. of one amino acid combines with carboxyl group of other amino
R R R acid. This leads to peptide bond formation. The combination of
H3+ N – CH – COOH  H3+ N – CH – COO–  H 2 N – CH – COO – the amino group of one molecule with the carboxyl group of other
results in the elimination of a water molecule and form an amide
Zwitter ionic form (–CO–NH–) bond.
 Biomolecules 199

yy Fatty acids are of two types:

²² Saturated fatty acids: Saturated fatty acids do not
possess double or triple bonds between 2 carbon atoms.
They have general formula of CnH2nO2.
E.g. Palmitic acid, stearic acid
Polypeptides ²² Unsaturated Fatty acids: Unsaturated fatty acids
yy Molecules containing more than 10 amino acids are called possess one or more double bonds in their carbon chains.
polypeptides. They are formed by the linear sequencing of The general formula is CnH2n–2O2.
amino acids. E.g.
yy Relatively shorter peptides are known as oligopeptides ♦♦ Oleic acid (with one double bonds, C18H34O2),
whereas longer polymers are called polypeptides. ♦♦ Linoleic acid (with double bonds, C18H32O2),
yy Polypeptides containing more than 100 amino acids having ♦♦ Linolenic acid (with three double bonds,
molecular mass higher than 10,000 are generally called C18H30O2),
proteins. ♦♦ Arachidonic acid (with four double bonds,
C20H32O2)
2. Lipids
yy Lipids are esters of fatty acids with alcohol. Classification of Lipids
yy They are insoluble in water and soluble in a number of non- Lipids are classified into three types: Simple lipids, compound
polar organic solvents like ether, benzene and chloroform. lipids and derived lipids.
yy Lipids form colloidal complex and get dispersed uniformly (a) Simple fats: These are esters of fatty acids with various
in water in the form of minute droplets. The complex is alcohols. They are further classified into fats and waxes.
known as emulsion. (i) Fats: Fats are esters of fatty acids with glycerol. A fat in
yy The basic components of all lipids are fatty acids. the liquid state is known as oil. Simple lipids in animals
are called as fats and in plants as oils.
Fatty acids
E.g. Triacyl glycerol.
yy Fatty acids are organic acid having hydrocarbon chains that (ii) Waxes: Waxes are fatty acids esters of long chain
end in a –COOH group attached to an R- group. monohydric alcohols.
yy The R group could be methyl (-CH3), or ethyl (-C2H5) or E.g. Cholesterol ester, myricyl palmitate and cetyl
higher number of –CH2 group. (1C to 19C) For e.g. palmitate
²² Palmitic acid has 16 carbons (CH3-(CH2)14-COOH) (b) Compound lipids: These are esters of fatty acids with
and alcohol, but it contains extra groups in addition to alcohol
²² Arachidonic acid has 20 carbons. and a fatty acid. They are subdivided into the followings:
yy Lipids have both fatty acids and glycerol. (i) Phospholipids (Phosphatides): They are esters of fatty acids
Structure of glycerol (trihydroxy propane): with glycerol containing an esterified phosphoric acid and a
CH2-OH nitrogen base. These lipids are present in large amounts in
| nerve tissue, brain, liver, kidney, pancreas and heart.
CH-OH O
| O
II
CH2 – O – C – R1
CH2-OH II
R2 – C – O – CH O
yy Based on number of glycerol, lipids are divided into II
CH2 – O – P – O – CH2 – CH2
monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglycerides.
yy Triglyceride is a glyceride, which is formed from a single OH N
molecule of glycerol, esterified with three fatty acids. It is CH3 CH3 CH3
mainly present in vegetable oils and animal fat.
Fig. Phospholipid (Lecithin)
(ii) Glycolipids: These lipids contain a carbohydrate moiety
along with an amino alcohol.
 200 BIOLOGY

(iii) Lipoproteins - Lipids like triacyl glycerol, phospholipids,

cholesterol and cholesteryl esters and free fatty acids
combine with protein in particular proportions and form
a hydrophilic lipoprotein complex.
E.g. Chylomicrons, very low density lipoprotein
(VLDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL) and high
density lipoprotein (HDL). The protein moiety in
the lipoprotein is known as apoprotein.
(c) Derived lipids: These are lipids which are derived from the Fig. Nitrogen bases
hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids. They are either 5. Nucleoside and nucleotide
lipid like chemicals (e.g. sterols) or derivatives of lipids (e.g.
  Nucleoside: Nitrogen base + Sugar
terpenes, prostaglandins).
Adenine + sugar = Adenosine
Functions of Fats Guanine + sugar = Guanosine
yy Fats stored in adipose tissue serve as an efficient source Cytosine + sugar = Cytidine
of energy. Thymine + sugar = Thymidine
yy Fats serve as a thermal insulator in the subcutaneous tissue Uracil + sugar = Uridine
and around the internal organs.
yy They also act as electrical insulator against nerve impulse
transmission.
yy Cholesterol and phospholipids are important constituents
of cell membranes.

Fig. Nucleosides
Nucleotide: Nitrogen base + Sugar + phosphate.
HO Adenine + sugar + phosphate = Adenylic acid
Guanine + sugar + phosphate = Guanylic acid
Fig. Cholestrol
Cytosine + sugar + phosphate = Cytidylic acid
yy Lipoproteins and glycolipids maintain cellular integrity and Thymine + sugar + phosphate = Thymidylic acid
permeability. Uracil + sugar + phosphate = Uridylic acid
yy Fats serve as the important source of fat soluble vitamins.
yy The phosphatides of blood platelets are involved in blood
clotting mechanism.
3. Sugars (Carbohydrates)
yy Sugars are sweet and water soluble carbohydrates. They are
formed of C, H and O in the ratio of 1:2:1.
E.g. Glucose, Ribose etc.
H Fig. Nucleotide
yy Nucleotides are heterocyclic compounds.
yy Nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) are made up of nucleotides.

II. Biomacromolecules
yy Biomacromolecules are large sized complex chemicals that
have high molecular weight (greater than 1000 Da, except
Fig. Sugars (Carbohydrates) lipids), low solubility and complex conformation.
yy They are found in acid insoluble fraction. They usually
4. Nitrogenous bases
produce colloidal complex and are always organic.
yy They are carbon compounds with heterocyclic rings. E.g. yy Acid insoluble fraction includes
Adenine, Thiamine, Guanine. ²² Proteins
yy It includes purines and pyrimidines. ²² Nucleic acids
²² Purine, which are Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) ²² Polysaccharides
²² Pyrimidines, which are Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and ²² Lipids
Uracil (U)
 Biomolecules 201

yy Molecular weight of lipids does not exceed 800 Da. But (b) Secondary structure: The polypeptide chain is coiled to
it comes under acid insoluble fraction because lipids are form a three-dimensional structure. It has only right handed
arranged into structures like cell membranes. When a helices.
tissue is grinded, these membranes are broken and form There are three types of secondary structures: α-helix,
vesicles which are water insoluble, i.e. lipids are not strictly β-pleated and collagen helix.
macromolecules. (i) In α- helix, the polypeptide chain is coiled spirally, in right
yy Acid insoluble fraction includes macromolecules from handed manner. The helix is stabilised by hydrogen bonds
cytoplasm and organelles. between two amino acids. E.g. keratin, myosin, epidermis,
fibrin etc.
1. Proteins
(ii) In β-pleated secondary structure, two or more polypetides
yy Proteins are high molecular weight polymers. are interconnected by hydrogen bonds. A sheet is produced
yy Proteins are variously folded linear heteropolymer of amino instead of a fiber or rod as in α- helix. E.g. β-keratin, fibroin
acids. of silk.
yy The linear polymers of amino acids are called polypeptides. (iii) In collagen helix, three stands or polypeptides are coiled
The linear chains of amino acids are linked by peptide around one around.
bonds. (c) Tertiary structure: The helical polypeptide chain is further
yy A protein having two or more polypeptides is called coiled and folded to form a complex structure. It gives 3-D
multimeric protein. view of protein. Tertiary structure is necessary for many
yy Peptide bond is a covalent bond formed when –COOH group biological activities of proteins.
of one amino acid reacts with –NH2 group of next amino acid Various types of bonds are found during the coiling
by releasing a molecule of water (dehydration). of polypeptide. They are covalent bond ionic bond or
electrostatic bonds, hydrogen bonds, van der waals
interaction and hydrophobic bond.

Fig. Peptide bond

yy Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules of the
living system and form the fundamental basis of structure
and function of life.
yy They contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
sulphur.
Structure of Protein
Proteins are macromolecules formed by the polymerization of amino
Fig. (a) Seconday structure (b) Tertiary structure
acids. Structurally, proteins are divided into four levels.
(a) Primary structure: It is the linear sequence of amino acids The bonds formed in tertiary structure can easily be broken
in a polypeptide chain. It describes the sequence of amino down by high temperature, drastic changes in pH and high
acids, i.e. the positional information in a protein. Left end energy radiation. The process of breaking down of tertiary
of the chain has first amino acid (N-terminal amino acid). structure is known as denaturation.
Right end has last amino acid (C-terminal amino acid). (d) Quaternary structure: More than one polypeptide chains
assemble to form the quaternary structure. E.g. Hb has 4
subunits (2 α subunits and 2 β subunits).

OH

CH2 – CO–OH
CH2
SH CH4
CH4OH CH2 CH2
Aminoacid
Residue – HN – CH – CO – NH – CH – CO – NH – CH – CO – NH – CH – CO –
Serine Cystine Tyrosine Glutamate acid
(Seri) (Cys) (Tyr) (Glu)
(S) (C) (Y) (G)

Fig. Primary structure of a portion of a hypothetical protein Fig. Quaternary structure

 202 BIOLOGY

Types of Proteins 2. Polysaccharides

Proteins are classified into two major types on the basis of their yy Polysaccharides are condensation polymers in which
molecular shape. monosaccharides are held together through glycosidic
(i) Fibrous protein: They are thread like molecules, which lie linkage.
side by side to form fibres. The molecules are held together yy They are colourless and tasteless. So, they are called non-
by hydrogen bonds. They are generally insoluble in water. sugars.
E.g. fibroin in silk, collagen in tendons, α- keratin in skin, yy They are concerned with two important functions - structural
hair, nails etc. and storage of energy.
(ii) Globular proteins: In globular proteins, molecules are yy Glycosidic bond in polysaccharides: It is the bond formed
folded into compact units to form spheroidal shapes. when individual monosaccharides are linked between 2
E.g. haemoglobin. In haemoglobin, the polypeptide chains carbon atoms by dehydration. It is formed normally between
consist partly of helical sections which are folded about carbon atoms, 1 and 4, of neighbouring monosaccharide
random cuts to give it a spherical shape. They are soluble units.
in water.
On the basis of constitution, proteins are divided into three types:
Simple, conjugated and derived.
(i) Simple proteins: They are made up of amino acids
only. They on hydrolysis yield only α-amino acids.
E.g. Albumin, globulin.
(ii) Conjugated proteins: These are proteins composed of
simple proteins combined with non-protein part called as Fig. Glycosidic bond
prosthetic groups. yy The right end of a polysaccharide is reducing end while the
(iii) Derived proteins: These are proteins derived from the left end is known as non-reducing end.
simple and conjugated proteins by the action of acids, Polysaccharides are of two types based on their composition:
alkalies or enzymes. Homopolysaccharides and Heteropolysaccharides.
They are the products resulting from partial to complete (i) Homopolysaccharides: They are carbohydrates which
hydrolysis of proteins. E.g. proteoses, peptones and are formed by polymerisation of only one type of
peptides. monosaccharide monomers.
Functions of Protein E.g. Starch (polymer of glucose), Cellulose (polymer of
yy Proteins are important for growth and tissue repair. glucose), Inulin (polymer of fructose), Glycogen (polymer
yy They help in transport of nutrients across cell membranes of glucose).
(e.g. GLUT-4 enables glucose transport into cell). (ii) Heteropolysaccharides: They are carbohydrates which are
yy They act as intercellular ground substance (e.g. collagen). formed by condensation of two or more monosaccharides
yy They act as antibodies to fight infectious organisms. or their derivatives.
yy They act as receptors (e.g. receptors of smell, taste, E.g. Glucosamine, N-acetyl galactosamine, chitin
hormones). (Exoskeleton of arthropods).
yy Some are hormones (e.g. Insulin), which regulate numerous Polysaccharides are of three main types: Storage, structural and
physiological functions. mucopolysaccharides.
yy Enzymes are proteins which act as biocatalysts. (a) Food storage polysaccharides: These are those polysa-
E.g. trypsin. ccharides which serve as reserve food. E.g. glycogen and
yy Proteins are involved in blood clotting through thrombin, starch
fibrinogen and other protein factors. (i) Glycogen: Glycogen is a polymer of α- D glucose. It is a
storage polysaccharide in animals. It is particularly called
animal starch. It is mainly stored in liver and muscles.

CH2OH CH2OH

OH
OH OH
CH2

Fig. Diagrammatic representation of a portion of glycogen

 Biomolecules 203

(ii) Starch: It is the heteropolymer of amylase and amylopectin (c) Mucopolysaccharides: They are slimy substances which
It act as store house of energy in plants. possess acidic or aminated polysaccharides formed from
Starch forms helical secondary structures and can hold galactose, mannose sugar derivatives and uronic acids.
iodine molecules in the helical portion; the starch−iodine These are known as glycosamino glycans (GAG). Important
complex is blue in colour, forming the basis of the mucopolysaccharides are hyaluronic acid, chondroitin
confirmatory test to detect starch. sulphate and heparin.
(iii) Inulin: It is the polymer of fructose. They are found inside the plant cell walls, outside the cell
(b) Structural polysaccharide: These polysaccharides take of a bacterium, blue green algae and many aquatic animals.
part in forming the structural framework of the cell walls in Mucopolysaccharide acts as cementing layer between cells,
plants and skeleton of animals. E.g. Chitin and cellulose. connective tissues and cartilages.
(i) Cellulose: It is the homopolymer of glucose. It constitutes
the plant cell wall, paper pulp, cotton fibre, etc. Cellulose Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA)
have unbranched and linear chains. The successive glucose yy Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides.
molecules are joined together by 1-4 β linkages. yy A nucleotide contains a sugar and heterocyclic nitrogenous
bases along with phosphate group.
yy Nitrogenous bases are of two types:
²² Purines − adenine and guanine
²² Pyrimidines − thiamine, cytosine, uracil
yy Sugar are of two types:
²² Ribose, which forms RNA, has additional oxygen atom
at carbon -2 position.
²² Deoxyribose, which forms DNA.
Fig. Structure of cellulose yy A phosphate molecule links the 3’-carbon atom of one
sugar of one nucleotide to the 5’-carbon of the sugar of the
(ii) Chitin: It is the second most abundant organic substance. It succeeding nucleotide.
is a heteropolysaccharide found as the structural component yy Phosphodiester bond is a strong covalent bond between
of fungal walls and exoskeleton of arthropods. In chitin, the phosphate and two sugar groups. Such bonds form the sugar
basic unit is not glucose but nitrogen containing glucose phosphate backbone of nucleic acids.
derivatives known as N-acetyl glucosamine. Monomers yy There are two types of nucleic acids: Deoxyribonucleic acid
are joined together by 1-4 β linkages. (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Secondary Structure of DNA (Watson - Crick Model)
Sugar-phospater
backbone Guanine Cytosine

Base pairs

Hydrogen
bone
Adenine Thymine

Fig. The DNA double helix (b) Hydrogen bonds beteewn base pairs
yy The secondary structure exhibited by DNA is given by ²² The backbone of DNA is formed by the sugar-phosphate-
Watson and Crick model. sugar chain.
yy Salient features of the Watson and Crick model are as ²² Nitrogen base pairs form the steps of DNA.
follows: ²² Nitrogen bases include Adenine (A), Guanine (G),
²² DNA exists as a double helix. The 2 polynucleotide Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C).
strands are arranged anti-parallely (one to 5’to 3’and ²² A pairs with T (A=T) by 2 hydrogen bonds.
the other is 3’to 5’). ²² G pairs with C (G≡C) by 3 hydrogen bonds.
 204 BIOLOGY

²² One full turn of helical strand have 10 steps (10 base The most important energy currency in living system is
pairs). the bond energy in adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
²² Length of one full turn is 34 Å (i.e. 3.4 Å for each step).
²² At each step the strand turns 36° (360° for a full
turn). THE LIVING STATE
²² The two polynucleotide chains are 20 Å apart.
yy Living state is a non-equilibrium steady state to be able to
perform work.
METABOLISM yy System at equilibrium cannot perform work. Therefore, life
yy All the biochemical reactions taking place inside a living processes occurring in an individual are constant efforts to
system together constitute metabolism. E.g. avoid equilibrium state.
²² Removal of CO2 from amino acids to form amine. yy Avoiding equilibrium state requires input of energy provided
²² Removal of amino group in a nucleotide base. by metabolism.
²² Hydrolysis of a glycosidic bond etc. yy Hence, without metabolism, living state is not possible.
yy Metabolites are the organic compounds taking part in yy The living organisms exist in steady state characterized by the
metabolism. They are of two types: concentration of biomolecules in their body and the steady
²² Primary metabolites: They are the compounds which state is a non-equilibrium state.
have identifiable functions and roles in physiological
processes. ENZYMES
²² E.g. amino acids, sugars, nucleic acids, lipids, vitamins
etc. yy Enzymes are complex macromolecules with high molecular
²² Secondary metabolites: They are not directly involved weight.
in normal growth, development or reproduction. yy They catalyse biochemical reactions in a cell. They help in
E.g. the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules
♦♦ Pigments: Carotenoids, Anthocyanins etc. or bring together two smaller molecules to form a larger
♦♦ Alkaloids: Morphine, Codeine etc. molecule. Hence, are called biocatalysts.
♦♦ Terpenoides: Monoterpenes, Diterpenes etc. yy Enzymes do not start a reaction. However, they help in
♦♦ Essential oils: Lemon grass oil etc. accelerating it.
♦♦ Toxins: Abrin, Ricin etc. yy Enzymes affect the rate of biochemical reaction and not the
♦♦ Lectins: Concanavalin A. direction.
♦♦ Drugs: Vinblastin, curcumin etc. yy Most of the enzymes have high turnover number. Turnover
♦♦ Polymeric substances: Rubber, gums, cellulose number of an enzyme is the number of molecules of a
etc. substance that is acted upon by an enzyme per minute.
yy In metabolism, there is a series of linked reactions (multistep High turnover number of enzymes increases the efficiency
chemical reaction) called metabolic pathways. of reaction.
yy Metabolic pathways are similar to automobile traffic in a yy Enzymes are specific in action.
city. yy Enzymatic activity decreases with increase in temperature.
yy Flow of metabolites through the metabolic pathways yy They show maximum activity at an optimum pH of 6 – 8.
has a definite rate and direction like automobile traffic. yy The velocity of enzyme increases with increase in substrate
This metabolic flow is called dynamic state of body concentration and then, ultimately reaches maximum
constituents. velocity.
Metabolic Pathways are 2 Types yy All enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes.
yy Ribozymes are nucleic acids (RNA) that behave like
(a) Anabolic pathways: It is a biosynthetic pathway. In this,
simpler molecules form complex structures. It involves enzymes.
consumption of energy. yy Like all proteins, enzymes have primary, secondary and
E.g. Formation of acetic acid from cholesterol, assembly tertiary structure. The tertiary structure of an enzyme has
of amino acids to protein, photosynthesis etc. some crevices (pockets) called ‘active site’ into which the
(b) Catabolic pathways: It is a degradation pathway. In substrate fits.
this, complex molecules become simple structures yy Inorganic catalysts work at high temperature & pressure. But
(degradation). It involves release of energy. E.g. formation enzymes get damaged at high temperature. (> 40°C).
of lactic acid from glucose (glycolysis), respiration etc. yy Thermophilic organisms have enzymes which are stable at
The energy released through catabolism is stored in the high temperature (up to 80-90°C).
form of chemical bonds. When needed, this bond energy is yy Carbonic anhydrase is the fastest enzyme. It accelerates the
utilized for biosynthetic, osmotic and mechanical works. following reaction 10 million times.
 Biomolecules 205

yy In the absence of enzyme, only 200 molecules of H2CO3 are yy According to this, the shape of the active sites of enzymes
formed in an hour. In the presence of carbonic anhydrase is exactly complementary to the shape of the substrate. The
about 600,000 molecules are formed per second. enzyme molecule operates by chemically binding with the
substrate molecule, to form an enzyme-substrate complex.
Process of Enzyme Action yy The enzyme’s tertiary structure consists of a unique pocket
yy Substrate (S) is the chemical that is converted into product or site on which the substrate molecules can become attached
(P) by the action of an enzyme (E). and interact subsequently.
yy First of all, the substrate “S” binds to the enzyme “E”at its yy This brings about an interaction between the specific active
active site. This leads to formation of Enzyme-substrate sites in the enzyme molecule and the reactive sites in the
“ES”complex. substrate molecule.
yy The enzyme now breaks down the substrate into products.
yy Transition state structure is the new structure of the substrate
The products initially remain attached to the enzyme for a
being formed during the state when the substrate is bound
short while forming an enzyme product complex.
to the enzyme. It is the transitional structure between the
yy The products get released from the enzyme molecule
substrate and the product.
subsequently. The enzyme is now ready to receive another
yy Finally the structure of substrate gets converted into the substrate molecule again. Thus, the same enzyme can be
structure of the product, and the product is released from used again and again.
the active site. yy According to this model, it is possible for an enzyme to
yy Transition state is the state of higher energy and lesser catalyse a reverse reaction.
stability as compared to the product.
yy The difference in average energy content of “S” from its
transition state is called activation energy.
Transition state
substrate products
bonds in substrate
Activation energy are weakened
without enzyme active
site
Potential Energy

Activation
energy with enzyme
enzyme enzyme-substrate enzyme
Substrate (s)

2. Induced Fit Hypothesis: It was proposed by Daniel

Koshland in 1959.
yy It states that the shape of active sites are not exactly
Product (P)
complementary, but change shape in the presence of a specific
Progress of reaction
Concept of activation energy substrate to become complementary.
yy There is an intermediate condition called transition state
Fig. Concept of activation energy between the substrate and the products, which is highly
unstable.
Catalytic Cycle of Enzyme yy When the substrate molecules bind to the enzyme molecule,
yy First of all, the substrate binds to the active site of enzyme a change is brought about in the active site to precisely
(E+S). fit the transition state (induced fit). This induced fit hold
yy This induces some changes in enzymes so that the substrate the substrates at the correct angle for the reaction to take
is tightly bound with active site of enzyme (ES). place.
yy The active site breaks chemical bonds of the substrate Products
Enzyme changes shape
(EP). Substrate slightly as substrate binds
yy The enzyme releases the products and the free enzyme is Active site
ready to bind to other molecules of the substrate (E+P).
E + S ↔ ES→EP →E + P
The pathway of this transformation must go through the so called
transition state structure.
Substrate entering Enzyme/substrate Enzyme/products Products leaving
Mode of Enzyme Action active site of enzyme cmoplex complex active site of enzyme

There are two different views to explain the mode of enzyme action
the lock and key hypothesis and the induced-fit hypothesis. Factors Affecting Enzyme Action
1. Lock and Key Hypothesis: It was suggested by Emil The activity of an enzyme can be affected by a change in the
Fischer in 1894. conditions which can alter the tertiary structure of the protein.
 206 BIOLOGY

These include temperature, pH, change in substrate concentration 3. Enzyme concentration: The rate of reaction is directly
or binding of specific chemicals that regulate its activity. proportional to enzyme concentration. An increase in enzyme
1. pH : Enzymes very sensitive to pH. Each enzyme shows its concentration will cause a rise in the rate of reaction upto a
highest activity at optimum pH. Activity declines both below point and then the rate of reaction will be constant. Increasing
and above the optimum value. the enzyme concentration increases the number of available
2. Temperature : Low temperature preserves the enzyme in a active sites.
temporarily inactive state whereas high temperature destroys 4. Substrate concentration : Increase in substrate concentration
enzymatic activity because proteins are denatured by heat. increases the activity of enzymes until all the active sites of
Generally all enzymes perform better at body temperature enzyme are saturated by the substrate molecules. Therefore
of organism. the substrate molecules occupy the active sites vacated by the
products and cannot increase the rate of reaction further.

Fig. Effect of change in: (a) pH (b) Temperature and (c) Concentration of substrate on enzyme activity
Km Constant (Michaelis and Menten Constant): yy The Michaelis Menten equation describe how rate of
yy Km constant of an enzyme, is the concentration of substrate reaction relatively varies with substrate concentration
at which rate of reaction of that enzyme attains half of its Vmax [S]
V0 =
maximum velocity. It is given by Michaelis & Menten. The K m + [S]
value of Km should be lower for an enzyme.
1 yy Where Vo is the rate of initial reaction; Vmax is the maximum
K m = Vmax relative or the reaction rate with excess substrate; Km is
2
the Michaelis constant = K2 + K3/K1; [S] is the substrate
yy Km exhibits catalytic activity of an enzyme. concentration.
yy Km value differs from substrate to substrate because yy The above reaction shows that the greater the affinity
different enzymes differ in their affinity towards different between an enzyme and its substrate, the lower the Km
substrates. A high Km indicates low affinity while a low Km (in units moles per litre) of the enzyme substrate reaction.
shows strong affinity. Stated inversely, 1/Km is the measure of affinity of the
yy Protease acts on different proteins. So it’s Km value differ enzyme for its substrate.
from protein to protein.
Classification and Nomenclature of Enzymes
Enzymes are classified into six classes based on the reactions they
catalyse.
(i) Oxido-reductases / Dehydrogenases: These enzymes
catalyse the oxidation or reduction between two substrates,
S and S’.
S reduced + S’ oxidized → S oxidized + S’ reduced
E.g. cytochrome oxidase, succinate dehydrogenase, nitrate
reductase.
(ii) Transferases: These enzymes catalyse the transfer of
a group (other than hydrogen) from one substrate to
Fig. Reaction velocity ‘V’ and substance concentration (S) another.
for a typical enzyme catalysed reaction S-G + S’ → S’-G + S
 Biomolecules 207

E.g. Glutamate –pyruvate transaminase transfers amino (ii) Conjugated enzyme: It is an enzyme which is formed two
group from glutamate to pyruvate during synthesis of parts: a protein part called apoenzyme and a non- protein
alanine. part called cofactor. Together, it is known as holoenzyme.
(iii) Hydrolases: These enzymes catalyse the breakdown of Active site is formed jointly by apoenzyme and cofactor.
larger molecules into smaller molecules with the addition
Co-factors
of water. They catalyse the hydrolysis of bonds like ester,
ether, peptide, glycosidic, C-C, C-halide, P-N etc. yy Co-factors are non-protein constituents bound to the enzyme
E.g. Amylase hydrolysis starch, sucrase, lactase etc. to make the enzyme catalytically active.
(iv) Lyases: These enzymes catalyse removal of groups by yy The protein portion of the enzyme is called apoenzyme.
mechanisms other than hydrolysis leaving double bonds. yy Enzyme = Co-factor + Apoenzyme
X-C-C-Y → X-Y + C=C yy Co-factors are of three types:
E.g. Histidine decarboxylase breaks histidine to histamine ²² Prosthetic group: They are non-protein organic factors
and CO2. which are firmly attached to the apoenzyme.
(v) Isomerases: These enzymes catalyse the arrangement of ²² E.g. In peroxidase, haemoglobin, myoglobin and
atoms in a molecule to form its isomer. catalase, haem is prosthetic group.
There are three types of isomerases: ²² Co-enzymes: It is a non-protein organic compounds
a. Isomerases: Aldose to ketose group or vice-versa. which is loosely attached to an apoenzyme. The essential
E.g. Glucose 6-Phosphate to Fructose 6-phosphate.
component of many coenzymes is vitamins. E.g. NAD
b. Epimerases: Change in position of one constituent
and NADP contain niacin.
or carbon group. E.g. Xylulose phosphate to ribulose
phosphate. Importance of Coenzymes
c. Mutases: Shifting the position of side group. E.g. (i) It is essential for bringing the substrate in contact with
glucose 6 phosphate to glucose 1 phosphate. enzyme.
(vi) Ligases: These enzymes catalyse the covalent bonding (ii) It picks up a product of the reaction and transfers it to
between two substrates to form larger molecules. E.g. another reactant.
enzymes catalysing joining of C-O, C-S, C-N, P-O etc. ²² Metal ions: They form co-ordination bonds with side
E.g. pyruvate carboxylase. It combines pyruvic acid with
chains at active site and the same time form one or more
CO2 to form oxaloacetic acid.
co- ordination bonds with the substrate.
Chemically, Enzymes are of Two Types E.g. Zn is a cofactor for Carboxypeptidase.
(i) Simple enzyme: It is an enzyme that is completely made of
protein. Its active site is formed by specific grouping of its
own acids. E.g. Trypsin, pepsin, Urease etc.
 Chapter
Cell Cycle and Cell
10 Division
The cell cycle is the life cycle of a cell. During its life cycle, cell yy Interphase involves a series of changes that prepare a cell
grow, perform its assign functions, replicate, and divide. For for division.
eukaryotic cells, the cell cycle consists of two general phases: yy It is the period during which the cell experiences growth
interphase and the mitotic phase. Cell division is part of the and DNA replication in an orderly manner.
life cycle for almost every cell. It is a more complicated process yy Interphase is the longest period in the cell cycle and occupies
in eukaryotic than prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotes have multiple more than 95% of the duration of the cell cycle.
chromosomes and many organelles, all of which must be duplicated yy It is divided into 3 phases: G1 phase, S phase and G2
and separated for the cell to divide. phase
²² G1 (Gap 1) phase: It is the first phase of the growth. It
CELL CYCLE is the stage during which the cell grows and prepares
its DNA for replication. In this phase, the cell is
yy The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its metabolically active. A lot of protein and RNA are
genome, synthesises other cell constituents, and eventually synthesized during this phase. A large number of
divides into two daughter cells is known as cell cycle. nucleotides, amino acids for histone synthesis and
yy The events of the cell cycle are under genetic control. energy rich compounds are formed.
²² S phase (Synthetic phase): It is the stage during which
Phases of Cell Cycle DNA synthesis occurs. In this phase, the amount of
yy Duration of the cell cycle varies from organism to organism, DNA (per cell) doubles, but the chromosome number
and from cell to cell. remains the same. Each chromosome now consists of
yy Duration of the cell cycle in humans is 24 hrs, and in yeast two sister chromatids. The sister chromatids are held
together by a structure called a centromere. The cell is
is 90 min.
now committed to division.
yy Cell cycle consists of two phases:
²² G2 phase: In this phase, the cell continues to grow
²² Interphase (Non-dividing phase)
and prepares itself for division. The proteins and RNA
²² M phase (Dividing phase)
required for mitosis are synthesised during this stage.

1. Interphase:
Cell cycle arrest
yy The interval between two successive cell divisions is termed
as Interphase.
Fig. ­Cell cycle
 224 BIOLOGY

²² G0 or quiescent phase: Is the stage wherein cells remain interphase

metabolically active, but do not proliferate unless called
prophase
to do so. Such cells are used for replacing the cells lost
during injury. prometaphase
yy Interphase is followed by a shorter phase of the cell cycle
called the mitotic phase. metaphase

M Phase anaphase

yy A cell reproduces during the mitotic phase. The mitotic teiophase

phase has two stages: Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis.
²² Karyokinesis: It involves nuclear division, producing
two daughter nuclei. Fig. Diagrammatic representation of Interphase and M
²² Cytokinesis: It involves cell division, producing two phase
roughly equal cells called as daughter cells.
yy The mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle alternates with the 1. PROPHASE: It can be divided into three stages:
much longer interphase. (i) Early prophase
²² Centrioles start moving towards opposite poles of the
Length of a Cell Cycle
nucleolus cell. Both the centriole pairs radiate out fine
yy The time it takes a cell to complete the cell cycle depends microtubular fibrils called astral rays. Each pair of astral
on the type of cell that is dividing. rays along with centriole pair is called aster.
yy Most of the cells in the human body can complete the cell ²² The chromatin reticulum disappears.
cycle in about 24 hours. ²² Chromosomes appear as long threads.
yy Of this time: ²² Nucleus become less distinct
²² The M phase would occupy < 1 hour (ii) Middle prophase
²² The S phase would last 10-12 hours (~ ½ the cell ²² The chromatin condenses into chromosomes by
cycle) dehydrating and coiling.
²² The G2 phase typically takes 4-6 hours ²² The chromosomes consist of two identical sister
²² The G1 phase usually occupies 5-6 hours. This phase chromatids, joined together by a centromere. For the
is, however, the most variable in length in different first time, they can be seen with a light microscope.
types of cells (iii) Late prophase
²² A structure known as the centrosome duplicates itself to
MITOSIS (also known as equational division) form two daughter centrosomes that migrate to opposite
yy Mitosis was first discovered in animal cells by Walter ends of the cell.
Fleming (1878). He also coined the term mitosis. ²² The centrosomes organise the production of microtubules
yy Strasburger (1879) identified mitosis in plant cells that form the spindle fibres that constitute the mitotic
yy Mitosis is called somatic cell division since it occurs most spindle.
commonly in vegetative cells or somatic cells. ²² The nuclear membrane breaks down to form a number
yy In plants, active centres of mitosis are root apex and stem of small vesicles and the nucleolus disintegrates.
apex.
yy The best region to observe mitosis in plants is root apex.
yy Mitosis is also called equational division as number of
chromosomes in parent and progeny remain the same.
yy Mitosis is the process of cell division wherein the
chromosomes replicate and get equally distributed into two
daughter cells. The chromosome number in each daughter
cell is equal to that in the parent cell, i.e., diploid. Hence,
mitosis is known as equational division.
Phases of Mitosis
yy Mitosis (M phase) is divided into 4 stages: Prophase
(1st stage), Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (Last stage) Fig.­  Prophase
yy Cytokinesis completes the mitotic phase.
 Cell Cycle and Cell Division 225

2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase
(i) Pro-metaphase ²² It is the shortest stage of mitosis.
²² The chromosomes, led by their centromeres, migrate to ²² It has two sub stages, A and B. Both anaphase A and
the equatorial plane in the midline of cell. This region of anaphase B contribute to the movement of chromosome
the mitotic spindle is known as the metaphase plate. toward the spindle poles
²² Each chromatid now has a specialized protein structure
located at the centromere called a kinetochore through Anaphase A:
which spindle fibres attach. ²² In anaphase A, chromosomes are pulled pole ward.
²² The chromosomes continue to condense. ²² In anaphase A, the centromere divide, separating the
(ii) Metaphase two sister chromatids from each other.
²² It is the longest phase of the cell cycle. It last for about ²² Each chromatid is pulled toward the pole along the path
20 minutes. of their chromosome fibres.
²² The spindle fibres pull and push the duplicated ²² During anaphasic movement of chromosomes,
chromosomes to the middle of the cell during centromeres lead the arms.
metaphase. ²² As a result of movement, chromosomes acquire V, L, J,
²² Notice in the figure that the chromosomes line up along I shapes based on the position of centromere.
the middle of the cell. This makes sure that each new ²² Once they are separated, the sister chromatids are now
cell will receive one copy of each chromosome. referred to as daughter chromosomes.
Anaphase B:
²² In anaphase B, poles move apart.
²² As the single-stranded chromosomes move to opposite
sides of the cell, the cell begins to get longer.
²² Anaphase ends when the two sets of identical
chromosomes reach opposite ends of the cell.
²² Most spindle fibres disappear from near the poles but
remain intact near the middle.
²² The number and type of chromosomes at each pole is
same as present in the parent nucleus.
²² It is the alignment and separation in metaphase and
anaphase that is important in ensuring that each daughter
cell receives a copy of every chromosome.

Fig. Metaphase

Anaphase A

Anaphase B

Fig. Anaphase
 226 BIOLOGY

4. Telophase yy Cytokinesis in plants, which have cell walls, involves a

yy During telophase, the spindle fibres that helped divide completely different mechanism.
chromosomes begin to disappear. ²² During telophase, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus
yy The chromosomes begin to uncoil and form chromatin move to the middle of the cell, where they fuse with each
which together appears as reticulum. other to form a cell plate or middle lamella.
yy Nucleolus becomes visible again. ²² Cell wall materials carried in the vesicles collect in the
yy Nuclear envelope is re-organised from RER by a process cell plate as it grows.
called nucleogenesis around each set of chromosomes at ²² The plate enlarges until its membranes fuse with the
either pole of the cell. plasma membrane at the perimeter.
yy Two new identical nuclei forms. ²² The contents of the vesicles form new cell wall material
5. Cytokinesis between the daughter cells.
yy Cytokinesis completes the process of cell division. Vesicles
Wall of
1 µm
yy Cytokinesis is the process in which the cell actually divides forming
parent cell
cell plate Cell plate New cell wall
into two. With the two nuclei already at opposite poles of
the cell, the cell cytoplasm separates, and the cell pinches
in the middle, ultimately leading to cleavage.
yy The two cells formed are roughly equal in size.
yy The process of cytokinesis is different in animal and plant cells.

Daughter cells

Fig. Cell plate formation in a plant cell

Significance of Mitosis
yy It is an equational division, and the two daughter cells are
identical in all respects.
yy They receive the same number and kind of chromosomes
as were in the mother cells.
²² It is the only mode of multiplication in unicellular
organisms.
²² It is the process by which growth takes place in animals
and plants by constantly adding more and more cells.
Somatic cells are formed by mitosis.
²² It maintains the genetic continuity and equality. This
Fig. Cytokinesis helps in proper coordination among different cells.
yy In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process called ²² It also plays a role in repair by growth, example in
cleavage. wound healing, regeneration of damaged parts (as in
²² The first sign of cleavage is the appearance of a cleavage the tail of lizard), and replacement of cells lost during
furrow in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate. normal wear and tear (as the surface cells of the skin or
²² On the cytoplasmic side of the cleavage furrow is a the red blood cells).
contractile ring of actin filaments. They induce the cell
Meiosis (also called as Reductional division)
membrane to invaginate.
²² The furrow deepens centripetally and cleaves the cell yy Meiosis was discovered in plant cells by Strasburger.
into two. yy The term ‘Meiosis’ was coined by J.B., Farmer and J.E.
Moore.
yy Meiosis is a specialized kind of cell division that reduces
the chromosome number by half (thus called reductional
division) resulting in production of haploid daughter cells
(gametes). For example, in human beings, the normal
chromosome number is 46 (23 pairs), but as a result of
meiosis this number is halved to 23 in daughter cells.
yy Meiosis-I initiates after the parental chromosomes replicates
to produce identical sister chromatids at the S-Phase of
Interphase.
Fig. Cytokinesis in animal cell
 Cell Cycle and Cell Division 227

yy Meiosis occurs in reproductive cells, e.g. in the testes of male (ii) Zygotene (Gk. ‘Zygos’-pairing)
and in the ovaries of female animals; in the pollen mother yy Homologous chromosomes become closely associated due
cell of the anthers (male organs) and in the megaspore to the development of nucleoprotein between them.
mother cells of the ovary (female organ) of the flowers. yy The process of attachment of the homologous chromosomes
yy Cells which undergo meiosis are called meiocytes. to form a complex structure called synaptonemal complex
yy It involves sequential cycle of two nuclear division called is known as synapsis.
Meiosis-I and Meiosis-II but only a single cycle of DNA yy Synapsis may be
replication takes place. ²² Proterminal, starting from ends and prceeding toward
yy It results in four haploid daughter cells. centromeres.
yy The cells produced by meiosis are not all alike. Each cell ²² Procentric, starting from centromeres and proceeding
is unique and this variation is produced by two processes towards ends.
– independent segregation of the chromosomes and by ²² Random, at various places between centromeres.
crossing-over. Both take place during Meiosis I. yy Two synaptonemal complexes further form a complex called
yy Importance of meiosis: Every living organism has a definite bivalent or tetrad.
number of chromosomes in its body cells. Therefore to keep yy Bivalent or tetrad is a pair of synapsed homologous
the chromosome number constant, the reproductive cells of the chromosomes
parents (ovaries and testis in animals, and pollen mother cells (iii) Pachytene (Gk. ‘pachus’ - thick)
and cells of ovary in plants) divide through meiosis. yy It is the longest phase of prophase I.
yy The chromosome becomes shorter and thicker due to
Stages of Meiosis
contraction.
Meiosis consists of two divisions: yy During pachytene, each chromosome shows two chromatids
(i) Meiosis I (Reduction Division): Meiosis I start after DNA so that bivalent shows 4 chromatids. Hence they are called
has been replicated in S phase. During meiosis I, the number pachytene tetrads.
of chromosome is reduced to half. The homologous pairs yy The two chromatids belonging to the same chromosomes
of chromosomes get separated and cells become haploid. are called sister chromatids while chromatids belonging to
The two chromatids of the chromosome become genetically the two different chromosomes of a homologous pairs are
different due to crossing over. termed as non-sister chromatid.
Meiosis I is followed by meiosis II at the end of which four yy Crossing-over occurs at the end of pachytene. It involves
haploid cells are formed. break and exchange of parts (genes) between non-sister
(ii) Meiosis II (Equational division): During meiosis II the chromatid i.e. chromatids of a homologous pair.
sister chromatids of each chromosome are separated (as yy Crossing is mainly responsible for the genetic difference.
in mitosis). It is called equational division because the yy Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between
chromosome number remains the same as produced after two homologous chromosomes with the help of enzyme
the end of the first division. recombinase.
yy The point of interchange and rejoining appears X-shaped
Meiosis I
and is known as chiasma or points of crossing over.
Like mitosis, meiosis also consists of four stages; prophase, yy Crossing over results in recombinations of linked genes,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase. which ultimately lead to evolution.
(iv) Diplotene (Gk. ‘Diplous’-double)
yy The nucleoprotein fusion complex of the synapsed
chromosomes dissolves partially. As a result, the homologous
chromosomes begin to separate.
yy The two non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair remain
attached at one or two points, called the chiasmata.
yy It is at the chiasmata that exchange of segments of
chromatids (genes) between homologous chromosomes
Prophase I: It is the longest phase and is further sub-divided into has taken place. The process of gene exchange is known
5 phases. as genetic recombination.
(i) Leptotene (Gk. ‘leptos’ - thin; ‘tene’ – thread): yy Chiasmata may be terminal or interstitial. Depending on
yy The chromosomes become distinct and compact due to their position, the homologous chromosomes appear cross-
condensation and thickening of chromosomes. They possess like, ring like or chain like.
a string of swollen areas called chromomeres. (v) Diakinesis (GK dia = through, in different directions,
kinesis = motion)
yy Each chromosome consists of two chromatids held together
yy Bivalents become very thick and short and migrate to the
by a centromere but these are not easily visible.
periphery of the nucleus.
228 BIOLOGY

yy The homologous chromosomes of a bivalent move apart yy Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear during
from each other by a phenomenon called terminalisation. diakinesis.
yy Movement of intermediary chiasmata to ends of yy Formation of spindle also gets completed by the end of
chromosomes due to repulsion between homologous diakinesis.
chromosomes is called terminalisation.

Fig. Different stages in the meiotic division of a plant cell

Metaphase-I yy The homologous chromosomes remain attached by the

yy The bivalents (homologous pairs of chromosomes) arrange chiasmata at the telomeric ends.
themselves as a double row at the equator or metaphase Anaphase-I
plate. yy The spindle fibres shorten.
yy The spindle fibres get attached at the centromere of the yy Homologous chromosomes of each bivalent segregate and
chromosomes. move to opposite poles during anaphase -I. (Note: There is
yy Centromeres bivalents are away from equatorial plane, and no division of centromere).Thus, half of the chromosome
arms are on equatorial plane. (each with two chromatids) of the parent cell goes to one
pole and the remaining half to the opposite pole.
 Cell Cycle and Cell Division 229

yy Segregation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase yy The formation of spindle apparatus gets completed.
I is called disjunction. yy Each chromosome gets connected with both the spindle
yy Random segregation of chromosomes during anaphase I is poles by chromosome fibres that develop from both the
a cause for recombinations of non-linked genes. surfaces of its centromere.
yy The number of chromosomes is reduced to half by the end Anaphase II
of anaphase - I. yy The centromere in each chromosome divides into two, so
yy Each set of chromosomes that moves to one pole consists that there is one centromere for each chromatid.
of a mixture of paternal and maternal chromosome parts yy The chromatids get their centromere and become daughter
(new gene combination). chromosomes and begin to move towards the opposite
Telophase-I poles.
yy The separated chromosomes form two haploid nuclei by yy At the end of anaphase II, four groups of chromosomes are
the end of telophase - I. produced, each having haploid number.
yy The daughter cells are now called haploid (n) as they have Telophase II
one set of chromosomes. yy On reaching the poles the chromosomes organize themselves
yy The nucleolus reappears and nuclear membrane reforms. into haploid daughter nuclei.
yy The daughter nuclei begin the second meiotic division. yy The nucleolus and the nuclear membrane reappear.
yy Chromosomes elongate to form chromatin network.
Interkinesis
yy Spindle fibres degenerate during telophase II.
yy It is the time gap between telophase of meiosis I and
prophase of meiosis II. Cytokinesis
yy Chromosomes elongate but there is no formation of yy It can be of two types: Successive and simultaneous type.
chromatin reticulum. ²² In successive type, cytokinesis occurs twice following
yy Synthesis of RNA and protein may take place. meiosis -I and meiosis - II.
yy Centrosome or centriole pairs undergo replication. ²² In simultaneous type, cytokinesis occurs only after
meiosis II.
Meiosis II yy Meiosis results in four haploid cells.
It has the same four stages; Prophase II, Metaphase II,
Significance of Meiosis
Anaphase II, Telophase II.
Though it is similar to mitosis, but meiosis II is not mitosis yy Meiosis maintains the chromosome number from generation
because: to generation. It reduces the chromosome number to half so
yy It always occurs in haploid cells. that the process of fertilisation restores the original number
yy It is not preceded by DNA replication. in the zygote.
yy The daughter cells formed at the end of meiosis II is neither yy Meiosis occurs during gamete formation (gemetogenesis)
similar to each other nor to the parent cell. and reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid (2n)
Prophase II to haploid (n) in the gametes. These haploid gametes fuse to
yy The chromosomes shorten and reappear. The two chromatids form diploid zygote during fertilization. The diploid zygote
are attached to the single centromere. develops into a normal diploid individual.
yy The formation of spindle starts. yy Variations are caused by the cross-over and the random
yy Nucleolus and nuclear membrane begin to disappear. distribution of homologous chromosomes between daughter
yy In animal cells, the centriole pairs develop asters and move cells. Variations play an important role in evolution.
to the region of future spindle poles. yy Chromosomal mutations are brought about by the
Metaphase II introduction of certain abnormalities. These chromosomal
yy The chromosomes arrange themselves along the equator. mutations may be advantageous for an individual.

Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
In mitosis, a single division results in two daughter cells. Meiosis involves two successive divisions – meiosis I and meiosis II. These
divisions result in four daughter cells.
Mitosis is known as equational division. This is because the daughter Meiosis I is known as reductional division. This is because the chromosome
cells have the same diploid number of chromosomes as the parent. number is reduced to half.
Meiosis II is known as equational division. This is because the sister
chromatids separate and the chromosome number remains the same.
Prophase is short and does not comprise any phase. Prophase I is very long and comprises 5 phases –leptotene, zygotene,
pachytene, diplotene, and diakinesis.
 230 BIOLOGY

There is no pairing of chromosomes, crossing-over, or chiasmata- In the zygotene stage of prophase, the pairing of chromosomes occurs.
formation during prophase. During pachytene, the crossing-over occurs. The chiasmata are formed in
the diplotene stage.
Synaptonemal complex is not formed. Synaptonemal complex is formed during the zygotene stage of prophase I.
Anaphase involves the separation of the chromatids of each During anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes separate, while the
chromosome. chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.
During anaphase II, the chromatids separate as a result of the splitting of
the centromere.
Mitosis plays a significant role in the healing, repair, and growth of a Meiosis brings about variation and maintains the chromosome number from
cell. generation to generation.

Types of Meiosis yy In this way, the organism ends its diploid phase and produces
several haploid cells. These cells undergo mitosis (divide
There are three types of meiosis, depending upon the stage when mitotically) to form either larger, multicellular individuals,
meiosis occurs: Gametic meiosis, zygotic meiosis and sporic or more haploid cells. Two opposite types of gametes (e.g.,
meiosis. male and female) from these individuals or cells fuse to
1. Gametic meiosis become a diploid zygote.
yy In gametic meiosis, the diploid zygote undergoes mitosis to yy In the whole cycle, zygotes are the only diploid cell; mitosis
produce multicellular diploid cells. Cells from the diploid occurs only in the haploid phase.
individuals then undergo meiosis to produce haploid 3. Sporic meiosis
gametes. yy In sporic meiosis mitosis occur in both the diploid and haploid
yy The haploid gametes fuse and produce the diploid zygote phases. The organism exhibits alternation of generations,
with gametes of the opposite type. which features spore-producing multicellular sporophytes
yy In the whole cycle, gametes are the only haploid cells; (which are diploid) and gamete-producing multicellular
mitosis occurs only in the diploid phase. gametophytes (which are haploid). Diagramatically, sporic
2. Zygotic meiosis meiosis looks like the complex halves of gametic meiosis
yy A zygotic meiosis is meiosis of a diploid zygote immediately and zygotic meiosis are merged into one.
after karyogamy, the fusion of two cell nuclei.
 Cell Cycle and Cell division
The sequence of events which
occur during cell growth and cell
division are collecting called cell
cycle
Cell Cycle and Cell Division

Interphase Mitosis Meiosis e

It is highly metabolically It is the phase of actual It is a division that occur in
active phase, in which cell division in somatic cells a mature diploid reproductive
prepares itself for next cell cell (2x) in which nucleus
division divides twice

G1 phase S phase G2 phase G0 quiescent Meiosis - I Meiosis - II

Karyokinesis Cytokinesis
Synthesis of DNA replicate Mitotic spindle stage
division of division of If results in the In this type
rRNA, mRNA and its amount protein (tubuli) The cell do no formation of two division, number
ribosomes and becomes double synthesis begins divide further and nucleus cytoplasis
haploid cells of chromosomes
proteins exit G1 phase from one diploid remain same as
cell after meiosis I.

Leptotene
Prophase I Prophase II
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Zygotene
chromatin Chromosome Both the Chromosome Metaphase I Metaphase II
material get become distinct chromatids reaches on poles
Pachytene
thicken and later and move towards move towards by the spindle Anaphase I
divides into 2 equational plane opposite poles fibres and form Anaphase II
chromatids with the help of due to repulsive two groups Diplotene
spinde fibres force called Telophase I Telophase II
anaphasic
movement Diakinesis
231
 Chapter

11 Transport in Plants

yy Plants need to move molecules over very long distances, yy Diffusion rate increases as membrane permeability
much more than animals do; they also do not have a increases.
circulatory system in place. yy Changes in temperature and pressure values also affect the
yy Water is mainly absorbed by the roots of the plants from the diffusion of substance.
soil, then it moves upward to different parts and is lost from Significance of Diffusion
the aerial parts, especially through the leaves. (i) Exchange of gases like CO2, O2 take place through the
yy The food synthesised by the leaves have also to be moved diffusion.
to all parts including the root tips embedded deep inside (ii) The process of transpiration is a diffusion process. The
the soil. evaporation of water from the intercellular spaces is linked
yy The transport of substances over longer distances through with diffusion during the transpiration.
the vascular tissue i.e. xylem and phloem, is called
translocation. It occurs through mass flow. Facilitated Diffusion
yy In a flowering plant the substances that are transported
yy Diffusion depends on solubility in lipids. Therefore,
includes water, mineral nutrients, organic nutrients and
substance having hydrophilic moiety finds it difficult to
plant growth regulators.
diffuse through the membrane. Hence, their movement has
yy In rooted plants, transport in xylem (of water and minerals)
to be facilitated.
is essentially unidirectional, from roots to the stems. yy In facilitated diffusion, the membrane proteins are involved.
Organic and mineral nutrients transport through phloem They provide a site for hydrophilic molecules to pass
however, undergo multidirectional transport. through the membrane. No energy is utilized in this process.
yy The diffusion of hydrophilic substances along the
MEANS OF TRANSPORT ACROSS CELLS concentration gradient through fixed membrane transport
There are three means of transport in plants: Diffusion, facilitated protein without involving energy expenditure is called
diffusion and active transport. facilitated diffusion.
yy Proteins involved in the process form channels which may
Diffusion always be opened or controlled.
yy It is very specific and allows selected substances through
yy Diffusion is a passive movement of substance from a region the cell. It is also sensitive to inhibitors which react with
of higher concentration to region of lower concentration protein side chains.
across the permeable membrane.
yy It is a slower process, involving no expenditure of energy.
yy The diffusion is continue till the dynamic equilibrium is not
established. At this stage the net movement of molecules is
equal in both directions.
yy Diffusion depends on concentration gradient, permeability
of membrane, temperature, pressure and size of the
substance.
yy The diffused molecules or ions exert a pressure on the
substance or medium in which diffusion takes place, known
as diffusion pressure. This is developed due to difference
in the concentration of molecules of the material. Fig. Facilitated diffusion
 246 BIOLOGY

yy The membrane possesses aquaporins and ion channels. Transport saturates No Yes Yes
yy Porins: Porins are types of proteins that form huge pores
Uphill Transport No No Yes
in the outer membranes of plastids, mitochondria, etc. They
Requires ATP energy No No Yes
help in facilitating the passive transport of small-sized
protein molecules.
yy Aquaporins: Aquaporins are proteins that facilitate WATER POTENTIAL (ΨW)
diffusion of water molecules. yy Water potential qualifies the tendency of water to move from
Methods of Facilitated Diffusion: Transport can be of three types:
one part to the other during various cellular processes such
(i) Symport: In this, both molecules cross the membrane
as diffusion, osmosis etc.
in the same direction.
yy Water potential is represented by Greek word ψ (Psi)/ψW
(ii) Antiport: In this, both molecules moves in opposite
and it is measured in bars or Pascal (Pa).
direction.
yy Water molecule possesses kinetic energy.
(iii) Uniport: In this, one type of molecule moves across
the cell membrane. yy The greater the concentration of water in a system, the
greater is its kinetic energy or water potential.
yy Pure water has the highest water potential. It is always
taken as zero at standard temperature and pressure. It can
be explained in terms of kinetic energy possessed by water
molecules. When water is in liquid form, the movement
of its molecules is rapid and constant. Pure water has the
highest concentration of water molecules. Therefore, it has
highest water potential. When some solute is dissolved in
water, the water potential of pure water decreases.
yy Water always moves from higher water potential to lower
water potential.
Fig. Facilitated diffusion yy The water potential in a plant cell or tissue can be written
as the sum of matric potential(Ψm), solute potential (Ψs)
Active Transport and pressure potential (Ψp).
yy Active transport is carried by the movable carrier proteins yy Matric potential (Ψm) is the component of water potential
(pumps) of membrane, which are very specific and sensitive influenced by the presence of matrix. It is not significant
to inhibitors. in osmosis, so often disregarded. Thus, equation may be
yy Active transport uses energy to pump molecules against the simplified as:
concentration gradient from a low concentration to high yy Ψw = Ψs + Ψp
concentration (uphill-transport). yy Solute potential (Osmotic potential, Ψs) is defined as the
yy It is faster than passive transport. amount by which the water potential is reduced as a result
yy In plant cells, active transport occurs against the concentration of the presence of solute. Solute potentials (Ψs) are always
gradient i.e. from a region of lower concentration to a region in negative values. The more the solute molecules, the lower
of higher concentration. The process requires specific is the solute potential (Ψs).
protein pumps. The protein pumps are made up of specific yy Pressure Potential (ΨP): It is shown by positive sign (+ve).
proteins called trans-membrane proteins. These pumps If a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure is applied
first make a complex with the substance to be transported to pure water or a solution, its water potential increases. It
across the membrane, using the energy derived from ATP.
is also known as Turgor pressure.
The substance finally gets liberated into the cytoplasm as a
yy Water potential = Osmotic potential + Pressure
result of the dissociation of the protein-substance complex.
potential + Matric potential
Comparison of Different Transport Mechanism ∆ψ or ψW = ψS + ψP + ψm
Property Diffusion Facilitated Active transport
ψW = ψS + ψP
diffusion As ψm and ψg (Matric potential and gravitational potential
They require special No Yes Yes are negligible).
membrane protein ψW = –ve, ψS = – ve, ψP = +ve
Highly selective No Yes Yes yy When some solute is dissolved in water, the water potential
of pure water decreases. This is termed as solute potential,
Property Diffusion Facilitated Active transport
diffusion
which is always negative.
Contd...
 Transport in Plants 247

yy For a solution at atmospheric pressure, Ψw = Ψp yy Direction and rate of osmosis depends upon pressure
yy The water potential of pure water or solution increases on gradient and concentration gradient.
the application of pressure values more than atmospheric yy Osmosis is of two types: Endosmosis and exosmosis
pressure. It is termed as pressure potential. It is denoted by Endosmosis is the osmotic entry of water into a cell and
Ψp and has a positive value, although a negative pressure exosomosis is the osmotic withdrawal of water from a cells.
potential is present in the xylem. This pressure potential yy A solution having low osmotic concentration as compared
plays a major role in the ascent of water through the stem. to another solution is known as hypotonic solution. A
yy Solute potential is always negative and water potential is solution having high osmotic concentration as compared
always positive. to another solution is termed as hypertonic solution. The
yy Water potential of pure water at standard temperature which two solutions with the same concentration or potential are
is not under any pressure is taken to be zero (by convention). named as isotonic solutions. External hypotonic solution
will cause endosmosis while hypertonic solution results in
OSMOSIS exosmosis.
yy Osmosis is movement of solvent or water molecules from
the region of their higher diffusion pressure or free energy
to the region of their lower diffusion pressure or free energy
across a semi-permeable membrane.
yy Water molecules move from higher water potential to lower
water potential until equilibrium is reached.

H2O
H2O
Cell H2O H2O
Cell Cell
Isotonic Hypertonic
solution Hypotonic
solution
solution
Net effect: No loss or Net effect: Water passes Net effect: Water
gain of water by the cell out of the cell enters the cell

Fig. The effect of isotonic solution, hypertonic solution and hypotonic solution on cell
yy Osmotic pressure of a solution is usually measured in yy The stage of plasmolysis, when the protoplast just begins
pascals, Pa (1 Pa = 1 Newton/m2) or bars or atmospheres. to contract away from the cell wall is called incipient
Difference between Diffusion and Osmosis plasmolysis.
yy The stage when the cell wall has reached its limit of
Diffusion Osmosis contraction and the protoplast has detached from cell wall
It is the passive movement of It is the process in which the diffusion attaining spherical shape is called evident plasmolysis.
molecules, ions and particle along of solvent (water) occurs across the yy When the cells are placed in a hypotonic solution
the concentration gradient. semi-permeable membrane. (higher water potential or dilute solution as compared to
It can occur in solid, liquid and It occurs only in liquid medium. the cytoplasm), water diffuses into the cell causing the
gases.
cytoplasm to build up a pressure against the wall, that is
It does not require a semi- I t r e q u i r e s s e m i - p e r m e a b l e called turgor pressure (TP) .
permeable membrane. membrane.
yy The pressure exerted by the protoplasts due to entry of water
against the rigid walls is called pressure potential Ψp.
PLASMOLYSIS yy When water flows into the cell and out of the cell and are
in equilibrium, the cells are said to be flaccid.
yy The shrinkage of the protoplast of a living cell from its cell yy The swelling up of a plasmolysed protoplast due to
wall due to exosmosis under the influence of a hypertonic endosmosis under the influence of a hypotonic solution or
solution is called plasmolysis.
water is called deplasmolysis.
yy Due to withdrawal of water from cytoplasm and central
yy The value of TP (turgor pressure) becomes zero at the time
vacuole of cell, the size of protoplast reduces. This is the
of limiting plasmolysis and below zero during incipient and
first stage of plasmolysis called limiting plasmolysis.
evident plasmolysis.
 248 BIOLOGY

LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT OF WATER

It occurs by three processes:
yy Diffusion: Diffusion is a slow process and cannot account
for the transport of molecules in a 10 meter tall tree.
yy Mass flow system:Mass flow is the movement of substances
(water, minerals and food) in bulk from one point to another
as a result of pressure differences between two points.
yy Translocation through conducting vascular tissues:
Translocation is the bulk movement of substance through
the conducting or vascular tissue.
In plants, there are two types of conducting tissues:
yy Xylem: It is involved in transport of water, salts, nitrogen
and hormones from roots to the other parts. Transport of
water and minerals through xylem is unidirectional.
yy Phloem: It is involved in the transport of organic and
inorganic solutes. It occurs from the source (leaves) to the
sink (storage part) and is multidirectional.
Transport is unidirectional in xylem while it is multidirectional in
phloem:
yy During the growth of a plant, its leaves act as the source of
food as they carry out photosynthesis.
yy The phloem conducts the food from the source to sink (the
part of the plant requiring or storing food).
yy During spring, this process is reversed as the food stored in
the sink is mobilized toward the growing buds of the plant,
through the phloem. Thus, the movement of food in the
phloem is bidirectional i.e. upward and downward.
yy The transport of water in the xylem takes place only from
the roots to the leaves. Therefore, the movement of water
and nutrients in the xylem is unidirectional.

Fig. Plasmolysis and deplasmolysis ABSORPTION OF WATER BY PLANTS

(a)Normal cell (b) Plsmolysed cell (c) Deplasmolysed cell and yy Water is absorbed through roots by diffusion.
increased turgor pressure yy Root hairs, which are slender, thin-walled extensions of root
epidermal cells, increase the surface area for absorption.
IMBIBITION
yy Once absorbed by root hairs, water moves into deeper layers
yy The process of absorption of water by hydrophilic surfaces by two pathways: Apoplast Pathway or Symplast Pathway.
of a substance without forming a solution is called
imbibition. Apoplast Pathway
yy Examples of imbibition are adsorption of water by seeds, yy Movement of water takes place exclusively through the
dry wood, starch cellulose, agar, gelatin, gum etc. intercellular spaces and the walls of the cells.
yy Movement through the apoplast does not involve crossing
Factors Influencing the Rate of Imbibition
the cell membrane.
(i) Nature of imbibant yy Movement depends on the gradient.
(ii) Surface area of imbibant yy The apoplast does not provide any barrier to water
(iii) Temperature movement.So, movement is fast. Most of the water flow in
(iv) Concentration of solutes roots occurs via apoplast, except at the casparian strip of
(iv) pH of imbibant the root endodermis.
yy Water movement is through mass flow.
Significance of Imbibition
Symplast Pathway
yy Water is absorbed by germinating seeds through the process
of imbibition and helps in rupturing of seeds coat (made yy The symplast pathway involves the movement of water
up of cellulose). through the interconnected protoplasts of the epidermis,
yy The water moves into ovules which are ripening into seeds cortex, and endodermis and root pericycle.
by the process of imbibition. yy It is the slower process of water movement.
 Transport in Plants 249

yy Most of the water enters through apoplast pathway. However transport protein present in the membranes of these cells act
at the endodermis region, water moves through the symplast. as checkpoints for the various solutes reaching the xylem.
The endodermal cells of the roots containing suberin, which
allow only selected minerals to pass through them. The
Plasmodesmata
Plasma membrane

Epidermis Cortex Endodermis Pericycle

Xylem
= symplast Cell Wall Casparian strip
= apoplast
Fig. Pathway of water movement in the root

WATER MOVEMENT UP A PLANT by transpiration from leaves. (Cohesion-tension-

transpiration pull Model)
yy As the water is absorbed by the roots from the soil and ♦♦ In tall trees, water rises with the help of the
moved to the conducting tissues, it has to be transported to transpiration pull generated by transpiration or loss
various parts of the plant. of water from the stomatal pores of leaves. This is
yy There are two forces which are responsible for transporting called cohesion-tension model of water transport.
the water up in a plant: Root pressure and transpiration pull. During day time, the water lost through transpiration
(i) Root pressure: by the leaves to the surroundings causes the guard
♦♦ A hydrostatic pressure existing in roots which push cells and other epidermal cells to become flaccid.
the water up in xylem vessels is called root pressure. They in turn take water from the xylem. This creates
♦♦ Root pressure is the positive pressure that develops a negative pressure or tension in the xylem vessels,
in the roots by the active absorption of nutrients from the surfaces of the leaves to the tips of roots,
from the soil. through the stem. As a result, the water present in the
♦♦ When the nutrients are actively absorbed by the xylem is pulled as a single column from the stem. The
root hairs, water along with minerals increases the cohesion and adhesion forces of the water molecules
pressure in the xylem. and the cell walls of the xylem vessels prevent the
♦♦ This pressure pushes the water up to small heights. water column from splitting.
♦♦ Root pressure can be observed experimentally by yy There are three physical properties of water which affect
cutting the stem of a well-watered plant on a humid the ascent of xylem sap due to transpiration pull.
day. When the stem is cut, the solution oozes from (i) Cohesion: It is responsible for mutual attraction between
the cut end. water molecules.
♦♦ Root pressure is also linked to the phenomenon of (ii) Adhesion: It is responsible for attraction of water
guttation. molecules to polar surface (such as the surface of
♦♦ Guttation is the loss of water in the form of liquid tracheary elements)
droplets from the vein endings of certain herbaceous (iii) Surface tension: It is responsible for the greater
plants. attraction between water molecules in liquid phase more
♦♦ Root pressure is only able to transport water up to than in gaseous phase.
small heights. However, it helps in re-establishing the
continuous chains of water molecules in the xylem. TRANSPIRATION
The transpiration pull maintains the flow of water
molecules from the roots to the shoots. yy Transpiration is the loss of water through stomata of leaves
(ii) Transpiration pull and other aerial parts of plants in form of water vapour.
♦♦ The transport of water to the tops of trees occurs yy It account for loss of 90% of water taken by the plants.
through xylem vessels. The forces of adhesion and yy Transpiration provides the transpirational pull which is
cohesion maintain thin and unbroken columns of responsible for the upward movement of water in tall plants.
water in the capillaries of xylem vessels through Differences between transpiration and evaporation
which it travels upward. Water is mainly pulled
 250 BIOLOGY

S. Transpiration Evaporation yy It maintains the shape and structure of the plants by keeping
No. cells turgid.
1. It is a physiological process and It is physical process and
occurs in plants. occurs on any free surface.
Factors Affecting Transpiration
(i) External factors: Temperature, light, humidity and wind
2. The water moves through the Any liquid can evaporate. The
epidermis with its cuticle or living epidermis and stomata speed.
through the stomata. are not involved. (ii) Plant factors/internal factors: Number of stomata,
distribution of stomata, water status in plants, and number
3. Living cells are involved. It can occur from both living
and non-living surfaces. of open stomata.
4. Various forces (such as vapour N o t m u c h f o r c e s a r e
pressure, diffusion pressure, involved.
osmotic pressure, etc.) are
GUTTATION
involved. yy Loss of water from the aerial parts or leaves of the plant in
5. It keeps the surface of leaf and It causes dryness of the free the form of water droplets is called guttation.
young stem wet and protects surface. yy The term Guttation was coined by Burgerstein.
from sun burning.
yy Exuded liquid of guttation along with water contains some
organic and inorganic (dissolved) substances. It means it
Stomata is not pure water.
yy The tiny pores present on the surfaces of the leaves, called yy Normally, guttation process is found in herbaceous plants
stomata help in exchange of gases. like Grasses, Tomata, Balsum, Colocasia, Saxifraga and in
yy Each stoma consists of bean shaped or dumb-bell shaped some of the plants of Cucurbitaceae family.
guard cells. The epidermal cells surrounding the guard cells yy Guttation occurs from the margins of the leaves through
are modified to form subsidiary cells. the special pore (always open) like structure are called
yy The opening and closing of the guard cells is caused by the Hydathodes or Water stomata.
change in their turgidity. yy Generally guttation occurs during night or early morning.
yy The inner walls of the guard cells are thick and elastic, yy The process of guttation takes place due to the root
while the outer walls are thin. The numerous microfibrils pressure, developed in cortex cells of root.
present in the guard cells facilitate the opening and closing
of the guard cells. Difference between Guttation and Transpiration
yy At the time of opening of the stomata, the turgidity of Guttation Transpiration
the guard cells increases. As a result the outer walls
It is the process, whereby water It is the process, whereby water is
bulge and the inner walls become crescent shaped. The
is lost from the leaves in the form lost from the leaves in the form of
stomatal opening is facilitated by the radial arrangement of liquid droplets. water vapour.
of microfibrils.
It usually occurs at night. It usually occurs during the day.
yy At the time of closing of stomata, the guard cells lose their
turgidity, the outer and inner walls retain their original It occurs through the vein endings It occurs through the stomata.
of leaves.
shapes and the microfibrils get arranged longitudinally.
It is an uncontrolled process. It is a controlled process.

Microfibrils UPTAKE OF MINERAL NUTRIENTS

Guard cell
Stomatal yy Minerals are absorbed by the roots by passive and active
aperture
transport.
yy They cannot follow passive transport because:
Fig. A stomatal aperture with guard cells
²² They are charged. Hence, they cannot cross the cell
Role of Transpiration membranes.
²² Concentration of minerals in soil is lesser than the
yy It creates transpiration pull for absorption and transport concentration of minerals in roots. Hence, concentration
of plants. gradient is not present.
yy It supplies water for photosynthesis. yy The active uptake of ions requires ATP energy.
yy It transports minerals from the soil to all parts of the plants. yy Specific proteins in membranes of root hair cells actively
yy It cools leaf surfaces, sometimes 10 to 15 degrees, by pump ions from the soil into the cytoplasm of epidermal
evaporative cooling.
 Transport in Plants 251

cells and then xylem. ²² Sink cells are cells which require food material for
yy The further transport of ions to all parts of the plant is carried growth and repair.
through the transpiration stream. yy According to this hypothesis, organic substances move from
the region of high osmotic pressure to the region of low
TRANSPORT OF MINERAL NUTRIENTS osmotic pressure in a mass flow due to the development of
a gradient of turgor pressure.
yy Unloading of mineral ions occur at fine vein endings of the yy The glucose is prepared at the source by the process of
leaves through diffusion. photosynthesis and is converted to sucrose (sugar).
yy Some minerals are also remobilised from old senescing yy This sugar is then moved into sieve tube cells by active
parts N, P, K, S. transport. It produces hypertonic condition in phloem.
yy Minerals forming structural components (example Ca) are yy Water in the adjacent xylem moves into phloem by osmosis.
not remobilised. yy Due to osmotic (turgor) pressure, the phloem sap moves to
yy Phloem transports food from source to sink, but this source- the areas of lower pressure.
sink relationship is reversible depending upon the season. yy At the sink, osmotic pressure is decreased.
Therefore, phloem transport is bidirectional. yy The incoming sugar is actively transported out of the phloem
and removed as complex carbohydrates (sucrose).
PRESSURE OR MASS FLOW HYPOTHESIS yy As the sugar is removed, the osmotic pressure decreases,
yy The accepted mechanism for the translocation of sugars the water moves out of the phloem and returns to the xylem.
from source to sink is called the pressure flow hypothesis.
It was put forward by Munch (1930).
²² Source cells are cells which are the supplier of the food
material, mainly leaves.

Fig. Pathway and Mechanism of phloem translocation

 Chapter

12 Mineral Nutrition

Plants require mineral elements for their growth and development. yy Its requirement is specific, and not replaceable by any other
The utilization of various absorbed ions by a plant for growth and element.
development is called mineral nutrition of the plant. yy The element must be directly involved in the metabolism
of plant.
Hydroponics
yy The term hydroponics was given by Julius Von Sachs. Categories of Essential Elements
yy Hydroponic is growing of plants in a defined nutrient Based on their requirements, essential elements are divided into
solution, in the absence of soil. two types: macronutrients and micronutrients.
yy Hydroponics has been successfully employed as a technique (i) Macronutrients: They are generally present in the plants
for the commercial production of vegetables such as tomato, tissues in large amount (in excess of 10 mmole Kg-1 of
seedless cucumber and lettuce. dry matter). E.g. hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
yy Hydroponic or soilless culture helps in knowing–
sulphur, potassium, calcium and Magnesium.
²² The essentiality of mineral nutrients.
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are mainly obtained from
²² The deficiency symptoms developed due to non-
availability of particular nutrients. CO2 and H2O while others are absorbed from soil as
²² Toxicity of plant when element is present in excess. mineral nutrition.
²² The possible interaction among different elements (ii) Micronutrients or trace elements: They are needed in very
present in plants. small amounts (less than 10 mmole Kg-1 of dry matter).
²² The role of essential elements in the metabolism of E.g. Cobalt, manganese, zinc, iron, copper, molybdenum,
plants. boron, chlorine and nickel.
Based on their functions performed in a plant, there are four groups
ESSENTIAL MINERAL ELEMENTS of essential elements:
yy Elements which are required by plants for normal growth (i) As components of biomolecules. This forms structural
and development and without which plants cannot complete elements of cells. E.g. carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
their life cycle are called essential elements. nitrogen.
yy Deficiency of essential elements cause disorder as they are (ii) As components of energy-related chemical compounds in
incorporated by plants in the formation of their structural plants. E.g. magnesium in chlorophyll and phosphorous in
or functional molecules. ATP.
yy About 50-60 elements are present in plant body but only
(iii) Element that activate or inhibit enzymes. E.g. Mg2+,
16-17 elements are considered as essential elements.
Zn2+.
E.g. C, H, O, N, K, S, Ca, Fe, Mg, P, Cu, Mn, B, Cl, Zn, Mo, Ni.
yy Elements which are present in the plant body and are not (iv) Elements that alter the osmotic potential of a cell. E.g. K+.
so required by plants are called non-essential elements. This regulates the opening and closing of stomata.
E.g. – Na, Si, Al, Se, Sr, V.
ROLE OF MACRO AND MICRO NUTRIENTS
Criteria for Essentiality
yy Essential elements performs several functions.
yy Element should be absolutely necessary for the completion
of the life cycle of a plant; necessary for its growth and
reproduction.
 266 BIOLOGY

Various forms and functions of mineral elements are given in table below:

S. No. Name/Form in Role/Function Deficiency Symptoms

which they are
absorbed
1. Nitrogen Important in growth, metabolism, heredity, reproduction (i) Chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll and yellowing)
[NO3– form (i) Important constituent of proteins (AA), nucleic acid in older leaves (due to highly mobile nitrogen).
(nitrate)] (RNA, DNA). (ii) Anthocyanin formed in stem, petioles and leaf
(ii) Present in porphyrins of chlorophylls and (e.g. Tomato etc.).
cytochromes, thus active role in photosynthesis and (iii) Plant growth stunted (because cell division and
respiration. (ETS). respiration reduced).
(iii) Parts of vitamins, co-enzymes (NAD, NADP) and (iv) Protein synthesis, cell enlargement, chlorophyll
alkaloids. synthesis decreased.
(iv) Constituent of plant hormones - IAA, ATPs. (v) Late flowering and plant become more
(v) Absorbed from soil as NO3–, NO2–, NH4+. Some suceptible to fungal disease due to excessive
plants can do nitrogen fixation from air (Rhizobia, nitrogen.
Azolla). (vi) Seed dormancy increased.

2. Sulphur (i) Parts of cystine, cystein, and methionine amino acids. (i) Chlorosis (yellowing) in younger leaves, with
[SO42– (Sulphate) (ii) Vitamin like Biotin, thiamine, anthocyanin accumulation.
form] Co-A in respiration. (ii) Stem and roots become woody (hard) because
(iii) Disulphide linkage (–S–S) for protein orientation. of sclerenchymal development.
(iv) Sulphahydril group (–S–H) for active site of enzyme. (iii) Tip and margins of leafs curved inwardly, “Tea
(v) Role in oil synthesis chlorophyll synthesis and part of yellow disease” in tea plants.
ferredoxin. (iv) Cell division reduced and development of fruits
(vi) Root nodule formation. will stop.

3. Phosphorus (i) Very important to RNA, DNA (heredity) phospholipid (i) Premature leaf fall, necrosis, anthocyanin
[H2PO4– and (cell membrane), NADP, formation.
HPO4– (Co-enzyme), ATP (energy reactions). (ii) Protein synthesis decrease.
(Orthophosphate (ii) Important in photosynthesis (NADP), Protein synthesis (iii) Growth of roots, shoots checked, delay in
anion form)] (DNA, RNA, ATP, AA). flowering.
(iii) In oxidation-reduction reactions, fat metabolism. (iv) Xylem and phloem differentiation reduced.
(iv) In growth of roots, development of leaf and seeds and (v) Inhibit seed germination.
crop yield.
(v) Important for endergonic and exergonic reactions.

4. Calcium (i) Important for mechanical strength because Ca is (i) Disintegration of growing apices (Root, shoot,
[Ca++ form] constituent of middle lamella (Ca-pectate in cell wall). leaf apex).
(ii) Permeability of biomembrane maintained by calcium. (ii) Irregular cell division (mitosis) and death of
(iii) Stability of chromosome structure and and in spindle meristem.
formation (Hewitt 1963). (iii) Chlorosis on margins of younger leaves,
(iv) Detoxification of Na+, K+ and have role in the malformation.
conversion of oxalic acid to calcium oxalate. (iv) Flower falling, Necrosis.
(v) Activator of enzymes-phospholipase, arginin, kinase, (v) Abnormalities in chromosomes.
ATPase, amylase.
(vi) Essential for growth of apical meristems.

5. Molybdenum (i) Role as prosthetic group of nitrate reductase and nitrite (i) Interveinal chlorosis (Lemon).
[MoO42– form] reductase in nitrogen metabolism. (ii) Whip tail of cauliflower.
(ii) Tanin synthesis process. (iii) Inhibition of flowering.
6. Potassium [K+ is (i) Not a essential constituent of organic matter but (i) Mottled (Interveinal chlorosis and shortening
only monovalent important for respiration, photosynthesis, protein the internodes. (Bushy habit).
cation in free synthesis and DNA synthesis as activator. (ii) “Die-back” disease.
form] (ii) Key role in stomatal movement and transpiration. (iii) Necrosis and Blight effect on leaf tips, margin
(iii) In starch synthesis and distribution, regulation of curved downwards.
permeability and charge of cells (cation-anion (iv) Stop the carbohydrate metabolism, storage of
balance). carbohydrate in potato and beet is inhibited.
(v) Decrease the apical dominance, seeds less
developed. Contd...
 Mineral Nutrition 267

Contd...

S. Name/Form in Role/Function Deficiency symptoms

No. which they are
absorbed
7. Magnesium (i) Constituent of chlorophyll and maintain ribosome (i) Interveinal chlorosis on large scale and form of
[Mg++ form] structure. anthocyanin in older leaves.
(ii) Essential for phosphate transfer reactions (ii) Necrotic spots.
(P-metabolism). (iii) Inhibition of Glycolysis, Krebs cycle
(iii) Activator of many enzymes in carbohydrates (Carbohydrate metabolism).
metabolism, e.g. Hexokinase.
(iv) In cell wall formation.

8. Iron (Fe) (i) Absorption in acidic soil, because it is present in (i) Rapid interveinal chlorosis (New leaves).
[Absorption in soluble form. (ii) Inhibition of respiration.
Fe++ (us) form, (ii) Iron-porphyrin protein for cytochromes, peroxidase, (iii) Disintegration of chloroplast.
which is active catalases (Photorespiration)
form] (iii) Fe imp. to Ferrodoxin → Biological N2 fixation and
ETS.
(iv) Essential role in chlorophyll synthesis.
(v) In aconitase enzyme of Krebs cycle.

9. Manganese (i) Mn++ is activator of many enzymes like nitrite (i) Deficiency cause chlorotic and necrotic spots
[Mn++ form] reductase, hydroxyl amine reductase decarboxylase, on leaves. (Mosaic pattern).
dehydrogenase. (ii) Chlorophyll and starch disappears from
(ii) Essential for O2 evolution and photolysis of water in plastids.
light reaction. (iii) Marsh spot of pea, and grey speak of oat.
(iii) Chlorophyll and IAA formation. (iv) Chlorosis in young and older leaves.
(iv) Respiratory metabolism.

10. Boron (i) It is only micronutrient which is not associate with (i) Stem and root tips (apex) dies. Root growth
[H3BO3 or B(OH)3 enzymes. stopped.
or BO33– (ii) Key role in sugar translocation (Phloem conduction). (ii) Flower formation suppressed.
(Borate)] (iii) Must for cell division, flowering, fruiting, active salt (iii) EMP pathway change to HMP (PPP) pathway.
absorption, nodule formation in legumes. (iv) Physiological diseases – top rotten in tobacoo,
(iv) Essential in pollen tube formation. brown heart rot of beets, Brittleness of Celeary
(v) Lethal effect at carbohydrate metabolic site. stem, Heart rot in carrot and marigold, fibers in
applied fruit.

11. Copper (i) Oxidation-reduction process as parts of enzymes, (i) Necrosis of tip in young leaves (wither tip).
[Cu++ form cytochromes (PC and cyto-a). (ii) “Die-back of citrus” and other fruit trees,
toxic in high (ii) Vit.-C (ascorbic acid) formation. Exanthema in trees.
concentration] (iii) Reclamation disease of cereals and legume
crops.

12. Zinc (i) Specific role in synthesis of Auxin (IAA) hormone in (i) Checked vegetative growth and shortening of
[Zn++ form] cell. internodes, leaf deformation.
(ii) Activator of carbonic anhydrase, alcohol (ii) Mottle leaf disease in fruit trees “Little leaf
dehydrogenase, peptidase. disease”.
(iii) In seed formation. (iii) Khaira disease of paddy’, Rosset disease in
walnut.
(iv) Inhibit seed formations, white bud disease
(maize).

13. Chlorine (i) Required for cell division in leaves and roots. (i) Bronze colour in leaves.
[Cl– (ii) Essential for photolysis of water. (ii) Chlorosis.
(Chloride ion)] (iii) Determine solute concentration and anion-cation (iii) Necrosis.
balance in cell. (iv) Reduce fruiting.
 268 BIOLOGY

Table : Deficiency symptoms and the mineral elements whose deficiency causes these symptoms are given below

S.No. Deficiency Symptoms Mineral elements whose deficiency causes

these symptoms
1. Chlorosis (loss of non-development of chlorophyll causing yellowing of leaves). N, K, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Mo
2. Stunted plant growth (retardation of growth resulting rosette appearance of the plant) N, K, Ca, S, Zn, B, Mo, Cl
3. Purple colouration of shoot axis/leaves N, P, Mg, S, Mo
4. Necrosis of leaves (localised death of leaf tissue) Ca, Mg, Cu, K
5. Premature fall of leaves/buds P, Mg, Cu
6. Inhibition of cell division N, K, S, Mo
7. Wrinkling of cereal grains, dormancy of lateral buds, and late flowering N, S, Mo
8. Die back of stem/leaves K, Cu
9. Wilted leaves Cl
10. Death of root and shoot tips B
11. Bushy habit of shoot, Scorched leaf tips K
12. Interveinal chlorosis Fe
13. Whiptail disease of leaves Mo

Toxicity of Micronutrients Root H+ K+

yy Any mineral ion concentration that reduces the dry weight Clay
micelle
of tissues by 10% is considered to be toxic.
yy Toxicity of one element may lead to deficiency of other K+ H+
elements since the former may inhibit the uptake of latter. (a)
yy For example; Mn competes with Fe, Mg for uptake and
also inhibits Ca translocation to shoot apex. Therefore, H 2O
Mn toxicity symptoms are actually same as deficiency
CO2
symptoms of Fe, Mg, and Ca. Root
H+HCO–3

Clay
MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION OF ELEMENTS K+ micelle

yy Soil is the main sources of mineral salts. These mineral salts K+HCO 3
–

are mainly absorbed by the (Sub-terminal) meristematic (b)

region of the roots.
yy There are two methods of absorption of mineral salts: Fig. Diagrammatic representation of
Passive and active. (a) The contact – exchange theory
(b) The carbonic acid exchange theory
Passive Absorption of Minerals
4. By Donnan equilibrium: This theory explains the passive
accumulation of ions against the concentration gradient
(Without expenditure of ATP)
or electrochemical potential (ECP) without ATP. At the
1. By simple diffusion: According to this method mineral inner side of cell membrane which separates from outside
ions may diffuse in root cells from the soil solution. (external medium), there are some anions which are fixed
2. By mass flow: According to this method mineral ions or non- diffusible and membrane is impermeable to these
absorption occurs with flow of water under the influence anions, while cations are diffusible.
of transpiration.
3. By ion exchange: This involves exchange of mineral ions Active Ion Absorption: (By Expenditure of ATPs)
with the ions of same charge. yy Evidences in favour of active mineral absorption are:
(i) By contact exchange: When the mineral ion exchange 1. Rate of respiration of plant is increased when plant
with the H+ and OH– ions. transferred into mineral solution.
(ii) Carbonic acid exchange: When the mineral ion 2. Factors like deficiency of oxygen, CO, CN, which inhibit
exchange with the ions of carbonic acid. rate of respiration, also inhibits the absorption of mineral
ions in plants.
 Mineral Nutrition 269

3. Absorption of K+ ions in Nitella algae is observed probably due to competition for binding sites on the carrier.
against the concentration gradient. However, the uptake of K+ and Br– becomes possible in
yy Cytochrome pump theory: [By Lundegardh Burstorm, presence of Ca++ ions. There is mutual competition in the
(1933)] - According to this theory, only anions are absorbed absorption of K, Rb and Cs ions.
by active mechanism through cytochrome pumping and yy Growth: A proper growth causes increase in surface area,
absorption of cation is passive process. number of cells and in the number of binding sites for the
yy Carrier concept: (By Vanden honert)-According to this mineral ion. As a result, mineral absorption is enhanced.
theory, some specific carrier molecules made up of proteins
are present in cell membrane of root cell which absorbs both TRANSLOCATION OF SOLUTES (MINERAL SALTS)
the ions and form ion-carrier complex. This complex is break
inside the cell membrane with expenditure of energy. yy By radio-isotopes, it has been proved that inorganic
Plasma Membrane
substances move up the plant through xylem. These
Out side
(Barrier)
In side substances move along with water by transpiration pull.
ADP yy The rate at which inorganic solutes are translocated through
Enzyme
Carrier
Carrier

Ion Respiration xylem corresponds to the rate of translocation of water. After

ATP
absorption of minerals by roots, ions are able to reach xylem
Activated
by two pathways apoplast and symplast pathway.
Enzymatic
Ion carrier
Soil as Reservoir of Essential Elements
activation of
carrier carrier
reaction
yy Soil provides anchorage, air, water and minerals to the
Carrier

Inactivated
carrier plants growing in it.
yy Majority of the nutrients that are essential for the growth
and development of plants become available to the roots
Enzyme

Ion
due to weathering and breakdown of rocks. These processes
Carrier
Carrier

Transport
across the enrich the soil with dissolved ions and inorganic salts. Since
membrane Ion they are derived from the rock minerals, their role in plant
Ion-carrier Enzyme nutrition is referred to as mineral nutrition.
complex mediated
release of ion yy Soil consists of a wide variety of substances. Soil not only
supplies minerals but also harbours nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
Fig : The ion-carrier hypothesis
Fig. The ion-carrier hypothesis other microbes.
yy Since deficiency of essential minerals affect the crop-
Factors Affecting Mineral Absorption yield, there is often a need for supplying them through
fertilizers.
yy The process of mineral absorption is influenced by the yy Both macro-nutrients (N, P, K, S, etc.) and micro-nutrients
following factors like temperature, light etc. (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, etc.) form components of fertilizers and
yy Temperature: The rate of absorption of salts and minerals are applied as per need.
is directly proportional to temperature.
yy The absorption of mineral ions is inhibited when the
temperature has reached its maximum limit, perhaps due
NITROGEN CYCLE
to denaturation of enzymes. yy Nitrogen cycle is a cyclic process that involves conversion
yy Light: When there is sufficient light, more photosynthesis of elemental nitrogen of atmosphere into simple molecules
occurs. As a result more food energy becomes available and that enter living beings forming complex molecules. Then
salt uptake increases. these complex molecules are broken down to release
yy Oxygen: A deficiency of O2 always causes a corresponding nitrogen back into the atmosphere.
decrease in the rate of mineral absorption. It is probably due yy Earth’s atmosphere has about 78% of nitrogen gas. It forms
to unavailability of ATP. The increased oxygen tension helps essential constituents of all living organisms and is essential
in increased uptake of salts. for many biological processes. It is present in all amino acid,
yy pH: It affects the rate of mineral absorption by regulating the nucleic acid and vitamins.
availability of ions in the medium. At normal physiological yy Broadly, the nitrogen cycle in the biosphere involves five
pH monovalent ions are absorbed more rapidly whereas main steps: Atmospheric nitrogen → Nitrogen fixation →
alkaline pH favours the absorption of bivalent and trivalent Nitrogen assimilation →Ammonification → Nitrification
ions. → Denitrification
yy Interaction with other minerals: The absorption of one yy Plants cannot absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere. So, how
type of ions is affected by other type. The absorption of K+ is atmospheric nitrogen utilized by plants? It is through
is affected by Ca++, Mg++ and other polyvalent ions. It is nitrogen fixation.
 270 BIOLOGY

(i) Nitrogen fixation: It is the process of converting Amino acids give rise to proteins and nucleotides, which
atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms like nitrates. It is in turn produce nucleic acids.
of three types: Animals take organic nitrogen directly or indirectly from
(a) Biological nitrogen fixation: Certain bacteria and plants.
blue-green algae can fix atmospheric nitrogen directly (iii) Ammonification: It is the process of conversion of complex
into ammonia that combines with organic acids to form organic compounds like proteins into ammonia, in the
amino acids. presence of ammonifying bacteria or putrefying bacteria.
The nitrogen fixing bacteria can be: Part of the plant proteins are broken down into nitrogenous
♦♦ Free living, like Azotobacter and Clostridium. animal proteins. In animal body, the plant proteins are
♦♦ Symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium that occurs in consumed and are broken down into nitrogenous wastes like
the roots nodules of legume roots like peas and urea, and ammonia. Nitrogenous wastes are then excreted
beans. out which are acted upon by decomposing bacteria for
(b) Atmospheric nitrogen fixation: During lightening and decomposition.
thunder, the high temperature and pressure in the air Proteins → Amino acids → Organic acids + Ammonia
convert atmospheric nitrogen into oxides of nitrogen (iv) Nitrification: It is the process of conversion of ammonia
that can dissolve in water to produce nitric and nitrous into nitrites and nitrates. Nitrification is brought about by
acids. The nitrogen oxide then dissolve in rain water nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.
and pass down as nitrites and nitrates. The nitrifying bacteria are called chemoautotrophs.
(c) Industrial nitrogen fixation: In this, nitrogen is made Nitrosomonas oxidizes ammonia to nitrite.
to combine with hydrogen under high temperature and 2NH3 + 3O2 → 2NO2– + 2H+ + 2H2O
pressure to form ammonia. Ammonia is then converted Nitrobacter oxidizes nitrite further to nitrate.
to urea as urea is less toxic. 2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3– + Energy
(ii) Nitrogen assimilation: Nitrogen assimilation is carried Nitrates are now available for plant absorption and
out by plants. Plants cannot absorb nitrogen in its assimilation.
elemental form. It has to be first converted into nitrates (v) Denitrification: It is the process of conversion of nitrate
for the use of plants by the process of nitrogen fixation. salts present in the soil and water to gaseous nitrogen which
The atmospheric nitrogen after nitrogen fixation gets escapes into atmosphere. It takes place with the help of
converted into nitrates which are then absorbed by plants. bacteria called Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus present in
Nitrate first changes into ammonium state. Ammonium water logged soils. Denitrification reduces soil fertility.
ions combine with organic acids to form amino acids.

N2 in atmosphere

NH3

Nitrogen oxides Lighting

from transcription
and industry

NH3
NO 3–
Amino acid
synthesis

Urine Death
and Runoff
feces Europhication
Decay and sedimentation
bacteria

Nitorgen coding Destroying Nitrates Ammonia ammonium

bacteria in soil NH3 NO3–
bacteria and nitrate fertilize
and root nodules
NH4–

Nitrite Nitrite Nitrate Infection of

bacteria NO2– bacteria groundwave

Fig. Nitrogen cycle

 Mineral Nutrition 271

Biological Nitrogen Fixation ²² Constant supply of ATP to provide energy.

²² Mg2+ ions as co-factors
yy The process of reduction of nitrogen to ammonia by living
yy Rhizobium contains the enzyme nitrogenase –Mo-Fe
organisms is called biological nitrogen fixation.
protein- that helps in the conversion of atmospheric free
yy Certain prokaryotes (bacteria) are able to fix nitrogen because
nitrogen into ammonia.
the enzyme nitrogenase is present exclusively in them.
yy The reaction is as follows: N2 + 8e– +8H+ 16 ATP →2NH3
yy Nitrogen-fixing microbes can be classified as follows:
²² Free living: + H2 + 16 ADP + 16 Pi
♦♦ Aerobic (Azotobacter), yy The Rhizobium bacteria live as aerobes under free-living
♦♦ Anaerobic (Rhodospirillum), conditions, but require anaerobic conditions during nitrogen
♦♦ Cyanobacteria (Nostoc, Anabaena). fixation. This is because the enzyme nitrogenase is highly
²² Symbiotic: sensitive to molecular oxygen. The nodules contain leg-
♦♦ with leguminous plants (Rhizobium), haemoglobin, which protects nitrogenase from oxygen.
♦♦ with non-leguminousplants (Frankia).
yy Nitrogen fixing bacteria needs three biological components: Nodule Formation
²² A reducing agent to transfer hydrogen atom to dinitrogen yy Nodule formation involves a sequence of multiple interactions
(N ≡ N) between Rhizobium and roots of the host plant.
²² ATP to provide energy yy Rhizobia divide and colonize the surroundings of roots.
²² Enzyme system, Nitrogenase, Mo- Fe protein and These get attached to the epidermal and root hair cells.
²² Leghaemoglobin: Leghaemoglobin is a pink colour yy The root hairs get curled and get invaded by the bacteria.
pigment similar to haemoglobin of vertebrates and yy This invasion is followed by the formation of an infection
functions as an oxygen scavenger. It protects nitrogenase
thread that carries the bacteria to the cortical tissue of root.
from oxygen.
yy The bacteria then get modified into rod-shaped bacteroides.
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation As a result the cells in the cortex and pericycle undergo
division, leading to the formation of root nodules.
yy Best example of symbiotic nitrogen fixation is observed in yy Bacteria produce cytokinin and auxin which is produced
legume-Rhizobium bacteria. by the plant to stimulate cell division and enlarge to form
yy Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacteria present in the root nodules nodules.
of leguminous plants. The basic requirements for Rhizobium yy The nodules finally get connected with the vascular tissues
to carry out nitrogen fixations are as follows: of the roots for exchange of nutrients.
²² Presence of the enzyme nitrogenase
yy Formation of root nodules and nitrogen fixation occur under
²² Presence of leg-haemoglobin
the control of nod genes of legumes and nod, nif and fix
²² Non-haem iron protein, ferredoxin as the electron
genes of bacteria.
transport.

Soil Hook
particles

Root hair
Infection
Bacteria thread
containing
bacteria
Bacteria Inner cortex and Mature nodule
pericycle cells
under division
(a) (b) (d)
(c)
Fig. Development of root nodules in soyabean: (a) Rhizobium bacteria contact a susceptible root hair, divide near it
(b) Successful infection of the root hair causes it to curl, (c) Infected thread caries the bacteria to the inner cortex. The bacteria
get modified into rod-shaped bacteroids and cause inner cortical and pericycle cells lead to nodule formation. (d) A mature
nodule is complete with vascular tissues continuous with those of the root
yy The nodule contains an enzyme called nitrogenase. yy Leg-haemoglobin acts as oxygen scavenger and provides
yy Nitrogenase is a Mo-Fe protein and catalyses the conversion anaerobic condition to the bacteria inside the nodules;
of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. protect the enzyme nitrogenase from oxidation.
yy Nitrogenase is highly sensitive to molecular oxygen; it yy Ammonia synthesis by nitrogenase is energetically an
requires anaerobic condition. expensive process. 8 ATP is required for synthesizing each
yy Nodule contains a special protein called leg-haemoglobin. molecule of NH3.
 272 BIOLOGY

Substrate Product H
[Nitrogen gas (N2)] [ammonia (NH2)] H
N
N H H N
N H
Reduction H H
H H
N Reduction H N Reduction H N H N Release
N H N H N H N of products
H H
H
Enzyme Binding +2H +2H +2H
[Nitrogenase] of sustrate Free nitrogenase
can bind another
molecule of N2

Fig. Steps of conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia by nitrogenase enzyme complex found in nitrogen-fixing bacteria

Synthesis of Amino Acids (ii) Transamination

♦♦ It involves the transfer of amino group from one
yy Ammonia formed by nitrogen fixation is used for the amino acid to the keto group of a keto acid.
synthesis of amino acids. At physiological pH, the ammonia ♦♦ Glutamic acid is the main amino acid which transfers
is protonated to form NH4+. its amino group (NH2) to form 7 other amino acids
yy There are two processes by which amino acids are by the enzyme transaminase.
synthesized (iii) Amides
(i) Reductive amination ♦♦ By the replacement of OH– of the amino acid by
♦♦ NH4+ reacts with - ketoglutaric acid and forms NH2 radical.
glutamic acid. ♦♦ Asparagine and glutamine are amines formed from
♦♦ It is catalysed by glutamate dehydrogenase aspartic acid and glutamic acid in the presence
enzyme. of enzyme asparagine synthetase and glutamine
synthetase.
284 BIOLOGY

Chapter
Photosynthesis in
13 Higher Plants
yy All living organisms require energy to carry out their HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
different life activities. This energy directly or indirectly
comes from the sun. Before seventeenth century it was considered that plants take their
yy The green plants are unique in respect that they synthesize food from the soil.
food in the presence of sunlight from simple substances like yy Van Helmont (1648) concluded that “all food of the plant
carbon dioxide and water. is derived from water and not from soil”.
yy Photosynthesis is the only process of biological importance yy Stephen Hales (1727) reported that plants obtain a part
that can harvest this energy. of their nutrition from air and light may also play a role in
yy Energy stored as chemical energy in food (carbohydrates, this process.
fats and proteins) by photosynthesis is released in living yy In 1772, Joseph Priestly, carried out some interesting
cells during the process of respiration and is utilized to experiments. He took a half filled pot of water and placed
generate heat or converted into energy rich compounds a burning candle in its center and covered it with a bell-
(e.g., ATP and NADP). jar. After sometime candle was extinguished. Priestly
yy Photosynthesis is a biochemical process (anabolic and kept a living mouse under the jar and noted that it died
endergonic) in which organic compounds (carbohydrates) immediately. Later he placed a mouse and a potted mint
are synthesised from the inorganic raw material (H2O and plant under the bell-jar and found that the mouse survived
CO2) in presence of light and pigments. O2 is evolved as for a long time. He also found that if a mint plant was kept
a by product. under a bell-jar for a long time and then a burning candle
Chlorophyll was placed under the jar it continued to burn for a long time.
6CO2 + 12H2O C 6H12 O6+ 6O2 + 6H2O On the basis of these experiments he concluded that “plants
Light
Oxidation/Light reaction have the capacity to purify foul air”.
yy Jan Ingen-Housz (1779) concluded by his experiment that
Reduction/Dark reaction purification of air was done by green parts of plant only and
that too in the presence of sunlight.
yy 90% of total photosynthesis is carried out by aquatic yy Jean Senebier (1782) proved that plants absorb CO 2
plants. and release O2 in presence of light. He also showed that
yy First true and oxygenic photosynthesis started in the rate of O2 evolution depends upon the rate of CO2
cyanobacteria (Blue - green algae). consumption.
yy In the Cuscuta (parasitic) and fungi (achlorophyllous) yy Nicolus de Saussure (1804) showed the importance of
photosynthesis is absent. water in the process of photosynthesis. He further showed
yy Euglena is photosynthetic organism and is link between that the amount of CO2 absorbed is equal to the amount of
animals and plants. Though they are photosynthetic in O2 released.
the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight they yy Julius Robert Mayer (1845) proposed that light has radiant
behave like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller energy and this radiant energy is converted to chemical
organisms. energy by plants, which serves to maintain life of the plants
yy Roots of Tinospora and Trapa are assimilatory or and also animals.
photosynthetic. yy Julius Von Sachs (1862) demonstrated that first visible
product of photosynthesis is starch. He also showed that
 Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 285

chlorophyll is confined to the chloroplasts. Thus he led the

foundation of modern concept of photosynthesis.
yy An interesting experiment done by T.W. Engelmann A leaf
Cuticle
(1843 – 1909) by using a prism it splits light into its spectral Upper epidermis Vascular bundle
components and then illuminated a green alga, Cladophora,
placed in a suspension of aerobic bacteria. The bacteria were
used to detect the sites of O2 evolution.

Mesophyll cells
yy He observed that the bacteria accumulated mainly in the
region of blue and red light of the split spectrum. A first
action spectrum of photosynthesis was thus described. It
resembles roughly the absorption spectra of chlorophyll
a and b.
yy In 1930, C.B. van Niel proved the discovery of Nicolas de
Saussure wrong. He showed that sulphur bacteria use H2S Lower epidermis Substomatal Xylem
Phloem Guard
Cuticle
cavity
(in place of water) and CO2 to synthesize carbohydrates Outer
membrane
Thylakoid Inner cell Nucleus
membrane
as follows :
Vacuole
6CO2 + 12H2S C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 12S
This led van Niel to the postulation that in green plants, Chloroplasts
water (H2O) is utilized in place of H2S and O2 is evolved Stroma Stroma
in place of sulphur (S). lamellae

6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2. Fig. The functional organization of a leaf
yy The discovery of van Niel confirmed by Ruben and Kamen
Photosynthetic Pigments
in 1941 using Chlorella, a green alga. He used water (H2O),
having heavy isotope of oxygen (O18), oxygen of 18 atomic yy Pigments are the organic molecules that absorb light of
weight (normal oxygen is of 16 atomic weight) and found specific wavelengths in the visible region due to presence
that oxygen released in the process of photosynthesis was of conjugated double bonds in their structures.
of O18 type (i.e., heavy oxygen). On the contrary when yy Many pigments present in photosynthetic cells. PSU
CO218 was used, the released oxygen was of normal type, (Photosynthetic units) presents on thylakoid membranes,
i.e., O216 . From this it can be concluded that, oxygen are made up of 230-400 molecules of various pigments,
released by green plants comes from splitting of water called Quantasomes, by Park and Biggins.
(oxidation of water). yy Chlorophylls are tetrapyrrolic magnesium (Mg) porphyrin
compounds.
yy Huber, Michel and Deisenhofer (1985) crystallised the
yy Chlorophyll molecule has a Mg-porphyrin head and
photosynthetic reaction center from the purple photosynthetic
alcoholic phytol tail. Head is hydrophilic and phytol tail is
bacterium, Rhodopseudomonas viridis. They analysed its
hydrophobic in nature.
structure by X-ray diffraction technique. In 1988 they were yy Chlorophyll-a – C55H72O5N4Mg (CH3 group at IIIrd C of
awarded Nobel prize in chemistry for this work. IInd pyrrole ring)
yy Chlorophyll b – C55H70O6N4Mg (CHO group at IIIrd C
of IInd pyrrole)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS yy Chlorophyll c – C 55 H 32 O 5 N 4 Mg, Chlorophyll
yy In higher plants photosynthesis occurs particularly in d – C54H70O6N4Mg, Carotenes – C40H56 and Xanthophylls
specialized cells called mesophyll cells of leaves. These – C40H56O2.
cells contain chloroplast, which is the actual sites for yy Chl-a and carotenes are universal pigment, which are found
in all O2 liberating cells.
photosynthesis. It fixes CO2 into carbohydrates.
yy Chlorophylls are soluble only in organic solvents like
yy Chloroplasts are double membrane bound organelle. The
ketones, ethers etc.
space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is
yy Stroma lamellae/stroma thylakoids lack PS II and enzyme
called the stroma.
NADP reductase .
yy A number of organised flattened membranous sacs (called yy By paper chromatography/chromatogram, different
the thylakoids) are present in the stroma. Thylakoids are pigment colours are appear –
arranged in stacks like the piles of coins called grana. ²² Chlorophyll a - blue-green.
yy The thylakoids in the chloroplast contain most of the ²² Chlorophyll b - yellow green.
machinery for the photochemical reaction of photosynthesis. ²² Xanthophyll - yellow
They contain pigments for capturing solar energy. ²² Carotenoids - yellow to yellow - orange
 286 BIOLOGY

yy Carotenoids absorb light energy and transfer it to Chl

(measured by O2 release)
a and thus act as accessory pigments. They protect the

Rate of photosynthesis
chlorophyll molecules from photo-oxidation by picking up
nascent oxygen and converting it into harmless molecular
stage. Carotenoids can be classified into two groups namely
carotenes and xanthophyll.
(i) Carotenes: They are orange red in colour and have
general formula C40H56. They are isolated from carrot.
They are found in all groups of plants i.e., from algae
to angiosperms. Some of the common carotenes are α, Fig. Graph showing action spectrum of photosynthesis
β, γ and δ carotene; phytotene, lycopene, neurosporene yy Absorption spectrum is studied with the help of
etc. The lycopene is a red pigment found in ripe tomato Spectrophotometer. The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll
and red pepper fruits. The β-carotene on hydrolysis a and chlorophyll b indicate that these pigments mainly
gives vitamin A, hence the carotenes are also called absorb blue and red lights, (430 nm and 662 nm for
provitamin A. β-carotene is black yellow pigment of chlorophyll a, 455 nm and 644 nm for chlorophyll b). Action
carrot roots. spectrum shows that maximum photosynthesis takes place in
blue and red regions of spectrum. The first action spectrum
(ii) Xanthophylls: They are yellow coloured carotenoid
of photosynthesis was studied by T.W. Engelmann (1882)
also called xanthols or carotenols. They contain oxygen
using green alga Spirogyra and oxygen seeking bacteria.
also along with carbon and hydrogen and have general
formula C40H56O2.
– Lutein (C40H56O2) a widely distributed xantho- MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
phyll which is responsible for yellow colour in au-
tumn foliage. Fucoxanthin (C40H56O6) is another yy Photosynthesis is an oxidation reduction process in which
important xanthophyll present in Phaeophyceae water is oxidised to release O2 and CO2 is reduced to form
(brown algae). starch and sugars.
yy Phycobilins: These pigments are mainly found in blue-green yy Scientists have shown that photosynthesis is completed in
algae (Cyanobacteria) and red algae. These pigments have two phases –
open tetrapyrrolic in structure and do not bear magnesium (1) Light phase or Photochemical reactions or Light
and phytol chain. dependent reactions or Hill’s reactions: During this
yy Blue-green algae have more quantity of phycocyanin and stage energy from sunlight is absorbed and converted
red algae have more phycoerythrin. Phycocyanin and to chemical energy which is stored in ATP and NADPH
phycoerythrin together form phycobilins. These water soluble + H+.
pigments are thought to be associated with small granules (2) Dark phase or Chemical dark reactions or Light
attached with lamellae. Like carotenoids, phycobilins are independent reactions or Blackman reaction or
accessory pigments i.e., they absorb light and transfer it to Biosynthetic phase: During this stage carbohydrates
chlorophyll a. are synthesized from carbon dioxide using the energy
Absorption and Action Spectra stored in the ATP and NADPH formed in the light
dependent reactions.
yy The curve representing the light absorbed at each wavelength
by pigment is called absorption spectrum. Curve showing S. Light reaction Dark reaction
rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light is No.
called action spectrum. 1. It is a light dependent It does not require light.
process.
Absorbance of light by

Chlorophyll b
chloroplast pigments

2. Involves photosystems - I No photosystem is required.

and II.
Carotenoids 3. Photolysis of water takes Photolysis of water does not take
place and O2 is liberated. place and CO2 is absorbed.
Chlorophyll a
4. Occurs within the grana of Occurs within the stroma of the
the chloroplast. chloroplast.
5. ATP and NADPH produced Glucose is produced and Reduced
and they are used to drive the NADP is oxidized.
Fig. Graph showing the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll
dark reaction.
a and b
 Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 287

Light phase or photochemical reactions or light dependent ²² Emerson et al. (1957) further observed that
reactions or Hill’s reactions. photosynthetic efficiency of light of 680nm or longer
yy Light reaction occurs in grana fraction of chloroplast is increased if light of shorter wavelengths (Less than
and in this reaction are included those activities, which 680nm) is supplied simultaneously. When both short
are dependent on light. Assimilatory powers (ATP and and long wavelengths were given together the quantum-
NADPH2) are mainly produced in this light reaction. yield of photosynthesis was greater than the total effect
yy Robin Hill (1939) first of all showed that if chloroplasts when both the wavelengths were given separately. This
extracted from leaves of Stellaria media and Lamium album increase in photosynthetic efficiency (or quantum yield)
are suspended in a test tube containing suitable electron is known as Emerson effect or Emerson enhancement
acceptors, e.g., Potassium ferroxalate (Some plants require effect.
only this chemical) and potassium ferricyanide, oxygen is Quantum yield in combined beam − Quantum
released due to photochemical splitting of water. Under these yield in red beam
conditions, no CO2 was consumed and no carbohydrate E=
Quantum yield in far red beam
was produced, but light-driven reduction of the electron
acceptors was accompained, by O2 evolution.
Pigment Systems
3+ 2+ +
4Fe + 2H 2 O ←
→ 4Fe + 4H + O 2 ↑ yy The pigments are organised into two discrete photochemical
Electron Electron Reduced
acceptor donor Product light harvesting complexes (LHC) within the Photosystem
I (PS I) and Photosystem II (PS II).
yy The splitting of water during photosynthesis is called yy These pigments help to make photosynthesis more efficient
photolysis. This reaction on the name of its discoverer is by absorbing different wavelengths of light. The single
known as Hill reaction. chlorophyll a molecule forms the reaction centre. The
Hill Reaction Proves that reaction centre is different in both the photosystems. In
PS I the reaction centre chlorophyll a has an absorption
(1) In photosynthesis oxygen is released from water.
peak at 700 nm, hence is called P700, while in PS II it has
(2) Electrons for the reduction of CO2 are obtained from water
absorption maxima at 680 nm, and is called P680.
[i.e., a reduced substance (hydrogen donor) is produced
which later reduces CO2]. (i) Pigment system I or Photosystem I (PSI) : The im-
yy 2, 6 – dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) is the dye used portant pigments of this system are chlorophyll a 670,
by Hill for his famous Hill reaction. chlorophyll a 683, chlorophyll a 695, P700. Some physi-
yy It is a blue chemical compound used as a redox dye. This ologists also include carotenes and chlorophyll b in pig-
dye changes colour (if reduced, colourless) when exposed ment system I. Thus, this system absorbs both wave-
to light in a photosynthetic system. lengths shorter and longer than 680nm.
yy According to Arnon (1961), in this process light energy is (ii) Pigment system II or photosystem II (PSII) : The main
converted to chemical energy. This energy is stored in ATP pigments of this system are chlorophyll a 673, P680,
(this process of ATP formation in chloroplasts is known as chlorophyll b and phycobilins. This pigment system
photophosphorylation) and from electron acceptor NADP+, absorbs wavelengths shorter than 680nm only.
a substance found in all living beings NADPH is formed as Comparison of Photosystem I and Photosystem II.
hydrogen donor. Formation of hydrogen donor NADPH from
electron acceptor NADP+ is known as photoreduction or S. Photosystem I Photosystem II
production of reducing power NADPH. No.

Quantum Yield 1. PS I lies on the outer surface PS II lies on the inner surface of
of the thylakoids. the thylakoids.
(i) Rate or yield of photosynthesis is measured in terms of
2. In this system molecular As the result of photolysis of
quantum yield or O2 evolution, which may be defined as, oxygen is not evolved. water, molecular oxygen is
“Number of O2 molecules evolved per quantum of light evolved.
absorbed in photosynthesis.”
(ii) Quantum requirement in photosynthesis = 8, i.e., 8 quanta 3. Its reaction center is P700. Its reaction center is P680.
of light are required to evolve one molecule of O2. 4. NADPH is formed in this NADPH is not formed in this
(iii) Hence quantum yield = 1 / 8 = 0.125 (i.e., a fraction of 1) reaction. reaction.
as 12%. 5. I t p a r t i c i p a t e s b o t h i n It participates only in non-cyclic
²² Emerson effect and Red drop: R. Emerson and c y c l i c a n d n o n - c y c l i c photophos-phorylation.
C.M. Lewis (1943) observed that the quantum yield photophosphorylation.
of photosynthesis decreases towards the far red end of 6. It receives electrons from It receives electrons from
the spectrum (680nm or longer). Since this decrease in photosystem II. photolytic dissociation of water.
quantum yield is observed at the far region or beyond 7. It is not related with photolysis It is related with photolysis of
red region of spectrum is called red drop. of water. water.
 288 BIOLOGY

yy Antenna or accessory pigments receive radiant energy and P680*

transfer it among themselves. This transfer of energy is known e– e–
Fd e
–
P700* A0 A1 4Fe 4S
as resonance transfer. Then antenna gets molecules excited Pheoe–
and transfer their energy to the chlorophyll ‘a’ molecules of PQe –
FNR

reaction centre. It is known as inductive resonance. Finally ADP NADP +

chl. ‘a’ molecules converts the light energy into electrical e–
ATP Cyt b6- f
NADP.2H
complex Reaction
energy by bringing about electric charge separation. e–
center
Reaction Far-red
Red light center
Cylic Electron Transport System PC
e–
light
H2O
(I) Cyclic Photophosphorylation: P680 e– P700
yy In cyclic photophosphorylation, only PS-I (LHC-I) works. 1
2
O + 2H+
2

+ PHOTO SYSTEM II PHOTO SYSTEM I

H
NADP+ NADPH
e–
e– FNR – Fig. Non-cyclic Photo-phosphorylation
H+ e– e
Ferredoxin 4Fe - 4S
yy The e– ejected from PS-II never goes back to chla-680
If no NADP+ e–
available
(reaction centre) and finally gained by NADP. During this
ATP A0 A1 process oxygen is evolved due to photolysis of water and
P700*
formation of NADPH2 and ATP occurs.
e– yy Each turn of non-cyclic ETS produces 1 ATP and
ADP
2NADPH 2 (4 molecules of H 2 O is photolysed and
Cyt bf
-6 1 molecule of O2 released).
complex e– yy Primary e – acceptor in non-cyclic reaction is PQ or
Light plastoquinone. Recently pheophytin (structure like
e– chla without Mg) is considered as first e– acceptor in
Stroma (outside) Z-scheme.
yy Plastocyanin (Cu-containing pigment) is link between PS-I
e– e – P700 Thylakoid and PS-II in non-cyclic ETS.
PC
PS I membrane yy Final e– acceptor in Z-scheme is NADP+ (Hill reagent).
Lumen (inside) yy During non-cyclic ETS energy flow takes place from PS
H+ II to PS I.
yy Non-cyclic photophosphorylation or Z-scheme is inhibited
by 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1, 1-dimethyluresa (CMU) and
Fig. Cyclic Photo-phosphorylation
3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1 dimethylurea (DCMU).
yy Cyclic ETS or PS-I is activated by wavelength of light
Table
greater than 680 nm.
yy It occurs at grana thylakoids and stroma thylakoids. S. Cyclic Non-cyclic
yy During cyclic ETS the electron ejected from reaction centre No. photophosphorylation photophosphorylation
of PS-I, returns back to its reaction centre.
yy In cyclic ETS, no oxygen evolution occurs, because 1. It involves photosystem I. It involves both PS I and PS II.
photolysis of water is absent. 2. It is not connected with It is connected with photolysis of
yy Phosphorylation takes place at two places, thus two ATP photolysis of water, so no water and liberation of oxygen.
generate in each cyclic ETS. oxygen is evolved.
yy NADPH 2 (reducing power) is not formed in cyclic 3. Electrons move in a closed Electrons do not move in a closed
process. circle. Electron expelled circle. Electrons expelled by the
yy Plastocyanin (PC) is Cu-containing blue protein in cyclic from P700 return to it after reaction centre P680 does not
ETS. passing through different returned it, Here water donate the
yy According to modern researches, first e – acceptor is electron acceptors. electrons to P680.
FRS (Ferredoxin Reducing Substance), which is a Fe-S 4. In each flow of electrons, In each flow of electron, 1
containing protein. Earlier fd (Ferredoxin) was considered 2 molecules of ATP are molecule of ATP is synthesized.
as first e– acceptor.) synthesized.

(II) Z-Scheme/Non-Cyclic Electron Transport System/Non 5. NADPH is not produced. NADPH is produced.
Cyclic Photophosphorylation: 6. I t i s n o t i n h i b i t e d b y It is inhibited by DCMU.
DCMU.
yy Both PS-I and PS-II is involved in non-cyclic ETS.
yy It occurs at grana thylakoids only.
 Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 289

CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS Dark phase or Chemical dark reactions or Light

independent reactions or Blackman reaction or Bio-
yy Chemiosmotic hypothesis has been put forward by Mitchell synthetic phase.
(1961) to explain the mechanism of ATP synthesis. yy The pathway by which all photosynthetic eukaryotic
yy When electrons are transported through the electron
organisms ultimately incorporate CO2 into carbohydrate
transport system (ETS), the protons accumulate inside the
is known as carbon fixation or photosynthetic carbon
thylakoid membranes.
reduction (PCR) cycle or dark reactions.
yy Lumen of thylakoid becomes enriched with H+ ion due to
yy The dark reactions are sensitive to temperature changes,
photolytic splitting of water.
but are independent of light hence it is called dark reaction,
yy Primary acceptor of electron is located on the outer side of
however it depends upon the products of light reaction of
thylakoid membrane. It transfers its electron to an H-carrier.
photosynthesis, i.e., NADP .2H and ATP.
The carrier removes a proton from matrix while transporting
yy The carbon dioxide fixation takes place in the stroma of
electron to the inner side of the membrane. The proton is
chloroplasts because it has enzymes essential for fixation of
released into the lumen while the electron passes to next
carrier. CO2 and synthesis of sugar.
yy NADP reductase is situated on the outerside of thylakoid (i) Calvin cycle/C3-cycle
membrane. It obtains electron from PSI and protons from
yy Calvin and Benson discovered the path of carbon in this
matrix to reduce NADP+ to NADP + H+ state.
process. First stable compound of Calvin cycle is 3C-PGA
yy The proton gradient is broken down due to movement of
(Phosphoglyceric acid), thus Calvin cycle is called as C3-
protons through transmembrane channels, F0 of ATPase.
cycle.
ATPase enzyme has two parts – F0 and F1 particles.
yy It was studied by Calvin on Chlorella and Scenedesmus
yy The rest of the membrane is impermeable to H+.
(These are microscopic unicellular algae and can be easily
yy F0 provides facilitated diffusion to H + or protons. As
maintained in laboratory). During his experiment he used
protons move to the outer side of ATP, they bring about
chromatography and radioactive tracer (C14) techniques for
conformational changes in F1 particle of ATPase or
detecting reactions of C3-cycle.
coupling factor. The transient F1 particle of ATPase enzyme
form ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. yy RuBisCO (Ribulose bis-phosphate carboxylase oxygenase)
yy One molecule of ATP is formed when 2H+ pass through is main enzyme in C3-cycle, which is present in stroma and
ATPase. it makes 16% protein of chloroplast. RuBisCO is the most
abundant enzyme on earth.
yy CO2-acceptor in C3 cycle is Ribulose 1,5- diphosphate
(RuBp). This carboxylation reaction is catalysed by
RuBisCO.
yy Atriplex hastata and A. patula are temperate species, which
are C3-plants.
yy 6 turns of Calvin cycle are required for the formation of
one glucose.
yy In this cycle, for formation of one mole of hexose sugar
(glucose), 18 ATP and 12 NADPH2 are used.

Fig. ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis

 290 BIOLOGY

Fig. Calvin cycle

• Calvin cycle is divided into three distinct phases: Carboxylation, Aldolase

1mol.of PGAL + 1mol.of DHAP →
Glycolytic reversal and regeneration of RuBP. (9C) (9C)
RuBisCO
1. 6mol.of RuBp + 6mol.of CO 2 (HCO3− ) → 1 mol.of Fructose1,6 Biphosphate
+ 6H 2 O [ Carboxyldismutase ] (18C)
Isomerase
6C unstable comp.  → 12 mol.of 3 − [1 mol. fructose 
→ [C6H12O6] Glucose
phosphoglyceric acid(PGA)
→ Sucrose/Starch]
Glycolytic Reversal:
Regeneration of Ribulose 1, 5 biphosphate:
Triokinase
2. 12 mol.of 3-PGA + 12ATP  → 12, mol.of 1, Tr ansketolase
3 − bisphosphoglycericacid(1,3BiPGA) 5. 2mol.of Fructose-6-P + 2mol.of PGAL 
 →
(12C) (6C)
Dehydrogenase
3. 12 mol. of 1, 3-BiPGA 2mol.of Erythrose-4-P +2mol.of Xylulose-5-P
(8C) (10C)

12NADPH2 +
12NADP Aldolase
6. 2mol.of Erythrose–4 –P+2mol.of DHAP  →
12 mol. of 3–phosphoglyceraldehyde (3-PGAL) (8C) (6C)
(Triose phosphate) + 12H3PO4 2mol.of Sedoheptulose1,7-BiP
yy Out of these 12 molecules, 2 molecules go to synthesize (14C)
sugar, starch and other carbohydrates and the remaining
10 molecules are recycled to regenerate 6 molecules of 2mol.of Sedoheptulose-P + 2mol.of PGAL →
Transketolase
Ribulose-5-phosphate after a series of complex reactions. 7.
(14C) (6C)
4. Out of 2 molecules of PGAL one mol is converted to its isomer
3-hydroxy acetone phosphate. 2mol.of Xylulose–5–P+2mol.of Ribose–5–P
(14C) (10C)
 Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 291

Epimerase
2 × 2 mol.of Xylusose-P 
→ 4 mol.of Ribulose-5P yy There are various features of kranz anatomy which are as
8. given below :
(20C)
(i) Green bundle sheath cells (BS cells) present around the
Isomerase
9. 2 mol.of Ribose-5P 
→ 2 mol.of Ribulose-5P vascular bundles called the bundle sheath cells.
(10C)
(ii) Dimorphic chloroplasts present in leaf cells. Chloroplast
Kinase
10. 6mol.of Ribulose-5P + 6ATP  of bundle sheath cells or Kranz cells are larger and without
→
grana. Mesophyll chloroplast are small and with grana.
6mol.Ribulose-1,5-BiP(CO 2 acceptor) + 6 ADP
Upper
epidermis
C4 cycle (Hatch and Slack Pathway)
yy Kortschak and Hartt first observed that 4C-compound Mesophyll
OAA (Oxalo Acetic Acid) is formed during dark reaction cells
in sugarcane leaves. Chloroplasts
yy Hatch and Slack (1967) studied in detail and proposed
pathway for dark reactions in sugarcane and maize leaves. Xylem Vascular
yy First stable product of this reaction is OAA, which is 4C Phloem bundle
compound, a dicarboxylic substance, thus Hatch and Slack Cells of bundle
pathway is called as C4 cycle or dicarboxylic acid cycle sheath with special
types of chloroplast
(DCA) cycle.
Atmospheric CO2

Plasma
Mesophyll membrane
cell Cell wall
Phosphoenol Lower epidermis Stomata
–
HCO3 pyruvate
(PEP)

Fixation Regeneration Fig. Cross section of leaf showing “Kranz” type of anatomy

C4 acid C3 acid yy In the C4-Plant, C3-cycle occurs in bundle sheath cells, while
Plasmodesmata
C4-cycle occurs in mesophylls cells.
yy Operation of Hatch and Slack pathway require cooperation
of both photosynthetic cells i.e. mesophyll cells and bundle
Bundle
sheath Transport Transport sheath cells.
cell yy Photosynthetically C4 plants are more efficient as there is no
Fixation by
Warburg effect or photorespiration in C4-plants, because at
C4 acid Calvin cycle
the site of RuBisCO (BS cells), less O2 is present (mesophyll
CO2 cells pumps more CO2 for C3 cycle).
Decarboxylation C3 acid yy C4-plants are found in tropical habitats and have adapted
themselves with high temperature, low water availability and
intense light. So, they are more developed and adapted than
C3 plants. They do not create any loss to photorespiration.
yy If concentration of O 2 increases artificially, then
Fig. Diagrammatic representation of the Hatch and Slack photorespiration may be started in C4 plants.
Pathway yy First carboxylation in C 4-cycle occurs by PEPcase in
yy C4-cycle occurs in 1500 species of 19 families of angiosperm, mesophyll chloroplast, while second carboxylation or final
but most of the plants are monocots, which belong to CO2 fixation by C3 cycle occurs in bundle sheath cells.
Graminae and Cyperaceae (sugarcane, maize, sorghum, oat, PEPcase is an enzyme in the carboxylase responsible for the
chloris, sedges, bajra, Panicum, Alloteropsis etc.) formation of the 4-C compound oxaloacetate by catalyzing
yy Dicots with C4-cycle are Euphorbia spp., Amaranthus, the binding of one molecule of CO2 to the 3 C compound
Chenopodium, Boerhavia, Atriplex rosea, Portulaca, posphoenolpyruvate.
Tribulus. yy CO2 acceptor in C4 mesophyll cell is Phosphoenol pyruvate
yy Kranz (Wreath) Anatomy - Present in leaves of C4 (PEP), 3C-compound, while RuBp in bundle sheath cells.
plants. yy 12 NADPH2 (= 36 ATP) + 30 ATP = 66 ATP needed for
production of 1 hexose (Glucose) in C4-plants.
 292 BIOLOGY

yy Pyruvate phosphate dikinase (PPDK) (convert ATP into (iii) C4 plants posses low CO2 compensation points. (8-10 ppm)
AMP) is a temperature sensitive enzyme of C4 and CAM (iv) The productivity (fertility) does not increase in C4 plants, when
plants due to this C4 plants better photosynthesizes at high
CO2 concentration increases because-
temperature.
Special Features of C4 Plants (a) Mesophyll cells provide more CO2 for Calvin cycle.
(i) C 4 plants are more efficient plants at present CO 2 (b) The concentration of CO2 around the site of RuBisCO
concentration. is higher in C 4 plants, thus little or no chance of
(ii) Present level of atmospheric CO2 is generally not limiting photorespiration.
factor for C4 plants.

Comparison of C3 plants and C4 plants

S. No. C3 Plants C4 Plants

1. CO2 fixation one time. CO2 fixation occurs two times, one in mesophyll cells to form oxaloacetic acid
and another in bundle sheath cells to form 3-phosphoglyceric acid.
2. RuBP (5-C compound) is CO2 acceptor. It is a weak PEP in mesophyll cells and RuBP in bundle sheath cells function as CO2
CO2 acceptor. acceptor. PEP is a very strong CO2 acceptor as compared to RuBP.

3. First product of CO2 fixation is PGA (3-C compound). It is oxaloacetic acid (4-C compound) in mesophyll
cells and PGA in bundle sheath cells.
4. Leaf anatomy not Kranz type. Only one type of Kranz type of leaf anatomy. The mesophyll is undifferentiated and its
chloroplasts are found. cells occur in concentric layers around vascular bundles. C4 plants possess
dimorphic chloroplasts.
5. Enzymes of Calvin cycle are found in all green cells. Enzymes of Calvin cycle are absent in mesophyll cells while present in bundle
sheath cells.
6. Photorespiration is found, oxygen functions as a inhibitor Photorespiration is absent, no inhibitory effect of O2.
of photosynthesis.
7. CO2 compensation point 50 - 100 ppm. CO2 compensation point 10 ppm or less.
8. Glucose synthesis in Mesophylls. In bundle sheath.
9. C3 plants require 18 ATP for the synthesis of one mol C4 plants require 30 ATP, thus more energy expensive.
of glucose.
10. Very common in dicots and monocots both. Only in some monocots, very rare in dicots.

CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) Plants yy Formation of malic acid during dark is called -acidification
or phase-I. Release of CO2 for actual photosynthesis during
yy This dark CO2 fixation pathway proposed by Ting (1971). day is called deacidification or phase-II.
yy It operates in succulent or fleshy plants e.g. Kalanchoe, yy Malic acid is stored in the vacuoles during the night which
Crassula, Sedum, Opuntia, Aloe, Agave, Euphorbia sps., is decarboxylated to release CO2 during the day.
Bryophyllums, Pineapple, Welwitschia (gymnosperm) etc.
yy Primary acceptor of CO2 is PEP (Phosphoenol pyruvate) Night Day
and oxaloacetic acid is the first product of carboxylation Carbohydrates Carbohydrates
reaction.
open

open

yy In CAM plants stomata are of scotoactive (active during Phosphoenol

night) type, so initial CO2 fixation is found in night but CO2
pyruvic acid
light reactions operates at day time. Final CO2 fixation (C3 (PEP)
Calvin
Stomata

RuDP
cycle) occurs in day time. PEPcase induces carboxylation
Stomata

PGA
Oxaloacetic acid Pyruvic acid
reaction in night. (OAA CO2
yy PEP carboxylase and RuBisCO are present in mesophyll NADPH+H+ NADPH+
cells. (No Kranz-anatomy) NADP+ NADP
yy In CAM plants 30 ATP and 12 NADPH2 are required for 1 Malic acid Malic acid
glucose synthesis.

Fig. Mechanism of CAM calvin cycle

 Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 293

CO2 Compensation Point yy It is assumed that in C3 plants, if photorespiration does

yy In photosynthesis, CO2 is utilized in presence of light to not occur, it will increases O 2 conc. which oxidises
release O2 whereas in respiration, O2 is taken and CO2 is (Photooxidation) the different protoplasmic parts of
released. If light factor is saturating, there will be certain CO2 photosynthetic cell at high light intensity.
concentration at which rate of photosynthesis is just equal yy Photorespiration is enhanced by bright light, high temperature,
to rate of respiration or photosynthesis just compensates high oxygen and low CO2 concentration.
respiration or apparent photosynthesis is nil. It is called CO2
compensation point. FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
yy CO2 compensation point is very low in C4 plants, i.e, 0 to 5
There are several external and internal factors which affects the
ppm whereas high CO2 compensation point is found in C3
rate of photosynthesis.
plants, i.e., 25 to 100 ppm”.

Photorespiration/ C2 Cycle/Glycolate Pathway External Factors

1. Light:
yy First of all Krotkov indicated that more CO2 evolves during
day time in C3 plants. (a) Light Quality or Wavelength: Maximum photosynthe-
yy Decker and Tio discovered photorespiration and clarified sis takes place in red light than in blue light. But rate
that C2-cycle or glycolate pathway operates during day of photosynthesis is highest in white light. Minimum in
time in C3-plants and RuBisCO acts as oxygenase at higher green light.
concentration of O2 and low CO2 concentration in the C3
(b) Light Intensity: Rate of photosynthesis is greater in
- green cells.
intense light than diffused light. But at higher light
yy The light dependent uptake of O2 and release of CO2 in C3
photosynthetic cell is called photo-respiration. intensity photooxidation (solarization) occurs and
yy Photorespiration is not linked with ATP generation (in place photosynthetic apparatus may get destroyed.
ATP are consumed) as ordinary dark respiration, thus it is • P/R (Photosynthesis: Respiration) Ratio at mid
harmful or wasteful process linked with C3 cycle. day is 10: 1; but can reach upto 20: 1 ratio. At the
time of evening & morning rate of photosynthesis
H 2O
CHLOROPLAST equals to respiration, this situation is called as light
CO2 compensation point.
• Plants which are adapted to grow in high intensity
Calvin RuBP Phosphoglyceric
cycle It carboxylase acid (1 mol) of light is called heliophytes and plants which are
enzyme present
Phosphoglyceric
adapted to grow in shade is called sciophytes.
O2
acid (PGA) (1 mol) 2. Temperature: Optimum temperature for photosynthesis is
Phosphoglycolic 20-35°C. At high temperature rate of photosynthesis decreases
acid (1 mol)
due to denaturation of enzymes.
PEROXISOME 3. CO2: An increase in CO2 concentration upto 1% (0.03% to 1%)
Glycolic acid rate of photosynthesis is increased. Higher CO2 concentration
Glycolic acid oxidase
and catalase
is toxic to plant and also closes stomata.
H 2O2
Catalase
enzyme H2O+ 12 O2 4. O2: High O2 concentration reduces photosynthesis due to
photorespiration.
Glycolic acid
• Warburg effect: Inhibitory effect of high concentration
Glycine (2 mols) of O2 on photosynthesis is called as Warburg effect (It is
due to photorespiration).
MITOCHONDRION 5. Water: Less availability of water reduces the rate of
photosynthesis (stomata get closed).
Glycine (2 mols)
CO2 Released 6. Inhibitors: DCMU (Diuron/Dichlorophenyl dimethyl Urea),
Heat
Serine + NH3 Released CMU (Monuron), PAN, Atrazine, Simazine, Bromacil, inhibit
the photosynthesis by blocking PS-II. They stop electron flow
between P-680 and PQ.
PGA Carbohydrates ²² In cyclic ETS diquat, paraquat (Viologen dyes) inhibit
(In peroxysomes (In chloropiasts) electron flow between P-700 and Fd.
and chloropiasts) ²² All these chemicals are used as herbicides, which mostly
block electron transport system (ETS).
Fig. Photorespiration in plants
 294 BIOLOGY

7. Minerals: Magnesium and nitrogen are essential for structure yy Cyclic-photophosphorylation is an important method in
of chlorophyll and enzymes. Thus reduction in N2 and Mg bacterial photosynthesis. Because PS-II is absent here,
supply to plants effects adversely the rate of photosynthesis. therefore Z-scheme absent in bacteria.
²² RuBisCO alone accounts for more than half of total leaf yy Absorption of infra red spectrum takes place during
bacterial photosynthesis thus no red drop occurs in bacterial
nitrogen. Generally all essential element affect the rate
photosynthesis.
of photosynthesis.
yy Pigment system of bacteria is denoted by - P-890 or 870.
Internal Factors yy Only one ATP is produced in each turn of cyclic
photophosphorylation in bacteria.
1. Chlorophyll: The amount of CO2 in grams absorbed by 1 gm. yy Chemosynthesis:
of chlorophyll in 1 hour is called as photosynthetic number or The process of carbohydrate formation in which organisms
assimilatory number. use chemical reactions to obtain energy from inorganic
compounds is called chemosynthesis. Such chemoauto-
2. Product of photosynthesis: Rate of photosynthesis decreases, trophic bacteria do not require light and synthesizes all
when sugar accumulates in mesophyll cells. organic cell requirements from CO2 and H2O and salts
3. Leaf: Various leaf factors like leaf age and leaf orientation at the expense of oxidation of inorganic substances like
effect the rate of photosynthesis. In young and mature leaves (H 2 , NO 3 – , SO 4 2– or carbonate). Some examples of
chemosynthesis are : e.g., Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter,
photosynthesis is more than old (senescent) leaves.
Beggiatoa, Thiothrix, Ferrobacillus, Bacillus pentotrophus,
²² Law of minimum (Liebig): According to it, when a
Carboxydomonas etc.
process is governed by a number of separate factors, then
the rate of process is controlled by that factor present in Significance of Photosynthesis
minimum amount.
²² Law of limiting factors (Blackman): It is the yy Photosynthesis is vital process for life on planet earth as it is
modification of Law of minimum by Liebig. “When the only process, that links the physical and biological world
a process is conditioned to its rapidity by a number of by conversion of solar energy into organic matter, which
factors, then rate of process is limited by the pace of the make bulk of the dry matter of any organism.
slowest factor (CO2, light, chlorophyll, water, temp). yy Presence of O2 in the atmosphere is also an outcome of
photosynthesis. This oxygen is helpful to living organisms
Bacterial Photosynthesis in two ways:
(i) Oxidative breakdown of organic food matter (respira-
yy Certain bacteria are capable for photosynthesis. Eg:
tion).
Chlorobium (Green Sulphur), Chromatium (Purple Sulphur),
Rhodospirilium, Rhodopseudomonas (Purple non sulphur). (ii) Making ozone (O3), in outer layer of atmosphere, which
helps in stopping the highly destructive UV rays.
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIG HER PLANTS

Light Phase Dark Phase

It is a light dependent reaction which It is light independent reaction, does

Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

involves PSI and PSII and occurs in not evolves photosystem and occurs
grand of chloroplast in stroma of chloroplast

C3 or Calvin C4 or Di-Carboxylic
Transfer of Emerson and Electron Transport Cycle acid Cycle
Two Pigments
energy Red drop System It occurs in 3-stages Ist carboxylation
carboxylation, occurs in mesophyll
Due to the dispersal According to It was given by Hill
reduction and cells of chloroplast
of photon of light emmerson effect 8
regeneration of and 2nd occurs by C3
the electrons gets quanta energy are
RUBP cycle in bunder-sheet
excited to passing required to evolve
from lower energy one molecule of O2, cells
level to higher decrease in quantum
energy level and Photolysis of water Photophosphorylation
observed beyond
energy in absorbed red region of
by chlorophyl Protons are used to It involves in
spectrum
reduce NADP to formation of ATP
NADPH and O2 is
liberated

Photosystem-I Photosystem-II Cyclic Non-Cyclic

It absorbs wavelength It absorbs wavelength This process found This process is found
P > 00 and lies both in < 680 and lies in in bacteria, involves in green plants,
grava and stroma grava thyllakoids only PS-I and ATP involves both PS-I
thyllakoids formed in two and PS-II and ATP is
steps. formed in one step.
295
 Chapter
Respiration in
14 Plants
yy Various cellular activities in living organisms like absorption, DO PLANTS BREATHE?
transport, muscle-contraction, locomotion, nerve-impulse
conduction, reproduction, growth, development, seed yy Plants require O2 for respiration to occur and they also
germination or breathing require energy. give out CO2. Hence, plants have systems in place that
yy All the energy required for ‘life’ processes in all ensure the availability of O2. Plants, unlike animals, have
living organisms comes from the oxidation of organic no specialized organs for gaseous exchange but they have
molecules. stomata and lenticels for this purpose.
yy Only green plants and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) can yy Plant get along without respiratory organ because each
prepare their own food by the process of photosynthesis. plant part take care of its own gas exchange. There is little
In green plants, only cells containing chloroplast carry out transport of gases from one part to another.
photosynthesis. Even in green plants all other organs, tissues
yy Roots, stems and leaves respire at rates far lower than
and cells that are non-green, need food for oxidation.
animals do. Only during photosynthesis, large volumes of
yy Animals obtain their food from plants directly (herbivores)
or indirectly (carnivores). Saprophytes like fungi are gases exchanged and, each leaf is well adapted to take care
dependent on dead and decaying matter for obtaining of its own needs during these periods.
energy.
TYPES OF RESPIRATION
yy Cellular respiration is an enzyme controlled process of
biological oxidation of food materials in a living cell, using yy On the basis of the availability of oxygen and the complete
molecular O2, producing CO2 and H2O and releasing energy or incomplete oxidation of respiratory substrate, it is of
in gradual steps and storing it in biologically useful forms, two types:
generally ATP.
(A) Aerobic respiration: When there is use of O2 is
yy So respiration is catabolic, exothermic and oxidative
process. utilized during the process of respiration called aerobic
enzymes
respiration. In this process there is complete oxidation
C6 H12 O6 + 6O 2 → 6CO2 + 6H 2O + energy of food and entire carbon released as CO2 and large
glucose oxygen carbon −dioxide water (ATP)
amount of energy is released.
yy Most of the respiration processes occurs in mitochondria.
C6 H12O 6 + 6O 2 + 6H2 O 
Enzyme in
→
yy Respiratory substrates are compounds that oxidised cyto. & mito.
during the process of respiration. Usually carbohydrates are 6CO 2 + 12H2O + 686 Kcal energy
oxidised to release energy but proteins, fat and even organic
acids can be used as respiratory substances in some plants, (B) Anaerobic respiration: When there is no utilisation
of O2 during respiration then food substances
under certain conditions.
incompletely oxidized and produce alcohol or organic
yy Energy trapped in ATP is utilised in various energy requiring
acids and most of energy lost in form of heat.
processes of the organisms, and the carbon compounds
produced during respiration is used as precursors for Enzyme in
biosynthesis of other molecules in the cell. C6 H12O 6 
→ 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 21 Kcal
cytoplsam
 310 BIOLOGY

yy Organisms can be grouped into following four classes on Differences between Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration
the basis of their respiratory habit-
(1) Obligate aerobes: These organisms can respire only S. Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
No.
in the presence of oxygen. Thus oxygen is essential
1. It takes place in It does not require oxygen.
for their survival (e.g., bacterium Bacillus subtilis).
presence of oxygen.
(2) Facultative anaerobes: Such organisms usually
2. It always releases It may or may not release carbon
respire aerobically (i.e., in the presence of oxygen) but
carbon dioxide. dioxide.
under certain conditions may also respire anaerobically
3. It provides much It provides less energy (just 2 ATP
(e.g., Yeast, parasites of the alimentary canal). more energy (38 ATP molecule).
(3) Obligate anaerobes: These organisms normally molecules).
respire anaerobically. Such organisms are infact killed 4. It occurs both in It takes place in the cytoplasm,
in the presence of substantial amounts of oxygen (e.g., cytoplasm (glycolysis) certain tissues and cells of higher
Clostridium botulinum and C. tetani). & in the mitochondria animals.
(4) Facultative aerobes: These are primarily anaerobic (Kreb’s cycle &
electron transport
organisms but under certain conditions may also chain).
respire aerobically (e.g., yeast).
5. Examples - In most Examples – In anaerobic bacteria,
plants and animals. yeasts, muscles and parasitic worms
like, Ascaris, Fasciola, Taenia and
germinating seeds.

Glycolysis followed by Glycolysis followed by

Fig. Types and Mechanism of cellular respiration

GLYCOLYSIS breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid is called glycolysis.

yy The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav Embden,
yy All living organisms retain the enzymatic machinery to Otto Meyerhof and J. Parnas, and is often referred to as
partially oxidise glucose without the help of oxygen. This the EMP pathway.
 Respiration in Plants 311

yy In anaerobic organisms, it is the only process in (i) Direct/substrate phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.
respiration. (ii) Another ATP is synthesized during the conversion of
yy Glycolysis involves a series of ten bio-chemical reactions PEP to pyruvic acid.
in cytoplasm. yy During aerobic respiration (when oxygen is available)
yy In plants, glucose is derived from sucrose, which is the end each NADH2 forms 3 ATP and H2O through electron
product of photosynthesis, or from storage carbohydrates. transport system of mitochondria. In this way during aerobic
respiration there is additional gain of 6 ATP in glycolysis
Sucrose is converted into glucose and fructose by the
enzyme, invertase, and these two monosaccharides readily 2ATP + 6ATP → 8ATP
enter the glycolytic pathway. (netgain) (additional gain) (total net gain)

yy In glycolysis, neither consumption of oxygen nor liberation

yy Glycolysis is also known as oxidative anabolism or
of CO2 take place. catabolic resynthesis, because it links with anabolism of fats
yy In glycolysis, 1 glucose, produces 2 molecules of pyruvic and amino acids. An intermediate phosphoglyceraldehyde
acid (3C). (PGAL) is used for the synthesis of glycerol later forms fats
yy In glycolysis, four molecules of ATP are formed by two or lipids. PGA is used for synthesis of amino acids like serine,
ways: glycine, cystine. Alanine forms from pyruvate.
Bio-chemical Reactions of Glycolysis
Hexokinase
1. 1 mol. of Glucose Mg
++
1 mol. of Glucose -6-Phosphate
ATP ADP
Phosphohexose isomerase
2. 1 mol. of Glucose-6-phosphate 1 mol. of Fructose-6-phosphate

Phosphofructokinase
3. 1 mol. of Fructose -6-phosphate Mg
++ 1 mol. of Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate
ATP ADP
1 mol. of 3-Phosphoglyceraldehyde

Aldolase Phosphotriose
4. 1 mol. of Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate Isomerase

1 mol. of Dihydroxy acetone phosphate

Non-enzymatic reaction
5. 1 mol. of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde 2 mol. of 1, 3-diphosphoglyceraldehyde
H3PO 4
Dehydrogenase
6. 2 mol. of 1, 3-bisphosphoglyceraldehyde 2 mol. of 1, 3-bisphosphogclyceric acid
2 NAD 2NADH2 [Iodoacetate inhibits this reaction]

Transphosphorylase

7. 2 mol. of 1, 3-bisphosphoglyceric acid Kinase 2 mol. of 3-phosphoglyceric acid

2ADP+ip 2ATP
8. 2 mol. of 3-Phosphoglyceric acid Phosphoglycerate mutase 2 mol. of 2-phosphoglyceric acid

H2O
Enolase
9. 2 mol. of 2-Phosphoglyceric acid 2+ 2 mol. of phosphoenolpyruvate
Mg
Pyruvate Kinase
10.
+
2 mol. of Phosphoenolpyruvate K 2 mol. of Pyruvic acid
2+
Mg
2 ADP 2 ATP
 312 BIOLOGY

yy Phosphofructokinase is an allosteric enzyme. The CH3COCOOH +NADH 2 →

Lactatedehydrogenase
phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate is the most Pyruvic acid
2+
FMN, Zn
important regulation reaction of glycolysis. CH 3CHOHCOOH +NAD
yy Phosphofructokinase has multiple allosteric modulator. It’s Lactic acid
activity is inhibited by ATP (–ve modulator) and stimulated (3) Acetic acid fermentation: This is aerobic fermentation.
by ADP & AMP (+ve modulator). Acetobacter
C2 H5 OH + O 2 → CH3COOH + H 2 O
yy The end product of glycolysis are 2 molecules of pyruvic
Ethanol Acetic acid
acid, NADH + H+ , H2O and ATPs.
(4) Butyric acid fermentation:
yy Further oxidation of pyruvic acid and NADH 2 after
glycolysis in mitochondria requires oxygen. It helps in the processing of rancid butter and jute fibres.
Clostridium
yy Pyruvic acid is the key product of glycolysis. The metabolic C6 H12 O6 + O 2 → C4 H8 O 2 + 2CO 2 + 2H 2
butyricum
fate of pyruvate depends on the cellular need. Hexose Butyric acid
yy Further fate of pyruvic acid is depend upon the availability
of O2 and one of the below given three routes is followed AEROBIC RESPIRATION
(i) Lactic acid fermentation
(ii) Aerobic respiration yy The final product of glycolysis, pyruvate is transported from
(iii) Alcholic fermentation. the cytoplasm into the mitochondria. The crucial events in
aerobic respiration are:
²² The complete oxidation of pyruvate by the stepwise
FERMENTATION removal of all the hydrogen atoms, leaving three
molecules of CO2.
yy Fermentation is the incomplete oxidation of glucose under ²² The passing on of the electrons removed as part of the
anaerobic conditions, where pyruvic acid is converted to hydrogen atoms to molecular O2 with simultaneous
CO2 and ethanol. synthesis of ATP.
yy In micro-organisms the term anaerobic respiration is yy Acetyl Co-A is formed in perimitochondrial space by
replaced by fermentation which is known after the name enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex comprises of
of its major products, e.g. alcohol fermentation, lactic acid (Mg++, LA (Lipoic Acid), TPP (Thiamine pyrophosphate),
fermentation. NAD, CoA)
yy The enzymes, pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol 2 mol. of Pyruvic acid + 2 Co-A
dehydrogenase catalyse fermentation reactions. Other Pyruvate dehy. complex
organisms like some bacteria produce lactic acid from
pyruvic acid. Mg LA, TPP
++

yy In animal cells also, like muscles during exercise, when 2NAD 2NADH2
oxygen is inadequate for cellular respiration pyruvic acid 2 Acetyl Co-A + 2CO2
is reduced to lactic acid by lactate dehydrogenase. yy Acetyl Co-A is a connecting link between glycolysis
yy The reducing agent is NADH+H+ which is reoxidized to & Krebs-cycle. Decarboxylation and dehydrogenation
NAD+ in alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation. (Oxidative decarboxylation) take place during formation
Different Types of Fermentation are of acetyl Co-A.
(1) Alcoholic fermentation:
Krebs Cycle/TCA (Tricarboxylic Acid) Cycle/Citric
yy Buchner discovered the enzyme zymase complex, which
is responsible for alcoholic fermentation. Acid Cycle
yy This is the oldest & the best known type of fermentation
yy Krebs cycle is also called the citric acid cycle after one of
performed by yeast & some bacteria.
the participating compounds.
Zymase
C6 H12 O6 
→ 2C2 H5 OH + 2CO 2 + Energy yy All the enzymes, reactants, intermediates and products of
Yeast
TCA cycle are found in the matrix, except the succinate
Decarboxylase
Glucose 2 Pyruvic acid 2 Acetaldehyde + dehydrogenase (mitochondrial marker enzyme) which is
Dehydrogenase located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
e–
2NADH2 yy The synthesis of GTP by the conversion of succinyl–CoA to
succinic acid is a substrate level phosphorylation.
2NAD + yy 3NADH2, 1FADH2 and 1GTP (ATP) produced by each turn
2CO2 2C2 H5O H of TCA cycle.
(2) Lactic acid fermentation: It occurs in lactic acid bacteria yy One mole of acetyl CoA gives 12 ATP during oxidation
(Lactobacillus) and in muscles during exercise (Human). through Krebs cycle.
Pyruvic acid produced in glycolysis is reduced by NADH2 to
form lactic acid without producing carbon dioxide.
Respiration in Plants 313

Fat Proteins

β-Oxidation
Pyruvic acid Alanine Amino acids
Pyruvic
NAD
dehydrogenase
2 Acetyl CoA NADH2
1/2 O2
Glycine
H2O CO2
Aceto acetyl CoA CoA

Acetyl CoA (2C) H2O

Citrate synthase
CoA.SH
Aspartic acid

Citric acid (6C)

Oxalo acetic acid (4C)
NADH2 Malic Fe
++
dehydrogenase Aconitase H2O
NAD
H2O ←½ O2
Malic acid (4C) Cis-aconitic acid (6C)
HO
2
H2O
Fumarase Aconitase ++
Fe
3
3
Fumaric acid (4C) Isocitric acid (6C)
H2O ←½ O2 2 ATP
Succinic
POOL 3 1/2 O2→H2O
FADH2
dehydrogenase 1
FAD 3
NAD
Succinic acid (4C) NADH2
Isocitric
dehydrogenase ++
CoA.SH Mn
Succinic
ATP GTP
thiokinase
ADP GDP
H3PO4
Oxalo succinic acid (6C)
Succinyl CoA (4C)
α - Ketoglutaric
Mg2+ dehydrogenase Decarboxylase
CO2
NADH2
+ ++ CO2
NAD Mn
H2O ← 1/2O2 -Ketoglutaric acid (5C)

Glutamic acid

Fig. Diagramatic representation of oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid and different chemical reactions in
Krebs’ cycle starting from Acetyl CoA
 314 BIOLOGY

Bio-chemical Reactions in Krebs Cycle The GTP formed in reaction 7, reacts with ADP to form ATP
AcetylCoA + OAA(Oxaloaceticacid)+ H2O and GDP, as GTP and ATP have approximate same energy.
1.(2C) (4C)
Citrate
→ Citric acid+ CoA. SH Succinic acid Succinic dehydrogenase
Synthase 8. (4C)
H2O FAD FADH 2
Aconitase
2. Citric acid Cis-aconiticacid Fumaric acid (4C)
++ (6C)
Fe
Isocitric
3. Isocitrate + NAD+ →
dehydrogenase Fumaricacid
Fumarase
Malicacid
Oxalosuccinic acid+ NADH 9.
(4C) (4C)
(6C) HO
2
Aconitase Fumarase

4. Cis-aconitic acid + H2O 
Fe++
Isocitric acid 10. Malic acid
Malicacid
(4C)
H2O
Mn ++
5. Oxalosuccinic acid →
decarboxylase
Oxaloacetic acid (Aceptor of Acetyl CoA)
α-Ketoglutarate + CO2 (4C)
(5C) yy The summary equation for this phase of respiration may be
written as follows:
dehydrogenase complex Pyruvic acid + 4NAD + FAD + 2H O + ADP + Pi
+ +

α-Ketoglutaric acid
2

6. (5C) ++ Mitochondrial matrix

→ 3CO2 + 4NADH + 4H +
+
Mg, LA, TPP
NAD CoA.SH NADH2 FADH2 + ATP
Succinyl CoA + CO2
yy Because of the decomposition of one molecule of glucose,
Thiokinase 2 molecules of Acetyl CoA are formed. So, due to
SuccinylCoA
decomposition of 1 molecule of glucose, the cycle runs two
7. (4C)
times.
GDP + H3PO 4 GTP
(or H2O + Pi) Total energy production in TCA cycle.
Succinic acid + CoA.SH
6 NAD.2H (NAD.2H → 3ATP) 18 ATP
(Energy of thioester bond is released, which used in formation
2 GTP (GTP → 1ATP ) 2 ATP
of GTP)
2 FAD.H2(FAD.H2 → 2ATP) 4 ATP
(GTP + ADP  → GDP + ATP)
24 ATP
Differences between Glycolysis and Kreb’s Cycle

S. No. Glycolysis Krebs’ cycle

1. It takes place in the cytoplasm. It takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.
2. It occurs in aerobic as well as anaerobic respiration. It occurs in aerobic respiration only.
3. It is a linear pathway. It is a cyclic pathway.
4. It oxidizes glucose partly, producing pyruvate. It completely oxidises acetyl coenzyme A.
5. It consumes 2 ATP molecules. It does not consume ATP.
6. It generates 2 ATP molecules from 1 glucose molecule. It generates 2 GTP/ATP molecules from 2 succinyl coenzyme A molecules
7. It yields 2 NADH per glucose molecule. It yields 6 NADH molecules and 2 FADH2 molecules from 2 acetyl coenzyme
A molecules.
8. It does not produce CO2. It produces CO2.
9. All enzyme catalysing glycolytic reactions are dissolved Enzymes of Krebs cycle reactions are located both in the inner mitochondrial
in cytosol. membrane and in the matrix.

Electron Transport System (ETS) and Oxidative yy The system consists of series of precisely arranged nine
Phosphorylation electron carriers (coenzyme) in the inner membrane of the
mitochondrion. These nine electron-carriers function in a
yy The metabolic pathway through which the electrons specific sequence Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD),
passes from one carrier to another, is called the electron Flavin mononucleotide (FMN), Flavin adenine dinucleotide
transport system and it is present in the inner mitochondrial (FAD), Co-enzyme-Q or ubiquinone, Cytochrome-b,
membrane.
 Respiration in Plants 315

Cytochrome-c 1 , Cytochrome-c, Cytochrome-a and yy The reduced ubiquinone, called ubiquinol, is then oxidized
Cytochrome-a3. by transfer of electrons to cytochrome c, cytochrome bc1 –
yy The ETC is comprised of four complexes and two mobile complex (complex III).
carriers i.e. coenzyme Q, a non protein part of the chain yy Cytochrome c acts as a mobile carrier between complex
yy Complex I: Consists of flavoproteins of NADH III and complex IV.
dehydrogenase (FPN). yy Complex IV refers to cytochrome c oxidase complex
yy Complex II: Consists of flavoproteins of succinic containing cytochromes a and a3 and two copper centres.
dehydrogenase. yy When the electrons are pass from one carrier to another
yy Between complexes II and III is the mobile carrier-coenzyme carrier via complex I to IV in the electron transport chain,
Q (CoQ) or ubiquinone (UQ). they are coupled to ATP synthase (complex V) for the
yy Complexes III: Consists of cytochrome b and cytochrome formation of ATP from ADP and iP.
c1. Associated with cytochrome b is non-haeme iron of yy Oxygen functions as the terminal acceptor of electrons and
complex III (Fe NHR). is reduced to water along with the hydrogen atoms. It drives
yy Complex IV: Consists of cytochrome a and cytochrome a3 whole process by removing hydrogen from system.
and bound copper that are required for this complex reaction yy In respiration, energy of oxidation-reduction utilized for the
to occur. production of proton gradient.
yy The electrons either follow the pathway of complexes I, III yy Higher proton concentration in the outer chamber causes
and IV or II, III and IV. the protons to pass inwardly into matrix or inner chamber
yy Electrons from NADH produced in the mitochondrial through the inner membrane.
matrix during citric acid cycle are oxidized by an NADH yy The energy of the proton gradient is used in attaching a
dehydrogenase (complex I), and electrons are then transferred phosphate radicle to ADP by high energy bond. So the
to ubiquinone located within the inner membrane. process is called as oxidative phosphorylation.
yy Ubiquinone also receives reducing equivalents via FADH2 yy Oxidation of one molecule of NADH2 produces 3 ATP
generated during the oxidation of succinate by succinate molecules while a similar oxidation of FADH2 forms 2 ATP
dehydrogenase (complex II). molecules.

Fig. Mitochondrial electron transport system (ETS)

• ATP synthase (complex V) helps in ATP synthesis. It consists complex that forms channel through which protons cross the
two major components F1 and F0. F1 (head piece) is a inner membrane. For each ATP produced, 2H+ passes through
peripheral membrane protein complex and contains the site F0 from the intermembrane space to the matrix down the
for ATP synthesis while F0 is an integral membrane protein electrochemical proton gradient.
 316 BIOLOGY

of glycolysis must enter inside the mitochondrion to

release energy. But the inner mitochondrial membrane is
impermeable to NADH2.
yy In mitochondrial membrane, there are 2 shuttle-systems, each
formed of carrier-molecule. These shuttle system are - malate
aspartate system and glycerol phosphate shuttle system.
yy Malate-Aspartate shuttle: When this electron shuttle
operate, transfer of electrons take place from NADPH2 (in
cytoplasm) to NAD inside the mitochondria. This is more
efficient and result in production of 38 ATP molecules.
yy Glycerol-Phosphate shuttle: In this shuttle, electrons are
transferred from NADH2 (in cytoplasm) to FAD (inside
mitochondria). It results in production of 36 ATP molecules.
It is less efficient and results in the reduction of FAD inside
the mitochondrion.

Glyoxylate Cycle
Fig. ATP synthesis by F0 – F1 particle
yy Discovered by Kornberg and Krebs, during germination
of fatty seeds.
Stages ATP produce Formation of ATP produce yy This cycle converts fats into sugars so it is an example of
by substrate NADH / FADH through ETS gluconeogenesis in plants.
phospho- in Mito-
yy Glyoxylate cycle occurs in glyoxysome, cytosol and
rylation chondria
mitochondria.
Glycolysis in 2 2NADH (one 2×3=6
cytoplasm NADH on The Respiratory Balance Sheet
oxidation)
through ETS yy The calculations of net gain of ATP , for every glucose
form 3 or 2 ATP molecule oxidized, is made on certain assumptions that are
depending upon as follows:
shuttle system ²² There is a sequential, orderly pathway functioning, with
Formation of – 2 NADH 2×3=6 one substrate forming the next with glycolysis, TCA
Acetyl ~ CoA cycle and ETS pathway following one after another.
in matrix of ²² The NADH synthesized in glycolysis is transferred
mitochondria into the mitochondria and undergoes oxidative
Krebs cycle 2 2 FADH2 2×2=4 phosphorylation.
6 NADH 6 × 3 = 18 ²² Hence, there can be net gain of 36 ATP molecules during
aerobic respiration of one molecule of glucose.
4 34 (or 32)
Total net gain of ATP = 36 or 38 depending upon type of aerobic Differences between Aerobic Respiration and Fermentation
respiration.
S. Aerobic Respiration Fermentation
No.
Respiratory Chain Inhibitors 1. A complete oxidation of Incomplete oxidation of glucose
yy Rotenone: It checks flow of electrons from NADH / FADH2 organic substances in the is achieved under anaerobic
to CoQ. presence of oxygen, and conditions where pyruvic acid is
releases CO 2 , H 2 O and a converted into CO2 and ethanol
yy Antimycin A: Transfer of electron from Cyt b to Cyt c1 is
large amount of energy (in and some bacteria produce lactic
prevented. the form of ATP). acid from pyruvic acid.
yy Cyanide: It prevent flow of electrons from Cyt a 3 to
2. There can be a net gain of There is net gain of only two
oxygen.
36 ATP molecules during molecules of ATP for each
yy Dinitrophenol (2, 4-DNP): It prevents synthesis of ATP from aerobic respiration of one molecule of glucose degraded to
ADP because it directs electrons from coQ to Q2. molecule of glucose. pyruvic acid.
3. Oxidation of NADH to Oxidation of NADH to NAD+ is
Role of Shuttle System in Energy Production
NAD+ is vigorous. quite slow.
yy Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm outside the mitochondrion 4. Molecular oxygen is the The final electron acceptors are
in which 2NADH2 molecules are produced but ETC is ultimate electron acceptor for organic compounds.
located along inner mitochondrial membrane, so NADH2 biological oxidation.
 Respiration in Plants 317

Amphibolic Pathway yy Many amino-acids (α-ketoglutarate etc.) and fatty acids

precursors are formed, so it is also a anabolic process.
yy Respiration involves breakdown of organic compound
yy As it constitutes both catabolic and anabolic process, it is
(glucose, pyruvate, acetyl co-A), so it has been considered
known as amphibolic process.
as a catabolic process.

Fig. Inter-relationship among metabolic pathways showing respiration mediated breakdown of different organic
molecules to CO2 and H2O

RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (R.Q.) RQ =

CO 2 4
= = 1.33 (more then unity)
O2 3
yy The ratio of the volume of CO2 released to the volume of O2
Oxalic acid, R.Q. = 4
taken in respiration is called Respiratory Quotient (R.Q.)
Volume of CO2 evolved Citric acid, R.Q. = 1.3
yy R.Q. = 4. Incomplete oxidation of carbohydrates (in the
Volume of O2 absorbed
yy Value of R.Q. depends upon the nature of respiratory substrate respiration of succulents i.e., Bryophyllum, Opuntia
used, amount of CO2 present in respiratory substrate, extent 2C6 H12 O6 + 3O 2  → 3C4 H 6 O5 + 3H 2 O;
to which substrate is broken down, inter-conversion of one RQ =
CO 2 0
= =0
substrate, into another in the cell. O2 3
It is measured by Ganong’s respirometer. 5. Protein: R.Q. = 0.8 or 0.9 or < 1
1. Carbohydrates: 6. Respiration in the absence of O 2 (anaerobic
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O → 6CO2 + 12H2O + E respiration)
CO 2 6 Zymase
RQ = = = 1 (Unity) C6 H12 O6  → 2C2 H5 OH + 2CO 2 ;
O2 6 CO 2 2
RQ = = =∞
2. Fat/Oil: O2 0
2C51H98O6 + 145O2 → 102 CO2 + 98 H2O + E
RQ =
CO 2 102
= = 0.7 (less then unity)
Factors Affecting the Rate of Respiration
O2 145 1. Temperature
3. Organic acids: ²² Optimum temperature for respiration is between
C4 H 6 O5 + 3O 2 → 4CO 2 + 3H 2 O + Energy 20-35°C. Maximum temperature is around 45°C.
Malic acid
 318 BIOLOGY

²² At low temperature respiration is low due to inactivation Structure of ATP

of enzymes (Refrigerator preserve the food) while at very NH2
high temperature enzyme get denatured. Temperature N
N

Coefficient Q10 = 2 to 2.5 for respiration. High energy bonds Adenine

2. Oxygen O O O
N N

²² The inhibition of anaerobic respiration by increase || || ||

HO — P ~ O — P ~ O — P — O — CH2
concentration of O2 is called as Pasteur’s effect. | | | O
3. CO2: If CO2 concentration increases, then rate of respiration OH OH OH
decreases in plants because stomata get closed. H H
H Ribose
4. Salts: If a plant is transferred from water to salt solution, Inorganic phosphate H
it’s respiration increases, this is known as salt respiration. OH OH
Because absorption of ions requires metabolic energy. hydrolysis
5. Hormones: Adenosine triphosphate  →
IAA, GA and cytokinin increase the respiration rate. Adenosine diphosphate(ADP) + Pi + 7.3Kcal.....
hydrolysis
²² The rapid increase in rate of respiration during ripening Adenosine diphosphate  →
of fruits and senescence of leaves and plant organs is Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) + Pi + 7.3Kcal.
called as yy Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate/
²² “Climacteric respiration”. This rate is decrease Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADP/NAD): It is
after sometime. It is due to production of ethylene called universal hydrogen acceptor, produced during aerobic
hormone. respiration (glycolysis+ Krebs cycle) and also in anaerobic
6. Light respiration, work as coenzyme in ATP generation via electron
Rate of respiration increases with increase in light transport system. NADP have one additional phosphate.
intensity. Light controls the stomatal opening and influence yy NAD plays a crucial role in dehydrogenation processes.
temperature and also produce respiratory substrates. Some dehydrogenases do not work with NAD, but react
7. Injury, disease & wounds: with NADP (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate).
The respiration increases due to injury, wounding and Nicotinamide is a vitamin of B group.
infection. yy First NAD and NADP both functions as hydrogen
acceptors. Later H ions and electrons (e–) from these are
8. Age
transported through a chain of carriers and after being
Rate of respiration is more in young cells. Rate of respiration
released at the end of a chain react with O2 and form H2O.
at meristem apex is high.
During the release of 2 electrons from 2H+ atoms from
NAD2H and their reaction with O2 to form water, 3 ATP
molecules are synthesized from NAD or NADP.
 Chapter
Plant Growth and
15 Development
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Phases of Growth

yy The words “Growth” and “Development” are sometimes yy The period of growth is generally divided into three
used interchangeably, but they describe separate events phases:
²² Cell formation phase or Meristematic phase.
in the organisation of the mature plant body.
²² Cell elongation phase.
yy Growth is a characteristic of all living beings.
²² Cell maturation phase.
yy Growth is an irreversible and permanent process,
yy During cell formation phase, cells are characterised by thin
accomplished by an increase in size of an organ or its parts
cell wall with abundant plasmodesmatal connections, dense
or even of an individual cell. It is accompanied by metabolic
protoplasm, and large conspicuous nuclei and without or with
process that occurs at the expense of energy. very small vacuoles. Root apex and shoot apex represent the
yy Development, on the other hand involves all processes from meristematic phase of growth.
earlier to later stages in the life cycle of a plant i.e. from yy The cells proximal to that region are the phase of elongation.
zygote to a mature plant. During cell elongation phase, cell enlargement takes place.
yy Development is the sum of two processes: Growth and When cell enlarges, cellular molecules are deposited on
differentiation. the cell wall. This phase also results in appearance of large
yy During development, a complex body organization is vacuoles.
formed that produces roots, leaves, branches, flowers, fruits yy Further away from the zone of elongation is the phase of
and seeds and eventually they die. maturation. During cell maturation phase, secondary walls
are laid down and the cell matures and gets differentiated
Plant Growth into permanent tissue.
yy Growth can be determinate- when an organ or part or whole
organism reaches a certain size and then stops growing or Conditions of Growth
indeterminate- when cells continue to divide indefinitely. Water, oxygen and nutrients are very essential elements for
Plants in general have indeterminate growth. growth.
yy Plants retain the capacity of unlimited growth throughout (i) Water: Turgidity of cells helps in extension of growth.
their life. Water also provides the medium for enzymatic activities
yy This ability is due to the presence of meristems at certain needed for growth.
locations in their body. (ii) Oxygen: Oxygen helps in releasing metabolic energy
yy The cells of such meristems have capacity to divide and essential for growth activities.
self-perpetuate. (iii) Nutrients: Nutrients are required by plants for synthesis
yy The product eventually loses the capacity to divide and of protoplasm and act as source of energy.
differentiated.
²² Apical meristems are responsible for primary growth of Plant Growth Rate
the plants and principally contribute to the elongation
yy Plant Growth Rate refers to increase in growth per unit
of the plants along their axis.
time.
²² The lateral meristem, vascular cambium and cork
yy It is of two types:
cambium appears later and is responsible for the increase
in the girth.
 Plant Growth and Development 331

(a) Arithmetic growth: From dividing cell, two new Stationary

cells are formed (by mitotic division), out of them one phase
daughter cell continues to divide while other differentiate
and mature (stop dividing).
Ex. Root and Shoot elongation at constant rate.
It is mathematically expressed as Log

Growth
phase
Lt = L0 + rt
where Lt = length at time ‘t’ Lag
L0 = length at time ‘zero’ phase
r = growth rate/elongation per unit time.
On plotting the growth against time, a linear curve is
Time
obtained.
Fig. A typical S-shaped grand period of growth curve
yy Quantitative comparisons between growth of living system
can be done by following methods :
(i) Absolute growth rate: Measurement and the comparison
of total growth per unit time in plant or plant parts.
(ii) Relative growth rate: The growth of the given system
per unit time expressed on a common basis i.e. per unit
initial parameter in plant parts.
Relative growth rate is generally high in young
developing plant parts.

Differentiation, Dedifferentiation and Redifferentiation

(i) Differentiation: It is the process in which the cells derived
from the apical meristem (root and shoot apex) and the
cambium undergo structural changes in the cell wall and
the protoplasm, becoming mature to perform specific
functions. For example, differentiated tracheary element
Fig. Constant linear growth, a plot of length L against time t
cells lose their protoplasm, develop a very strong, elastic
(b) Geometric/Exponential Growth: From dividing cell lignocellulosic secondary cell walls.
(by mitotic division) both daughter cells retains the (ii) Dedifferentiation: It is the process in which, the living
ability to divide and continue to do so. differentiated cells that by now have lost the capacity
Ex: All cells, tissues, organs, developing seeds, to divide, regain their capacity to divide under certain
germinating seeds, seasonal activities etc. conditions.For example, development of interfascicular
It is mathematically represented as cambium and cork cambium from fully differentiated
W1 = W0ert
parenchymatous cells.
Where,
(iii) Redifferentiation: It is the process in which dedifferentiated
W1 = final size (Weight, height, number etc.)
W0 = initial size at the beginning of period. cells becomes mature again and lose their capacity to
r = growth rate, e = base of natural logarithms. divide.
t = time of growth Development
On plotting the growth against time, a typical sigmoid
or S-curve is obtained. yy It refers to the various changes occurring in an organism
It has 3 phases: during its life cycle- from the germination of seeds to
(i) Lag period phase: In lag period the growth is slow. senescence.
It represents formative or cell division phase. yy Plants exhibit plasticity in development. They follow
(ii) Log phase/Exponential phase: During this phase different pathways of development in response to
growth is maximum and most rapid. It represents environmental conditions.
cell elongation phase. E.g. Heteropylly in cotton and coriander. In these plants,
(iii) Steady State phase: It represents cell maturation
leaves have different shapes based on the phase of life cycle
phase.
as well as the habitat.
• Time taken in growth phases (mainly log phase) is yy Development can also be termed as growth plus
called as grand period of growth.
differentiation.
 332 BIOLOGY

yy Development is controlled by intrinsic as well as extrinsic yy Cousins discovered a gaseous PGR called ethylene
factors. from ripened orange.
²² Intrinsic factors: Genetic factor and plant growth
regulator.
²² Extrinsic factors: Light, temperature, water, oxygen, TYPES OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
etc.
1. Auxins
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS OR PHYTOHORMONES The term auxin is applied both naturally occurring compounds and
yy Plant growth regulators are the chemical molecules secreted synthetic compounds. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and Indole butyric
by plants affecting the physiological attributes of a plant.
acid (IBA) have been isolated from plants. IAA is the principal
yy There are five main plant growth regulators: Auxin,
Gibberellic acid, Cytokinins, Ethylene, Abscisic acid naturally occurring auxin of all higher plants and fungi.
yy Discovery: Auxins were discovered by Charles Darwin and
Characteristics
Francis Darwin. They saw the coleoptiles of canary grass
yy The plant growth regulators are small, simple molecules of
diverse chemical composition. bending toward a unilateral source of light. It was concluded
yy They could be: after a series of experiments that some substances produced
²² Indole compounds (e.g. indole-3-acetic acid, IAA); at the tip of coleoptiles was responsible for the bending.
²² Adenine derivatives (e.g. N6-furfurylamino purine, Finally, this substance was extracted as auxins from the tip
kinetin)
of coleoptiles in oat seedlings.
²² Derivatives of carotenoids (e.g. abscisic acid)
²² Terpenes (e.g. Gibberellic acid, GA2) yy Isolation: They were isolated from tips of coleoptiles of oat
²² Gases (e.g. ethylene, C2H4) seedlings by F.W.Went as IAA (Indole acetic acid and IBA
Classification of plant growth regulators based on their nature (Indole butyric acid).
of action: O
(i) Plant growth promoters: They are involved in growth CH2 C OH
promoting activities such as cell division, cell enlargement,
pattern formation, tropic growth, flowering, fruiting and N
seed germination are called plant growth promoters. E.g. H
auxin, gibberellins and cytokinin.
(ii) Plant growth inhibitors: They play an important role in Fig. Indole acetic acid (IAA)
plant responses towards wounds and stresses of biotic and
Effects
abiotic origin. They are involved in inhibitory responses
like dormancy and abscission. E.g. abscisic acid. yy They control plant cell growth.
Note: Ethylene may fit in either of the two groups, but is largely yy It promotes rooting in stem cutting.
an inhibitor. yy They control division in the vascular cambium and xylem
differentiation.
Discovery of Plant Growth Regulators yy It promotes flowering.
yy Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from tips of oat yy Inhibits fruit and leaf drop at early stages.
seedlings. yy Promote abscission of older mature leaves and fruits.
yy The ‘bakane’ (foolish seedling) a disease of rice yy It causes the phenomenon of apical dominance. Apical
seedlings, was caused by a fungal pathogen Gibberalla dominance is the phenomenon whereby the growing apical
fujikuroi. bud inhibits the growth of lateral bud.
yy Kurosawa reported the appearance of the symptom of
O CH2 COOH CH2 COOH
the disease in uninfected rice seedlings when treated
with sterile filtrate of the fungus. The active substance Cl
was later identified as Gibberellic acid.
yy Skoog and Miller identified and crystallized the
cytokinesis promoting active substance that they Cl
termed as kinetin. (2, 4 D) (NAA)
yy During mid-1960s three different kinds of inhibitors
purified, i.e. inhibitor-B, abscission II and dormin. Fig. Synthetic auxins
Later, all the three proved to be chemically identical yy NAA (Naphthalene acetic acid)and 2, 4-D (2,
and named as Abscisic acid (ABA). 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) are synthetic auxins.
 Plant Growth and Development 333

Bio-assay (ii) Dwarf pea and Maize test: Seeds of dwarf pea are allowed
yy Bioassay means the testing of substance for it’s activity in to germinate till the just emergence of plumule. GA solution
causing a growth response in a living plant or its parts. is applied to some seedlings, others are kept as control.
(i) Avena curvature test: Avena curvature test carried out After 5 days, epicotyl length is measured. Increase in length
by F.W. Went (1928), demonstrated the effect of auxins of epicotyl over control seedlings is proportional to GA
on plant growth by performing some experiments with concentration.
the oat (Avena sativa) coleoptile. 3. Cytokinins
(ii) Root growth inhibition test, are bioassays for yy Discovery: Skoog and his co-workers observed that
examining auxin activity. from pith tissues of tobacco stem, the callus proliferated
2. Gibberellins only if addition to auxins the nutrient medium was
supplemented with one of the following: extracts of
yy Discovery: E. Kurosawa identified gibberellins present vascular tissues, yeast extract, coconut milk or DNA.
in a fungal pathogen Gibberella fujikuroi. Bakane or the Later Skoog and Miller identified the cytokinesis
foolish rice seedlings” disease was first observed by Japanese promoting active substance and named it kinetin.
farmers. In this disease, rice seedlings appear to grow taller yy Kinetin is a modified form of adenine, a purine.
than natural plants, and become slender and pale green. Later, yy Zeatin obtained from corn kernels and coconut milk is
after several experiments, it was found that this condition an example of naturally occurring cytokinins. Natural
was caused by the infection from a certain fungus called cytokinins are synthesized in regions where rapid cell
Gibberella fujikuroi. The active substance was isolated and division occurs, for example root apices, developing
identified as Gibberellic acid. shoot buds, young fruits etc.
yy There are more than 100 different types of Gibberellin. They yy Benzylamino purine (BAP), Diphenylurea and Thidiazuron
are denoted as GA1, GA2, and GA3 and so on. are synthetic cytokinins.
yy Gibberellic acid (GA3) was one of the first gibberellins to
CH2OH
be discovered and most extensively studied. N CH2 NH CH2
CH3
O N H O
N N N
CO N
OH N N N
HO H
CH3 COOH CH2 Fig. Zeatin Fig. Kinetin
6
6-(4 hydroxy- (N-furfuryl aminopurine)
3methyl-trans-2-
Fig. Gibberellic acid butenylamino purine
Effects Effects
yy All GAs are acidic. yy Cytokinins have specific effects on cytokinesis.
yy Ability to cause an increase in length of axis is used to yy They promote cell division.
increase the length of grapes stalks. yy They promote the growth of lateral branches by inhibiting
yy Gibberellins cause fruits like apple to elongate and improve apical dominance.
its shape. yy Help to produce new leaves, chloroplast in leaves, lateral
yy It delays senescence, extend the market period. shoot growth.
yy It helps in inducing seed germination by breaking seed yy Promote formation of adventitious shoot.
dormancy and initiating the synthesis of hydrolases enzymes yy They help in delaying senescence by promoting nutrient
for digesting reserve food. mobilisation.
yy GA3 is used to speed up the malting process in brewing yy Cytokinins help to overcome apical dominance.
industry. yy Promote nutrient mobilization.
yy Gibberellins help in increasing the sugar content in yy Delay senescence in leaves.
sugarcane by increasing the length of internodes.
yy Promote early seed production. Bio-assay
yy Promote bolting (internodes elongation) in rosette plants (i) Tobacoo pith cell division test
like beet and cabbages. (ii) Chlorophyll preservation (retention) test: Leaves are cut
into equal sized discs with the help of a cutter. They are
Bio-assay divided into two lots. One lot is provided with cytokinin.
(i) Synthesis of α-amylase and proteases in germinating After 48-72 hours, leaf discs are compared for chlorophyll
grains of cereals contents. Cytokinin retards chlorophyll degradation.
 334 BIOLOGY

4. Ethylene (Gaseous hormone) Effects

yy Ethylene is a simple gaseous PGR. yy ABA synthesized in old leaves, fruits and old parts by
yy Discovery: It was observed that unripe bananas ripened Mevalonic acid pathway and oxidation of carotenes in
chloroplasts.
faster when stored with ripe bananas. Later, the substance
yy ABA also known as stress hormone because it protects
promoting the ripening was found to be ethylene. Cousins
plants from adverse conditions like water stress. ABA
confirmed the release of a volatile substance from ripened
increases tolerance of plants to various type of stresses.
oranges that hastened the ripening of stored un-ripened
bananas. Ethylene is natural ripening hormone. CH3
H CH3
CH3
H H H
C C OH
H H H COOH
O CH3
Fig. Structure of ethylene
Fig. Abscisic acid
Effects yy ABA causes ageing and abscission of leaves and fruits
yy Synthesized in the tissue undergoing senescence and ripening (anti-auxin).
fruits. yy ABA regulates (anti-GA) bud and seed dormancy.
yy Promote horizontal growth of seedling. yy It is working against cytokinin and auxin (anti-CK and
yy Promote swelling of axis and apical hook formation in dicot anti-auxin).
seedlings. yy ABA accumulates in high concentration in leaves which
yy It promotes senescence and abscission of plant organs like are wilting. This increased production of ABA stimulates
leaf and flower. stomatal closure by inhibiting the K+ uptake by guard cell
and promoting the leakage of malic acid and hence prevents
yy It increases the rate of respiration during ripening of fruits,
transpirations.
called respiratory climacteric.
yy Abscisic plays major role in seed development and
yy It helps in breaking seed and bud dormancy.
maturation, enabling seeds to withstand desiccation and to
yy Initiate germination.
become dormant.
yy It promotes rapid internodes elongation in deep water rice
plants. Bio-assay
yy Promote root growth and root hair formation. (i) Rice seedling growth inhibition test
yy The source of ethylene is ethephon.Ethephon in an aqueous (ii) Inhibition of α-amylase synthesis in barley endosperm
solution is readily absorbed and transported within the plant test: ABA inhibits the synthesis of α-amylase in the
and releases ethylene slowly. It is used to ripen the fruits in aleurone layers which is triggered by gibberellins.
tomatoes and apples and accelerate the abscission of flowers
and leaves in cotton, cherry and walnut. PHOTOPERIODISM
Bio-assay
yy Photoperiodism is the response of plants with respect to the
(i) Triple pea test: Pratt and Biale (1944) developed this
duration of light (i.e. period of day and light).
method for bioassay of ethylene which is based on the
yy Some plants require periodic exposure to light to induce
physiological effect of ethylene to cause –
flowering. Duration of dark period is equally important
²² Subapical thickening of stem.
for flowering.
²² Reduction in the rate of elongation.
yy The site of perception of light/dark duration is the leaves.
²² Horizontal nutation (transverse geotropism) of stem in
etiolated pea seedlings. yy Critical period: Critical photoperiod is that continuous
(ii) Pea stem swelling test: By marked increase of stem duration of light, which must not be exceeded in short day
swelling expressed as a ratio of weight to length. plants and should always be exceeded in long day plant in
order to bring them to flower.
5. Abscisic Acid: (ABA C15 H20 O4) Based on the response to the duration of light, a plant is classified
into three types:
yy Discovery: During mid-90s, inhibitor-B, abscission-II
(i) Long day plant: Long day plants flower when they are
and dormin were discovered by three independent
exposed to light for a period more than the critical day
researchers. These were later on found to chemically
length. E.g. Radish, Wheat, Avena.
similar and were thereafter called ABA (Abscisic
(ii) Short day plant: Short day plants flower when they are
acid).
exposed to light for a period less than the critical day length.
E.g. Chrysanthemum, Tobacco, Soyabean.
 Plant Growth and Development 335

(iii) Day neutral plant: Day neutral plants are plants wherethere Cotton.
is no such correlation between exposure to light duration
and induction of flowering response. E.g. Tomato, Maize,

Above Above

No flowering Critical
photo-
period
Flowering Critical
photo-
period

Below Below

Flowering
after vegetative
Flowering No flowering maturity
Short-day plant Long-day plant Day neutral plant

Fig. Three major types of photoperiodic behaviour for flowering

VERNALISATION by high temperature (i.e., about 40°C), otherwise the

effect of vernalization is lost. This phenomenon is called
yy Vernalization is the low temperature treatment given to de-vernalization.
water soaked seeds, slightly germinated seeds or seedlings (ii) Duration of low temperature treatment: It varies from
to hasten the time of flowering of plants that will develop species to species from a few hours to a few days.
from them. (iii) Actively dividing cells: Vernalization stimulus is
yy Chourad defined as “Acceleration of ability to produce flower perceived only by actively dividing cells, e.g., embryo
by chilling treatment (1°-10°C) is called Vernalisation”. tip, shoot apex and leaves. Therefore, vernalization
yy Some important food plants, wheat, barley, rye have two treatment can be given to the germinating seeds
kinds of varieties: winter and spring varieties. The ‘spring’ or whole plant with meristematic tissues and other
conditions.
variety are planted in the spring and come to flower and
(iv) Water: Proper hydration is must for perceiving the
produce grain before the end of the growing season. Winter
stimulus of vernalization.
varieties, however, if planted in spring would normally
(v) Oxygen: Aerobic respiration is also a requirement for
fail to flower or produce mature grain within a span of
vernalization. The stimulus has been named as vernalin
a flowering season. Hence, they are planted in autumn
(reported by Melchess, 1936-37).
(september to october). They germinate, and over winter
come out as small seedlings, resume growth in the spring Significance of Vernalisation
and are harvested usually around mid-summer. (i) Vernalisation shortens the vegetative period of the plant.
yy Vernalization is also seen in biennial plants. Biennials (ii) It increases the cold resistance of the plants.
are monocarpic plants that normally flower and die in
the second season. Sugarbeet, cabbages, carrots are some
of the common biennials. Subjecting the growing of a SEED GERMINATION
biennial plants to a cold treatment stimulates a subsequent
photoperiodic flowering response. yy When a seed of plant provides suitable conditions, various
yy Requirement of vernalization changes take place by which a seedling comes from seed
(i) Low temperature: Low temperature required for and germinate, this is called germination of seeds. There is
vernalization is usually 0-4°C in most of the cases. The requirement of water, oxygen and heat for the germination
chilling treatment should not be immediately followed of seeds. There are various conditional factors inside the
 336 BIOLOGY

seed like food, hormones etc. for their germination. yy The seed dormancy may be due to many causes, such as
yy The germination of seed takes place by following external environment, endogenous control or condition
processes : within seed itself. Some of which are as follows:
(A) Hypogeal germination: At the time of seed germination ²² Impermeability of seed coats to oxygen, e.g.,
cotyledons remain below the soil and micropyle absorbs Xanthium.
the water by which integument breaks and radicle ²² Impermeability of seed coats to water, e.g., many
plants of legumes.
comes outside through micropyle by breaking the
²² Hard seed coat, which does not allow proper growth
coleorhiza, root forms and shoot forms through plumule.
of developing embryo, e.g., mustard.
This process of seed germination known as hypogeal ²² Immature embryo: Some seeds contain an imperfectly
germination. For example– pea, gram, maize, Cycas developed embryo.
etc. ²² Embryo requiring after-ripening in dry storage:
(B) Epigeal germination: At the time of seed germination These embryos although developed fully, do not
colytedons comes outside from soil and seed fixed at the germinate unless kept in storage in a dry place for
soil through secondary roots. This type of germination sometime after harvest, e.g. Crategus.
is called epigeal germination. For example – Pumpkin ²² Germination inhibitors : Some plants produce such
(Cucurbita maxima). chemical compounds that inhibit the germination of
(C) Vivipary: Viviparity is a unique adaptation in mangrove their own seeds, e.g., tomato.
²² Other chemical inhibitors are abscissic acid, phenolic
plants. Usually seeds require oxygen for germination.
acid, para-ascorbic acid, etc.
Oxygen present in less amount in saline water. So, seed
germinate inside the fruit on the mother plant. This Methods of Breaking Dormancy
feature is called vivipary.
yy Mechanical scarification: Weakening of hard seed coat
with anything of sharp edge, e.g., pieces of glass, knives,
SEED DORMANCY sand paper or vigorous shaking.
yy Chemical scarification: Treating the seeds with dilute acids,
yy Dormancy may be defined as the inactive state of the seed
fat solvents, etc. Dormancy can be broken by treating the
in which the growth of the embryo is temporarily suspended
seeds with strong acids (N2SO4) or dipping in boiling water
for a specific length of time.
or rubbing on a rough surface.
yy Many viable seeds germinate immediately after harvest if
yy High temperature treatment: Permeability of seed coat in
provided with suitable conditions of germination, i.e., water, alfa-alfa seed increases when they are kept in water at the
oxygen and suitable temperature (some seeds, e.g., lettuce temp. of 85-90° for some time.
need light also). However, perfectly viable seeds of many yy To neutralize the effect of inhibitors: Effect of germination
plants do not germinate immediately after harvest even inhibitors in the seeds can be counteracted by giving low and
when provided with suitable conditions of germination, high temperature treatments to seeds or by treating the seeds
i.e., their germination is blocked. This block to the process with KNO3, thiourea, gibberellin, ethylene, chlorohydrin,
of germination is called dormancy. etc.
 Chapter
Digestion and
16 Absorption
Nutrition refers to all activity included in obtaining the food and Mouth
its utilization in the body. Food which on taken and digested in Food is taken into the body through the mouth. The main function
the body provides energy for life activities, materials for growth, of mouth is to receive the food.
repair, and reproduction, resistance from disease or regulation of
Buccal cavity (oral or mouth cavity)
body processes.
Our body functions best when essential nutrients are present in It is the mouth cavity by which food is taken into alimentary canal
correct proportions. A diet that satisfies this is called a balanced and chewed.
diet. It consists of palate, teeth and muscular tongue.
The Six Essential Nutrients are: Carbohydrates, Fats (lipids), (a) Palate
Proteins, Minerals, Vitamins, and Water. (i) The roof of the buccal cavity is called palate.
(ii) Palate (roof) has anterior hard palate and posterior soft
Food can be classified into three categories based on their
palate.
functions.
(iii) The hinder free part of the soft palate freely hangs
(i) Energy providing foods: These are rich in carbohydrates and
down as a small flap called the uvula.
fats and provide energy on oxidation in the body. Examples:
(b) Teeth: The mouth or the buccal cavity has teeth, which
cereals, sugar, fats, oils, jaggery etc.
mechanically break down the food into smaller pieces.
(ii) Body building foods: These are rich in proteins and help in Teeth are rooted in separate sockets in the gums.
the formation of new tissues etc. Examples: legumes, milk, ²² The nature and mode of arrangement of teeth is called
egg, meat, fish, pulses, nuts and oilseeds. dentition.
(iii) Protective/regulatory foods: These are rich in minerals, ²² Human dentition is
vitamins, roughage and water. They help in regulation of (a) Heterodont (different kinds of teeth). They are
internal metabolism in the body. Examples: Green leafy incisors (I) for cutting, canines (C) for tearing,
vegetables, fruits, amla, guava, citrus, oranges etc. premolars (PM) and molars (M) for mastication.
Premolars and molars are collectively called as cheek
HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL AND teeth which have cusps.
DIGESTIVE GLANDS (i) The codont: The codont are the teeth
embedded in the sockets of the jaw bone. E.g.,
The human digestive system includes Alimentary canal and in mammals.
associated (Digestive) glands. (ii) Diphyodont: The teeth formed twice in life
time are called diphyodont. E.g., in mammals.
I. Alimentary canal (gut) They are milk (decidual) teeth and permanent
yy Alimentary canal is a long continuous tube extending from teeth. Milk teeth are erupted at 6-7 months of
mouth to anus. It is about 6-9 meters long in humans. birth and are 20 in number. They are replaced
yy Alimentary canal is also known as digestive tract or gut. by permanent teeth at the age of 6-7. Permanent
yy Arranged sequentially, it includes the following parts: teeth are 32 in number. The last 4 molars
(wisdom teeth) appear only at the age of 18.
²² Dental formula: The dental formula expresses the
arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper jaw and
the lower jaw.
 Digestion and Absorption 349

²² The dental formula for milk teeth in humans is: 4. Oesophagus (Food pipe/Gullet)
2102 yy It is a muscular tube with 30 cm long, which conducts
× 2 = 20
2102 slightly digested food from the mouth into stomach.
Each half of the upper jaw and the lower jaw has 2 incisors, yy When food enters oesophagus, the muscles in the walls
1 canine and 2 molar. Premolars are absent in milk teeth. of oesophagus start alternate contractions and relaxations
yy The dental formula for permanent teeth in humans is: producing wave like movement called peristals is, which
2123 pushes the food downwards towards the stomach.
× 2 = 32 yy At the posterior region of oesophagus, oesophageal
2123
sphincter (a circular muscle) is present. It controls the
Each half of the upper jaw and the lower jaw has 2 incisors, opening of oesophagus into stomach.
1 canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars. An adult human has
32 permanent teeth. 5. Stomach
yy Tongue: Tongue is a muscular organ which is attached at yy The stomach is a muscular, J-shaped, sac like organ, present
the back to the floor of the buccal cavity by a fold called the on the left side of the abdomen.
lingual frenulum. yy Stomach helps in storage and digestion of food.
The upper surface of the tongue has four types of little projections yy It is divided into three parts: upper (anterior) fundus, middle
called papillae: cardiac stomach and lower (posterior) pyloric stomach
(i) Circumvallate papillae or vallate papillae: It is the (antrum).
largest of the four types. yy The gastric glands present in its walls secrete gastric juices,
(ii) Filiform papillae: These are the smallest and most which help in the digestion of food. These juices contain
numerous of the four. hydrochloric acid (HCl), mucus and enzymes like pepsin.
(iii) Fungiform papillae: They are most numerous near the yy Pyloric stomach leads to small intestine by an opening
tip of the tongue. called Pylorus, guarded by pyloric sphincter muscle. This
(iv) Foliate papillae: These are not developed in human sphincter allows only one teaspoon of food at a time to
tongue. enter the duodenum.
yy Tongue contains taste buds, which can detect four basic yy The mucosal wall of the stomach bears irregular folds
known as rugae. These help increase the surface area to
flavors- sweet, salty, sour and bitter tastes.
volume ratio of the expanding stomach.
The taste buds for each of these flavors are located in different
yy The product of digestion in the stomach is called as
parts of the tongue.
chyme.
²² Sweet is detected at the tip of our tongue. yy The stomach basically acts like a mixer, breaking food into
²² Salt is detected at the front side of our tongue. smaller pieces and adding digestive juices to allow for easier
²² Sour is detected along the rear side of our tongue. absorption. It can store approximately 2 litres of food.
²² Bitter is detected across the back of our tongue.
yy Functions of the Tongue 6. Small intestine
²² It mashes the food and helps in mixing saliva with food. yy It is the longest part of gut (7m long and 2.5cm diameter).
Chewing is essential for the digestion of food. yy The chyme (partially digested food) from stomach enters
²² It also helps in rolling and pushing (deglutition into small intestine where complete digestion and absorption
or swallowing) of partially digested food into the of food takes place.
oesophagus. yy It consists of three parts, namely duodenum (C shaped first
part), Jejunum (middle part) and Ileum (terminal part).
3. Pharynx (Throat): yy Both jejunum and ileum are greatly coiled.
yy It is the common passage for digestive and respiratory yy The mucosal wall of the small intestine contains numerous
systems. finger like projections called villi (singular: villus). These
yy It is divided into three parts: villi increase the surface area for absorption of digested
²² Nasopharynx (Nasal part of the pharynx) food. Each villus has a brush-bordered columnar epithelial
²² Oropharynx (Oral part of the pharynx) layer provided with microvilli.
yy Villus contains a lymph capillary called lacteal in the center.
²² Laryngopharynx (Laryngeal part of the pharynx)
Lacteal in turn is surrounded by a network of thin and small
yy When food materials pass through the pharynx, the epiglottis
blood vessels called blood capillaries close to its surface.
closes the glottis (opening of larynx) and prevents the entry As the food moves slowly between, over and around the
of food into trachea. villi, the surface of villi absorbs the digested food materials
yy Sometimes, when we eat too fast or laugh while eating, then into blood flowing through them. Blood, in turn, carries the
a little air pipe remains open due to which food particles may absorbed food materials to all the parts of the body. In the
enter the larynx. When food particles enter the larynx, we cells food is used for energy, repair and growth. The process
may get choking sensation, commonly known as hiccups. is known as assimilation.
 350 BIOLOGY

Nutrients a. Serosa: It is the outermost fibrous layer of the human

Nutrients are absorbed through the small intestine where the blood alimentary canal. It is made up of a thin layer of
carries them to all the cells of the body. The three basic types of secretory epithelial cells, with some connective tissues
nutrients are amino acids, simple sugars, and fatty acid. underneath.
yy Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars b. Muscularis externa: It is a thin layer of smooth
(glucose) which is used by the cells for energy. muscles arranged into an outer longitudinal layer and
yy Proteins are broken down into amino acids (the building an inner circular layer.
blocks of cells) which are used to repair old cells and build c. Sub-mucosa: It is a layer of loose connective tissues,
new cells (skin, blood, muscle, bone and nerve). containing nerves, blood, and lymph vessels. It
yy Fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol which supports the mucosa.
are stored for future use. d. Mucosa: It is the innermost lining of the lumen of the
alimentary canal. It is mainly involved in absorption
7. Large intestine and secretion.
yy The food that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes
from small intestine into large intestine.
yy It is much shorter than the small intestine although the
diameter is much larger.
yy It is made of three parts: caecum, colon and rectum.
yy The colon consists of ascending colon, transverse colon,
descending colon and pelvic colon.

Fig. T.S. of Human gut

II. Digestive glands
yy They secrete digestive juices. It includes salivary glands,
gastric glands, intestinal glands, pancreas and liver.
1. Salivary glands (found in mouth)
yy Caecum is well-developed in herbivores but in man it is yy The salivary glands secrete watery liquid called saliva.
very small. Arising from the caecum is a finger-like vestigial yy Functions of saliva:
organ, the vermiform appendix. ²² Saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that
yy Pelvic colon leads to rectum that opens out by anus. helps to digest the starch (carbohydrate) present in the
yy The main function of large intestine is to absorb most the food partially.
water from the indigested food material. ²² Saliva also helps in lubricating the food and makes it
yy In some herbivores, the large intestine consists of several easier for swallowing.
cellulose digesting bacteria. yy Three pairs of salivary glands open into the mouth. They
yy Caecum and vermiform appendix are very large sized are parotid (largest salivary gland), sub-maxillary (sub
in herbivores like rabbit, ass and horse. They have large mandibular) and sub-lingual.
number of symbiotic bacteria, which help in fermentation
and digestion of cellulose. The simplified cellulose in rabbit
and pig are egested out with faeces. These eat their own
faeces to absorb the simplified cellulose. This phenomenon
is called coprophagy.
8. Rectum and Anus
yy The remaining undigested food is stored in the last part of
2. Gastric glands
the large intestine called rectum for some time.
yy Later, this undigested, semi-solid waste is forced to pass out yy They are tubular glands found on the inner wall.
form our body through anus in the form of faeces. yy They consists of
²² Mucous neck cells (Goblet cells): They secrete
Histology of human gut mucous. Mucous and bicarbonates protect the inner
yy The walls of the alimentary canal are made up of four layers. lining of stomach wall (mucosal epithelium) from its
These are as follows: own secretion HCl and prevents auto digestion.
²² Chief (zymogen or peptic) cells: They secrete inactive
enzymes like pepsinogen, prorennin and lipase.
 Digestion and Absorption 351

²² Oxyntic (parietal) cells: They secrete HCl and Castle’s yy Each liver lobule is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath
gastric factor. Gastric glands secrete acidic (pH 1.8- called Glisson’s capsule.
2.0) gastric juice (99.5% water and 0.5% residual yy Between the plates are blood filled hepatic sinusoids.
substances). yy The Kupffer’s cells present in the sinusoids engulf and
remove bacteria, damaged cells etc from blood.
yy On the lower surface of right liver lobe, there is a thin walled,
pear shaped sac, called gall bladder. It stores bile secreted
by liver.
yy Bile is drained from the liver by a bile duct (ductus
choledochus) which is formed by the joining of a cystic
duct from the gall bladder and a common hepatic duct from
different liver lobes.
yy Usual flow of bile from the liver is:
Bile → Hepatic duct → Gall bladder → Cystic duct →
yy Functions of Hydrochloric acid: Bile duct → Common hepato-pancreatic duct → Duodenum
²² It kills the bacteria in food. yy Just near the duodenum, the bile and pancreatic ducts join
²² It stops the action of salivary enzyme found in slightly to form hepatopancreatic duct. The opening of hepato-
digested food.
pancreatic duct in the duodenum is guarded by sphincter
²² It makes the medium acidic. Acidic medium is required
of Oddi.
for activation of protein digesting enzyme called
pepsin. yy Functions of liver:
²² It helps in softening of food. ²² Liver plays an important role in carbohydrate metabolism
where hepatic cells conduct glycogenesis (converting
3. Liver glucose into glycogen), and glycogenolysis (breaking
yy Liver is the largest gland (1.5 kg) of the human body. glycogen down to glucose).
yy It is bilobed having large right lobe and small left lobe. Each ²² It is also critical in lipid metabolism where hepatic cells
lobe is formed of many hepatic lobules (functional units). produce bile (for fat emulsification), oxidize fatty acids,
synthesize various forms of lipids, and convert glucose
to fatty acids by the process known as lipogenesis.
²² Liver also helps in storage of glycogen, iron, and
vitamins A, D, B12.
²² It contains phagocytes to destroy damaged erythrocytes
and foreign substances, using phagocytosis.
²² It detoxifies harmful substances in the blood.
²² It serves as a blood reservoir (contains 7% of blood
volume).
4. Pancreas
yy It is the second largest gland present near duodenal loop.
yy It is a cream-coloured heterocrine gland, i.e. it has both
exocrine and endocrine (islets of Langerhans) parts.

Fig. Liver
yy A lobule has many hepatic cells arranged as radiating plates
around a central vein. They secrete alkaline bile juice.
yy Bile is stored temporarily in gall bladder until it is needed by
the small intestine to emulsify fats. Bile does not contain any
digestive enzymes but contains bile pigments (bilirubin and
biliverdin), bile salts, cholesterol and phospholipids.
yy Functions of Bile: (a) Exocrine Part
(i) It makes the acidic food coming from stomach to alkaline ²² The exocrine part has a pancreatic duct that opens into
so that pancreatic enzymes can act on it. duodenum along with bile duct (hepato-pancreatic duct).
(ii) Bile contains bile salts that help in proper digestion of fats ²² It secretes alkaline pancreatic juice, which contains
by breaking down large fat globules into smaller ones, inactive enzymes (trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen
so that enzyme can easily act on it and digest them. This and procarboxypeptidases), amylases, lipases and
process is known as emulsification of fats nucleases.
 352 BIOLOGY

²² Pancreatic juice breaks down fats completely into fatty ♦♦ Beta cells: They produce insulin hormone which
acids and glycerol. It also breaks down carbohydrate converts glucose into glycogen in the liver and the
and protein into simpler forms. muscles.
(b) Endocrine part: ♦♦ Delta cells: They secrete somatostatin hormone
²² It consists of group of islets of Langerhans. Each islets which inhibits the secretion of glucagon by alpha
of Langerhans consists of three types of cells, which cells and secretion of insulin nutrients from the
secrete hormones into the circulating blood. gastrointestinal tract.
♦♦ Alpha cells: They produce glucagon hormone, which Note: Deficiency of insulin causes Diabetes mellitus.
convert glycogen into glucose in the liver.

Fig. Structure of duodenum

5. Intestinal glands yy It includes mechanical processes such as mastication

yy It is simple tubular glands found in the walls of small (chewing), deglutition (swallowing) and peristalsis (wave-
intestine. It is of two types: like movement of food bolus through the gut by muscular
(a) Crypts of Lieberkuhn: It consists of mucous-secreting contraction).
Goblet cells and enzyme-secreting Paneth cells.
yy There are two basic types of digestion.
Goblet cells are the cells of intestinal mucosal epithelium
which secrete mucus. ²² Mechanical Digestion: It is the initial stage of
(b) Brunner’s (duodenal) glands: It is confined to sub physically breaking down food into smaller pieces. It
mucosa of duodenum and secrete mucous only. occurs mainly in the mouth where teeth chew food and
yy The secretions of both types of glands are collectively tongue manipulates the food.
called intestinal juices or succus entericus. It contains ²² Chemical Digestion: It is the separation of food into
enzymes such as maltase, lactase, sucrase, dipeptidase,
molecular components by chemical means. The process
lipases, nucleotidases, nucleosidases etc. The bicarbonate
and mucous provide alkaline medium and protect intestinal begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva, which
mucosa. contains the digestive enzyme, amylase. The chemical
breaking down of food continues through the through
the stomach and is completed in the small intestine.
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION OF
PROTEINS, CARBOHYDRATES AND FATS Physiology of Digestion

I. Digestion 1. Digestion of carbohydrate

yy Digestion is the process in alimentary canal by which the yy The digestion of carbohydrates takes place in the mouth
complex food is converted mechanically and biochemically (buccal cavity) and the small intestine region of the
into simple substances suitable for absorption and alimentary canal.
assimilation. yy There are two types of carbohydrates in the human food
 Digestion and Absorption 353

that need to be digested in the alimentary canal of man. yy The digestion of carbohydrates is completed in the small
These are: intestine.
²² Polysaccharides like starch, glycogen and cellulose
²² Disaccharides like maltose, sucrose, and lactose. 2. Digestion of Protein
yy The digestion of proteins begins in the stomach and is
In the Mouth (Buccal cavity)
completed in the small intestine. The enzymes that act on
yy Two basic functions are performed by buccal cavity − proteins are known as proteases or peptidases.
mastication of food and facilitation of swallowing.
yy As food enters the mouth, it gets mixed with saliva. In the stomach
yy Saliva contains enzymes salivary amylase (Ptyalin), yy The semi-digested food rests in stomach for about 4-5
lysozyme, and electrolytes. hours, then gets mixed with acidic gastric juices by churning
yy Mucus in saliva lubricates and adhere food particles into
movement of muscular wall and is called chyme at this
Bolus.
stage.
yy Deglutition or swallowing conveys the bolus to pharynx and
yy Chyme is the semifluid mass into which food is converted
then to oesophagus.
yy Peristalsis conveys the bolus from oesophagus to stomach. by gastric secretion and which passes from the stomach into
yy Saliva – secreted by the salivary glands – contains a digestive the small intestine.
enzyme called salivary amylase. This enzyme breaks down yy Gastric juice contains HCl, pepsinogen, rennin, and lipase.
starch into sugar at pH 6.8. About 30% of starch is digested yy Hydrochloric acid dissolves the bits of food and creates an
by amylase. acidic medium so that pepsinogen is converted into pepsin.
Salivary amylase yy Pepsin is a protein- digesting enzyme. It is secreted in its
Starch  → Maltose + Isomaltose + Limit dextrins
pH 6.8 inactive form called pepsinogen, which then gets activated
yy Lysozyme present in saliva acts as an antibacterial agent. by hydrochloric acid. HCl provides optimum pH of 1.2 to
yy Salivary amylase continues to act in the oesophagus, but its 1.8 for pepsin.
HCl
action stops in the stomach as the contents become acidic. Pepsinogen  → Pepsin + Inactive peptide
Hence, carbohydrate-digestion stops in the stomach. (Inactive) (Active)
In the small intestine yy The activated pepsin then converts proteins into proteases
yy Carbohydrate-digestion is resumed in the small intestine. and peptides.
Pepsin
yy Here, the food gets mixed with the bile, pancreatic juice and Proteins  → Proteases + Peptides
the intestinal juice. Bile has no enzymes so has no chemical yy Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme, released in an inactive form
action on carbohydrates. called prorennin. Prorennin is activated by HCl in acidic
Action of pancreatic juice medium to rennin. Rennin plays an important role in the
coagulation of milk.
yy Pancreatic juice contains the pancreatic amylase (Amylopsin)
HCl
that hydrolyses the polysaccharides into disaccharides. The Prorennin 
→ Rennin
pancreatic enzyme operates in alkaline pH of 8.8, which is
provided by bicarbonates mainly present in bile juice though ↓
also present in pancreatic juices. Milk casein → Paracasein
yy The food in the stomach is thick, acidic and semi-digested
Starch Amylopsin
 → Maltose + isomaltose + limit dextrins and is called chyme.
Action of intestinal juice In the small intestine
yy The intestinal juice (pH 8.3) contains a variety of enzymes,
yy The food from the stomach (chyme) is acted upon by three
which hydrolyse the specific oligosaccharides into their
enzymes present in the small intestine – pancreatic juice (pH
monosaccharides. For e.g.
8.8), intestinal juice (known as succus entericus- pH 8.3),
²² Maltase digests maltose into glucose.
²² Sucrase digests sucrose into glucose and fructose. and bile juice (pH 8.0).
²² Lactase digests lactose into glucose and galactose. yy Pancreatic juice and bile reach the duodenum through hepato-
yy These disaccharidases help in the digestion of disaccha- pancreatic duct.
rides. Action of pancreatic juice
Maltose
Maltose 
→ 2Glucose yy Pancreatic juice contains a variety of inactive enzymes such
Lactase as trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and carboxypeptidases.
Lactose 
→ Glucose + Galactose These enzymes play an important role in the digestion of
Sucrose Sucrase proteins.
 → Glucose + Fructose
 354 BIOLOGY

yy Trypsinogen is present in an inactive form in the pancreatic In the small intestine

juice. The enzyme Enterokinin (enteropeptidase) secreted by Action of bile
the intestinal mucosa – activates trypsinogen into trypsin.
yy Bile juice has bile salts such as bilirubin and biliverdin. These
Enterokinase
Trypsinogen → Trypsin + Inactive peptide break down large fat globules into smaller globules so that
yy The activated trypsin then further hydrolyses the remaining the pancreatic enzymes can easily act on them. This process
trypsinogen and activates other pancreatic enzymes such as is known as emulsification of fats. Bile juice also makes the
chymotrypsinogen and carboxypeptidase. medium alkaline and activates lipase.
Trypsin Action of pancreatic enzymes
Chymotrypsinogen 
→ Chymotrypsin
(Inactive) (Active)
yy The pancreatic lipase present in the pancreatic juice and the
yy The activated chymotrypsin plays an important role in the intestinal lipase present in the intestinal juice hydrolyse the fat
further breakdown of the partially-hydrolysed proteins. molecules into triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides,
and ultimately into glycerol.
Chymotrypsin
Proteins  → Peptides Pancreatic
Fats  → Triglycerides + Diglycerides
yy Trypsin also helps in breaking down proteins into lipase
peptides.
Diglycerides and monoglycerides Lipases  → Fatty acids
Chymotrypsin + Glycerol
Proteins  → Peptides
yy Pancreatic lipase is the principal enzyme for the digestion
yy Carboxypeptidases act on the carboxyl end of the peptide
of fat.
chain and help in releasing the last amino acids.
Action of intestinal lipase
Carboxypeptidase
Peptides  → Small peptide chain + Amino acids Intestinal lipase converts remaining fats into monoglycerides and
yy Thus, in short, we can say that the partially-hydrolysed fatty acids.
proteins present in the chyme are acted upon by various
proteolytic enzymes of the pancreatic juice for their complete 4. Digestion of Nucleic acids
digestion. Nucleic acids are digested in the small intestine. The enzymes
Trypsin/Chymotrypsin that digest nucleic acids are called nucleases. The nucleases
Proteins, peptones 
Carboxypeptidase
→ Dipeptides and proteases break down nucleic acids into nucleotides and nucleosides.
Action of intestinal juice Action of pancreatic juice
yy Intestinal juice (also known as Succus entericus) contains yy Pancreatic juice contains two nucleases: Deoxyribonucleases
enterokinase (enteropeptidase), aminopeptidases and (DNase) and Ribonucleases (RNase).
dipeptidases. yy Deoxyribonucleases (DNase) break down DNA into Deoxy-
yy Enterokinase converts trypsinogen of pancreatic juice into ribonucleotides.
trypsin. DNA → (DNase) Deoxyribonucleotides
Enterokinase yy Ribonucleases (RNase) break down RNA into Ribonucle-
yy Trypsinogen → Trypsin + Inactive peptide
otides.
yy The proteases (Aminopeptidase and dipeptidases) hydrolyse RNA → (RNase) Ribonucleotides
peptides into dipeptides and finally into amino acids.
Action of intestinal juice
Aminopeptidase
Large peptides  → Dipeptides + Amino acids yy Intestinal juice contains two enzymes called nucleotidases
Dipeptidases and nucleosidases.
Dipeptides → Amino acids
yy Nucleotidase acts on nucleotides and breaks them down
3. Digestion of fats into nucleosides and inorganic phosphate.
Fat digestion is started in the stomach and is nearly completed Nucleotides → (Nucleotidase) Nucleosides + Inorganic
in the small intestine. The enzymes involved in fat digestion phosphate
are known as lipases. yy Nucleosidase breaks down nucleosides into nitrogenous
In the stomach bases and pentose sugar.
yy The gastric juice contains a small amount of gastric lipase Nucleosides → (Nucleosidase) Nitrogenous bases + Pentose
which converts some fats into monoglycerides and fatty sugar
acid. Fully digested semi fluid and alkaline food is called
chyle.
 Digestion and Absorption 355

Summary of Main Digestive Enzymes and their Action

Enzyme Secretion Site of Action Substrate Products
Reaction
Salivary glands in saliva of mouth
Salivary amylase Saliva Mouth Salivary amylase
Starch 
→ Maltose
pH 6.8

Gastric gland secretes gastric juice in Stomach.

Pepsin Gastric juice Stomach Pepsin
Proteins 
→ Proteases + Peptides
Rennin HCl
Prorennin 
→ Rennin
Gastric lipase Pancreatic
Fats 
→ Triglycerides + Diglycerides
lipase

Pancreas secreted Pancreatic juice in small intestine

Pancreatic α-amylase Pancreatic juice Small Amylase
intestine Starch → Disaccharides
Trypsin Trypsin
Proteins 
→ Peptides
Chymotrypsin Chymotrypsin
Proteins 
→ Peptides
Carboxypeptidase Carboxypeptidase
Peptides 
→ Small peptide chain + Amino acids

Pancreatic lipase Pancreatic

Fats 
→ Triglycerides + Diglycerides
lipase
Deoxyribonucleases DNase
DNA → Deoxyribonucleotides
Ribonuclease RNase
RNA → Ribonucleotides

Small intestine secretes Intestinal juice

Enterokinase Intestinal juice Small Enterokinase
intestine Trypsinogen → Trypsin + Inactive peptide
Dipeptidase Dipeptidases
Dipeptides → Amino acids
Disaccharidases Maltose
Maltose 
→ 2Glucose
Lactase
Lactose 
→ Glucose + Galactose
Sucrase
Sucrose 
→ Glucose + Fructose
Intestinal lipase Lipases
Diglycerides and monoglycerides 
→ Fatty acids + Glycerol

Nucleotidase Nucleotidase
Nucleotides  → Nucleosides + Inorganic phosphate
Nucleosidase Nucleosidase
Nucleosides  → Nitrogenous bases + Pentose sugar
II. Absorption of Digested Products It includes osmosis (absorption of water) and diffusion
(absorption of solute molecules).
yy Absorption is the transfer of end products of digestion from
Diffusion is of two types:
the intestine to the circulatory fluids (blood and lymph).
(i) Simple diffusion: In this, molecules alone can be
yy It is of two types-passive and active.
diffused. E.g. absorption of vitamins, chloride ions etc.
(a) Passive absorption (Passive transport): It is the
(ii) Facilitated diffusion: Diffusion with the help of carrier ions
absorption of nutrients from higher concentrated region
like Na+. E.g. Absorption of Fructose, mannose etc.
to lower concentrated region without the expenditure of
energy.
 356 BIOLOGY

(b) Active absorption (Active transport): It is the absorption III. Assimilation

of nutrients from lower concentrated region to higher
concentrated region (i.e. against concentration gradient). Assimilation is anabolic process in which the absorbed food is taken
It needs energy. E.g. absorption of Amino acids, in by body cells and used for energy, growth and repair.
monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ etc. For example,

Absorption in Different Parts of Alimentary Canal Assimilation of monosaccharides:

²² Mouth: Certain drugs. (a) The excess of monosaccharides like glucose, fructose
²² Stomach: Water, simple sugars, some drugs and and galactose are usually stored in the liver and muscle
alcohol. cells in the form of glycogen. This process is known as
²² Small intestine: Almost all nutrients including minerals, glycogenesis. Whenever there is a deficiency of glucose
vitamins etc. in the blood, the glycogen is broken down into glucose by
²² Ileum is the chief area of absorption due to its great a process known as glycogenolysis.
length and coiled nature and the presence of villi (which (b) Some of the glucose from digested food is broken down
increases the surface area of absorption). into carbon dioxide and water along with the release of
²² Large intestine: Water, some minerals and some energy.
drugs. (c) A considerable amount of glucose is converted into fat and
yy The absorbed materials are then incorporated into tissues for stored as such.
their activities. It is called assimilation. Assimilation of amino acids
yy The undigested substances like plant fibres, dead bacteria
etc form faeces. It enters into caecum through the ileocaecal (a) Amino acids are used to make proteins required by the
valve, which prevents back flow of faeces. cells.
yy Faeces are temporarily stored in rectum and are eliminated (c) Excess amino acids can be converted into glucose and
through anus. It is called egestion (defaecation). then to fat and are thus stored. This is an irreversible
reaction.
Absorption of carbohydrates
Assimilation of fat
yy Carbohydrates are absorbed as monosaccharides in stomach
and jejunum. (a) Fat is stored in the body as subcutaneous layers. It is a
yy Glucose and Galactose are absorbed by active pump of cell readily available source of fuel for the cells.
membrane. (c) In the liver, fats are converted into amino acids and
yy Fructose is absorbed by facilitated transport. carbohydrates.

Absorption of amino acids IV. Egestion or Defecation

yy Amino acids are absorbed mainly in the duodenum and yy Egestion is the process of elimination of faeces (waste matter)
jejunum. from the alimentary canal.
yy Amino acids are absorbed by active transport while some yy The remaining undigested food gradually passes from
are absorbed by facilitated transport. small intestine into the colon. The colon absorbs most of
Absorption of lipids the water.
yy Fat absorption is an active process. During fat digestion, fats yy A bacterium called Escherichia coli lives in the colon which
feeds on undigested matter. This bacterium in turn produces
are hydrolysed into fatty acids and glycerol. However, since
vitamin B12, Vitamin K, Vitamin B1 and Vitamin B2 which
these are water insoluble, they cannot be directly absorbed
are absorbed by the wall of colon.
by the blood. Hence, they are first incorporated into small
yy Consequently, the chyme gets converted into semi-solid
droplets called micelles and then transported into the villi
faeces.
of the intestinal mucosa.
yy The semi-solid faeces are stored in the last part of the large
yy They are then reformed into small microscopic particles
intestine called rectum for some time.
called chylomicrons, which are small, protein-coated fat
yy Later, when we go to toilet, this undigested, semi-solid waste
globules.
is forced to pass out form our body through anus in the form
yy These chylomicrons are transported to the lymph vessels in
of faeces. This process is known as egestion.
the villi. From the lymph vessels, the absorbed food is finally
yy The anus contains rings of muscular muscle called the anal
released into the blood stream and from the blood stream, to sphincter (circular voluntary muscles) that allow the body
each and every cell of the body. to control timing of elimination to some extent.
Absorption of water yy The faeces is formed of 75% water and 25% solid matter
yy About 90% of all water absorption takes place in the small which is further formed of undigested roughage (30%), fats
intestine by osmosis. (20%), proteins (3%) and bacteria (3%).
 Digestion and Absorption 357

yy The yellow colour of faeces is due to bile pigments especially (vi) Dysentery: Dysentery is a frequent watery stool often
bilirubin. with blood and mucus and with pain, fever and causes
dehydration.
CALORIFIC VALUE OF PROTEINS, Nutritional disorders due to deficiency of dietary component:
CARBOHYDRATES AND FATS yy The diseases which occur due to deficiency of one or more
nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals)
yy Calorie is defined as the energy required to raise the
in our diet are called deficiency diseases.
temperature of 1g of water by 1°C at normal atmospheric
yy Malnutrition is the condition caused by not getting enough
pressure. The unit to measure calorie is kcal.
food or right kind of food.
yy The caloric values of different food items are different.
yy The deficiency diseases are of three types:
yy The amount of heat liberated from complete combustion of
²² Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM)
1 g food in a bomb calorimeter is its calorific value.
²² Mineral deficiency diseases
yy The gross calorific values of
²² Vitamin deficiency diseases
²² Carbohydrates: 4.1 kcal/g
²² Protein: 5.65 kcal/g 1. Protein energy malnutrition (PEM)
²² Fat: 9.45 kcal/g yy The growing children suffer from protein-energy
yy The physiological calorific value of food is the actual amount malnutrition as they require more proteins for their growth
of energy liberated in the human body due to combustion and development.
of 1 g of food. yy It occurs due to two reasons:
yy It is always less than gross calorific value calculated by ²² Lack of proteins in the diet
bomb calorimeter. ²² More intake of carbohydrate than proteins
yy The physiological calorific value of yy Protein energy malnutrition results in two diseases:
²² Carbohydrate: 4 kcal/g Kwashiorkor and Marasmus.
²² Protein: 4 Kcal/g (a) Kwashiorkor: This disease develops in children whose
²² Fat: 9 Kcal/g, which is about 2.25 times more than the diets are deficient of protein. It occurs in children between
energy provided by same amount of glucose. 6 months and 3 years of age.
yy Although fats yield more energy per gram (9 kcal/g) and Symptoms:
proteins (4 kcal/g) yield just as much, carbohydrates are ²² under weight
preferred as regular sources of energy. This is because ²² has protruding belly
they contain more oxygen molecules and therefore require ²² the skin is dark and scaly
lesser number of oxygen molecules for oxidation to give ²² has enlarged liver
energy. Almost 80% of our energy requirements are met by ²² has anaemia
carbohydrates. ²² suffers from repeated diarrhoea
²² stunted growth
²² loss of appetite
DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ²² hair becomes reddish
(i) Jaundice: In jaundice, the skin and eye turns yellow due to ²² swelling of legs and feet due to retention of water by
the deposition of bile pigments. It indicates liver damage. the cell (oedema)
(ii) Vomiting: Vomiting is the ejection of stomach content through Cure: The child suffering from kwashiorkor needs adequate
mouth. During vomiting, the food moves in the opposite amount of proteins.
direction i.e. from stomach to mouth, by a process known (b) Marasmus: It is caused due to the deficiency of
as anti-peristalsis in oesophagus. It is controlled by medulla carbohydrates, fats and proteins. It usually affects infants
oblongata. below the age of one year.
(iii) Diarrhoea: Diarrhoea is a diseased condition in which a person Symptoms
passes out watery stools frequently. It reduces the absorption ²² Shrivelled appearance of child as the stored fats and
of food. It basically leads to loss of water from the body of tissue proteins are catabolised for energy production.
a person through watery stools. The process is known as ²² Folded skin.
dehydration. ²² Sunken eyes, thin face, thinning of limbs and abdominal
(iv) Constipation: Constipation is infrequent elimination of dry walls.
stool. It is due to decreased peristalsis in colon. ²² Retarded physical and mental growth.
(v) Indigestion: Indigestion is the condition leading to feeling ²² Ribs become prominent (Pigeon chest), as fat layer
of fullness due to improper digestion. It is due to anxiety, beneath the skin disappears.
inadequate enzyme secretion, food poisoning, spicy food ²² Oedema and skin pigmentation are absent.
etc. Cure: The child suffering from marasmus needs adequate
amount of proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
 358 BIOLOGY

2. Mineral deficiency diseases ²² protruding eyes,

(i) Deficiency of Iron: Causes Anaemia. Deficiency of iron ²² stunted growth,
results in reduction of red blood cells. This reduces the ²² puffy appearance
oxygen carrying capacity of blood. ²² irregular heart beat
Symptoms: A person becomes pale, tires easily, loses ²² low intelligence
appetite and loses weight. Symptoms of cretinism:
Cure: This disease can be cured by eating food stuff rich in ²² stunted growth,
iron and vitamin B12, e.g. eggs, meat, liver, milk, green leafy ²² retarded mental growth,
vegetables, such as spinach and fruits like apple, banana, guava ²² delayed puberty and
(Iron tablets and tonics can also supplement the food). ²² Low metabolic rate.
(ii) Deficiency of Calcium and Phosphorus: Causes Rickets Cure: Use of iodised table salt and eating sea food, fish
in children and Osteomalacia in adults. (iv) Deficiency of Sodium and Potassium: Cause High blood
Symptoms of Rickets: pressure, and Oedema
²² bones become soft, get deformed or bend easily, Symptoms:
²² bow legs (bent legs), ²² Severe malnutrition
²² pigeon chest,
²² High blood pressure
²² loss of teeth enamel (outer shiny layer in teeth), and
²² Fatigue
²² tender (soft) bones that tend to fracture easily.
²² Loss of appetite
Symptoms of Osteomalacia:
²² Vomiting
²² softening of bones
²² pain in bones which tend to fracture easily. Cure: Taking more of common salt, and eating fish, fruits,
Cure: Rickets and osteomalacia can be prevented by cereals, eggs, spinach, pulses, yogurt etc.
giving diet rich in calcium and phosphorus like milk, 3. Vitamin deficiency diseases
cod liver oil, egg yolk, green leafy vegetables, etc.
Vitamins are grouped into two classes:
(iii) Deficiency of Iodine: Causes Goitre and Cretinism
(a) Water soluble vitamins: Vitamins B complex and C
Symptoms of goitre:
(b) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E and K
²² Enlargement of thyroid gland
Water Soluble Vitamins

Vitamins Function Deficiency Disease Symptoms Sources

Vitamin B1 Part of an enzyme, Needed for Beri beri Pain in hands and feet, Found in all nutritious foods in
(Thiamine) energy metabolism; Important Swelling of body, Paralysis of moderate amounts: pork, whole-
to nerve function limbs, Oedema grain or enriched breads and cereals,
legumes, nuts and seeds
Vitamin B2 Part of an enzyme, Needed for Cheilosis Retarded growth and mental Milk and milk products; leafy green
(Riboflavin) energy, metabolism; Important disorder, Cracking of skin at vegetables; whole-grain, enriched
for normal vision and skin corners of mouth, Lesions of breads and cereals
health eyes
Vitamin B3 Coenzyme for fat, protein, Pellagra Dermatitis, diarrhoea, Mental Meat, poultry, fish, whole-grain
(Niacin) and carbohydrate metabolism; disorder or enriched breads and cereals,
Important for nervous system, vegetables (especially mushrooms,
digestive system, and skin asparagus, and leafy green
health vegetables), peanut butter
Folic acid Part of an enzyme, Needed for Macrocytic anaemia Presence of large, immature Leafy green vegetables and legumes,
making DNA and new cells, (Megaloblastic or malformed RBCs in blood, seeds, orange juice, and liver; now
especially red blood cells anaemia) stunted growth, Impairment of added to most refined grains
antibody synthesis
Vitamin B12 Part of an enzyme, Needed for Pernicious anaemia Paleness of skin, Meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs,
(Cyanocobalamin) making new cells; Important to breathlessness, retarded milk and milk products; not found
nerve function growth in plant foods
Vitamin C Antioxidant; Part of an enzyme, Scurvy Bleeding gums, pain in joints, Found only in fruits and vegetables,
(Ascorbic acid) Needed for protein metabolism; general weakness especially citrus fruits, vegetables
Important for immune system in the cabbage family, cantaloupe,
health; strawberries, peppers, tomatoes,
Aids in iron absorption potatoes, lettuce, papayas, mangoes,
kiwi fruit
 Digestion and Absorption 359

Fat soluble Vitamins

Nutrient Functions Deficiency disease Symptoms Sources

Vitamin A Needed for vision, Night blindness, Cannot see in Vitamin A from animal sources (retinol): fortified milk,
(Retinol) h e a l t h y s k i n a n d Xerophthalmia dimlight, Retarded cheese, cream, butter, fortified margarine, eggs, liver
mucous membranes, keratinization of Beta-carotene (from plant sources): Leafy, dark green
bone and tooth growth, epithelia vegetables; dark orange fruits (apricots, cantaloupe)
immune system health and vegetables (carrots, winter squash, sweet potatoes,
pumpkin)

Vitamin D Rickets in children, Failure of growing Egg yolks, liver, fatty fish, fortified milk, fortified
Needed for proper absorption of calcium; bones to calcify, bow margarine. When exposed to sunlight, the skin can
stored in bones legs, Pigeon chest make vitamin D.
Softening of bones

Osteomalacia in Painful bones,

adults Spontaneous fracture

Vitamin E Antioxidant; Protects Reproductive failure Sterility in males, Polyunsaturated plant oils (soybean, corn, cottonseed,
cell walls in males and females miscarriage, or death safflower); leafy green vegetables; wheat germ; whole-
of embryos during grain products; liver; egg yolks; nuts and seeds
pregnancy in females

Vitamin K Needed for proper Faulty blood Delayed blood Leafy green vegetables and vegetables in the cabbage
blood clotting clotting, clotting family; milk; also produced in intestinal tract by
Haemorrhage bacteria

Disorders caused due to over nutrition

Disorder Excess Nutrient Symptoms

Obesity Excessive intake of food calories Excessive accumaltion of fats.
deficient of water High blood pressure.
Increased chances of heart disorders and diabetes.

Hypercholesterolemia Saturated fats like butter, ghee, Increased level of cholesterol in blood.
hydrogenated vegetable oils and Arteriosclerosis and high blood pressure.
eggs Coronory thrombosis and heart attack.
Hypervitaminosis A Vitamin A Loss of hair.
Drowsiness
Painful swelling of long bones.
Loss of appetite.
Nausea and vomiting.
Hypervitaminosis D Vitamin D Deposition of calcium in soft tissues of body like kidneys.
Drowsiness.
Nausea
Vomiting.
Fluorosis Fluoride Defective teeth with mottled enamel.
Loss of shiny appearance
White patches on teeth.
 Chapter
Breathing and
17 Exchange of Gases
yy Our body is made up of trillions of living cells. Each of these Difference between Respiration and Breathing
cells needs energy to carry out the various tasks that keep
Breathing Respiration
our bodies alive and functioning. For example, muscles need
It is a physical process. It is a chemical process, involving
energy to contract, and all parts of our body need energy to enzymes.
synthesize needed molecules. It involves gaseous exchange It involves enzymatic breakdown of
yy Our body gets the energy it needs by combining food between the animal and its external glucose and release of energy.
molecules with oxygen in a process called cellular environment.
respiration. Energy is consumed during the Energy is released during the
process. process.
RESPIRATION AND BREATHING It takes place outside the cells. It takes place inside the cells.

yy Respiration and Breathing is the oxidation of nutrients

in the living cells to release energy for biological work. It RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
takes place in all the cells of the body.
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water Gas exchange takes place by diffusion. Organs of the body carrying
yy Respiration also produces carbon dioxide, a toxic substance out the function of gas exchange are called respiratory organs. They
which is eliminated from the body. This, uptake of oxygen could be skin, lungs, gills or bacteria. All respiratory organs have
and removal of carbon dioxide is an essential requirement three features in common.
of all living animals. (i) They have large surface area to get maximum oxygen.
Steps involved in respiration are: (ii) They have thin walls for easy diffusion of gases.
1. Gaseous exchange: It involves exchange of gases between (iii) They have a rich supply of blood for transporting
the cell and its surrounding medium. The cells obtain respiratory gases.
oxygen from the environment and return carbon dioxide Respiratory Organs in different animals.
and water vapour to it.
2. Cellular respiration: It is a complex and elaborated process, Respiratory Organs Animals/Animals groups
which occurs in the cytoplasm and the mitochondria.
1. Skin (cutaneous respiration) Earthworm, Leech, Frog
Thus ultimate goal of respiratory system is to provide
2. Gills or Bronchin or Ctenidia. Annelids (Arenicda), Crustaceans
oxygen to the tissues and removal of carbon dioxide from
(Branchial respiration) (Prawn, Crab), Molluscs (Pila,
them. Unio), Protochordates, Fishes,
Thus, to carry out the process of respiration, we require: Amphibians.
(i) A respiratory system for exchange of gases. 3. Tracheal System Insects, Arachnids.
(ii) A transporting medium, blood, which carries oxygen
to all cells of the body. 4. Bucco-pharynx Frog
(iii) Food, which is chemically broken down in the cells to
release energy. 5. Lungs (Pulmonary respiration ) Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and
yy Breathing is the process by which oxygen rich air is taken Mammals.
inside the body of an organism and carbon dioxide rich air
is expelled out from the body.
 372 BIOLOGY

TYPES OF RESPIRATION HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

On the basis of usage of oxygen, respiration is divided into two The human respiratory system is composed of two main sections:
types: Upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract.
(i) Aerobic respiration (aerobic-with air): It is the process
Upper Respiratory Tract Lower Respiratory Tract
of complete breakdown of food in the presence of oxygen.
It is the most efficient form of respiration. Nasal cavity Bronchi
Aerobic respiration can be represented by the following Pharynx Bronchioles
equation: Glottis Lungs/Alveoli
Glucose (food) + oxygen Epiglottis Diaphragm
→ Carbon dioxide + water + energy
Larynx
Key points of aerobic respiration
Trachea
yy It is most common in higher organisms (both plants and
animals). 1. Upper Respiratory Tract
yy In aerobic respiration, the glucose, food is completely (a) Nostrils: Nostrils are pair of slits, which opens into left
broken down into carbon dioxide and water with the help and right nasal chambers. When we take in air through our
of oxygen. nostrils, and when we breathe in, air passes through our
yy It produces large amount of energy. nostrils into the nasal cavity.
yy The end products of aerobic respiration are carbon dioxide (i) Nasal cavity possesses a border of hairs that traps the
and water. dust particles and germs in the air and filters them.
(ii) Anaerobic respiration (anaerobic-without air): It is the (ii) Also, it is richly supplied with blood vessels that warm
process of breakdown of food in the absence of oxygen. the incoming air.
Anaerobic respiration can be represented by the following (iii) The sticky mucus lining the nasal chamber moistens
equation: the air and filters dust particles.
In Yeast: Glucose (food) → Carbon dioxide + Alcohol +
Functions: To warm and moisten air as it comes into the
Energy body.
Yeast is an anaerobe. It can survive in the absence of (b) Pharynx: It is commonly called the throat.
oxygen. yy Pharynx is the common passage at the back of the
In muscles: Glucose (food) →Lactic acid + energy mouth for air and food. It connects the mouth with
Key points of anaerobic respiration: the windpipe.
yy It takes place in lower organisms such as bacteria, fungi, Function: It allows air to pass from mouth /nose to
and in muscle cells of human where oxygen present is larynx and oesophagus.
insufficient. (c) Glottis: Glottis is an opening into the trachea.
yy It involves partial breakdown of food in the absence of Function: It allows air to flow back from the pharynx into
oxygen. the trachea.
yy It produces small amount of energy as compared to aerobic (d) Epiglottis: Epiglottis is a stiff flap like structure covering
respiration. the glottis. It acts as a trapdoor to the trachea.
yy The end products of anaerobic respiration may be ethyl Functions: It prevents the food and other foreign particles
alcohol and carbon dioxide (in yeast) or lactic acid (in from entering the trachea. It opens during the breathing
human muscle cells). but closes the passage of wind pipe while swallowing
yy Anaerobic respiration is also known as fermentation. or drinking, thus preventing the food from entering the
Fermentation is the process of converting complex organic lungs.
substance (sugar) into simpler substance (alcohol and carbon (e) Larynx: At the top of the trachea is the larynx, which
dioxide) with the help of yeast or bacteria. contains a flap like tissue called the vocal cords.
yy Vocal cords open and close to make sounds. When you
Anaerobic Respiration in Muscles exhale air from the lungs, it comes through the trachea
and larynx and reaches the vocal cords.
During exercise, the muscle cells respire more than they do at
yy If the vocal cords are closed and the air flows between
rest. This means: them, the vocal cords vibrate and a sound is made.
yy Oxygen and glucose must be delivered to them more yy The pitch of sound is determined by the size of the
quickly. larynx and the length of the vocal cords. Because
yy Waste carbon dioxide must be removed more quickly. men have larger larynx and longer vocal cords, their
This is usually achieved by increasing the breathing rate and voices are usually lower than women’s. The shorter
the heart rate. The increase in heart rate can be detected by vocal cords of a female vibrate faster so the sound has
measuring the pulse rate. a higher pitch.
 Breathing and Exchange of Gases 373

Function: It produces sound. When air passes over yy Alveoli are the structural and functional units of
the vocal chords, larynx vibrates and produces sound, lungs.
which we call as voice. Function: These are the sites of gas exchange (O2 and
(f) Trachea: It is commonly known as wind pipe, and is located CO2) between the external environment and the blood
in the chest cavity. stream.
yy It is a membranous tube supported by “C” shaped (d) Lungs: The pair of lungs is conical in shape, and takes up
cartilage ring. The cartilage ring protects the trachea most of the chest and thoracic cavity.
from collapse and injury. yy The base of the lungs rests on the diaphragm.
yy It basically connects the pharynx to bronchi. yy The left lung is slightly smaller than the right as the
yy The trachea is lined by pseudo stratified ciliated heart intrudes into the left lung area a bit.
yy The left lung has two lobes, while the right one has
columnar epithelium bearing mucous glands.
three.
yy The secretion of mucous gland traps the foreign
yy The double layer pleural membrane covers the lungs
particles and prevents them from entering the lungs.
for its protection.
Function: Trachea allows air to pass from pharynx to
yy Lungs = Bronchi + bronchioles + alveoli.
bronchi.
yy It contains pleural fluid, which lubricates the surface
2. Lower Respiratory Tract of the lungs and prevents friction between the
membranes.
(a) Bronchi (Singular- Bronchus): Trachea branches into two yy The two lungs are protected by the flexible ribcage and
smaller tubes called bronchi at its lower end. One bronchus sternum on the front and the vertebral column at the
enters each lung. back. Just beneath the lungs, there is a dome-shaped
Function: It brings air into the lungs. muscular sheet called diaphragm.
(b) Bronchioles: Bronchioles are located in each lung. yy There are about 350 million alveoli in each lung.
yy Each bronchus divide in lungs to form a large number Function: Lungs are the main breathing organ. It is the
of still smaller tubes called bronchioles. main respiratory surface available for the exchange of gases
yy Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of very (O2 & CO2).
thin and vascularised alveoli (in lungs). (e) Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a curved sheet of muscle
Function: It brings air deep into all parts of the lungs. below the lungs. It the primary muscle of respiration.
Function: It helps in breathing by moving up and down.
(f) Ribs: The lungs are protected in the chest cavity by a set
of rib bones.
Larynx yy The tissues between the rib bones are called the rib
primary bronchi
Trachea muscles.
secondary bronchi
tertiary bronchi yy The rib muscles move the rib bones and cause the chest
smaller bronchi
Left primary bronchus
cavity to enlarge and contract.
Right primary bronchus
Left secondary bronchus Function: The co-ordinated action of diaphragm and
Right secondary bronchus
Left tertiary bronchus
Left tertiary bronchus ribcage help in the mechanism of breathing in and breathing
out.
Smaller bronchi
Smaller bronchi
Flow of Air From Atmosphere to Lungs:
External nostrils → nasal passage → nasal chamber (cavity)
→ nasopharynx (a part of pharynx) → glottis → larynx →
Fig. Human respiratory system trachea → primary bronchi → secondary bronchi → tertiary
bronchi → bronchioles → terminal bronchioles → respiratory
(c) Alveoli (Singular-Alveolus): Alveoli are pouch like air bronchiole → alveolar duct
sacs found at the ends of the smallest bronchiole.
yy They are thin walled sacs with a single layer of cells
and heavily covered with blood capillaries. STEPS INVOLVED IN RESPIRATION
yy The exchange of gases between the air and blood takes
place across the walls of the alveoli. O2 from alveoli (i) Breathing or pulmonary ventilation.
passes into capillaries and CO2 from other capillaries (ii) Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane.
diffuses into alveoli for being removed. Alveoli are the (iii) Transport of gases by the blood.
organs where the actual gaseous exchange occurs. (iv) Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
yy Alveoli and their ducts form the respiratory or exchange (v) Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and
part of the respiratory system. resultant release of CO2– cellular or tissue respiration.
 374 BIOLOGY

Mechanism of Breathing (Inspiration & Expiration)

yy The process of breathing involves taking in oxygen-rich air Trachea
Ripe move
and giving out carbon dioxide-rich air. This entire process up and out
occurs because of the actions of various organs of the
respiratory system. Rib
yy We all know that we take in air through our nostrils, and
Lung deflated
when we breathe in, air passes through our nostrils into the Lung
nasal cavity. inflated
yy Air then reaches the lungs, which are located in the chest
cavity. The actual mechanism of breathing involves the
movement of the rib cage and the diaphragm, which Diaphragm
are located around and at the base of the chest cavity Spine Diaphragm curved down
respectively.
Breathing involves two main processes:
Fig. Mechanism of breathing
(a) Inspiration (Breathing IN)
yy Inhalation is the active intake of air from atmosphere into yy One breathe involves one inhalation and one exhalation.
lungs. Breathing rate changes from time to time as the requirement
for oxygen changes in the body.
yy During this, the diaphragm contracts (flattens) causing an
yy Average breathing rates at rest vary with age. For
increase in vertical volume (antero-posterior axis).
example,
yy Contraction of external inter-costal muscles (muscles found
²² A new born baby takes about 40 breaths each minute.
between ribs) lifts up the ribs and sternum causing an increase
²² A one-year-old child takes about 24 breaths per
in thoracic volume in the dorso-ventral axis.
minute.
yy These changes reduce pressure inside the thorax causing ²² An adult takes about 12-16 breaths per minute.
the expansion of lungs. Thus pulmonary volume increases ²² However, during exercise or running, the rate can
resulting in decrease of intra-pulmonary pressure to less than increase to over 100 breaths per minute.
the atmospheric pressure. So air moves into lungs. yy Spirometer (respirometer) is used to measure respiratory
yy The path followed by fresh air (oxygen) is: rate.
External nares → Nasal cavity → Internal Nares →
Pharynx → Glottis →Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi →
Bronchioles → Alveolar duct → Alveoli RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
(b) Expiration (Breathing OUT) yy Tidal volume (TV): It is the volume of air inspired or
yy It is the passive expelling of air from the lungs. expired during a normal respiration (volume of air renewed
yy During this, inter-costal muscles and diaphragm relax in respiratory system during each breathing). It is about
causing a decrease in thoracic volume and thereby pulmonary 500 ml.
volume. So air moves out. yy Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) or complemental air:
yy During forceful expiration, abdominal muscles and internal It is the additional volume of air that can inspire by forceful
inter-costal muscles contract. inspiration. It is about 2500-3000 ml.
yy The path followed by foul air (carbon dioxide) is: yy Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) or supplemental air: It
Alveoli → Alveolar duct → Bronchioles → Bronchi → is the additional volume of air that can expire by a forceful
Trachea → Larynx → Glottis Pharynx → Internal nares → expiration. It is about 1000-1100 ml.
Nasal cavities → External nares → Outside yy Residual volume (RV): It is the volume of air remaining
in lungs even after a forcible expiration. It is about 1100-
Remember, in the process of breathing
1200 ml.
(i) Size of the chest cavity changes when the diaphragm and
yy Inspiratory capacity (IC): It is the volume of air inspired
rib muscle expand and contract.
after a normal expiration (TV + IRV). It is about 3000-3500
(ii) Air pressure changes when there is a change in the size of ml.
the chest cavity. yy Expiratory capacity (EC): It is the volume of air expired
(iii) Air moves in and out of the lungs when there is a change after a normal inspiration (TV + ERV). It is about 1500-
in the air pressure inside the chest cavity. 1600 ml.
 Breathing and Exchange of Gases 375

yy Functional residual capacity (FRC): It is the volume of

air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration (ERV +
RV). It is about 2100-2300 ml.
yy Vital capacity (VC): It is the volume of air that can breathe
in after a forced expiration or volume of air that can breathe
out after a forced inspiration (ERV + TV + IRV). It is 3500-
4500 ml.
yy Total lung capacity (TLC): It is the total volume of air in
the lungs after a maximum inspiration. (RV + ERV + TV +
IRV or VC + RV). It is about 5000-6000 ml.
yy The part of respiratory tract (from nostrils to terminal
bronchi) not involved in gaseous exchange is called dead
space. Dead air volume is about 150 ml.

RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (RQ) Fig. A Diagram of a section of an alveolus with a pulmonary

capillary
yy Respiratory quotient is the ratio of the volume of carbon Blood which contains carbon dioxide from the cells of the body
dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen consumed over will appear blue, while blood rich with fresh oxygen will be red.
a period of time in respiration. This exchange must happen quickly. That is why; there are many
yy RQ = Volume of CO2 evolved/ Volume of O2 absorbed alveoli to allow greater area for exposure to capillaries.
yy Respiratory quotient varied with different foods utilized in yy The Partial pressures (individual pressure of a gas in a gas
respiration. mixture) of O2 and CO2 (pO2 and pCO2) are given below.
²² For glucose, RQ= 6CO2/6O2= 1
²² For fats, RQ= 0.7 Respiratory Gas pO2 (in mm Hg) pCO2 (in mm
²² For proteins, RQ= 0.9 Hg)
²² In anaerobic respiration, RQ= infinity as there is no Atmospheric air 159 0.3
consumption of oxygen. Alveoli 104 40

EXCHANGE OF GASES Deoxygenated blood 40 45

Oxygenated blood 95 40
Gas exchange occurs between
Tissues 40 45
1. Alveoli and blood
2. Blood and tissues ²² Since, pO2 in alveoli is more (104 mm Hg) than that
in the blood capillaries (40 mm Hg) so, O2 diffuses
1. Exchange of Gases Between Alveoli and Blood into capillary blood.
yy The exchange of gases between alveoli and pulmonary ²² Since, pCO 2 in deoxygenated blood is more
capillaries is called external respiration. (45 mm Hg) than that in the alveolus (40 mm Hg), so,
yy Alveoli are the primary sites of gas exchange. O2 and CO2 CO2 diffuses to alveolus.
are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion based on yy As the solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of
²² Pressure/ concentration gradient O2, the amount of CO2 that can diffuse through the diffusion
²² Solubility of gases membrane per unit difference in partial pressure is much
²² Thickness of membranes higher compared to that of O2.
²² Surface area of respiratory membrane (lungs) yy The diffusion membrane is made up of three layers:
yy Steps involved: ²² The thin squamous epithelium of alveoli
(i) Each alveolus has tiny blood vessels called capillaries ²² The endothelium of alveolar capillaries and
running around it.
²² The basement substance between them.
(ii) When the oxygen-rich air enters the lungs and travels to
yy However, its total thickness is much less than a millimetre.
the millions of alveoli, the oxygen passes through the cell
walls of the alveoli into the capillaries of the circulation 2. Exchange of Gases Between Blood and Tissue Cells
system.
(iii) At the same time, carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses yy The exchange of gases between tissue blood capillaries and
from capillary into an alveolus. This actually happens in tissue cells is called internal respiration.
the opposite direction to oxygen. yy Since, pO2 is higher (95 mm Hg) than that of the body cells
(iv) The carbon dioxide, the waste product is then sent back up (40 mm Hg), so, oxygen diffuses from the capillary blood
the airways to be expelled to the outside.
to the body cells through tissue fluid.
 376 BIOLOGY

yy Since, pCO2 is less (40 mm Hg) than that of the body cells iron containing pigment present in the RBCs) to form
(45 mm Hg), so, carbon dioxide diffuses from the body oxyhaemoglobin. This process is known as oxygenation.
cells of the capillary blood via tissue fluid. Hence, the blood Reversible Reaction
becomes deoxygenated. Hb +O2 HbO2
In lungs In tissues
yy The deoxygenated blood is carried to the heart and hence
to the lungs. Structure of haemoglobin (Hb)
Expired air yy Hb consists of a protein portion called goblin and a pigment
Inspired air portion called heme.
yy The heme portion contains four atoms of iron, each capable
of combining with a molecule of oxygen. It means, each Hb
Alveolar air
molecule can carry 4 oxygen molecules depending upon the
pO2 = 104 mmHg
CO2 O2 Alveolus saturation with oxygen which depends on following factors.
pCO2 = 40 mmHg (i) Increases with the increase in pO2 of alveolar air.
CO2 O2 (ii) Increases with the decrease in pCO2 of blood.
High pO /Low pCO (lungs)
2 2
Pulmonary CO2 O2 
→ Hb 4 O8
Hb 4 + 4O 2 ←

Pulmonary Low pO 2 / High pCO 2 (Tissues)
artery vein
²² In the alveoli, high pO2, low pCO2, lesser H+ ion
concentration and lower temperature exist. These factors
are favourable for the formation of oxyhaemoglobin.
²² In tissues, low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ ions and high
temperature exist. So Hb4O8 dissociates to release O2.
²² Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around
Systemic veins Systemic arteries
(carrying
5 ml of O2 to the tissues under normal physiological
(carrying
oxygenated conditions.
deoxygenated
blood) blood)
CO2 O2 Oxygen-Haemoglobin Dissociation Curve
yy It is a sigmoid curve showing the percent saturation of
CO2 O2 pO2 = 95 mm Hg haemoglobin with the changes in pO2 at constant pH.
pO2 = 40 mm Hg
pCO2 = 40 mm Hg yy It shows that there is a progressive increase in the percent
pCO2 = 45 mm Hg
saturation of Hb with the increase in pO2 upto a level when
Body tissues it becomes constant (i.e. 30 % saturation at 20 mm Hg, 75 %
saturation at 40 mm Hg and 97 % saturation at 95 mm Hg).
Fig.  iagrammatic representation of exchange of gases at the
D
yy The oxygen dissociation curve is a sigmoid curve obtained
alveolus and the body tissues with blood and transport
when percentage saturation of oxyhaemoglobin is plotted
of oxygen and carbon dioxide
against various partial pressures of oxygen.
yy The curve shows the equilibrium of oxyhaemoglobin and
GAS TRANSPORT (O2 TRANSPORT & CO2 haemoglobin at various partial pressures.
TRANSPORT) yy In the lungs, the partial pressure of oxygen is high. Hence,
haemoglobin binds to oxygen and forms oxyhaemoglobin.
1. Transport of O2 yy Tissues have a low oxygen concentration. Therefore, at
the tissues, oxyhaemoglobin releases oxygen to form
It occurs in two ways: haemoglobin.
(a) As blood plasma: About 3% of O2 is carried in a dissolved yy The sigmoid shape of the dissociation curve is because of
state through plasma. the binding of oxygen to haemoglobin. As the first oxygen
(b) As oxyhaemoglobin: About 97% of O2 is transported molecule binds to haemoglobin, it increases the affinity
by RBC. O 2 binds with haemoglobin (red coloured for the second molecule of oxygen to bind. Subsequently,
haemoglobin attracts more oxygen.
 Breathing and Exchange of Gases 377

It takes place in three 3 ways:

Low blood In tissues, pCO2 is high and pO2 is low. In lungs, pCO2 is low and
Percent saturation of hemoglobin

pCO2 pO2 is high. This favours CO2 transport from tissues to lungs.
(a) As carbonic acid: In tissues, about 7% of CO2 is carried in
Normal blood
dissolved state through plasma. Carbon dioxide combines
pCO2
with water to form carbonic acid and is carried to lungs. This
reaction mainly occurs in RBCs as it is catalyses by zinc-
High blood
pCO2 activated enzyme, carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase is
a zinc enzyme that speeds up the formation of carbonic acid.

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

 (Carbonic acid)
Since the process of forming carbonic acid is slow, only a
small amount of carbon dioxide is carried this way.
pO2 (mm Hg) (b) As carbamino-haemoglobin: About 20 – 25% of CO2 is
transported by the red blood cells as carbaminohaemoglobin.
Fig. Effect of pCO2 on affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen Carbon dioxide binds to the amino groups on the polypeptide
chains of haemoglobin and forms a compound known as
Low temperature
(20°C, 68°F) carbaminohaemoglobin.
(c) As bicarbonates: About 70% of carbon dioxide is
Percent saturation of hemoglobin

transported as sodium bicarbonate. As CO2 diffuses into

the blood plasma, a large part of it combines with water
Normal blood to form carbonic acid in the presence of the enzyme
Temperature carbonic anhydrase. This carbonic acid dissociates into
(37°C, 98.6°F) bicarbonate (HCO3–) and hydrogen ions (H+). The most of
the bicarbonate ions diffuses into the plasma. To maintain
High temperature electro neutrality, equal amounts of chloride ions diffuse
(43°C, 110°F) inside the RBCs from the plasma. This exchange of
HCO3– of RBCs and Cl- of plasma is called chloride shift
or Hamburger shift.
Carbonic anhydrase
CO2 +H2O H2 CO3
pO2 (mm Hg) CO2 +H2O Carbonic
H2 CO3
anhydrase
red blood cell
Fig.  xygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve showing the
O
relationship between temperature and haemoglobin Carbonic
saturation with O2 CO2in plasma
diffusion anhydrase
CO2+H2O H2OCO3
1 2
Significance of oxygen dissociation curve: It is useful to study
3
the effect of factors like pCO2, H+ concentration etc., on binding HbO8 diffusion
of O2 with Hb. H+ + HCO3 HCO3– in plasma
4
Factors affecting oxygen dissociation curve: 5
CI-
diffusion diffusion
(i) pCO2: With increase in pCO2, the oxygen dissociation O2in plasma 4O2 CI – in plasma
6 chloride shift
curve turns to right side and oxygen binding capacity of Hg HHb
gets lowered. This is known as Bohr’s effect. It is because;
the higher concentration of CO2 stimulates dissociation of In alveoli, the above reaction proceeds in opposite direction
oxyhaemoglobin. leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O.
(ii) Temperature: With increase in temperature, the oxygen Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers about 4 ml
dissociation curve turns to right side. of CO2 to the alveoli.
(iii) pH: with increase in acidity (i.e. decrease in pH), the
oxygen dissociation curve turns to right.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
yy Cellular respiration is the enzymatic breakdown of glucose
2. Transport of CO2 (C6H12O6) in the presence of oxygen (O2) to produce cellular
It is transported both by plasma and haemoglobin of blood. energy (ATP). It takes place in all types of living cells.
 378 BIOLOGY

yy Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery

also recognize changes in CO2 and H+ concentration and
send necessary signals to the rhythm centre.
yy It involves:
DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
(i) The uptake of oxygen by tissues
(ii) Stepwise breakdown of glucose molecules and other 1. Hypoxia
nutrients, and yy It is a Condition of oxygen shortage in the tissues.
(iii) Release of carbon dioxide and energy. 2. Asphyxia
yy This occurs in the mitochondria of the cells and is called
yy In this O2 content falls whilst the CO2 content rises
cellular respiration.
3. Asthma
yy It is a disease caused due to an allergic reaction to foreign
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION substances that affect the respiratory tract. In this, the airways
and lungs of a person can become obstructed because they
yy Respiration is under both nervous and chemical regulation.
narrow and cut off air flow.
(i) Neural Regulation yy Bronchioles can constrict (narrow) because of muscle
spasms.
It involves respiratory centers, afferent and efferent nerves. yy Asthma can occur at any age.
yy Respiratory centers are the centers in the medulla oblongata Causes of Asthma
and pons that collects sensory information about the level yy The allergens, which cause allergy, stimulate the release the
of O2 and CO2 in the blood and determines the signals to histamine from the mast cells. This causes the bronchiolar
be sent to the respiratory muscles.
smooth muscles to contract.
yy The stimulation of respiratory muscles provide respiratory
Symptoms
movements which leads to alveolar ventilation.
yy Coughing
yy Respiratory centers are classified into two groups:
yy Wheezing
²² Medullary center, which is divided into Inspiratory
yy Difficulty in breathing
center and expiratory center.
yy Excess amount of mucus is secreted on the wall of the
²² Pontine center, which is divided into Pneumotaxic center
respiratory tract.
and apneustic center.
Treatment for Asthma
yy Inspiratory center is concerned with inspiration.
yy Drugs called bronchodilators (inhalers). These devices help
yy Expiratory center is inactive during quiet breathing. At that
dilate (open up) the bronchioles.
time inspiratory center is the active center.
yy During forced breathing or when inhibitory center is 4. Bronchitis (Inflammation of the Bronchi)
inhibited, expiratory center becomes active. yy A condition where the bronchi and bronchioles get inflamed
yy Pneumotaxic center: It controls medullary respiratory and their cavities become narrow so that air cannot pass in
centers, particularly inspiratory center, so that duration of and out of lungs easily. The pathway gets constricted either
inspiration is controlled. due to accumulation of mucus on the walls of the bronchi or
yy Apneustic center: This center increases depth of inspiration bronchioles.. Also infection of the accumulated mucus leads
by acting directly on the inspiratory center. to inflammation of walls of the lungs and bronchi, which
narrow the airways and cause difficulty in breathing.
(ii) Chemical Regulation
Causes of Bronchitis
yy The chemical mechanism of regulation is operated through yy Infection from coughs and colds.
chemoreceptors. yy Smoking
yy Chemoreceptors are classified into two groups: yy Exposure to air pollutant like carbon monoxide.
²² Central chemoreceptors: The chemoreceptors present Symptoms:
in the brain are called central chemoreceptors. They are yy Regular coughing with thick greenish sputum.
situated in deeper part of medulla oblongata. This area Treatment for Bronchitis
is known as chemosensitive area and neurons are called yy Antibiotics
chemoreceptors. yy Stop smoking
²² Peripheral chemoreceptors: The receptors present in
5. Emphysema (Emphysema Means “Inflation”).
the peripheral portions of the body are called peripheral
chemoreceptors. yy It is an inflation or abnormal distension of the bronchioles or
yy Increase in the concentration of CO2 and H+ activates this alveolar sacs of the lungs. This causes some of them to burst
centre, which in turn signals rhythm centre. resulting in a decrease of surface area for gas exchange.
 Breathing and Exchange of Gases 379

Causes of Emphysema Cause

yy Cigarette smoking yy It is caused by the harmful substances such as fumes or
yy Inhalation of other smoke or toxic substances over a period dust, present in the environment where a person works.
of time. Examples:
Symptoms ²² Silicosis: Due to breathing of silica dust.
yy Difficulty in breathing ²² Asbestosis: Due to breathing in asbestos particle.
Treatment for Emphysema Symptoms:
yy Stop smoking yy Inflammation of upper part of lungs.
yy Exercise Treatment:
yy Drugs, to make alveoli work. yy Minimize the exposure of harmful dust at working place.
yy Oxygen therapy yy Workers must use the protective gears and clothing at the
6. Occupational Respiratory Disorders work place.
yy Bronchodilators
yy This disorder is due to the occupation of the individual
yy Antibiotics
 Chapter
Body Fluids
18 and Circulation
yy Our body, in fact all multicellular organisms have specialised yy The evolution of the heart is based on the separation of
systems to transport nutrients and other necessary materials oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood for efficient
to the cell and wastes away from the cell. oxygen transport.
yy The transportation of nutrients, gases, wastes and other
substances from one part of our body to the other part, is
carried out by blood, and is termed as circulation. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
yy The organs responsible for the flow of blood and lymph
yy Humans have a closed circulatory system: Blood pumped by
through various parts of the body constitute the circulatory
the heart always flows through a closed network of blood
system.
vessels.
yy For circulation
yy It consists of Blood vascular system and Lymphatic system.
²² Simple organisms like sponges, coelenterates etc. use
water from their surroundings. I. BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM (Heart, Blood vessels
� Complex organisms, like humans use body fluids (blood
& Blood)
and lymph) for circulation.
Blood (The Circulating Fluid)
yy It is a special connective tissue that circulates in principal
CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS
vascular system of man and other vertebrates.
yy Circulatory system is two types- Open and Closed. yy It consists of fluid matrix, plasma (55%) and formed elements
(45%).
Difference between open and closed system of circulation yy They connect different body systems.
yy Blood is a slightly alkaline fluid having pH 7.4.
Open system Closed system
In this system, blood is pumped In this system, blood is pumped by
by the heart, through large vessels, the heart, through a closed network 55% 45%
into open spaces or body cavities of vessels.
called sinuses.
The body tissues are in direct The body tissues are not in direct Red blood cells
contact with blood. contact with blood. Platelets
Plasma
Blood flows at low pressure. Hence, Blood flows at high pressure. White blood cells
it is a slower and less efficient Hence, it is a faster and more
system of circulation. efficient system of circulation.
The flow of blood is not regulated The flow of blood can be regulated Fig. Composition of blood
through the tissues and organs. by valves.
Important
This system is present in arthropods This system is present in annelids, Blood is considered as a type of connective tissue because of
and molluscs. echinoderms, and vertebrates.
two reasons.
yy All vertebrates have a muscular chambered heart. The (i) Like the other connective tissues, blood is mesodermal in
function of the heart is to pump oxygen to all parts of the origin.
body. (ii) It connects the body systems, transports oxygen and
 392 BIOLOGY

nutrients to all the parts of the body, and removes the waste ²² Count:5 − 5.5 million/ mm3 of blood.
products. Blood has an extra-cellular matrix called plasma, ²² Formed in: Red bone marrow.
with red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets ²² Other features: Biconcave and devoid of nucleus.
floating in it. These cells contain a red colour pigment called
a. Plasma: haemoglobin. It is the haemoglobin that carries
yy Plasma is slightly alkaline non-living intercellular substance. oxygen and transports it to all parts of the body.
It is pale yellow but transparent and clear fluid. ²² Normal Hb level: 12-16 gm/ 100 ml of blood
yy It constitutes about 55% of blood. ²² Worn-out RBCs are destroyed in spleen, hence
yy Constituents of plasma and their functions: spleen is called the graveyard of RBCs.
²² Water (90-92%): It is a good solvent. It transports ²² Function: Involved in transport of respiratory
vitamins, hormones, enzymes, nutrients etc. gases.
²² Plasma proteins (6-8 %): It includes: ²² After donating blood, you replace the fluid in hours and
♦♦ Fibrinogen: It is a plasma glycoprotein synthesised RBCs within four weeks. It takes about eight weeks to
by the liver. It plays a role in the clotting of blood. restore the iron which is lost after blood donation.
♦♦ Globulin: It is the major protein of the plasma. It (ii) Leucocytes or White Blood Cells (WBC):White blood
protects the body against foreign bodies. It acts as cells are colourless cells without haemoglobin. They are
antibodies. the largest cell of the blood.
♦♦ Albumin: It is the major protein of the plasma. It ²² Count: 6000 − 8000/ mm3 of blood
helps in maintaining the fluid volume within the ²² Average lifespan: Generally short lived (1- 15 days).
vascular space. It also regulates the blood pressure. ²² Formed in: Bone marrow, lymph glands, spleen.
²² Glucose, amino acids, lipids and cholesterol: It is meant ²² Other features: Colourless. Nucleated. Different types
for energy production and growth. of leucocytes have different sites for formation.
–
²² Inorganic constituents: Na+, K+, Mg2+, Cl–, HCO32 ²² Function: They have a major role to play in defence
regulates osmosis etc. Ca2+ ions help in blood clotting system of body.
and muscle contraction. Blood Disorders:
²² Gases like CO2, O2, N2 etc. for transport. yy Increase in R.B.C (More than normal): Polycythemia.
yy Plasma without clotting factors is known as Serum. yy Decrease in R.B.C (less than normal): Anemia
Serum = Plasma − Clotting factors yy Increase in W.B.C. (more than normal): Leukemia
b. Formed elements (RBC, WBC and platelets) yy Decrease in W.B.C (less than normal): Leukopenia
yy It constitutes about 45% of blood. Types of Leucocytes (WBCs): Granulocytes and
(i) Erythrocytes or Red Blood Cells (RBC): Red blood
cells are the most abundant cells in the blood.
²² Average lifespan: 120 days.

Agranulocytes

Leucocytes

Granulocytes Agranulocytes

Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Lymphocytes Monocytes

(Most abundant) (Least abundant) (20 - 25%, involved in
60 - 65% 0.5 - 15% immune responses) Phagocytic
Associate
Phagocytic Secrete histamine
with all ergic
reactions serotonins, heparine
involved in B Lymphocytes T Lymphocytes
inflammatory response
 Body Fluids and Circulation 393

yy Granulocytes: It is of three types: Neutrophils, Basophils, surface of their RBCs, and antibodies against A antigen in
and Eosinophils. their plasma.
yy Individuals with AB blood group have both antigen A and
Name Structure Life span/ Function antigen B on their RBCs, and no antibodies for either of the
Formation antigens in their plasma.
Neutrophils Many lobed Bone marrow, Soldiers of the body, yy Type O individuals are without A and B antigens on their
(Heterophils: nucleus with Life: 4-8 hrs in Phagocytic, engulf RBCs, but have antibodies for both these antigens in their
60-65 %.) fine granules blood germ and dead cells plasma.
Basophils Three lobed Bone marrow, Secrete histamine, Human ABO blood groups and their compatibility
(Cyanophils: nucleus Life: 4-8 hrs in serotonin, heparin
Blood Anti- Anti- Can give Can receive Remarks
0.5-1 %.) blood etc. Involved in
group gens bodies blood to blood from
inflammatory
(donor’s
reactions.
group)
Eosinophils Bilobed Bone marrow, Play a role in
A A Anti-B A and AB A, O -
(Acidophils: nucleus, Life: 4-8 hrs in immunity, non-
2-3 %.) granules in blood phagocytic B B Anti-A B and AB B, O -
cytoplasm AB A, B Nil AB only A, B, AB, and U n iv er s al
O recipient
yy Agranulocytes: It is of two types: Lymphocytes and
Monocytes. O Nil Anti-A, A, B, AB, O only U n iv er s al
Anti-B and O donor
Name Structure Life span/ Function yy If bloods with interactive antigens and antibodies together,
Formation
it causes clumping (agglutination) of RBCs.
Lymphocytes Smallest Lymph nodes, Cause immune yy Persons with O Group are called Universal donors because
(20-25%) WBC with spleen, thymus, responses, Non- they can donate blood to persons with any otherblood group.
(Includes large rounded bone marrow, phagocytic,
yy Persons with AB group are called Universal recipients
B- lymphocytes nucleus Life: Few days secrete
because they can accept blood from all groups.
& to months or antibodies
T-lymphocytes.) even years yy If a person is injured so severely that a large amount of blood
is lost, a transfusion of blood from another person may be
Monocytes Largest Bone marrow, Phagocytic,
required.
(6-8%) WBC. Life: 10-20 hrs engulf germs
Bean shaped
yy Whenever blood is transfused from one person to another, it
nucleus is important to know the blood group of each person.
B. Rh grouping
yy Platelets (Thrombocytes): Platelets are small irregular
bodies present in the blood. yy Rhesus (Rh) factor is another antigen found on the surface
²² Count: 1.5 − 3.5 × 105/ mm3 of blood of RBCs.
²² Average lifespan: 7 days. yy It was discovered by Landsteiner and Wiener in 1940 in
²² Formed in: Megakaryocytes in bone marrow. the blood of Rhesus monkey, hence its name.
yy The presence of this antigen is termed as Rh - positive (Rh+)
²² Other features: Colourless non-nucleated cell
and its absence as (Rh–)
fragments.
yy Nearly 80% of humans are Rh+ve.
²² Function: Blood clotting. Platelets release blood
yy Anti-Rh antibodies are not naturally found. So Rh-ve
clotting chemicals at the site of injury. These chemical person can receive Rh+ve blood only once but it causes the
form a clot and prevent further bleeding. development of anti-Rh antibodies in his blood. So a second
Blood Groups (ABO Grouping & Rh Grouping) transfusion of Rh+ve blood causes agglutination.
yy Therefore, Rh-group should be matched before transfusion.
yy Carl Landsteiner reported first time ABO blood groups in
humans. Erythroblastosis Foetalis
A. ABO grouping yy It is an Rh incompatibility between the Rh-ve blood of a
yy It is based on presence or absence of two surface antigens on pregnant mother and Rh+ve blood of the foetus.
RBCs, namely A and B. Antigens are chemicals that induce yy Rh antigens do not get mixed with maternal blood in first
immune response. Similarly, plasma contains two antibodies, pregnancy because placenta separates the two bloods.
namely anti-A and anti-B. Antibodies are proteins produced yy But at the time of first delivery, there is a possibility of
in response to antigens. exposure of the maternal blood to small amounts of the
yy Persons with blood group A have the A antigen on the surface Rh+ve blood from the foetus. This induces the formation of
of their RBCs, and antibodies to antigen B in their plasma. Rh antibodies in maternal blood.
yy Persons with blood group B have the B antigen on the yy In case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies
from the mother leak into the blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and
 394 BIOLOGY

destroy the foetal RBCs. This is fatal to the foetus or cause yy Veins carry carbon dioxide rich blood except for pulmonary
severe anaemia and jaundice to the baby. This condition is vein. Pulmonary vein carries oxygen rich blood from the
called Erythroblastosis foetalis. lungs to the heart.
yy This can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies yy Veins possess valves. Valves allow the blood to flow only in
to the mother immediately after the delivery of first child. one direction i.e. towards the heart.
yy Their smaller branches are called venules.

BLOOD COAGULATION Difference between an Artery and a Vein

Artery Vein
yy It is a mechanism for haemostasis. Haemostasis is the
They transport blood away from They transport blood towards the
prevention of blood loss through injuries. It involves the
the heart. heart
following events:
yy Clumped platelets and tissues at the site of injury release They carry oxygen rich blood. They carry carbon dioxide rich
blood.
thromboplastin→ Thromboplastin form an enzyme;
thrombo-kinase (Prothrombinase) → Thrombokinase They transport blood under high They transport blood under low
hydrolyses prothrombin to thrombin in presence of calcium. pressure. pressure than artery.
²² Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin. They do not have valves. They have valves to prevent
²² Fibrin traps dead and damaged formed elements to form backflow of blood.
clot (coagulum). c. Capillaries:
Injury in blood vessels yy In tissues, arterioles divide into thin walled single layered
vessels called capillaries.
Platelets clump at the wound yy The wall of the capillaries is very thin. They form networks
which reach every living cell of the body.
Platelets released thrombokinase yy They unite into venules, which carry blood to the heart.
Histology of Blood Vessels
Thrombin Prothrombin Vitamin K
Thrombokinase A blood vessel is formed of three layers: Tunica interna, Tunica
media and Tunica externa or Tunica adventitia.
(i) Tunica interna: It is the innermost layer and is formed
Fibrin Fibrinogen of inner lining of flattened endothelial cells joined edge
to edge and an outer layer of elastic membrane, which is
Clot forms to prevent further blood loss formed of yellow fibrous tissues.
(ii) Tunica media: It is the middle layer formed of smooth
Blood Vessels: Connecting Tubes circular muscle fibers and a network of elastic fibres. So,
yy Blood moves around the body in special tubes called blood artery is more elastic and more contractile.
vessels. (iii) Tunica externa (Tunica adventitia): It is the outermost
yy Blood vessels are hollow tubes that carry blood to all parts layer and is formed of collagen rich connective tissue.
of the body. The collagen fibres give strength to the blood vessels and
yy They are located throughout the human body. prevent over dilation of the blood vessels.
yy There are three types of blood vessels- Arteries, veins and Structure of Heart - Central Pumping Organ
capillaries. yy Heart is located in the thoracic cavity in between the lungs.
a. Arteries: It is slightly tilted to the left.
yy Arteries carry blood from the heart to various organs of yy Heart is a mesodermally derived organ located in mediastinum.
the body. yy It is protected by double-layered pericardium.
yy They generally carry oxygen rich blood except for yy The pericardial space (between pericardial membranes) is
pulmonary artery. Pulmonary artery is the only artery filled with pericardial fluid. It reduces the friction between
that carries carbon dioxide rich blood from heart to lungs. the heart walls, and surrounding tissues. It also protects the
yy Their walls are thick and elastic to tolerate the high pressure heart from mechanical shocks.
of the blood. yy The heart is 4 chambered, two upper atria (auricles) and two
yy Arteries are three-layered. Their smaller branches are called lower ventricles. The walls (cardiac muscles) of the ventricles
are much thicker than that of the atria.
arterioles.
yy The atria are separated by an inter-atrial septum and the
b. Veins:
ventricles are separated by inter-ventricular septum.
yy They transport blood towards the heart from the various
organs. Heart Valves
 Body Fluids and Circulation 395

(a) Tricuspid Valve: The valves formed of three muscular the right and the left ventricles and allow the entry of blood
flaps or cups, which guard the opening between the right into pulmonary artery and the aorta respectively. They
atrium and the right ventricle. prevent backward flow of blood.
(b) Bicuspid Valve (Mitral Valve): The valves which guard
the opening between the left atrium and the left ventricle,
made up of two flaps.
(c) Semilunar Valves: The valves present at the opening of

Left common carotid artery

Left subclavian artery
Brachiocephalic trunk

Arch of aorta
Ligamentum arteriosum
Superior vena cava
Right pulmonary artery Left pulmonary artery
Pulmonary valve Pulmonary trunk
Left pulmonary veins
Right pulmonary veins Left atrium
Aortic valve
Opening of superior vena cava Bicuspid (mitral) valve
Fossa ovalis Chordae tendineae
Right atrium Left ventricle
Opening of coronary sinus Interventricular septum
Papillary muscle
Tricuspid valve
Trabeculae carneae
Right ventricle

Inferior vena cava

Descending aorta

Fig. Human
Fig.:heart
Human heart

Histology of Heart Conducting System of Heart

Heart wall is formed of three layers: Endocardium, Myocardium yy Human heart is myogenic, i.e. normal activities of heart are
and Pericardium. autoregulated by nodal tissues. Nodal tissues are specialized
(i) Endocardium: It is the innermost layer, made up of cardiac musculature present in heart wall.
squamous epithelium yy It consists of
(ii) Myocardium: It is the middle layer, formed of cardiac ²² Sino-atrial node (SAN) in the right upper corner of
muscle fibres. the right atrium.
(iii) Pericardium: it is the visceral coelomic epithelium of flat ²² Atrio-ventricular node (AVN) in the lower left
cells. corner of the right atrium close to the atrio-ventricular
Blood flow through the Heart septum.
Chamber Receives blood Send blood to Valves through yy From the AVN, a bundle of fibrous atrio-ventricular bundle
of the from which blood (AV bundle) passes through atrio-ventricular septa and
Heart flows divides into a right & left branches. Each branch passes
Right Superior vena Right ventricle Right AV valve through the ventricular walls of its side. In the ventricular
Atrium cava, inferior vena wall, it breaks up into minute fibres (Purkinje fibres). These
cava, coronary
sinus
fibres along with the bundles are known as bundle of His.
yy Nodal tissues generate action potential without any external
Right Right Atrium Pulmonary trunk Pulmonary
ventricle (Blood enters semilunar valve stimuli, i.e. it is auto-excitable. SAN initiates and maintains
pulmonary circuit) contraction of heart by generating action potentials (70-75/
Left Pulmonary veins Left ventricle Left AV valve min). So it is called the pacemaker.
Atrium yy The auricular contraction initiated by the wave of excitation
Left Left Atrium Aorta (Blood enters Aortic from the sino-atrial node (SA node) stimulates the atrio-
Ventricle systemic circuit) semilunar valve ventricular node, thereby leading to the contraction of
 396 BIOLOGY

ventricles through the bundle of His and Purkinje fibres. backflow of blood into the ventricles.
Hence, the atrio-ventricular node and the atrioventricular ²² The tricuspid and bicuspid valves are opened by the
bundle play a role in the contraction of ventricles. pressure in the atria.
yy The ventricles and atria again undergo joint diastole and the
Cardiac Cycle
above processes are repeated. This is called cardiac cycle.
Cardiac cycle is defined as the complete cycle of events in the heart yy A cardiac cycle (atrial systole + ventricular systole + diastole)
from the beginning of one heart beat to the beginning of the next. is completed in 0.8 seconds.
It comprises three stages – atrial systole, ventricular systole, and yy Stroke volume: It is the volume of blood pumped out by
complete cardiac diastole. each ventricle during a cardiac cycle. It is about 70 ml.
Difference between systole and Diastole

Systole Diastole Auricular

Systole
It is the contraction of the heart It is the relaxation of the heart (0.1 Sec)
chambers to drive blood into the chambers between two contractions.
aorta and the pulmonary artery. During diastole, the chambers are
filled with blood.
Systole decreases the volume of Diastole brings the heart chambers Complete
Cardiac
the heart chambers and forces the back into their original sizes to Ventricular
Diastole
blood out of them. receive more blood. Systole
(0.4 Sec)
(0.3 Sec)
(i) Joint diastole: Firstly, all chambers of heart are in relaxed
state. This is known as joint diastole. When the tricuspid
and bicuspid valves open, blood from pulmonary vein and
vena cava flows into left and right ventricles respectively
through left and right atria.
(ii) Atrial (Auricular) systole: The SAN generates an action
potential which stimulates both the atria to undergo
Fig. Cardiac cycle showing time in different stages
contraction. This is known as atrial systole. Atrial
systole increases the flow of blood into the ventricles by
about 30%.
There is no back flow of blood from the auricles to large
veins because:
(a) Contraction of auricles from anterior to posterior part
of the heart.
(b) Presence of valves at the opening of inferior vena cava
and coronary veins.
(c) Presence of blood in large veins. Atrial Systole
Ventricular
Atrial systole takes 0.1 sec while atrial diastole is of Diaslole Isovolumic
about 0.7 secs. Ventricular Ventricular
yy Ventricular systole: The action potential is conducted to Systole Condtraction
ventricular side by AVN and AV bundle from where bundle
of His transmits it through the ventricular musculature. This
causes the contraction of ventricles and the process is known
as ventricular systole. During this, the atria undergo diastole.
Ventricular systole increases the ventricular pressure causing-
²² Closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves due to attempted
back flow of blood into the atria.
²² Semilunar valves open. So de-oxygenated blood enters Fig. Mechanism of cardiac cycle
the pulmonary artery from right ventricle and oxygenated
blood enters the aorta from left ventricle. Cardiac Output
Ventricular systole takes about 0.3 seconds while ventricular yy It is the volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle per
diastole takes about 0.5 seconds. minute, i.e. stroke volume x heartrate
yy The ventricles now relax (ventricular diastole) and the yy The value of cardiac output of a normal personis about
ventricular pressure falls causing 72×70= 5040 mL or about 5L per minute.
²² The closure of the semilunar valves which prevents the yy Cardiac output of an athlete is very high.
 Body Fluids and Circulation 397

Heart Sounds yy Significance of double circulation: The separation of

yy Heart sounds are noises generated by the closing and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood allows a more efficient
opening of the heart valves. supply of oxygen to the body cells. Blood is circulated to the
yy In a healthy individual, there are two normal heart sounds body tissues through systemic circulation and to the lungs
called lub and dub. Lub is the first heart sound. It is through pulmonary circulation.
associated with the closure of the tricuspid and bicuspid
valves at the beginning of systole. The second heart sound Pulmonary artery Lungs Pulmonary Vein
dub is associated with the closure of the semilunar valves
at the beginning of diastole.
yy One heartbeat = a lub + a dub. Deoxygenated Blood Oxygenated Blood
yy These sounds provide important information about the
condition and working of the heart.
Right Left
Heart Beat PULMONARY CIRCULATION
Ventiricle Atrium
yy Heart beat is the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the
heart, which includes one systole (contraction phase) and
one diastole (relaxation phase) of the heart.
yy One heartbeat = a cardiac cycle. So number of normal Right
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
Left
heartbeat is 70-75 times/min. (Average: 72/min). Atrium Ventricle
yy Relationship between your heartbeat and pulse rate:
Pulse is the rate at which your heart beats. Therefore, pulse
is also known as heart rate, which is the number of times Superior &
Veins Tissues Arteries Aorta
the heart beats per minute. Interior
yy Therefore Pulse = Number of heartbeat/minute
yy Doctors use a stethoscope for listening to the sound Portal System
generated by heart inside your body. yy A portal vein with its branches is called a portal system,
Double Circulation and the flow of blood through it is called portal circulation.
yy Double circulation is a process during which blood passes yy A portal vein is a special type of vein which collects blood
twice through the heart during one complete cycle. from some organs by a system of capillaries, but divides
yy This type of circulation is found in amphibians, reptiles, into a second capillary system in some intermediate organ
birds, and mammals. However, it is more prominent in birds before the blood finally returns to the heart.
and mammals as in them the heart is completely divided yy There are two types of portal system in human beings:
into four chambers – the right atrium, the right ventricle, Hepatic portal system and Hypophyseal portal system.
the left atrium, and the left ventricle. (i) Hepatic portal system: It is a system which includes the
yy The movement of blood in an organism is divided into two hepatic portal vein that carries blood from alimentary canal
parts:Systemic circulation and Pulmonary circulation and associated glands like pancreas, spleen etc.to the liver
(which acts as an intermediate organ) before returning to
(i) Systemic Circulation
the heart.
yy It involves circulation of blood between heart and various (ii) Hypophyseal portal system: It is a system, which includes
body parts. the Hypophyseal portal vein which collects the blood
yy The oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart from hypothalamus of the brain and forms second set of
is passed through aorta, arteries, arterioles and capillaries
capillaries in anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
and is reached the tissues.
yy Function: It transfers the releasing hormones of the
yy The deoxygenated blood collected from the tissues by
venules, veins and vena cava is carried to the right atrium. hypothalamus to anterior lobe of pituitary to stimulate or
yy The systemic circulation provides nutrients, O2 and other inhibit the secretion of hormones.
essential substances to the tissues and takes CO2 and other Renal Portal System
harmful substances away for elimination
yy It is a portal system, in which portal vein opens in kidneys
(ii) Pulmonary Circulation which act as intermediate organs. Kidney tubules extract
yy It involves circulation between lungs and heart. waste and excess of salts from blood to prevent inflow of
yy The deoxygenated blood pumped into the pulmonary artery water. It is found in fishes, amphibians and reptiles. Renal
is passed on to lungs from where oxygenated blood is carried portal system is vestigial in birds and absent in mammals.
by pulmonary veins into the left atrium.
yy Hence, in double circulation, blood has to pass alternately Coronary Circulatory System
through the lungs and the tissues. It is a system of coronary vessels that circulate blood to and from
 398 BIOLOGY

the cardiac musculature. It is formed of coronary arteries and vessels. Blood pressure rises and falls as the heart contracts
coronary veins. and then relaxes.
(i) The right and left coronary arteries arise from the ascending yy Blood pressure rises sharply when the ventricles contract,
aorta which supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle. pushing blood through the arteries. The high pressure
(ii) The coronary veins bring deoxygenated blood to the is called systolic pressure. Blood pressure then drops
coronary sinus which opens in the right auricle. dramatically as the ventricles relax. The lowest pressure
occurs just before the ventricles contract again. It is called
diastolic pressure.
Aorta Left
coronary yy These two pressures can be measured in the arteries of the
artery arms.
Circumflex yy A reading of 120/75 means that the person’s systolic
Right
artery pressure is 120 mm of mercury and diastolic pressure is 75
coronary Left mm of mercury.
artery anterior yy The device used for measuring blood pressure is called
descending Sphygmomanometer.
artery
II. Lymphatic System
Fig. Coronary circulatory system It constitutes Lymph, Lymph vessels and Lymph nodes.

Blood Pressure
yy Blood pressure is the force that the blood exerts on the blood
Circulation to lungs
Pulmonary
Lymph capillaries capillary network

Venule
Blood Lymphatic
capillaries capillaries Arteriole

Lymph
node

Lymphatic
vessel

Tissue cell Tissue space

(interstitium)

Circulation to lower body

Fig. Lymphatic system

1. Lymph ²² It is the middle man between blood and tissues.

yy Lymph is a clear yellowish, slightly alkaline, coagulable ²² It carries plasma proteins synthesized in liver to the
fluid, containing white blood cells in a liquid resembling blood.
blood plasma. ²² It transports digested fats (through lacteals in the
yy Composition:It is composed of fluid matrix, plasma, white intestinal villi), fat soluble vitamins, hormones etc.
blood corpuscles or leucocytes. ²² It helps in filtration of bacteria and foreign particles.
yy The organs which secrete lymph are called lymphoid organs. ²² Lymph nodes produce WBC (lymphocytes) and
Lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus gland, spleen and Peyer’s
antibodies.
Patches are some lymphoid organs.
²² It helps in the defensive mechanism of the body.
yy Functions of lymph
 Body Fluids and Circulation 399

Difference between Lymph and Blood

Blood Lymph
It is a red-coloured fluid that It is a colourless fluid that does
contains RBCs. not contain RBCs.

It contains plasma, RBCs, WBCs, It contains plasma, RBCs, WBCs,

and platelets. and platelets.

It is associated with the circulation It is associated with the circulation

of oxygen and carbon dioxide. of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Its plasma has proteins, calcium, Its plasma has proteins, calcium,
and phosphorus. and phosphorus.
Fig. The diagrammatic representation of a standard ECG
It transports nutrients and oxygen It transports nutrients and oxygen
yy Each peak of the electrocardiogram corresponds to a specific
from one organ to another. from one organ to another.
electrical cardiac activity.
The flow of blood in the blood The flow of blood in the blood yy A typical human electrocardiogram has five waves – P, Q,
vessels is fast. vessels is fast. R, S, and T.
yy The P, R, and T-waves are above the base line and are known
2. Lymphatic Capillaries as positive waves. The Q and S-waves are below the base
yy These are small, thin walled vessels, present in nearly all line and are known as negative waves.
yy The P-wave is of atrial origin, while the Q, R, S, and T-waves
the tissue spaces. Special lymph capillaries called lacteals
are of ventricular origin.
are present in the villi of the small intestine.
²² The P-wave indicates atrial depolarisation, which
3. Lymphatic Vessels causes atrial systole. During this wave, the impulse of
contraction is generated by the SA node.
yy These are formed by joining of lymphatic capillaries. These
²² QRS-complex represents depolarization of ventricles
resemble the veins in having valves to prevent backflow
(Ventricular systole).
of blood. Blockage of lymphatic vessels causes oedema. ♦♦ The PQ-wave represents atrial contraction.
4. Lymph Nodes ♦♦ The QR-wave is preceded by ventricular contraction.
It represents the spread of the impulse of contraction
yy These are small, bean-shaped bodies’ placed in the course
from the AV node to the wall of the ventricle. It leads
of lymphatic vessels. They act as filters and are the sites of to ventricular depolarisation.
formation of lymphocytes. ♦♦ The RS-wave represents ventricular contraction of
yy Lymph nodes are maximum in armpit and groin. about 0.3 sec.
♦♦ The ST-wave represents ventricular relaxation of
Electrocardiograph about 0.4 sec. During this phase, the ventricles relax
yy Electrocardiograph is an instrument used to obtain and return to their normal state.
electrocardiogram. ²² The T-wave represents repolarisation of ventricles.
yy It was discovered by Einthoven in 1903. He is known as the yy Deviation in the ECG indicates the abnormality or disease.
So ECG has great clinical significance.
“Father of Electrocardiography”.
yy Electrocardiogram is the graphical representation of the Difference between P wave and T wave
activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle. It is composed P wave T wave
of a ‘P’ wave, ‘QRS’ wave (complex) and ‘T’ wave.
yy Electrocardiogram was first recorded by Waller. In an electrocardiogram (ECG), the In an electrocardiogram (ECG),
P-wave indicates the activation of the T-wave represents ventricular
Electrocardiogram: Graph obtained
the SA node. relaxation.
Electrocardiograph: Machine used
yy To get an ECG, a patient is connected to the machine with During this phase, the impulse of During this phase, the ventricles
contraction is generated by the SA relax and return to their normal
3 electrical leads (one to each wrist and to left ankle) that
node, causing atrial depolarisation. state.
monitor heart activity. For a detailed evaluation of heart’s
function, multiple leads are attached to the chest region. It is of atrial origin. It is of ventricular origin.
 400 BIOLOGY

Regulation of Cardiac Activity (ii) It results from narrowing of arterial lumen and reduced
elasticity of arterial walls in old age. It can cause rupturing
yy Normal activities of heart are autoregulated by nodal tissues, of capillaries. It is a silent killer.
so the heart is myogenic. (iii) Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) or Atherosclerosis: In
yy Autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates the heart this disorder, the deposition of calcium, fat, cholesterol and
activity. Neural centre is present in medulla oblongata to fibrous tissue occurs in coronary arteries which makes the
moderate the process. lumen of arteries narrower and thereby affect the blood
yy Both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves are parts of supply.
ANS. (iv) Angina (angina pectoris): Angina is an acute chest pain
yy Sympathetic nerves of ANS increase the rate of heartbeat, due to oxygen deficiency to heart muscles. It occurs due
the strength of ventricular contraction and cardiac output. to improper blood flow. It is common among middle-aged
yy Parasympathetic nerves of ANS decrease the heart beat, and elderly.
conduction of action potential and the cardiac output. (v) Heart Failure (congestive heart failure): It is the
yy Adrenal medullary hormones increase the cardiac output. condition in which heart is not pumping blood enough to
meet the needs of the body. Congestion of the lungs is the
Disorders of Circulatory System main symptom. Heart failure is not same as cardiac arrest
or a heart attack.
(i) Hypertension (High Blood Pressure): In this disorder, the ²² Heart attack: It is caused when the heart muscle is
blood pressure is higher than normal systolic (pumping) suddenly damaged by an inadequate blood supply.
pressure (120 mm Hg) and normal diastolic (resting) ²² Cardiac arrest: It is the state in which the heart stops
pressure (80 mm Hg), i.e. above 120/80 mm Hg. If the beating.
BP is 140/90 or above, it is hypertension. It leads to heart (vi) Arteriosclerosis: It is the state of hardening of arteries
diseases and also affects vital organs (brain, kidney etc). and arterioles due to thickening of the fibrous tissue and
consequent loss of elasticity. It leads to hypertension.
 414 BIOLOGY

Chapter

19 Excretory Products
and Their Elimination
yy The process of removing waste products produced in the ²² It is insoluble in water. So water is not required for
cells of living organism is called excretion. It is an essential excretion.
process in all forms of the life. ²² The animals which excrete urea are called uricotelic
yy It involves elimination of metabolic wastes like ammonia, animals.
urea, uric acid etc. from the tissues. It is of the following E.g. Birds, terrestrial reptiles, insects, land snails and
types: some land crustaceans.

(i) Ammonotelism (iv) Aminotelism

²² The process of excretion of ammonia is called ²² The process of excretion of excess amino acid is called
ammonotelism. aminotelism.
²² Ammonia is highly toxic. So, needs more water for ²² The animals which excrete amino acids are called
getting excreted. aminotelic animals.
²² The animals which excrete ammonia are called E.g. Some molluscs (Unio, Limnaea) and some
ammonotelic animals. echinoderms (Asterias).
²² E.g. Aquatic invertebrates, bony fishes, aquatic
amphibians, tadpoles, aquatic insects etc. (v) Guanotelism
(ii) Ureotelism ²² The process of excreting guanine is called
guanotelism.
²² The process of excretion of urea is called ureotelism. ²² The animals, which excrete guanine, are called
²² In liver, ammonia is converted into less toxic urea (for guanotelic animals.
conservation of water). This is called Ornithine cycle. E.g. Spiders
²² Ammonia in liver
→ Urea
²² Urea is less toxic. So, requires moderate quantity of
water for excretion.
SOME EXCRETORY ORGANS IN ANIMALS
²² The animals which excrete urea are called ureotelic
Excretory organ Animals
animals.
²² E.g. Terrestrial and semi-aquatic amphibians (frogs, Protonephridia Flatworms, rotifers, some
toads etc.), cartilaginous fishes, aquatic or semi-aquatic (flame cells) Annelids and cephalochordate.
reptiles (alligators, turtles) etc.
Nephridia Annelids
(iii) Uricotelism Malpighian tubules Insects

²² The process of excretion of uric acid is called Antennary or green glands Crustaceans
uricotelism.
Kidneys Higher animals
²² Uric acid is least toxic. It is eliminated with the least
loss of water, as pellets or paste.
 Excretory Products and Their Elimination 415

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM Renal

sinus Fibrous capsule
The parts involved in the process of excretion are called excretory (covering kidney)
system. Fibrous capsule
It includes a pair of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary (covering renal sinus)
bladder and a urethra. Renal cortex
Posterior vena cava Renal medulla
Dorsal aorta Hilum
Renal pyramid
Left kidney
Renal column
Hilus
Renal vein
Kidney lobe
Renal artery

Ureter Fig. Longitudinal section of Kidney

Nephron
Urinary bladder
yy Nephrons are the structural and functional units of kidney.
yy Each kidney contains about one million of nephrons.
Urethra
Structure of Nephron
Fig. Urinary system yy Each nephron has two parts: Malpighian corpuscles and
renal tubule.
Structure of Kindney 1. Malpighian corpuscle (Renal corpuscle): It comprises
Glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule.
yy Kidneys are reddish brown, bean-shaped structures situated Malpighian body= Glomerulus + Bowman’s capsule
between the levels of last thoracic and 3rd lumbar vertebra. (i) Glomerulus: It is a tuft of capillaries formed by afferent
yy Each kidney is about 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, arteriole (a fine branch of renal artery). Blood from the
and 2-3 cm in thickness. glomerulus is carried away by an efferent arteriole. Glomerular
yy In adult male, the average weight of kidney is 150 gms, and filtration takes place in the glomerulus.
in the adult female is about 135 gms. (ii) Bowman’s capsule (Glomerular capsule): It is a double
yy Each kidney is enclosed in a tough, three-layered fibrous layered cup-shaped structure. Its lumen is continuous with the
capsule. narrow lumen of the renal tubule. The two layers of Bowman’s
yy On the concave side of kidney, there is an opening called capsule are outer parietal layer and inner visceral layer.
2. Renal tubule: It begins with a double walled cup-like
hilum or hilus through which blood vessels, nerves,
Bowman’s capsule, which encloses the glomerulus.
lymphatic ducts and ureter enter the kidney. ²² The tubule continues with proximal convoluted tubule
yy Hilum leads to funnel shaped cavity called renal pelvis (PCT), Henle’s loop and distal convoluted tubule
with projections called calyces. (DCT).
yy Each kidney has an outer dark region called cortex and inner (a) Proximal convoluted tubules (PCT): It is present in
lighter region called medulla. cortex region of kidney and is convoluted. It is lined
yy The medulla is divided into a number of conical projections by cuboidal epithelial cells bearing a brush border of
called renal pyramids (medullary pyramids) projecting microvilli.
into the minor calyces. Minor calyces lead into major (b) Henle’s loop: It is hairpin-shaped and runs straight in the
calyces. renal medulla. It has descending and ascending limbs. The
upper part of the descending limb is the thick segment that
yy The major calyces open into a funnel shaped structure called
has the same diameter as that of the PCT. The distal part
renal pelvis which in turn leads into the ureter. of the descending limb is the thin segment. The ascending
yy Between the medullary pyramids, the substance of cortex limb also has thin segment and a thick segment.
extends into the medulla as renal columns called Columns ²² Loop of Henle is long in mammals and birds which
of Bertini. secrete hypertonic urine but is short or absent in other
yy Each kidney has nearly one million tubular nephrons. vertebrates like reptiles.
(c) Distal convoluted tubules (DCT): It is convoluted and
is again present in cortex. It is lined by cuboidal epithelial
 416 BIOLOGY

cells with few microvilli. Many DCTs of many nephrons yy Filters waste products from blood - The excretory system
open into collecting duct, lined by columnar epithelium. eliminates in the urine different waste products such as
(d) Collecting duct: Collecting duct extends from cortex to ammonia and urea (both formed when amino acids are
inner parts of medulla. They converge and open into the broken down), and uric acid (formed when nucleic acids
renal pelvis through medullary pyramids in the calyces. are broken down).
²² The collecting ducts unit to form still larger ducts called yy Regulates ion levels in the plasma - The excretory system
ducts of Bellini. also regulates ion levels in the plasma by regulating the
yy Malpighian body (Renal corpuscle), PCT and DCT are amount of sodium, potassium, chloride and other ions lost
situated in renal cortex. Loop of Henle dips into medulla. in the urine.
yy The efferent arteriole emerging from glomerulus forms a fine yy Regulates blood pH - The excretory system regulates blood
capillary network (peritubular capillaries) around the renal pH by regulating the number of H+ and bicarbonate ions
tubule. A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to the (HCO32-) lost in the urine.
Henle’s loop forming a ‘U’ shaped vasa recta. yy Conserves valuable nutrients - At the same time, the
excretory system makes sure that glucose, amino acids and
Types of Nephrons other valuable nutrients are not lost from the urine.
Nephrons are of two types: yy Regulates blood volume - The excretory system regulates
(i) Cortical nephrons: They form about 85% of total nephrons. blood volume by:
They mainly lie in the renal cortex. Their glomeruli are yy Releasing renin, a hormone that after a series of reactions
found in the outer cortex. In this, the Henle’s loop is short eventually restricts salt and water loss at the kidneys.
and extends only very little into the medulla. yy Adjusting the volume of water lost in the urine
Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced. yy Regulates RBC production - If oxygen levels in the blood
(ii) Juxtamedullary nephrons: They form about 15% of total are low, the kidneys release erythropoietin, a hormone
nephrons. Their glomeruli are found in the inner margin that stimulates the hemocytoblasts (stem cells in the bone
of the cortex, near its junction with the medulla. In this, marrow) to increase red blood cell formation. Having more
Henle’s loop is long and runs deep into medulla. Vasa recta RBCs allows the blood to transport more oxygen.
are present. yy Stores urine - The bladder stores the urine until it is
Both arteriole and distal tubule has specialized cells: convenient to excrete it.
²² Juxtaglomerular cells (JG) – These are smooth muscle yy Excretes urine - The urethra transports urine from the
cells surrounding the afferent and efferent artioles. They urinary bladder to the outside of the body.
are composed of granules containing renin. These cells
Urine Formation (Physiology of Kidney)
act as mechanoreceptors that sense the blood pressure
in the arteriole. Urine formation includes three processes: Glomerular filtration,
²² Macula densa – These are distal tubule cells that act reabsorption and secretion.
as chemoreceptors or osmoreceptors that respond to
(i) Glomerular filtration (ultra filtration)
changes in solute concentration of filtrate in distal tubule.
yy Ultrafiltration is an entirely passive process.
yy In glomerular capillaries of Bowman’s capsule, the blood
pressure is about twice as that in other capillary network. It is
because efferent arteriole is narrower than afferent arteriole.
yy The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration
of blood through 3 layers, i.e., endothelium of glomerular
blood vessels, epithelium of Bowman’s capsule and a
basement membrane between these two layers.
yy The epithelial cells (podocytes) of the Bowman’s capsule are
arranged in an intricate manner so as to leave some minute
spaces called filtration slits (slit pores).
yy Thus, almost all constituents of the blood plasma except
the proteins are filtered into the lumen of the Bowman’s
capsule through its walls.
yy About 15-25% of the water and solutes are removed from
the blood plasma that flows through glomerulus.
Fig. Juxtaglomerular and cortical nephrons yy The amount of the filtrate formed in all the nephrons of
both the kidneys per minute is called Glomerular filtration
Functions of Excretory System rate (GFR).
 Excretory Products and Their Elimination 417

yy In a healthy individual, it is about 125 mL/minute. ²² It removes substances from the filtrate by the process of
yy Glomerular filtrate contains a large amount of water, glucose, reabsorption and send them to the blood capillaries and
amino acids, sodium, potassium, urea, uric acid, ketone ²² Excrete additional wastes from the blood stream into
bodies, and large amounts of water. the filtrate by secretion.
yy Normal GFR = 125 ml/minute, i.e., 180 litres/day.
yy About 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the kidneys per Functions of Tubules
minute which constitute 1/5th of the blood pumped out by yy PCT : Absorption of all essential nutrients and 70-80% of
each ventricle of the heart in a minute. electrolytes and water helps to maintain the pH and ionic
(ii) Tubular Reabsorption balance of body fluids by selective secretion of H+, ammonia
yy From the Bowman’s capsule, the glomerulus filtrate enters and K+ into filtrate.
the proximal convoluted tubule. yy Henle’s Loop: Reabsorption in this segment is minimum.
yy The process of absorption of selected materials from the It plays a significant role in maintenance of high osmolarity
filtrate into the blood of the peritubular capillaries or vasa of medullary interstitial fluid.
recta is termed as tubular resorption. yy DCT: Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water takes place
yy Even though 180 litres of glomerular filtrate is produced here. Reabsorption of HCO3- and selective secretion of H+
daily, about 99% of this is reabsorbed by the renal tubules. and K+ and ammonia takes place to maintain the pH and
yy So normal volume of urine released is 1.5 litres. sodium-potassium balance in blood.
yy Substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc. in the filtrate yy Collecting duct: Large amount of water is absorbed from
are reabsorbed actively whereas the nitrogenous wastes are this region to produce concentrated urine. It plays a role in
absorbed by passive transport. maintenance of pH and ionic balance of blood by selective
yy Passive reabsorption of water occurs in the initial segments secretion of H+ and K+ ions.
of the nephron.
yy PCT reabsorbs most of the nutrients, and 70-80% of Mechanism of the Concentration of the Filtrate
electrolytes and water. Simple cuboidal brush border (Counter Current Mechanism)
epithelium of PCT increases surface area for reabsorption.
yy In loop of Henle, minimum reabsorption takes place. It yy The counter current mechanism operating inside the kidney
maintains high osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid. is the main adaptation for the conservation of water.
yy The descending limb is permeable to water but almost yy There are two counter current mechanisms inside the kidneys:
impermeable to electrolytes. This concentrates the filtrate. Henle’s loop and vasa rectae. They both help to concentrate
yy The ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows the urine. Henle’s loop is a U-shaped part of the nephron,
transport of electrolytes. So, the filtrate gets diluted. while the vasa recta are an efferent arteriole, which forms a
yy In DCT, conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water takes capillary network around the tubules inside the renal medulla.
place. It runs parallel to Henle’s loop and is U-shaped.
yy Collecting duct extends from cortex to inner parts of yy The flow of filtrate in the two limbs of Henle’s loop and
medulla. It reabsorbs large amount of water to concentrate the flow of blood through the two limbs of vasa recta are in
urine. It also allows passage of small amounts of urea into opposite directions (i.e. in a counter current pattern).
medullary interstitium to keep up the osmolarity. yy The proximity between the Henle’s loop and vasa recta,
(iii) Tubular Secretion as well as the counter current in them help to maintain
yy Tubular secretion is the opposite of tubular reabsorption. It an increasing osmolarity towards the inner medullary
occurs as: interstitium, i.e., from 300 mOsmolL–1 in the cortex to about
²² Creatinine, pigments, drugs along with hydrogen ions 1200 mOsmolL–1 in the inner medulla.
and ammonia are actively secreted into the filtrate in the yy This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl and urea.
PCT from the interstitial fluid. yy NaCl is transported by ascending limb of Henle’s loop that
²² Urea enters the filtrate by diffusion in the thin segment is exchanged with descending limb of vasa recta. NaCl is
of the ascending limb of loop of henle. returned to interstitium by ascending limb of vasa recta.
²² Potassium, hydrogen ions, ammonia, HCO32- ions are yy Similarly, small amount of urea enter the thin segment of the
secreted by active transport into the filtrate in DCT. ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is transported back to
yy Maximum hydrogen ions secretion occurs in the PCT. The the interstitium by the collecting tubule.
removal of H+ ions and NH3 from the blood in the PCT and
yy The above described transport of substances facilitated
DCT helps to maintain the pH of the blood between 6 to 8.
by Henle’s loop and vasa recta is called Counter current
yy Thus, we can say, the cells of the renal tubule performs two
functions: mechanism. This helps to maintain a concentration
gradient in the medullary interstitium. Presence of such
 418 BIOLOGY

interstitial gradient helps in an easy passage of water from yy It plays a role in regulating the renal blood flow and
collecting tubule thereby concentrating the filtrate (urine). glomerular filtration rate.
yy Human kidneys produce urine four times concentrated than yy A fall in glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood pressure/
the initial filtrate formed. GFR activates the JG cells to release renin.
yy Renin converts angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin I
and further to angiotensin II (a vasoconstrictor).
Angiotensinogen Renin → Angiotensin I →
Angiotension II
yy Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor that increases
the glomerular blood pressure and thereby GFR. Angiotensin
II also stimulates the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland to
produce aldosterone. Angiotensin II increases glomerular
blood pressure and thereby GFR. It also activates adrenal
cortex to release Aldosterone.
yy Aldosterone increases the rate of absorption of sodium ions
and water from the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting
duct. This also leads to an increase in blood pressure and
Fig. Diagrammatic representation of a nephron and vasa glomerular filtration rate. This mechanism, known as renin-
recta showing counter current mechanisms angiotensin mechanism, ultimately leads to an increased
blood pressure.
Osmoregulation: Osmoregulation is a homeostatic mechanism that
regulates the optimum temperature of water and salts in the tissues
and body fluids. It maintains the internal environment of the body
by water and ionic concentration.

Regulation of the Kidney Function

yy It is done by hormonal feedback mechanisms involving the
hypothalamus, Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA) and the heart.
yy Changes in blood volume, body fluid volume and ionic
concentration activate Osmoreceptors in the body.
(i) Regulation by ADH (vasopressin)
yy Antidiuretic hormone or ADH plays an important role in
regulation.
yy When body fluid level decreases, the osmoreceptors
stimulate the hypothalamus to release antidiuretic hormone
(ADH), which helps in water re-absorption and prevents
diuresis. ADH prevents diuresis by facilitating water Fig. Renin – Angiotensin mechanism
reabsorption from DCT and collecting duct. 3. Regulation by Atrial-natriuretic Factor (ANF)
yy A further increase in body fluid volume can turn off the
yy ANF check on the renin- angiotensin mechanism.
osmoreceptors. This inhibits the ADH release, which in turn yy An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart causes the
completes the feedback. release of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).
yy ADH constricts the blood vessels and causes blood pressure yy ANF causes vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels) and
to increase, which in turn increases glomerular blood flow thereby decreases the blood pressure.
and therefore GFR.
Micturition
(ii) Regulation by Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA) (Renin-
Angiotensin mechanism) yy Micturition is the process by which the urine from the urinary
bladder is excreted.
yy Juxtaglomerular apparatus is a microscopic structure located yy As the urine accumulates, the muscular walls of the bladder
between the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle and the expand. As a result, the stretch receptors on its wall send
returning distal convoluted tubule of the same nephron. impulses to CNS. The CNS passes on motor messages. It
 Excretory Products and Their Elimination 419

causes the contraction of smooth muscles of the bladder and excess salt and water from the body.
simultaneous relaxation of the urethral sphincter causing ♦♦ Sebaceous glands are branched glands that secrete
micturition (release of urine). The neural mechanism causing an oily secretion called sebum.
micturition is called the micturition reflex. ²² Saliva eliminates small amounts of nitrogenous
yy An adult human excretes 1 to 1.5 litres of urine (25-30 gm wastes.
urea) per day.
yy Urine is a light yellow coloured watery fluid, slightly acidic Disorders of Excretory System
(pH-6.0) and has a characteristic odour. Various conditions (i) Uremia: Accumulation of urea in blood which may lead
can affect the characteristics of urine. to kidney failure.
yy Analysis of urine helps in clinical diagnosis of many The accumulation of urea in blood due to malfunctioning
metabolic disorders and malfunctioning of the kidney. of kidney is known as uremia. It may lead to kidney failure.
Example: (ii) Renal calculi: The formation of insoluble mass of
²² Glycosuria: Presence of glucose in urine is known as crystallised salts (oxalates or phosphates of calcium within
glycosuria. the kidney is known as renal calculi.
²² Ketonuria: Presence of high ketone bodies in urine is (iii) Glomerulonephritis: The inflammation of glomeruli of
called ketonuria. kidney is known as glomerulonephritis.
²² Diabetes mellitus: Glucouria and ketonuria in urine
indicates diabetes mellitus. Artificial Kidney/ Hemodialysis
yy In patients with uremia, urea is removed by hemodialysis.
Role of Lungs, Liver and Skin in Excretion yy The dialyzing unit contains a coiled cellophane tube
yy Liver, lungs, and skin also play an important role in the surrounded by dialyzing fluid having same composition of
process of excretion. plasma except the nitrogenous wastes.
²² Lungs: Lungs help in the removing waste materials yy Blood drained from a convenient artery is pumped into
such as carbon dioxide (18 litres/day) from the body. dialyzing unit after adding an anticoagulant like heparin.
²² Liver: Liver is the largest gland in vertebrates. It helps in yy The porous cellophane membrane of the tube allows the
passage of molecules based on concentration gradient.
the excretion of cholesterol, steroid hormones, vitamins,
yy As nitrogenous wastes are absent in dialyzing fluid, these
drugs, and other waste materials through bile. Urea is
substances freely move out, thereby clearing the blood.
formed in the liver by the ornithine cycle. Ammonia –
yy The cleared blood is pumped back to the body through a vein
a toxic substance – is quickly changed into urea in the
after adding anti-heparin to it.
liver and hence eliminated from the body. Liver also
changes the decomposed haemoglobin pigment into bile Kidney Transplantation
pigments called bilirubin and biliverdin.
²² Skin (Sweat and sebaceous glands): Skin has many yy It is the ultimate method in the correction of acute renal
glands which help in excreting waste products through failures. A functioning kidney is taken from a donor.
yy It is better to receive kidney from a close relative to minimize
pores. It has two types of glands – sweat and sebaceous
chances of rejection by immune system of host.
glands.
♦♦ Sweat glands are highly vascular and tubular glands
that separate the waste products from the blood and
excrete them in the form of sweat. Sweat excretes
 Chapter
Locomotion and
20 Movement
Locomotion is the voluntary movements resulting in a change Unstriated muscle fibre and Cardiac muscle fibre.
in location. Movement is a characteristic feature of living
organisms. (i) Striated Muscle Fibres

Types of Movement in Human Being (Also known as striped, skeletal or voluntary muscle fibres)
yy Each striated muscle fibre is long, cylindrical, unbranched
yy Amoeboid movement: It is type of movement which with multinucleated condition.
occur with the help of pseudopodia formed by cytoplasmic yy It bears striations in the form of alternate light and dark bands.
streaming (as in Amoeba). Examples: Movement of yy The fibres have blunt ends.
leucocyte, macrophages and cytoskeletal elements in our yy A number of oval nuclei occur peripherally in each fibre
body. below the sarcolemma.
yy Ciliary movement: It is a type of movement which occurs yy The muscle has the ability to contract rapidly and thus is
with the help of cilia. This movement occurs in most of responsible for quick movements.
our internal tubular organs lined by the ciliated epithelium.
yy The muscles are also known as voluntary because their
Examples: Movement of cilia in trachea and movement of
contraction is under the control of will.
ova in the reproductive tract
yy They get fatigued soon.
yy Muscular movement: This movement occurs because of
the contractile property of muscles. Examples: Movement Location: They are found in the limbs, face, neck and body wall.
of our jaws, limbs, tongue, etc. Functions
yy Striated muscle attached to bones helps in body movement.
Properties of Muscle fibres yy It controls the breaking, chewing and swallowing of food.
yy Excitability. They can respond to stimuli. They can be yy It helps in breathing activity.
excited by nerve impulses generated in the nerve fibre by yy The muscles also control the blinking of eyes.
specific stimuli. Excitability power is maximum in striated
muscle fibres. (ii) Unstriated Muscle Fibres
yy Extensibility. They have the ability to get stretch.
(Also known as non-striated, Smooth or involuntary muscle
yy Contractibility. They can contract i.e. they have the ability
to shorten. fibres)
yy Elasticity. Muscle fibre has the ability to recoil and resume yy Each smooth muscle fibre is spindle-shaped, unbranched
its resting length. and uni-nucleated cell.
yy The muscle fibres do not show striations.
yy The fibres have pointed ends.
HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM yy The muscles contract and relax very slowly.
yy They are known as involuntary muscles as their movement
yy Muscles are mesodermal in origin. is not controlled by the mind.
yy It is a contractile tissue that occupies 40-50% of the body yy Fatigue is rare in smooth muscle fibres.
weight. Location: They are found in the walls of organs like stomach,
yy Each and every movement, every breath, every mouthful intestines, blood vessels, ureters, bronchi, lungs, urinary bladder,
you chew- all these are actions carried out by the body’s iris etc.
muscle cells. Functions
yy On the basis of their location, structure and function, there
are three types of muscles fibres: Striated muscle fibre,
 Locomotion and Movement 431

yy In intestine, smooth muscle fibre helps to push the food down However striations are fainter than those of striated muscle
along the alimentary canal by peristalsis. fibres.
yy Emptying of urinary bladder occurs due to contraction of yy Special electrical junctions called intercalated discs are
smooth muscles. present at intervals in the fibres.
yy Involuntary movement of iris and ciliary body of eye helps yy Cells are uninucleated. Nucleus is centrally placed.
in automatic adjustment of amount of light and focusing of yy The muscles show rhythmic contractions.
object based on distance. yy They are involuntary muscle fibres. They are not under the
control of one’s will.
(iii) Cardiac Muscle Fibres yy They seldom get fatigued. They keep on performing their
function throughout life.
(Also known as involuntary muscles)
Location: Cardiac muscle fibres are found in the walls of the heart.
yy They are small, cylindrical, branched, and involuntary
Function: The rapid contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscle
muscle fibre.
fibres helps in pumping of blood through heart.
yy The fibres have broad ends.
yy They have transverse striations with light and dark bands. Difference between Striated, Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
Fibres
Sl No. Striated Muscle Fibres Smooth Muscle Fibres Cardiac Muscle Fibres
On the basis of structure
1. Cells are long and cylindrical in shape. Cells are elongated and spindle shaped. Cells are small and cylindrical
2. Cells are unbranched. Cells are unbranched. Cells are branched.
3. Fibers have blunt ends. Fibres have pointed ends. Fibers have broad ends.
4. Cells are multinucleated. Cells are uni-nucleated. Cells are uni-nucleated.
5. Fibres possess striations. Striations are absent. Striations are present but they are fainter than
those of striated muscle fibre.
6. Intercalated discs are absent. Intercalated discs are absent. Intercalated discs are present.
7. Fibre occurs in bundles. Fibers are found in the form of sheets. Fibre forms a network.
8. They are voluntary in nature. They are involuntary in nature. They are involuntary in nature.
On the basis of location
9. They are found in limbs, hands, feet, They are found in urogenital tracts, digestive They are found only in the wall of heart.
tongue, pharynx etc. tract, lungs, iris, blood vessel etc.
On the basis of function
10. They are able to perform fast and powerful They perform slow but prolonged They perform powerful and rhythmic contrac­
contractions. Hence, get fatigued soon. contractions. tion and seldom get fatigued.

Structure of Striated (Skeletal) Muscle

yy Skeletal muscle is made of muscle bundles called fascicles Tendon
Muscle
held together by collagenous connective tissue layer called
Epimysium (deep fascia)
fascia.
yy Each fascicle contains a number of muscle fibres (muscle Fasciculus
cells). Muscle fibres are lined by plasma membrane called Endomysium
sarcolemma enclosing the sarcoplasm. (between libers)
yy An entire muscle is often surrounded by a connective tissue Sarcolemma
sheath called epimysium. Each bundle of muscle cells within
Sarcoplasm
the epimysium is enclosed in a connective tissue sheath called
Perimysium. Each muscle cell is surrounded by a connective Myofibril
tissue sheath called Endomysium. Peringsium
yy The connective tissue sheaths surrounding the muscle cells Single muscle fiber
contain capillary network, nerve plexus and lymphatic Nuclei
vessels.
Fig. Muscle split into various component parts
 432 BIOLOGY

yy Each muscle fibre contains many myofilaments (myofibrils) It consists of three proteins- Actin, It consists of two proteins- Myosin
that have characteristic striations. Tropomyosin and Troponin. and meromyosin.
yy A myofibril has alternate dark and light striations. The dark It slides into H-zone during muscle It does not slide during muscle
bands are also known as A-band or Anisotropic bands. The contraction. contraction. They are fixed.
light bands are also called I band or Isotropic band. This is
due to the presence of two fibrous contractile proteins- thin Structure of Contractile Proteins
Actin filament and thick Myosin filament. I-bands contain yy Myosin and actin are the principal protein of the myofibrils
actin while A-bands contain both actin and myosin. They are constituting 55% of myofibrillar proteins. Myosin forms the
arranged parallel to each other. thick filaments, while actin forms the thin filament.
yy At the centre of A-band, a comparatively less dark zone (a) Thin actin Filament
called H-zone (= Hensen zone) is present. It is formed of
yy Each actin filament is made of two filamentous (F) actins
only myosin.
which form double helix.
yy Myosin filament (thick filament) in the ‘A’ band is also held
yy F-actin is a polymer of monomeric Globular (G) actins. It
together in the middle of ‘I’ band by thin fibrous membrane has binding sites for the myosin heads to grab a hold of it.
called ‘M’ line. yy Two other contractile proteins associated with the thin
yy Each I-band is bisected by a dense dark band called Z-line. filaments are: Tropomyosin and Troponin.
Actin filament (thin filament are firmly attached to the “Z” lines. yy Tropomyosin winds around the actin molecules. It covers the
yy The region of the myofibril between two successive Z-lines binding sites on the actin molecules, preventing the myosin
is considered as functional unit of contraction and is called heads from attaching.
a sarcomere. yy Troponin (having 3 subunits) is seen at regular intervals on
yy Thus, the sarcomere comprises A band and half of each tropomyosin. In the resting state a subunit of troponin masks
adjacent I-band. They are the structural and functional units the binding sites for myosin on the actin filaments.
of a myofibril. yy Prior to contraction, calcium ions react with troponin to
Skeletal muscle fiber modify the position of tropomyosin, exposing the binding
Sarcoplasmic sites on actin.
reticulum
Z line Z line (b) Myosin Filament
yy Each myosin filament is a polymer of many monomeric
Mysin (thick) Actin (thin)
filaments filaments proteins called Meromyosins.
Sarcomere
yy A meromyosin has 2 parts:
²² Heavy meromyosin or HMM or cross arm (globular
head + short arm): It projects outwards.
²² Light meromyosin or LMM (tail).
yy The globular head is an active ATPase enzyme and has
binding sites for ATP and active sites for actin.
Troponin
Tropomyosim
A band band A band (a) F actin
Actin + myosin Actin only
Actin binding sites Hcad
ATP binding sites
Fig. Skeletal muscle system
Cross arm
Difference between Actin filaments and Myosin filaments
Actin Filaments Myosin Filaments (b)
Actin is thinner but shorter than Myosin is thicker but longer than
Fig. (a) An actin (thin) filament (b) Myosin monomer
myosin filaments. actin filaments.
(Meromyosin)
It is found in both A and I bands. It is found only in A-band of
sarcomere. The Tubular systems of the Skeletal Muscle
Cross-bridges are absent, hence Cross bridges are present, hence The tubular systems of the striated muscle comprise the:
actins have smooth surface. they have rough surface. (a) The transverse (T) tubules: These are finger-like
Actins are free at one end and are Myosins are free at both the ends. invaginations of the sarcolemma which form tubular
joined to Z-line at other end.
network around the myofibril at the junction the light
Contd... and dark bands. They serve as channels through which
 Locomotion and Movement 433

electrical impulse is propagated from the surface to the Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
interior of the muscle cell. yy According to sliding filament theory, during skeletal muscle
(b) Sarcoplasmic reticulum tubules: The smooth sarcoplasmic contraction, the thick filament slides over the thin filament by
reticulum of the muscle cell form terminal cisternae on either a repeated binding and releases myosin along the filament.
side of the T tubular network leading to the establishment of This whole process occurs in a sequential manner.
a system of three tubules referred to as the triad complex yy Muscle contraction is initiated by signals from the CNS that
travel along the axon and reach the neuromuscular junction
of tubules. The sarcoplasmic tubules contain calcium
or motor end plate via motor neuron. (A motor neuron +
ions which are released from the tubules on stimulation muscle fibres = a motor unit).
by the impulse passing along the T tubular network yy Neuromuscular junction is a junction between a neuron and
The sarcoplasm of skeletal muscle also contains glycogen and the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre. As a result, Acetylcholine
myoglobin. (a neurotransmitter) is released into the synaptic cleft and
yy Glycogen is the energy source of the muscle and is stored binds to the receptors (nicotinic receptors) on the motor
in granules. end plate.
yy This binding stimulates the opening of sodium ion channels
yy Myoglobin is an oxygen binding protein similar to
allowing the movement of sodium ions into the muscle cell
haemoglobin in blood. It imparts dark red colour on the muscle. and the generation of an action potential.
Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction yy The action potential spreads over the surface of the muscle
fibre along the sarcolemma, travelling into the muscle cell
yy Sliding filament theory was proposed by A.F. Huxley, H.E. at the T tubules.
Huxley and J.Hansen in 1954. yy Immediately after the action potential is generated sodium
yy It is based on structural changes in the banding pattern of the ions are being pumped back out of the muscle fibre in order
sarcomeres of the myofibrils of the striated muscle fibres. to repolarise the muscle cell.
yy The sliding filament theory explains the process of muscle yy The action potential traveling down the T tubules triggers
contraction during which the thin filaments slide over the the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
thick filaments, which shortens the myofibril. into the muscle fibre.
yy Each muscle fibre has an alternate light and dark band, which yy The increased calcium ions react with the troponin molecules
contains a special contractile protein, called actin and myosin of the thin filaments causing it to change shape.
yy This change in shape allows the tropomyosin molecules to
respectively. Actin is a thin contractile protein present in the
uncover the binding sites on the actin molecules.
light band and is known as the I-band, whereas myosin is yy In this stage, the myosin head attaches to the exposed site of
a thick contractile protein present in the dark band and is actin and forms cross bridges by utilizing energy from ATP
known as the A-band. There is an elastic fibre called Z line hydrolysis. This pulls actin filaments on both sides towards
that bisects each I-band. The thin filament is firmly anchored the centre of A-band.
to the Z line. The central part of the thick filament that is yy Once the binding sites on the actin molecules are exposed, the
not overlapped by the thin filament is known as the H-zone. myosin heads interact with the actin forming a cross bridge
yy During muscle contraction, the myosin heads or cross by utilizing energy from ATP hydrolysis.
bridges come in close contact with the thin filaments. As a yy Once a cross bridge is formed the myosin head uses the stored
result, the thin filaments are pulled towards the middle of the energy from the breakdown of ATP to do a power stroke.
sarcomere. The Z line attached to the actin filaments is also yy The power stroke is a swivelling action that pulls the actin
pulled leading to the shortening of the sarcomere. Hence, toward the center of the sarcomere.
²² The actin filaments partially overlap so that H-zone
yy The length of the A-band remains constant as its original
disappears.
length and the I-band shortens and the H-zone disappears.
²² The Z- line attached to actins is also pulled inwards. It
yy A similar action in all the sarcomeres results in shortening of causes a shortening (contraction) of sarcomere. I-bands
whole myofibril, and thereby the whole muscle fibre and muscle. get shortened, whereas A-bands retain the length.
ABand
I H I Actin filament
Band Zone Band P ADP
Z line Myosin
filament

ATP Cross bride Myosin head

Relaxed sarcomere
(Breaking of cross bride ) (Formation of cross bride )

p
ADP

Sliding /rotation
Contracted sarcomere

Fig. Sliding filament model Fig. Stages in cross bridge formation, rotation of head and
breaking of cross bridge
 434 BIOLOGY

yy After muscle contraction, the myosin head pulls the actin posterior end, through which brain is continuous with
filament and releases ADP along with inorganic phosphate the spinal cord.
and goes back to its relaxed state. A new ATP molecule binds ²² It is formed of 8 bones.
and the cross-bridge is broken. ²² It includes Frontal (1), Parietals (2), Temporals (2),
yy The ATP is again hydrolysed by the myosin head and the Occipital (1), Sphenoid (1) and Ethmoid (1).
above process is repeated causing further sliding. This ²² These bones are joined by immovable fibrous joints
cycle is repeated until the actin meets in the middle of the called sutures.
sarcomere. (ii) Bones of the face (14):
yy During a contraction only a portion of the myosin heads is ²² Face forms the front and lower part of the skull.
²² It is formed of 14 bones, which includes Nasals (2),
attached and producing force while others are detached and
Maxillae (2), Zygomatics (2), Lacrimals (2), Palatines
preparing to bind again.
(2), Inferior nasals (2), Mandible (1) and Vomer (1).
yy The contraction cycle continues as long as ATP and calcium
²² Mandible (also known as lower jaw is the largest,
ions are available. strongest and only movable bone of the face.
yy During the contraction cycle the calcium ions are actively (iii) Hyoid bone (1)
being pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. ²² It is U-shaped bone seen below buccal cavity.
yy As the level of calcium ions fall, the calcium ions begin to ²² It serves as a point of attachment for muscles of the
dissociate from the troponin. tongue and floor of the mouth but it does not articulate
yy This allows the troponin to go back to its original shape with any other bone.
causing the tropomyosin molecule to cover the active sites on (iv) Ear ossicles (3 x 2 = 6):
the actin molecule preventing the myosin heads from binding. ²² In each middle ear, there are three small irregular,
yy This causes the return of Z-lines back to their original movably attached bones called ear ossicles- Malleus
position, i.e., relaxation. (2), Incus (2) and stapes (2).
yy The reaction time of the fibres varies in different muscles. ²² Stapes is the smallest bone in the human body.

Frontal bone
HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM Parietal
Sphenod bone
Ethmoid bone
bone
yy The hard parts of the animal body present inside or outside Lacrimal bone
the body collectively form the skeletal system. Temporal bone Nasal bone
yy Human skeletal system consists of a framework of bones Zygomatic bone
Occipital
(206) and few cartilages. bone Maxilla
yy It is divided into two main parts: Axial and Appendicular. Occipital
Mandible
Hyoid bone
Skeletal System bone

Fig. Diagrammatic view of human skull

Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton
(b) Vertebral column (Backbone)
skull, vertebral column limbs and their girdles
yy It is a long, curved and bony rod lying in the dorsal side of
stemum and ribs
the neck and trunk.
yy It is formed of 33 ring-like bones called vertebrae. However
1. Axial skeletal system (80 bones) it consists of 26 bones because 5 sacral vertebrae are fused
yy It lies along the longitudinal axis of the body. to form one sacrum and four coccygeal vertebrae are fused
yy It includes skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs. to form one coccyx.
yy Hence, the vertebrae are grouped into five groups.
(a) Skull (29 bones)
Vertebral column
yy Skull is the endoskeleton of head and lies at the upper end
of vertebral column.
yy It is the heaviest part of the body.
yy The human skull is dicondylic with two occipital condyles. Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Sacral Coccygeal
yy It includes (7) (12) (5) (1 fused) (1 fused)
(i) Bones of the cranium (8)
(i) Cervical vertebrae
²² The cranium is a large and hollow part of the skull, which
²² They are 7 in number and present in neck.
encloses and protects the brain in the cranial cavity.
²² First vertebra: Atlas – It more ring like and supports
²² It has a large opening called foramen magnum at the
 Locomotion and Movement 435

the skull on it. The head can nod on atlas forward or ²² It protects the internal organs in the thoracic region.
backward. Skull articulates with First vertebra (atlas) ²² It provides the surface for muscle attachment
with the help of 2 occipital condyles (dicondylic ²² Sternum helps in respiratory mechanism.
skull). (d) Ribs (12 pairs)
²² Second vertebra: Axis – It is characterized by odontoid yy Ribs are 12 pairs of arched semi-circular bones present in
process. It supports the rotatory movements of head and the thorax.
turning movements of head. yy It is formed of two parts:
(ii) Thoracic vertebrae ²² Anterior sternal part: It is short and made up of hyaline
²² They are 12 in number and present in the chest. cartilage which articulates with sternum or sternal part
²² They have demifacets for the attachment of ribs. of its upper rib.
(iii) Lumbar vertebrae ²² Posterior bony vertebral part: It is long and bony and
²² They are 5 in number and present in the abdomen region articulates with the thoracic vertebrae by facets.
of the body. yy On the basis of sternal part, ribs are divided into three types:
²² They are the largest, strongest and heaviest in the True ribs, False ribs and Floating ribs.
vertebral column. ²² True ribs (first 7 pairs): They are attached to thoracic
²² They have large bony processes for the attachment of vertebrae and ventrally connected to sternum with the
skeletal muscles. help of Hyaline cartilage.
(iv) Sacral vertebrae ²² Vertebrochondral (false) ribs (8th, 9th & 10th pairs):
²² The five sacral vertebrae are fused in the adult, forming They articulate by cartilage with costal cartilage of
one structure called the sacrum. the 7th rib and thus are attached indirectly with the
²² It lies between the innominate bones of the pelvic sternum.
girdle. ²² Floating ribs (11th and12th pairs): They are not
(v) Coccygeal vertebrae connected to either the sternum of the cartilage of another
²² The four coccygeal vertebrae are fused to form a curved rib. Their main function is to protect the kidneys.
triangular bone called coccyx. ²² Each rib has 2 articulation surfaces on its dorsal end and
²² It is considered as a vestigial tail. is hence called bicephalic.
yy Formula for vertebral column in man is C7 T12 L5 S 1 Co1. yy Functions of ribs
yy All the vertebrae are amphiplatyan type i.e. centrum flat on ²² Ribs protect the delicate organs like heart, lungs etc.
both sides. present in the thoracic region.
yy Each vertebra has a central hollow portion through which ²² It provides surface for attachment of the muscles.
the spinal cord passes. This hollow portion is called the ²² Floating ribs protect the kidneys.
neural canal.
yy Inter-vertebral disc: 2. Appendicular skeletal system (126 bones)
²² These are present between the central of adjacent
vertebrae, from second cervical vertebra to the sacrum.
It lies along the transverse axis of the body and includes
Each disc has fibrio-cartilaginous pads called inter- two types of girdles and limb bones.
vertebral discs that act as shock absorbers. A. Limb bones: There are two pairs of limbs: a pair of forelimbs
²² Displacement of an intervertebral disc is called slip and a pair of hindlimbs
disc.
(a) Bones of fore-limbs (30 × 2 = 60)
yy Functions of vertebral column:
²² It protects the spinal cord. yy Each forelimb has 30 bones.
²² It supports the head. yy It includes Humerus (1), Radius (1), Ulna (1), Carpals
²² It serves as the point of attachment of the ribs and the (wrist bones- 8), Metacarpals (palm bones-5) and Phalanges
musculature of the back. (digits-14).
²² It helps in upright posture and locomotion. Region Bone Number
²² It helps in free movement of head.
Upper arm (Branchium) Humerus 1
(c) Sternum or Breast bone (1)
Forearm (Antebranchium) Inner radius and outer ulna 2
yy Sternum is a flat and elongated bone present on the ventral
midline of thorax. Wrist (Carpus) Carpals 8
yy It consists of three parts: Palm (Metacarpus) Metacarpals 5
²² The manubrium- Upper handle like Fingers (Digits) Phalanges 14
²² Body- Middle largest portion
²² Xiphoid process- Lower small cartilaginous plate yy Humerus has a rounded head at proximal end (which
yy The true ribs are attached to the sternum articulates into the glenoid cavity of the pectoral girdle), a
yy Functions of sternum: middle rod like shaft, which has a V-shaped deltoid ridge
 436 BIOLOGY

and a pulley like trochlea at the distal end. yy Phalangeal formula of foot of man is 2,3,3, 3,3 . Thumb
yy Ulna is longer than radius. Its upper end has a larger (Great toe) of foot is called hallux.
olecranon process that forms the eminence of our elbow. The yy Functions of the bones of the hind limbs:
head of the radius articulates with the humerus. ²² It is involved mainly in propulsion and support.
yy Each wrist is composed of 8 carpals that are arranged in two
rows, each of the four bones.
yy The phalangeal formula of hand in man is 2, 3, 3, 3, 3. Thumb Head
of hand is called pollex and is responsible to the fingers for Pubis
grasping. Second digit of hand is called index finger. Obturator

Femur
Ischium foramen
Shaft
Head
Scapula
Humerus

Sheft
Condyle Patella

Trochlea
Tibia
Radius Fibula
Ulna
Carpals Tarsals
Metacarpals Meta tarsals
Phalanges phalanges

Fig. Right pelvic girdle and lower limb bones (frontal view)
Fig. Right pectoral girdle and upper arm (frontal view)
B. Girdles: There are two types of girdles: Pectoral girdle and
yy Functions of bone of forelimbs: Pelvic girdle.
²² It gives support to the shoulders by articulating the head
of the humerus with the glenoid cavity of the pectoral (a) Pectoral girdle or shoulder girdle (2 × 2 = 4)
girdle. yy These are two in number, each formed of two bones: Clavicle (2)
(b) Bones of hind-limbs (30 × 2 = 60) & scapula (2).
yy Clavicle or Collar bone: It is rod-like, f shaped bone,
yy Each hindlimb has 30 bones.
extending between neck and shoulder.
yy It includes Femur (thigh bone- 1), Patella (knee cap- 1), Tibia
yy Scapula or shoulder bone: It is a large triangular flat bone
(1) & fibula (1), Tarsals (ankle bones-7), Metatarsals (5) and
situated in the dorsal part of the thorax between the 2nd and
Phalanges (digits-14).
7th ribs.
Region Bone Number yy Scapula (shoulder blade) has a slightly elevated ridge (spine)
Thigh Femur 1
which projects as a flat, expanded process (acromion). The
clavicle (collar bone) articulates with this.
Shank Inner Tibia and outer Fibula 2
yy Below the acromion is glenoid cavity which articulates with
Ankle (Tarsus) Tarsals 7 the head of humerus to form the shoulder joint.
Instep (Metatarsus) Metatarsals 5 yy Functions:
Toes (Digits) Phalanges 14 ²² It provided articulation to the arm bones.
Knee joint Patella (knee cap) 1 ²² It provides surface for attachment of tendons of biceps
and triceps muscles of upper arm.
yy Femur is the longest and strongest bone of the body. It is
formed of proximal rounded head (which articulates with (b) Pelvic girdle (2)
the acetabulum of the pelvic girdle), middle rod like shaft yy They are two in number and are located in the lower part
and distal rounded condyle. Head of the femur articulates of the trunk.
into acetabulum of pelvic girdle. yy It is formed of 2 coxal bones. Each coxal bone is formed by
yy Patella is a flat, sesamoid bone present on front side of knee the fusion of 3 bones- Ilium, ischium and pubis.
joint. yy Ilium on the upper side, pubis on the inner side and ischium
yy Fibula is the shorter, thinnest bone inside the human body. It below the pubis.
is located more laterally and deeply. Tibia on the other hand yy Two pubic bones are joined by a cartilaginous slightly
is longer, thicker and lies more medially and front. movable joint called pubic symphysis.
yy Each ankle is composed of 7 tarsals. yy At the point of fusion of ilium, ischium and pubis, there is a
 Locomotion and Movement 437

cavity called acetabulum to which the thigh bone articulates. Joints

yy The 2 halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form pubic
symphisis containing fibrous cartilage. yy Joints are the place where two bones meet. All of your bones,
except for one (the hyoid bone in your neck), form a joint
yy Functions:
with another bone.
²² It supports the posterior region of the trunk.
yy Joints hold your bones together and allow your rigid skeleton
²² It provides surface for the attachment of the muscles
to move.
of the legs.
They can be classified into three main types:
²² It protects the soft organs present in the pelvic cavity
of this region. 1. Fibrous (Immovable) joints:
²² This type of joints does not allow any movement.
llium Pelvic Girdle
²² Here, the bones fuse end to end with the help of dense
fibrous connective tissues.
lliac crest ²² E.g. sutures between skull bones and the teeth in their
sockets.
2. Cartilaginous joints (Slightly movable joints):
Acetabulum ²² Here, the bones are joined together with the help of
cartilages that permits limited movement.
Ischium
²² E.g. Joints between the adjacent vertebrae, the joints in
pubis the symphysis which binds the pubic bones together at
the front of the pelvic girdle and the joint between the
sacrum and the hip bone.
Fig. Pelvic girdle
3. Synovial (movable) joints:
Human skeleton 206 bones
²² Most of the joints in the body are of the synovial type
²² These are freely movable joints. The following are the
Axial skeleton (80 bones) Appendicular skeleton
(126 bones)
main characteristics of a synovial joint:
Skull (29 bones) ♦♦ The ends of the bones are covered with a layer of
Cranium 8 smooth hyaline cartilage, called articular cartilage
Face-14 Vertebra (26) Sterum Ribs
Ear ossicel 6 Cervical-6 1 12 Pairs in the joint regions. This reduces fricton at the point.
Hyoi-1 Thoracic-12
Lumber-5 ♦♦ The joint is completely enclosed by a bag-like
Sacral-1 capsular ligament which holds the joint together and
Caudal 2
helps to contain the synovial fluid.
Girdles (6 bone) Claviele - 2 Limbs (120 bones) ♦♦ The capsular ligament is lined with a synovial
Pectoral
Pelivic Scapula - 2 membrane. This membrane secretes synovial
fluid into the synovial cavity and acts as a seal,
Fore limbs (60 boncs) Hind limbs (60 bones)
Humerus - 2 Femur - 2 waterproofing the joint. The synovial fluid lubricates
Radius - 2 Tibia - 2 the joint.
Ulna Fibula - 2
Phalanges - 28 Patella - 2 ♦♦ In addition to the capsule, the bones are also attached
Tarsals - 14
Meta tarsal - 10 and held together by strong, tough ligaments made
Phalanges - 28 of dense connective tissue. These ligaments prevent
Table showing total number of bones in Human body dislocation during normal movement.
Types of Synovial Joint
Axial skeleton- 80 bones Appendicular skeleton- 126 bones
(i) Ball and socket joint: It is a movable joint that consists
Skull (Cranium + 22 bones Pectoral girdle 4 bones
Face) (8 + 14) of a bone that has a round head, which fits into a cup like
depression of another bone. This helps the bone to rotate
Hyoid 1 bone Upper limb 60 bones
freely in all directions. E.g. Shoulder joint & hip joints.
Ear ossicles 6 bones Pelvic girdle 2 bones (ii) Hinge joint: Joint that allows the movement in one plane
Vertebral column 26 bones Lower limb 60 bones only i.e. forward and backward are called hinge joint.
Sternum and ribs 1 bone + 25 yy These joints occur where the convex surface of one
bones bone fits into the concave surface of another bone, so
Total- 206 bones making movement possible in one plane only.
E.g. Knee joint, elbow joint etc.
(iii) Pivot joint: It is a type of joint where one bone rotates
around another.
 438 BIOLOGY

yy These joints occur where: Disorders of Muscular & Skeletal Systems

²² A bony ring rotates round the pivot (axis) of another
bone such as the ring-like atlas rotating around the (i) Myasthenia gravis: It is a chronic autoimmune disorder.
odontoid process of the axis, allowing the head to turn It affects neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue,
from side to side. weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscles. The
²² The end of one bone rotates round the axis of another breakdown of the neuromuscular junction causes the brain
bone such as the end of the radius rotating around to lose control over these muscles, which can result in
the ulna as the palm of the hand is turned inwards or difficulty in breathing and swallowing.
outwards. (ii) Muscular dystrophy: Muscular dystrophy is a genetic
(iii) Gliding joint: This type of joints permit only back and disorder. It is characterized by progressive degeneration
forth and side to side movements. No rotation or twisting of skeletal muscles, which are the muscles that control
is possible as bones are packed together or held in place movement.
by ligaments. E.g. Joints between carpals and between the (iii) Tetany: Tetany is a rapid spasm in muscle due to low Ca2+
tarsals.
in body fluid.
(iv) Saddle joint: It is a type of joint in which one bone is
(iv) Arthritis: Arthritis is inflammation of joints.
movable on another fixed bone in many directions. The
bones can rock back and forth and from side to side, but (v) Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis is the deterioration of bone
they have limited rotation. E.g. Joints between carpal & tissue over time that results in a loss of bone mass, making
metacarpal of thumb. bones susceptible to fracture. Osteoporosis is often referred
Joints to as a silent disease because there are no signs or symptoms
Fibrous joints Cartilaginous joints Synovial joints until a bone fracture occurs. Medications help slow the loss
do not allow allow very slight Freely of bone and even rebuild bone tissue.
movement movement movable
Ex-joints between Ex-joints between
the bone of skull adjacent vertebrae

Ball and socket Hinge Pivot Gliding Saddle

joints joints joints joints joints
Ex-joints between Ex-knee Ex-Atlas Ex-between Ex-between
humerus and joints and axis carpals Carpals and meta
pectoral carpals of thumb
 Chapter
Neural Control and
21 Coordination
NERVOUS (NEURAL) SYSTEM
yy The organ system in an animal that serves to coordinate and
control the functioning of all other organ systems in the body
is known as nervous system.
yy The neural system provides rapid coordination among the
organs of the body. This coordination is in the form of electric
impulses and is quick and short lived.
yy All the physiological processes in the body are closed
linked and dependent upon each other. For example, during
exercise, our body requires more oxygen and food. Hence,
the breathing rate increases automatically and the heart beats
faster. This leads to a faster supply of oxygenated blood
to the muscles. Moreover, the cellular functions require
regulation continuously. These functions are carried out by Fig. Organisation of nervous system in humans
the hormones.
yy Hence, the neural system works with the endocrine system
Neuron
to communicate, integrate and coordinate the functions of
various organs and systems in our body and helps the body yy Neuron is the structural and functional unit of neural
to respond to the external stimuli. system.
yy It is composed of: Cell body, Axon and Dendrite.
HUMAN NERVOUS (NEURAL) SYSTEM ²² Cell body (cyton):It contains nucleus, mitochondria,
other cell organelles and Nissl’s granules (granular
In humans, nervous system is divided into two types: bodies). It is mainly concerned with the maintenance
yy Central nervous system (CNS): It consists of brain and and growth. It contains cytoplasm, and cell organelles.
spinal cord.It is regarded as the ‘thinker’ or ‘information ²² Dendron: They are short fibres projecting from the
processor’ in the body. cyton. Their sub branches (dendrites) transmit impulses
yy Peripheral nervous system (PNS): It consists of sensory and towards the cyton. They also contain Nissl’s granules.
motor nerves and connects the central nervous system with ²² Axon: Axon is a long fibre which transmits impulses
the sense organs, muscles and glands of the body. Somatic away from the cell body. The branching of axon is called
neural system and Autonomic neural system.It is regarded axonite. Each axonite ends as a bulb-like structure called
as ‘actor’ or ‘performer’ in the body. synaptic knob containing neurotransmitters.
²² Axon may or may not be covered by a fatty sheath
called myelin sheath. This covering is missing at
intervals. These gaps on the sheath are known as nodes
of Ranvier.
 450 BIOLOGY

Nucleus Dendrites yy Bipolar Neuron:Bipolar neuron where, the cyton is spindle

shaped and has two processes, one at each end. Such neurons
are found in the sense organs like eye and ear.
yy Multipolar neuron: Multipolar neuron here, the cyton has
Cyton several processes, one of which is long and forms the axon.
Nissl’s granules Such neurons are found in the central nervous system.
Axon hillock

Unipolar
Neurilemma
Collateral fibre
Myelin
Internode
Nucleus of schwann cell Bipolar
Node of ranvier
Muscle Axon
Multipolar

Dendrites

Axon
Synaptic buttons Fig. : Three types of Neurons (based on structure)
Fig. Three types of Neurons (based on structure)
Fig. : An enlarged Neuron and its synapses with
Fig. An enlarged Neuron and its synapses
another Neuron with another Neuron
Nerves
Table : Differences between Dendrites and Axons yy Nerves are thread like structures, which emerge from brain
S. Dendrites Axons and spinal cord. It branch out to almost all parts of the
No. body.
yy The nerves are composed of axons or nerve fibres bundled
1. These are short and tapering These are long, uniform and
together like the strands of an electric cable.
processes. cylindrical processes.
2. A number of dendrites arise Only single axon arises per
from the cyton. cyton.
3. They have tapering ends. Terminal branches of the
axon enlarge to form a knob.
4. They contain Nissl’s They do not contain Nissl’s
granules and neurofibrils. granules but contain
neurofibrils.
5. They receive sensation and They carry impulses away
send it to the cyton. from the cyton.
Types of axon
yy On the basis of composition, the nerves are of three types:
yy Myelinated axon: Axon that has myelin sheath is known as (a) Sensory nerves: These nerves contain sensory fibres.
myelinated axon. It is enveloped with Schwann cells that form a Sensory nerves bring impulse from sense organs to the
myelin sheath around the axon. It is found in spinal and cranial brain or the spinal cord. E.g. optic nerves.
nerves. The white coloured area, formed of myelinated nerve (b) Motor nerves: These nerves contain motor fibres. Motor
fibres is called white matter. The gaps between two adjacent nerves carry impulse from brain or spinal cord to the
myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier. effector organ like muscle or glands. E.g. Occulomotor
yy Non-myelinated axon: Axon without myelin sheath is nerve.
known as non-myelinated axon. The gray coloured area (c) Mixed nerves: These nerves contain both sensory and
without myelin sheath is called gray matter. They are found motor nerve fibres and perform a mixed function. E.g.
in autonomous nerves. Trigeminal nerve
Types of Neurons yy On the basis of their origin, nerves are of two types:
yy Unipolar neuron: Unipolar neuron where, the cyton is more (a) Cranial nerves, which either arise from or end into
or less spherical and has a single process that bifurcates. Such brain.
neurons are found in the ganglia in brain and spinal cord. (b) Spinal nerves, which arise from spinal cord.
 Neural Control and Coordination 451

(a) Cranial nerves motor fibers; and others are mixed nerves, so called because
yy These are those nerves which either arise from or end into they contain both sensory and motor fibers.
brain. yy Cranial nerves are largely concerned with the head, neck,
yy In man, there are twelve pairs of cranial nerves which pass and facial regions of the body. However, the vagus nerve
through foramina of the skull. (X), which has branches to most of the internal organs, is a
yy Some of these are sensory nerves—that is, they contain only part of the autonomic system.
sensory fibers; some are motor nerves, containing only

No. Nerve Nature Origin Innervation Function

I. Olfactory Sensory Olfactory epithelium of Olfactory lobe of brain Smell
nasal chamber
II. Optic Sensory Retina of Eye Diencephalon Vision
III. Occulomotor Motor Floor of midbrain Eye muscles and to muscles of Movement of eyes
ciliary body, iris and tear glands
IV. Pathetic (Trochlear) Motor Floor of midbrain Eye muscles Rotation of eye ball
V. Trigeminal Mixed Ventral surface of pons Ta c t i l e a n d l o w e r j a w
varolii. It bears a trigeminal movement
ganglion at its origin and
divides into three branches:
Opthalmic nerve Lacrimal glands, the conjunctiva of
the eye, the forehead, the eyelids
etc.
Maxillary nerve Cheeks, the upper gums, upper
teeth and lower eyelids
Mandibular nerve Teeth and gums of the lower jaw,
pinna of the ear, lower lip and
tongue
VI. Abducens Motor Pons varolii Lateral rectus muscle of the eye Rotation of eyeball
ball
VII. Facial Mixed Lower part of pons varolii Taste buds of the tongue and Tasting of food, facial
muscles of the face expression, saliva secretion,
movement of neck
VIII. Auditory Sensory Internal ear Anterolateral side of medulla Hearing and equilibrium
oblongata behind VII
IX. Glossopharyngeal Mixed Lateral side of medulla Sensory fibres to taste buds. Tasting of food, salivation,
oblongata Motor fibres to muscles of pharynx swallowing
and parotid salivary glands
X. Vagus Mixed Lateral side of medulla Sensory fibres to receptors present Visceral functions (sensations
oblongata behind IXth in wall of visceral organs. and movements)
Motor to muscles in the wall of
visceral organs like alimentary
canal, heart, blood vessels, kidneys,
trachea, genital tracts etc.
XI. Accessory spinal Motor Lateral side of medulla Muscles of larynx, pharynx, neck Movement of larynx, pharynx,
oblongata behind Xth and shoulder neck and shoulder
XII. Hypoglossal Motor Ventral side of posterior part Hypoglossal muscles below Movement of tongue
of medulla oblongata tongue

(b) Spinal nerves

yy These are those nerves which arise from the spinal cord.
yy In man, there are thirty one pairs of spinal nerves;one of each pair is on either side of the spinal cord.
 452 BIOLOGY

The spinal nerves are divided into five groups, because they are 1. Forebrain (prosencephalon): It is the main thinking part of
at either the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar regions of the vertebral the brain. It consists of cerebrum, and diencephalon.
column. (a) Cerebrum: Cerebrum is the largest and most prominent part
yy 8 pairs of cer­vi­cal nerves (C1-C8) of the brain. It constitutes about four-fifth of its weight.
yy 12 pairs of tho­racic nerves (T1 – T12) yy Cerebrum is divided into two cerebral hemispheres
yy 5 pairs of lum­bar nerves (L1-L5) (right and left hemisphere) by a deep longitudinal
yy 5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1-S5) cerebral fissure.
yy These hemispheres are joined by a tract of nerve fibre
yy 1 pair of coc­cygeal nerves (Co1)
The spinal nerves are designated according to their location known as corpus callosum. The corpus callosum
in relation to the vertebrae because each passes through an participates in the formation of 5 th ventricle or
intervertebral foramen as it leaves the spinal cord. pseudocoel.
yy Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into two regions -
the outer region and the inner region. The outer region of
CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM (CNS) cerebrum contains grey matter and is known as cerebral
cortex, which contains cell bodies of the neuron. The
A. Brain inner region of cerebrum contains white matter and is
known as cerebral medulla, which contains nerve fibres
yy Brain is the main coordinating centre of the body. It is a
or axons of the neurons.
part of nervous system that controls and monitors every
yy Each cerebral hemisphere has 4 lobes. They are anterior
organ of the body.
Frontal lobe, middle Parietal lobe, lateral Temporal lobe
yy It is well protected by cranial meninges that are made up of
and posterior Occipital lobe.
an outer layer called dura mater, a thin middle layer called yy The cerebral cortex (outer region of cerebrum) has
arachnoid, and an inner layer called pia mater. many convulsions (gyri) and depressions (sulci). The
yy The subarachnoid space (space between pia mater and gyri increase surface area of the cortex to accommodate
arachnoid mater) is filled with lymph like, watery fluid, more neurons.
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). yy The cerebral cortex consists of
yy The ventricles of brain are also filled with CSF. (i) Motor area: It controls the voluntary movements of
yy It is divided into three regions − forebrain, midbrain, and muscles. It is found in the posterior parts of frontal
hindbrain.. lobe.
(ii) Sensory (Somaesthetic) area: It found in parietal lobe
(temperature, touch, pressure, pain, taste etc.), occipital
lobe (vision) and temporal lobes (hearing and smell).
(iii) Association area: Seen in frontal lobe. It is
neither clearly sensory nor motor in function.
Responsible for intersensory associations, memory
and communication.
yy Broca’s area: It is seen in frontal lobe. It is related
with speech.
yy Wernicke’s area: It is seen in temporal lobe. It is related
with understanding speech and language.
yy Integrated activities of different centres of cerebral
cortex control intelligence, memory, judgment, learning,
thinking and articulate speech.
(b) Diencephalon: It includes thalamus and Hypothalamus.
(i) Thalamus:
yy Thalamus is the main centre of coordination for sensory and
motor signalling. It is wrapped by cerebrum.
yy It acts as relay station for sensory and motor impulses
between cerebrum and other parts of the brain.
(ii) Hypothalamus:
yy It lies at the base of thalamus.
yy The main functions of Hypothalamus are:
²² Regulates temperature, thirst, hunger and emotions.
²² Secretes two hormones called ADH and oxytocin.
²² Controls pituitary gland.
Fig. Human central nervous system ²² Controls sleep wakefulness, food intake, blood pressure,
heart rate etc.
 Neural Control and Coordination 453

yy The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres and a group of associated Cerebellum It maintains posture and equilibrium of the body as well
deep structures like amygdala, hippocampus,hypothalamus, as coordinates and regulates voluntary movement.
thalamus etc. together constitute Limbicsystem. It is involved
Pons varolii It relays impulses between medulla oblongata and
in regulation of sexual behavior, emotional expressions and cerebral hemisphere and between the hemisphere of
motivations. cerebrum and cerebellum.
2. Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
Medulla It is the centre that control heartbeat, breathing,
yy It is located between the thalamus region of the forebrain
Oblongata swallowing, and salivation, sneezing, vomiting and
and pons region of hindbrain. coughing.
yy The dorsal surface of midbrain consists of superior and
inferior corpora bigemina and four round lobes called corpora
quadrigemina. A canal known as cerebral aqueduct passes B. Spinal Cord
through the midbrain.
yy Their anterior pair is the centre of visual reflexes and the yy Spinal cord is a tubular structure connected with medulla
posterior pair is a centre of auditory reflex. oblongata of brain.
3. Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) yy It is situated in the neural canal of the vertebral column,
covered by meninges.
yy It consists of cerebellum and brain stem (Pons varoli &
Medulla oblongata). Brain stem includes midbrain also. yy It is enclosed within the spinal canal of vertebral column.
(a) Cerebellum (“little cerebrum”) : Cerebellum is a large yy Spinal cord has a central canal containing Cerebro spinal
and well developed part of hindbrain. It is located below the fluid (CSF).
posterior sides of cerebral hemispheres and above medulla yy It has outer white matter and inner gray matter.
oblongata. Functions of spinal cord:
Functions: yy It helps in conduction of impulses to and from the brain.
²² It helps in co-ordination of muscular activities. yy It is the centre of spinal reflexes.
²² It helps in maintenance of posture and equilibrium.
(b) Pons varolii: Pons is a band of nerve fibre that lies between
medulla oblongata and midbrain. It connects the lateral parts PERIPHERAL NEURAL SYSTEM (PNS)
of cerebellar hemisphere together.
Functions: yy It includes cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
²² It is a bridge between two cerebellar hemispheres. Difference between Cranial nerves and Spinal nerves
²² It helps in co-ordination of the activities of eye and ear.
²² It helps in equilibration and regulation of respiration. Cranial nerves Spinal nerves
(c) Medulla oblongata: Medulla oblongata is the posterior Cranial nerves arise from the Spinal nerves arise from the spinal
and simplest part of the brain. It is located beneath the brain. cord.
cerebellum. Its lower end extends in the form of spinal cord There are 12 pairs of cranial There are 31 pairs of spinal
and leaves the skull through foramen magnum. nerves. nerves.
Functions:
²² It helps in regulation of respiration, heartbeat, blood yy PNS has two divisions. They are
pressure, circulation, peristaltic movements etc. (i) Somatic neural system: It relays impulses from the CNS
²² It is the centre of salivation, vomiting, sneezing and to skeletal muscles.
coughing (ii) Autonomic neural system: It transmits impulses from
Functions of Parts of Brain CNS to involuntary organs and smooth muscles. It includes
sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.
Parts of the Functions
(a) Sympathetic neural system prepares body to cope with
brain
emergencies, stresses and dangers. It increases heartbeat,
Cerebrum It is the centre of intelligence, memory and imagination,
breathing rate, constricts arteries, and elevates BP.
reasoning, judgement, expression of will power.
(b) Parasympathetic neural system returns the body to a
Thalamus It acts as relay centre to receive and transmit general resting state after stressful situations and slows down
sensation of pain, touch and temperature.
heartbeat, dilates arteries, lowers BP etc.
Hypothalamus It is the centre for regulation of body temperature, urge yy Nerve fibres of PNS are 2 types:
for eating and drinking. (i) Afferent (sensory) fibres:It carries impulses from tissues
Mid brain It is responsible to coordinate visual reflexes and or organs (such as sense organs) to CNS.
auditory reflexes. (ii) Efferent (motor) fibres: It carries impulses from CNS
totissues or organs (such as muscles and glands).
 454 BIOLOGY

Difference between central neural system (CNS) and Peripheral yy Depolarisation is a very rapid process, so that conduction
neural system (PNS) of nerve impulse along the entire length of axon occurs in
Central neural system Peripheral neural system fractions of second.
yy The action potential is about +30 mV.
It is the main coordinating It is not the main coordinating centre of
centre of the body. the body.
It includes brain and spinal It includes cranial and spinal nerves
cord. that connect central nervous system to
different parts of the body.

GENERATION AND CONDUCTION OF NERVE

IMPULSES Role of Na+ in the Generation of Action Potential
Impulse transmission is electrochemical. It consists of three steps: yy Sodium ions play an important role in the generation of
action potential.
1. Maintenance of resting membrane potential yy When a nerve fibre is stimulated, the membrane potential
yy Resting membrane potential is the potential difference decreases.
existing in a resting neuron (unstimulated neuron). yy The membrane becomes more permeable to Na+ ions than
yy During resting condition, the concentration of K+ ions is to K+ ions.
more inside the axoplasm while the concentration of Na+ yy As a result, Na+ diffuses from the outside to the inside of
ions is more outside the axoplasm. As a result, the potassium the membrane. This causes the inside of the membrane to
ions move faster from inside to outside as compared to become positively-charged, while the outer membrane gains
sodium ions. Therefore, the membrane becomes positively a negatively charge.
charged outside and negatively charged inside. This is yy This reversal of polarity across the membrane is known
known as polarization of membrane or polarized nerve. as depolarisation. The rapid inflow of Na+ ions causes the
yy The ionic concentration gradients across the resting membrane potential to increase, thereby generating an
membrane are maintained by active transport of ions by action potential.
sodium-potassium pump which transports 3 Na+ outwards
for 2 K+ into the cell.
yy The resting membrane potential is –70 mV.

2. Action potential (Depolarisation of the membrane of a nerve

fibre)
yy The minimum strength of a stimulus required to stimulate
a neuron is called Threshold stimulus.
yy When an electrical stimulus is given to a nerve fibre, an
action potential is generated. Difference table between resting potential and action potential
yy Action potential is defined as a sudden change in the electrical
charges in the plasma membrane of a nerve fibre. Resting potential Action potential
yy The membrane becomes permeable to sodium ions than It is the potential difference across It is the potential difference across
to potassium ions. This results into positive charge inside the nerve fibre when there is no nerve fibre when there is conduction
and negative charge outside the nerve fibre. Hence, the conduction of nerve impulse. of nerve impulse.
membrane is said to be depolarized. The membrane is more permeable The membrane is more permeable
yy Immediately Na + pump becomes active and resting to K+ ions than to Na+ ions. to Na+ ions than to K+ ions.
membrane potential is restored (This process is known as
repolarisation). 3. Propagation of action potential
yy Depolarization and subsequent repolarization together yy Action potential formed at a point becomes a stimulus for
constitute the action potential (i.e. a nerve impulse). the next region, i.e. a current flows on the inner surface from
 Neural Control and Coordination 455

stimulated site to adjacent site. As a result, depolarization Impulse conduction in a myelinated nerve fibre and an
and repolarisation occur there. Non-myelinated nerve fibre
yy This process is repeated and the action potential travels
along the entire length of the neuron as nerve impulse. Impulse conduction in a Impulse conduction in an non-
myelinated nerve fibre myelinated nerve fibre
In a myelinated nerve fibre, the In an non-myelinated nerve
CONDUCTION OF A NERVE IMPULSE ALONG A action potential is conducted from fibre, the action potential is not
NERVE FIBRE one node to another. conducted from node to node. It is
carried along the whole length of
There are two types of nerve fibres – myelinated and non- the nerve fibre.
myelinated. The conduction of impulses is The conduction of impulses is
1. Myelinated nerve fibre: In myelinated nerve fibre, the action faster. slower.
potential is conducted from node to node in jumping manner.
This is because the myelinated nerve fibre is coated with myelin
sheath. The myelin sheath is impermeable to ions. As a result,
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
the ionic exchange and depolarisation of nerve fibre is not yy Synapse is a functional junction between axon of one neuron
possible along the whole length of nerve fibre. It takes place and dendrite of next neuron. It is separated by a small gap
only at some point, known as nodes of Ranvier. known as synaptic cleft.
Schwann cell yy There are two types of synapses: Electrical synapse and
Chemical synapse
Depolarized region
(node of Ranvier) 1. Electrical synapse:
Cell body Myelin yy In electrical synapses, the pre and post synaptic neurons lie in
sheath close proximity to each other. Hence, the impulse can move
Axon directly from one neuron to another across the synapse. This
represents a faster method of impulse transmission. Electrical
synapses are very rare in human system.
yy Transmission of a nerve impulse across an electrical
2. Non-myelinated nerve fibre: Innon-myelinated nerve fibre, the synapse – In this type of transmission, an electric current is
ionic exchange and depolarization of nerve fibre takes place formed in the neuron. This electric current generates an action
along the whole length of the nerve fibre. Because of this ionic potential and leads to transmission of nerve impulse across
exchange, the depolarized area becomes repolarised and the the nerve fibre. This represents a faster method of nerve
next polarized area becomes depolarized. conduction than the chemical method of transmission.
2. Chemical Synapse
yy In this, there is a fluid filled space called synaptic cleft
Axon between the presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic neuron.
yy Synaptic cleft is a narrow fluid filled space which separates
Action two membranes of the two neurons at the synapse.
potental yy The presynaptic regions have swellings called Synaptic
+
knob (buttons). They contain synaptic vesicles filledwith
neurotransmitters like acetylcholine (Ach) or adrenaline.
Na

yy When the impulse reaches the presynaptic region, the

synaptic vesicles break and release the neurotransmitters.
Action yy It diffuses across the synaptic gap to combine with the
K+ potental receptors found on the post synaptic neuron.
yy Based on neurotransmitter, chemical synapses are 2 types:
²² C h o l i n e r g i c s y n a p s e : N e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r i s
+
Na

Acetylcholine.
K+ ²² Adrenergic synapse: Neurotransmitter is Adrenalin.
Action yy Transmission of a nerve impulse across a chemical synapse–
K+ potental When an impulse reaches at the end plate of axon, vesicles
consisting of chemical substance or neurotransmitter, such as
acetylcholine, fuse with the plasma membrane. This chemical
+
Na

moves across the cleft and attaches to chemo-receptors

K+ present on the membrane of the dendrite of next neuron.
 456 BIOLOGY

This binding of chemical with chemo-receptors leads to the (iv) A motor (efferent) neuron that conducts the impulse from
depolarization of membrane and generates a nerve impulse the CNS to effector organ.
across nerve fibre.The chemical, acetylcholine, is inactivated (v) An effector organ (muscle/ gland) that responds to impulse.
by enzyme acetylcholinestrase. The enzyme is present in Afferent Dorsal root
White
the post synaptic membrane of the dendrite. It hydrolyses pathway ganglion
matter
Muscle spindle
acetylcholine and this allows the membrane to repolarise. (receptor)
Gray
matter
Axon
Stimulus
Motor endplate Motor Interneuron
(effector)
Axon Response
neuron
Efferent
terminal pathway
Synaptic
vesicles
Pre-synaptic Fig. Diagrammatic presentation of reflex action
membrane (showing knee jerk reflex)

Synapse
Synaptic cleft
Types of Reflexes
Post-synaptic
membrane There are two types of reflexes: Unconditioned and Conditioned
reflex.
(A) Conditioned reflex: Previous experience is required to
Neurotransmitters Receptors
complete these actions e.g., swimming, cycling, dancing,
Fig.
Fig. Diagram
: Diagram showing axon
showing axon terminal
terminal and and synapse
synapse singing etc. These actions were studied first by Evan Pavlov
on dog. Initially these actions are voluntary at the time of
learning and after perfection these become involuntary.
REFLEX ACTION (B) Unconditioned reflex: These actions do not require
previous experience, e.g., sneezing, coughing, yawning,
yy It is the rapid, involuntary and unconscious actions of the
sexual behaviour for opposite sex partner, migration in
body brought about by any part of the CNS through sudden
birds etc.
stimulation from receptors.
yy Reflex action was first discovered by Marshall Hall in 1833
RECEPTORS
A.D.
Examples: Receptors are sensory structures (organs/tissues or cells) present all
²² Sudden withdrawal of the hand when it touches a hot over the body. They can detect changes in the environment, which
object. are called stimuli, and turn them into electrical impulses. Receptors
²² Touching lips of a nursing baby evokes a sucking reflex. are often located in the sense organs, such as the ear, eye and skin.
Each organ has receptors sensitive to particular kinds of stimulus.
²² Closing of the eyelids when a beam of light falls on them.
²² Knee jerk phenomenon. Functions of Receptors
²² If a child sees or smells some food unknown to him yy They sense the external stimuli such as heat or pain.
he does not salivate. But if he sees or smells that food yy They also trigger an impulse in the sensory neuron which
every time before tasting it, he begins to salivate.This sends message to the spinal cord.
is known as conditioned reflex.
SENSE ORGANS (EYE, EAR, NOSE, TONGUE & SKIN)
Reflex Arc Sense organs are the organs through which we sense or feel change
yy The path followed by an impulse in a reflex action is called in the external environment.
reflex arc. Different sense organs in our body
yy It always flows in a single direction because each synapse in
a reflex allows impulses to flow in a single direction. Sense organ Sensitive to stimuli Senses
yy Reflex arc consists of: Skin Pressure, heat, cold, and pain Touch
(i) A receptor organ receiving the stimulus. Tongue Chemicals in food and drink Taste
(ii) A sensory (afferent) neuron, which transmits the impulses Nose Chemical in air Smell
from sense organ to CNS.
(iii) An intermediate neuron (connector neuron) that connects Ears Sound and movement Hearing and Balance
the sensory and motor neuron. Eyes Light Sight
 Neural Control and Coordination 457

1. Eye 1. Ciliary process: It secretes aqueous humor

into the anterior chamber of the eye. Aqueous
yy Eye is a visual organ present in the orbit of the skull and held
humor is a watery fluid that helps maintain the
in place by six muscles.
shape of the eye and nourishes the lens and
Accessory structures of the eye: Lacrimal gland and conjunctiva. cornea. It drains into the Canal of Schlemn,
an opening where the sclera and cornea meet.
(i) Lacrimal gland: The lachrimalglands are located superiorly
2. Ciliary muscles: It is a ring of smooth muscle
and lateral to the eyeball. It secretes tears through a lacrimal
that is attached to the lens via the suspensory
duct onto the surface of the eyeball. Tears moisten, lubricate
and clean the surface of the eye. It also containsa bactericidal ligaments. Contraction and relaxation of this
enzyme called Lysozyme to kill bacteria. muscle alters the shape of the lens for viewing
objects up close or at a distance.
♦♦ The excess tear is passed out by nasolacrimal duct
(c) Iris: At the junction of sclera and cornea, the ciliary
that opens into the nasal chamber.
body continues forward to form thin coloured partition
♦♦ The parasympathetic nervous system controls the
called iris. It is the visible coloured portion of eye. Iris
secretion by the lachrymal glands.
has a central opening called pupil.
(ii) Conjunctiva: It is a transparent mucous membrane that lines (d) Pupil: It is the small aperture in the iris that regulates
the eyelids and covers the anterior white of the eye. It lubricates the amount of light entering the eye.
and protects the anterior surface of the eye. (e) Lens: The eye contains a transparent, biconvex, and
elastic structure just behind the iris, known as lens.
The lens is held in position by suspensory ligaments
attached to the ciliary body.
♦♦ The lens divides the eye ball into two chambers – an
anterior aqueous and posterior vitreous chamber.
♦♦ The aqueous chamber lies between the cornea and
lens. It is filled with aqueous humor, secreted by the
ciliary body.It nourishes the cornea and lens.
♦♦ The vitreous chamber lies between the lens and the
retina. It is filled with vitreous humor.
♦♦ Both the fluids help in maintaining the form of
eyeball and in focusing the light rays.
Fig. Diagram showing parts of an Eye (iii) Inner most layer: Retina
yy Retina is the innermost layer.It contains three layers of cells:
Layers of the eye- sclera, choroid and retina.
inner ganglion cells, middle bipolar cells, and outermost
(i) Outer layer: It is composed of sclera and cornea. photoreceptor cells.
a. Sclera: It is an opaque tissue that is usually known as (a) Photoreceptor layer: It is the outermost layer of neurons
white of the eye. It is composed of a dense connective and consists of rods and cones.
tissue. It protects the inner structure and helps to (i) Rod cells: The rods contain the rhodopsin pigment
maintain rigidity of the ball. (visual purple coloured photo pigment synthesized
b. Cornea: It is a transparent anterior portion of eye that from vitamin A)that is highly sensitive to dim light.
lacks blood vessels and is nourished by lymph from the It is responsible for scotopic (twilight) vision.
nearby area. It is slightly bulged forward and helps in (ii) Cone cells: The cones contain the iodopsin pigment
focusing light rays with the help of lens.Conjunctiva (visual violet) and are highly sensitive to high
(a transparent covering) protects cornea. intensity light. They are responsible for photopic
(ii) Middle layer: It is vascular in nature and contains choroid, (daylight) vision and colour visions.There are three
ciliary body, and iris. types of cone cells – those responding to green light,
(a) Choroid: Itis highly vascular middle layer that lies next those responding to blue light, and those responding
to the sclera. It contains numerous blood vessels that to red light. These cells are stimulated by different
provide nutrients and oxygen to the retina and other lights, from different sources. The combinations
tissues. It also contains melanocytes which produces of the signals generated help us see the different
melanin. colours.
(b) Ciliary body: The choroid layer is thin over posterior (b) Bipolar cell layer: These are the cells that synapse with
region and gets thickened in the anterior portion to the photoreceptors. Bipolar cells transmit an impulse to
form ciliary body. It contains blood vessels, ciliary the ganglion cells.
muscles, and ciliary processes.
 458 BIOLOGY

(c) Ganglionic cell layer:It is the innermost layer, which yy In the cortex region of brain, the impulses are analysed and
give rise to optic nerve fibre. Optic fibre forms optic image is image is recognized based on the earlier memory
nerve in each eye and is connected with the brain. The and experience on the retina
photoreceptor cells are absent in this region. Hence, it yy So two retinal images are formed but only one image is seen.
is known as the blind spot. At the posterior part, lateral This is called binocular vision.
to blind spot, there is a pigmented spot called macula
lutea. This spot has a shallow depression at its middle
known as fovea. Fovea has only cone cells. They are
devoid of rod cells. Hence, fovea is the place of most
distinct vision.
Difference between Choroid and Retina
Choroid Retina
Choroid is the middle vascular Retina is the innermost nervous Fig. Image formation on retina
layer of eye. coat of eye.
Vision
It contains numerous blood vessels It contains photoreceptor cells, (i) Stereoscopic vision: Humans have stereoscopic vision, in
that provide nutrients and oxygen rods and cones that are associated which they see an object with two eyes at the same time,
to retina and other tissues. with twilight and colour vision
with both eyes set in the same plane.
respectively.
(ii) When signals from the two eyes reach the brain, they are
Difference between Rods and Cones superimposed and processed into a single picture with
depth. As a result, we get a 3D picture and are able to
Rods Cones judge distances well.
Rods help in twilight vision. Cones help in colour vision. (iii) Monocular vision: Most birds and lizards have monocular
They have visual purple pigment They have visual violet pigment vision as their eyes are on each side of their head. In this
called rhodopsin. called iodopsin. type of vision, each eye is used separately to see an object.
This gives them a greater field of view, which is useful
Rods are the photoreceptor cells Cones are the photoreceptor cells
of the retina that are sensitive to of the retina that are sensitive to for spotting predators. However, they have poor depth
dim light. bright light. perception.

Difference between Blind Spot and Yellow Spot

Blind spot Yellow spot
Blind spot is a spot on the retina Yellow spot is a small area on
present at the point of origin of the the retina present at the posterior
optic nerve. pole of the eye, lateral to the blind
spot.
Photoreceptor cells are absent from Only cones are present in this
this region. region.
They are insensitive to light as both They are sensitive to bright light as
rods and cones are absent. cones are present.

Mechanism of Vision
yy Retina is the innermost layer of eye. It contains three layers
of cells – inner ganglion cells, middle bipolar cells, and
outermost photoreceptor cells.
yy A photoreceptor cell is composed of a protein called opsin
and an aldehyde of vitamin-A called retinal.
yy When light rays are focused on the retina through cornea, it Fig. Diagrammatic view of ear
leads to the dissociation of retinal from opsin protein. This
changes the structure of opsin. (i) External ear:
yy As the structure of opsin changes, the permeability of membrane yy It consists of pinna (ear lobe), external auditory meatus (ear
changes, generating a potential difference in the cells. canal), and a tympanic membrane.
yy This generates an action potential in the ganglionic cells (a) Pinna (Ear lobe): It is a sensitive structure that collects
and is transmitted to the visual cortex of the brain via optic and directs the vibrations into the ear to produce
nerves. sound.
 Neural Control and Coordination 459

(b) External auditory meatus (Ear canal): It is a tubular yy A membrane called Reissner’s membrane separates the scala
passage supported by cartilage in external ear. It contains vestibula and scala media. The scala media and scala tympani
numerous ceruminous glands (modified sweat glands) are separated by basilar membrane.
which secrete wax (cerumen).Hairs are present at the yy The outer canals (S. vestibula and S. tympani) are filled with
opening of ear canal.Wax and hairs prevent entry of perilymph and scala media is filled with endolymph.
foreign objects like insects. yy Terminally, Scala vestibula and S. tympani communicate
(c) Tympanic membrane (ear drum): It is a thin membrane with each other by a small opening called helicotrema.
that lies close to the auditory canal. It separates the yy Resting on the basilar membrane and projecting into scala
middle ear from external ear. media is complex receptor organ called Organ of Corti.
(ii) Middle ear It consists of row of sensory hair cells. The hairs of these
cells project upwards and lie in close contact with tectorial
yy It is an air-filled tympanic cavity that is connected with
membrane, which projects above them.
pharynx through Eustachian tube. Eustachian tube helps to
yy The sound pitch is determined by the frequency of sound.
equalize air pressure in both sides of tympanic membrane.
yy Human ear register sounds of frequencies between
yy The middle ear contains a flexible chain of three middle bones
called ear ossicles. The three ear ossicles are malleus, incus, 20- 20,000 Hz.
and stapes that are attached to each other.
yy The malleus is attached to tympanic membrane on one side
and to incus on the other side. The incus is connected with
stapes. Stapes, in turn, are attached with an oval membrane,
fenestra ovalis, of internal ear. The ear ossicles act as a lever
that transmits sound waves from external ear to internal ear.
(iii) Internal ear
yy It is also known as labyrinth. Labyrinth is divided into bony
labyrinth and a membranous labyrinth. Bony labyrinth is
filled with perilymph while membranous labyrinth is filled
with endolymph. Membranous labyrinth is divided into two
parts: vestibular apparatus and cochlea. Fig. Diagrammatic representation of the sectional view of
cochlea
(a) Vestibular apparatus:
yy Vestibular apparatus is a central sac-like part that is divided Mechanism of Hearing
into utriculus and sacculus. A special group of sensory cells yy The pinna of the external ear collects the sound waves and
called macula are present in sacculus and utriculus. directs them to the tympanic membrane (ear drum) via the
yy Vestibular apparatus also contains three semi-circular canals. external auditory canal.
Of three semicircular canals, two are vertical and one is yy The ear drum then vibrates the sound waves and conducts
horizontal. them to the internal ear through the ear ossicles. The ear
yy The lower end of each semi-circular canal contains a ossicles increase the intensity of the sound waves.
projecting ridge called crista ampularis. yy These vibrating sound waves are conducted through the oval
yy The long cilia from many cells of crista are grouped together window to the fluid in the cochlea.
in a bundle (cupula) that is covered with a gelatinous yy Consequently, a movement is created in the lymph. This
coating. movement produces vibrations in the basilar membrane,
yy Each ampulla has a group of sensory cells called crista. which in turn stimulate the auditory hair cells.
yy Cristae (receptors on the ampulla) and macula (receptors on yy These cells generate a nerve impulse, conducting it to the
the utriculus andsacculus) are the organs of equilibrium and auditory cortex of the brain via afferent fibres.
posture of body. yy The auditory cortex region interprets the nerve impulse and
yy Small masses of calcareous particles called otoliths (otoconia sound is recognised.
or ear stones) are located within the vestibule.
3. NOSE (Olfacto Receptors)
(b) Cochlea
yy It is the organ of smell
yy Cochlea is a long and coiled outgrowth of sacculus. It is the
yy The olfactory epithelium lining the upper portion of the nasal
main hearing organ.
cavity consists of Olfactoreceptors (confined to roof of the
yy The cochlea forms three chambers.
nasal cavity) and supporting cells.
²² Upper − Scala vestibule
(i) Olfactory receptor cells are neurons stimulated by odorant
²² Middle − Scala media
chemicals.
²² Lower − Scala tympani
 460 BIOLOGY

²² Olfactory hairs (cilia) project from the end of the neuron yy The receptors for taste are located in taste buds.
and are embedded within the mucous lining the nasal ²² Taste buds are located on the papillae of the tongue
cavity. (primarily), palate, pharynx and the cheeks of infants.
²² These olfactory hairs will have olfactory receptors for ²² Taste buds consist of three types of cells.
the odorant chemicals to bind to in order to stimulate (a) Gustatory receptor cells have gustatory hairs extending
the neuron and initiate a nerve impulse. to the external surface. The gustatory hairs have
²² The axons of these olfactory receptor cells extend as receptors for the taste chemicals to bind to, initiating
olfactory nerves to synapse within the olfactory bulb. an impulse.
(ii) Supporting cells are columnar cells that surround the (b) Support cells surround the gustatory receptor cells.
olfactory receptor cells. It provides support and nourishment (c) Basal cells are located at the base of the taste bud. These
for the olfactory receptor cells. continually divide and differentiate into new gustatory
yy The odorants dissolve in the mucous (secreted bysupporting receptor cells that have a life span of approximately 1
cells) and attach to receptor cells. The receptor cells generate week.
olfactory impulses which are transmitted into brain by yy The food mixed with saliva enters the taste pores of the buds
olfactory nerves. and stimulate the sensory cells. These impulses are carried
to the brain, which gives the sense of the taste.
4. TONGUE (Gustato Receptors)
5. SKIN (Cutaneous Receptors)
yy It is the organ of taste.
yy It consists of four primary tastes: Sweet, salt, sour and yy It is the largest sense organ.
bitter. yy It contains receptors for heat, cold, touch, pain and
pressure.
 Chapter Chemical

22
Co­ordination
and Integration
Endocrine system includes endocrine glands and their secretions secrete their secretions in the digestive tract with the help of
called hormones. Endocrine system operates as a chemical ducts. Sweat gland is also an example of exocrine gland.
communication system. They work closely with the nervous system (ii) Endocrine glands: The glands that pour their secretions
in regulating certain activities of the body. directly into the blood are called endocrine glands.
Endocrine glands are called ductless glands as they do
not have ducts. The secretion reaches their target through
HORMONAL VERSUS NERVOUS SYSTEM blood. The major endocrine glands that make up the human
endocrine system are: Pituitary gland, hypothalamus,
1. Hormones are transported around (to their target organs) thyroid glands, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pineal
the body by the blood. Therefore hormonal responses are body and reproductive glands that include the testes in meal
relatively slow compared with nervous responses. and ovaries in female.
2. Many hormonal responses (For example, growth) occur (iii) Heterocrine glands: The glands that are partly exocrine
over relatively long period of time. with duct and partly endocrine without duct is known as
3. The main function of endocrine system is to maintain heterocrine glands. The exocrine part releases secretion in
homeostasis within the body where as the main function duct while endocrine part releases hormones in blood. The
of nervous system is to receive and respond to stimuli. example includes pancreas and gonads.
4. Generally endocrine system is controlled by the nervous
system through the hypothalamus, mediated by pituitary
gland. HORMONES
yy Hormones are chemical messengers of the body that
GLANDS transfers information from one set of cells to another.
yy General characteristics of hormones:
yy Glands are groups of specialized cells which produce and ²² These are secreted by endocrine glands.
secrete hormones into the bloodstream. These hormones ²² Each hormone has a definite function and acts on upon
travel inside our bodies and act like chemical messenger. specific cells/tissues/organs which are called target cells/
yy The glands control the body’s day to day functioning. They tissues/organs.
affect the body’s shape, strength, reproduction, growth ²² It is needed in very small amount.
and nourishment. For example, a hormone released from ²² It produces long lasting effects in the cells they target.
²² Hormones are particularly controlled by endocrine
the pituitary gland causes the growth of our body to an
system.
average height.
²² Hormones maintain homeostasis.
Glands are divided into three types: Exocrine glands, endocrine ²² They are regulated by negative feedback mechanisms.
glands and heterocrine glands. The negative-feedback mechanism is the endocrine
(i) Exocrine glands: The glands that release their secretions system’s method for regulating itself. Certain glands
with the help of ducts at specific site are called exocrine monitor the level of hormones in the blood. If a certain
glands. For example, salivary glands secrete saliva in the hormone level is too low or too high, then these glands
mouth through salivary duct. Similarly, digestive glands release chemicals that stimulate or shut-off production
of the hormone in question.
 474 BIOLOGY

HUMAN ENDOCRINE (DUCTLESS) GLANDS (ii) Inhibiting hormones: It inhibits the secretion of
pituitary hormones. Example, Somatostatin inhibits
1. Hypothalamus release of growth hormone from pituitary.
2. Pituitary
3. Pineal 2. Pituitary Gland
4. Thyroid yy It is the smallest endocrine gland.
5. Parathyroid yy It is located in a bony cavity called sella tursica and is
6. Thymus attached to hypothalamus by a stalk.
7. Adrenal yy Anatomically, it is divided into Adenohypophysis and
8. Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) Neurohypophysis.
9. Gonads (Testis and Ovary) yy The hormones secreted by pituitary gland influence the
secretion of other glands. Hence, they are known as trophic
hormones.
yy The pituitary gland is also called as master gland of the
Pituitary gland endocrine system. It is because:
²² It is the hormone that controls the activity of many other
hormones of endocrine system.
Thyroid gland ²² Its job is to receive messages about the need for a
particular hormone and to secrete the hormones that
cause the manufacture and release of the hormone.
Pituitary

Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis
posterior pituitary)
Pars intermedia
Pancreatic gland
Pars distalis
Adrenal gland Stores and releases oxytocin
(anterior pituitary) Secretes only Melanocyte
and vasopressin which are
Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
actually produced by
Produced Growth hormone hypothalamus
Ovaries in
prolactin, TSH (Thyroid stimulating
female only
Hormone). Adrcnocorticotrophic
hormone Luteinizing Hormone(LIT)
Testes in Folhere Stimuluting Hormone (FSH)
male only
(a) Adenohypophysis
yy It is further divided into two regions: Pars distalis and Pars
intermedia.
Fig. Location of endocrine glands (i) Pars distalis (Anterior pituitary): It produces
(a) Somatotropin or Growth hormone (GH): It is involved
1. Hypothalamus in growth and development of body. It targets the bone,
yy It is located in the basal part of diencephalon in forebrain. muscle and adipose tissue.
It stimulates the growth of the body by:
yy It has several groups of neurosecretory cells (known as
 Increased growth of bones by increased absorption of
nuclei) that produce hormones. The synthesis and secretion
calcium from intestine
of pituitary hormones is regulated by these hormones.  Increased lipolysis in adipose tissue
yy Hormones originate from hypothalamic neurons, pass through  By increased amino acid uptake and protein synthesis
axons, and are released from their nerve endings. From there,  By increased glucose level in blood by decreased secretion
it reaches pituitary gland through a portal circulatory system of insulin
and regulates the functioning of anterior pituitary.  By increased cell division
yy Hormones from hypothalamus are of two types:
Hypo secretion of GH
(i) Releasing hormones: It stimulates the secretion of
pituitary hormones. Example, Gonadotropin releasing  Dwarfism: Dwarfism is characterized by retarded physical
hormones (GnRH) stimulates release of gonadotrophins growth but patient has normal brain.
from pituitary.  Simmond’s disease: In adult, hypo secretion of GH leads
to Simmond’s disease.
 Chemical Co­ordination and Integration 475

Hyper secretion of GH (i) Oxytocin

 Gigantism: Gigantism is an abnormal increase in the  In females, it stimulates contraction of uterus at the time
length of long bones. of child birth for normal delivery, so also called as “birth
 Acromegaly: It is characterised by abnormal elongation hormone”.
of limbs and lower jaw, giving gorilla like appearance and  It stimulates the contraction of smooth muscles surrounding
protruding bony ridges over the eyes. the alveoli of mammary glands to release milk, so also
(b) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): It stimulates the known as “milk-ejection hormone”.
secretion of thyroid hormones from thyroid gland. (ii) Vasopressin or Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH): It
(c) Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): It stimulates stimulates the reabsorption of water and electrolytes by
the synthesis and secretion of steroid hormones called DCT of kidney and thereby reduces diuresis (loss of water
glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex. through urine).
(d) Prolactin (PRL): It regulates growth of mammary glands When blood is too concentrated, ADH is released from the
and formation of milk after the birth of baby. posterior pituitary. Upon reaching the kidneys, ADH causes
(e) Gonadotrophic hormones: It regulates the growth and the water to be reabsorbed.
functioning of gonads. As the blood becomes dilute, ADH is no longer released.
 Luteinizing hormone (LH) in female: Deficiency of ADH causes diabetes insipidus. It is caused
(i) It induces ovulation and maintains the corpus due to decreased reabsorption of water from collecting
luteum. tubules. Diabetes insipidus is characterised by diuresis,
(ii) It stimulates the secretion of progesterone from polydipsia (increased thirst) but urine with no sugar.
corpus luteum. The hyperactivity of ADH causes antidiuresis. This
 Interstitial cells stimulating hormones (ICSH) in stimulates water retention in body tissues.
male:
(i) It stimulates the interstitial cells of testes to synthesis 3. Pineal Gland
and to secrete androgens from testis. yy It is located on dorsal side of forebrain.
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): It stimulates yy It secretes a hormone called melatonin.
gonadal activity. In males, FSH and androgens regulate yy Functions of melatonin:
spermatogenesis. In females, FSH stimulates the growth ²² It regulates the diurnal i.e. 24-hour rhythm of body. E.g.
and development of the ovarian follicles and ovum. maintenance of sleep-wake cycle, body temperature
(ii) Pars intermedia: In human, it is almost merged with pars etc.
distalis. ²² It influences metabolism, pigmentation and menstrual
yy It secretes Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH). MSH cycle.
acts on melanocytes to regulate pigmentation of skin. ²² It influences our defense capability.
(b) Neurohypophysis (Posterior Pituitary): It contains Pars
nervosa region. 4. Thyroid Gland
Pars nervosa region secretes two hormones: Oxytocin and
yy It is the largest endocrine gland, located in the neck in front
Vasopressin.
of wind pipe.
yy It is brownish red gland that includes two lobes located on
either side of the trachea. The lobes are interconnected with
a connective tissue called isthmus.

Fig. Thyroid gland

yy Thyroid gland is composed of large number of small, oval
or rounded follicles that are held together by connective
Fig. Diagrammatic representation of pituitary and its
tissue and enclosed by a white fibrous capsule. Each follicle
relationship with hypothalamus
 476 BIOLOGY

is lined by cuboidal glandular epithelium of acinal cells. (ii) Hypothyroidism during pregnancy affects the baby causing
It surrounds a gelatinous material called colloid which is stunted growth (cretinism), mental retardation, low
inactive thyroglobulin. intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-mutism etc.
yy Follicular cells of thyroid gland produce three hormones (iii) Cretinism: Hypothyroidism of T3 and T4 during fetal
when stimulated by TSH. life and infancy also leads to Cretinism. It is a condition
(a) Tetraiodothyronine or Thyroxine ( T4) characterised by the retarded mental development, stunted
(b) Triiodothyronine (T3): growth, delayed puberty, decreased heart rate, pulse rate,
Functions of T3 and T4 hormones: blood pressure, etc. reduced urine output, pigeon’s chest
 They help in regulation of basal metabolic rate etc.
(BMR). (iv) Myxoedema: The occurrence of hypothyroidism in adult
 They support RBC formation. produces myxoedema. This condition is characterized by
 They control metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins lethargy, weight gain, loss of hair, slower pulse rate, lowered
and fats. body temperature etc. The peculiar feature of myxoedema
 They help in maintenance of water and electrolyte is that face and hands become swollen.
balance. (v) Hashimoto’s disease: It is an auto-immune thyroiditis and
(c) Thyrocalcitonin (TCT): It is secreted by parafollicular occurs due to age factor or injury of thyroid gland. The
cells of thyroid gland. hyposecretion of thryoxine leads to formation of antibodies
It is a protein hormone that regulates (lowers) the blood which destroys its own cell i.e. thyroid gland. It is also
calcium levels in blood plasma. known as suicide of thyroid.
They target bone cells (inhibits osteoclast activity)
and kidney cells (causes kidney cells to reabsorb more Hyperthyroidism (Increased secretion of thyroxine from thyroid
calcium). gland):
They lower calcium level in blood to normal by two (i) Exophthalmic goiter or Grave’s disease: It is an abnormal
ways: increase of thyroid hormones resulting in adverse effects
(i) Increasing calcium deposition in the bones, thereby on the physiological activities. The main symptoms are
checking osteoporosis. enlargement of thyroid gland, increased BMR, increased
(ii) Decreasing reabsorption of calcium from urine, thereby heart rate and pulse rate, reduced body weight, osteoporosis
increasing excretion of calcium. etc. The peculiar symptom of this disorder is bulging eyeballs
Calcitonin along with parathormone, produced by parathyroid with staring look and less blinking.
gland regulates the level of calcium ions in blood. When the
blood calcium level lowers to normal, the release of calcitonin by 5. Parathyroid Gland
the thyroid is inhibited, but a low level stimulates the release of
yy These are four in number. Four parathyroid glands are present
parathyroid hormone by the parathormone glands.
on the posterior side of the thyroid gland, one pair each in
the two lobes of thyroid gland.
Thyroid gland Parathyroid
is stimulated is stimulated
yy They secrete Parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is a
peptide hormone.
If
i n qua
ea i ty

cr n
cr nt
s
se

ea t i
d e qua

Releases se t y Releases
s
If

Normal rate of
Calcitonin Calcium ions Parathormone
in body
Q cre
ea y
cr t i t

ua as
s

in
se
de uan

nt es
i ty
Q

Parathyroid
Calcium is Calcium is removed
excreted through
urine or from bone intestine
accumulates in and nephron of blood
bone
Fig. Parathyroid gland
Hypothyroidism (Decreased secretion of Thyroxin from thyroid yy Functions of parathyroid hormone
gland): ²² It increases the Ca2+ level in blood. Hence, known as
It leads to following diseases: hypercalcaemic hormone.
(i) Goitre: It is an enlargement of thyroid gland due to ²² It stimulates the bone resorption. The process is known
deficiency of iodine. The enlargement of gland occurs due as demineralization.
to increase in number and size of acinal cells of thyroid ²² It stimulates the reabsorption of Ca2+ by the renal tubules
gland. and increases Ca2+ absorption from the digested food.
 Chemical Co­ordination and Integration 477

²² Along with TCT, it helps in calcium balance in the (a) Adrenal cortex
body. ²² Adrenal cortex is mesodermal in origin and is formed
yy Hypoparathyroidism (Hypo secretion of parathormone): of three layers: inner zona reticularis, middle zona
The deficiency of parathormone leads to tetany. Tetany is fasciculata and outer zona glomerulosa.
characterized by decreased calcium level in blood, which ²² It produces corticoid hormones such as:
causes painful spasmodic contraction of muscles of hands,
feet, face and larynx. It also leads to increased neuro- (i) Glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol):
excitation. ²² It includes mainly cortisol, cortisone etc.
yy Hyperparathyrodism (Hyper secretion of parathormone): ²² They are secreted by zona fasciculate of adrenal
It leads to a disease called osteitis fibrosa. cortex.
²² Functions of glucocorticoids:
6. Thymus ♦♦ It is involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
yy It is located on dorsal side of the heart and aorta. ♦♦ It stimulates gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and
yy It secretes a peptide hormone called “Thymosins” that proteolysis.
imparts resistance to diseases. ♦♦ It inhibits cellular uptake and utilization of amino
yy Thymus starts functioning in the embryonic stage itself, acids.
becomes active during childhood and undergoes regression ♦♦ It maintains cardiovascular system and kidney
and gradually stops functioning in old individuals. So, functions.
production of thymosins decreases. As a result, immune ♦♦ Cortisol stimulates RBC production.
responses of old persons become weak. ♦♦ It produces anti-inflammatory reactions and
yy Functions of thymosins: suppresses immune response.
²² It helps in differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which ²² Over secretion of cortisol causes Cushing syndrome.
provide cell mediated immunity. It is characterised by high blood sugar level, loss of
²² It promotes production of antibodies for humoral sugar in urine, loss of weight, high sodium and low
immunity. potassium concentration in plasma, swollen face, neck,
hands etc.
7. Adrenal Gland (ii) Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone):
²² Mineralocorticoid maintains hypernatremia (high
yy Adrenal gland is one pair of yellowish coloured, conical, sodium level in blood) and hypokalaemia (low
small sized gland, located at the top of each kidney. potassium level in blood).
yy Adrenal gland is structurally and functionally divided ²² It includes mainly aldosterone. Aldosterone is secreted
into two distinct portions: Adrenal cortex and Adrenal by zona glomerulosa of adrenal cortex.
medulla. ²² The secretion of aldosterone is stimulated by ACTH
Tissues present in adrenal gland and angiotensin.
²² Functions of mineralocorticoids:
♦♦ It regulates the water (body fluid volume), electrolytic
Adrenal medulla Adrenal cortex balance, osmotic pressure and blood pressure.
(inner) (outer)
♦♦ Aldosterone stimulates the reabsorption of Na+ &
• Secrete catecholamines • Consist of 3 layers
water from renal tubules and excretion of K+ and
Adrenaline Zona reticularis (inner)
PO43- ions.
(epinephrine) Zona fasciculata (middle) ²² Deficiency of aldosterone causes Addison’s disease.
Noradrenaline
(norepinephrine) Zona glomerulosa (outer) It is characterised by bronze-like skin colouration,
• Secrete corticoids hyponatraemia, hyperkalaemia, low blood sugar,
Corticoids nervous depression, nausea, vomiting, weakness and
Mineralocorticoids diarrhoea.
²² Excess of aldosterone causes aldosteronism. This disease
Glucocorticoids
is characterized by hypernatremia, hypokalaemia,
increased blood volume and blood pressure.
Adrenal gland is also called as 4-S gland, as it controls: (iii) Androgenic corticoids: It plays role in growth of axial
yy Source of energy hair, pubic hair and facial hair during puberty.
yy Sex hormone It’s over secretion in female causes adrenal virilism in
yy Salt retaining which male type secondary sexual characters appear in
yy Sugar metabolism female. In male, it causes gynaecomastia (enlarged breasts
in male).
 478 BIOLOGY

(b) Adrenal medulla (i) Glucagon: Glucagon is a hyperglycemic factor, secreted by

yy It is the central part of the adrenal gland and is ectodermal α cells. Its secretion is stimulated by low blood sugar level.
in origin. Functions of glucagon:
yy It secretes hormones: Adrenaline (epinephrine) and  It maintains normal glucose level.
Noradrenalin (nor epinephrine). These are collectively called  It acts on hepatocytes and stimulates glycogenolysis
as catecholamine. resulting in an increased blood sugar (hyperglycemia).
yy These hormones are rapidly secreted in response to any  It stimulates gluconeogenesis.
stress emergency situations so, called emergency hormones  It reduces the cellular glucose uptake and utilization.
(ii) Insulin: Insulin is a hypoglycemic factor, secreted by β
i.e. hormones of Fight or Flight.
cells. It secretion is stimulated by higher glucose level in
yy It is also termed as stress hormone because it helps to calm
blood than the normal level.
down when one is very angry, embarrassed or worried.
Functions of insulin:
yy Functions of adrenaline are:
²² It stimulates utilisation of glucose as respiratory fuel
²² It increases the rate of heart beat and cardiac output,
in body cells.
hence increasing blood pressure.
²² It stimulates glycogenesis (conversion of glucose to
²² It increases the basal metabolic rate. glycogen). The rapid conversion of glucose from the
²² It increases the blood-sugar level by stimulating blood to glycogen in hepatocytes and adipocytes results
glycogenolysis in liver and muscles. into a decreased glucose level.
²² It increases respiration rate as it dilates trachea. ²² It prevents gluconeogenesis i.e. conversion of amino
²² It increases lipolysis in adipose tissue to increases level acids into sugars.
of fats in blood. ²² Insulin also prevents the formation of glucose from non-
²² It increases alertness, pupilary dilation, pilo-erection carbohydrate substances such as proteins and fats. Hence,
(rising of hairs), sweating, heartbeat, heart contraction it acts as a regulator of carbohydrate metabolism.
and rate of respiration. ²² It stimulates conversion of excess of glucose into fats.
yy Nor-adrenaline resembles adrenaline in its biological effect The process is known as lipogenesis.
except that it operates during normal state, exercises lesser yy The prolonged hyperglycemia leads to Diabetes mellitus.
effect on cardiac activity and produce greater constriction Diabetes mellitus is defined as abnormal high glucose level in
of blood vessels in muscles. blood, which results in release of sugar in urine and formation
of toxic ketone bodies. The treatment is insulin therapy.
8. Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) There are two types of diabetes mellitus:
yy Pancreas is located near the liver i.e. below the stomach. (i) Type I diabetes mellitus or insulin dependent diabetes:
yy It is a composite (Heterocrine) gland. Heterocrine glands are Hypo-activity or degeneration of β cells leads to deficiency
partly exocrine with duct and partly endocrine without duct. of insulin which causes insulin-dependent diabetes. It
²² Exocrine gland due to production and secretion of usually appears during childhood.
pancreatic juice that enters the small intestine via ducts (ii) Type II diabetes mellitus or non-insulin dependent
and helps in digestive process. diabetes: In this type of diabetes, insulin level is normal but it
²² Endocrine gland due to production and secretion of cannot move glucose for storage or its use as respiratory fuel.
the hormone glucagon and insulin directly into the Hence, the person is not able to use insulin. It is hereditary.
bloodstream via pancreatic islets.
9. Gonads (Testis & Ovary)
yy The endocrine part is formed of about 1-2 million Islets of
Langerhans, scattered in the connective tissue between acini Gonads (testes and ovary) are heterocrine glands i.e. they are both
(exocrine part) of the intestine. exocrine (produce gametes) and endocrine (produce hormones).
yy The islets have two types of cells: α cells and β cells. α cells Their hormones control the reproductive activities of the body.
secrete glucagon that maintain a normal blood glucose level
A. Testis
in the body, whereas β-cells secrete insulin that regulates
the storage of glycogen in the liver. They maintain glucose yy The testes are two oval organs present in the scrotal sac.
homeostasis in blood. yy It is formed of seminiferous tubules and interstitial (stromal)
tissues.
yy Leydig (interstitial) cells in the inter-tubular spaces are
stimulated to secrete male sex hormone called androgens
(mainly testosterone), by ICSH of anterior pituitary.
yy Functions of testosterone:
²² Testosterone is a male sex hormone that regulates the
development of secondary sex characteristics such as
facial hair, hoarse voice, development of reproductive
organ, etc.
 Chemical Co­ordination and Integration 479

²² They regulate the development, maturation and Hormones of Heart, Kidney and Gastrointestinal Tract
functions of the accessory sex organs like epididymis,
vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra Organs such as the heart, the kidney and the GI (gastro intestinal)
etc. tract also secrete hormones.
²² It stimulate spermatogenesis and formation of mature Heart
sperms. yy The atrial walls of the heart secretes peptide hormone called
²² They stimulate male sexual behaviour (libido), growth Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).
of muscles, hairs, aggressiveness, low pitch voice etc. yy When blood pressure increases, ANF is secreted and causes
B. Ovary (Female primary sex organ) vasodilation, which reduces blood pressure.
yy They are two in number and located in the pelvic region of Kidney
female body. yy Kidneys secrete three hormones: Renin, Erythropoietin
yy Ovary is formed of ovarian follicles and stromal tissues. and calcitriol.
yy After ovulation the ruptured follicles form a structure called (i) Renin
Corpus luteum. yy A fall in glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood pressure/
yy Ovarian follicles secrete Estrogen while corpus luteum GFR activates the JG cells to release renin.
secretes Progesterone. yy Renin converts angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin I
(i) Estrogen (a steroid hormone): It is secreted by follicular and further to angiotensin II (a vasoconstrictor).
epithelial cells of membranous granulosa of Graafian
renin
follicle. Secretion of estrogen is stimulated by FSH of angiotensinogen angiotensin angiotensi
anterior pituitary gland.
yy Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor that increases
Functions of estrogen:
the glomerular blood pressure and thereby GFR. Angiotensin
²² Estrogen is the female sex hormone that controls the
II also stimulates the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland to
development of secondary sex characteristics such as
produce aldosterone. Angiotensin II increases glomerular
enlargement of breasts and development of female
blood pressure and thereby GFR. It also activates adrenal
reproductive organs.
cortex to release Aldosterone.
²² It plays a role in the development, growth and maturation
yy Aldosterone increases the rate of absorption of sodium
of female secondary characteristics (e.g. high pitch
ions and water from the distal convoluted tubule and the
voice).
collecting duct. This also leads to an increase in blood
²² It also helps in the development of growing ovarian
pressure and glomerular filtration rate. This mechanism,
follicles.
known as renin-angiotensin mechanism, ultimately leads
²² It influences female sexual behaviour.
to an increased blood pressure.
²² It decrease the secretion of FSH while increase the
secretion of LH.
(ii) Progesterone (a steroid hormone): It is secreted by corpus
luteum, formed from empty Graafian follicle during the
pregnancy. The secretion of progesterone is stimulated by
LH of anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
Functions of progesterone:
²² It supports pregnancy.
²² It stimulates proliferation of endometrium of uterus and
prepares it for implantation.
²² It acts on mammary glands to stimulate formation of
alveoli (sacs to store milk) and milk secretion.
²² It suspends ovulation during pregnancy as decreases
the secretion of LH.
Hormones Functions
• Growth of reproductive organs
Testes • Production of sperms
Testosterone • Physical changes in adolescent
an period
M
• Growth of reproductive organs
Gonads Estrogen • Production of eggs

(ii) Erythropoietin: Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) of

• Involves mensturation
Wo • Physical changes in adolescent
ma
kidney secretes a peptide hormone called Erythropoietin.
n Ovaries period

yy Erythropoietin stimulates erythropoiesis i.e. formation of

• Helps for the development of
uterus
Progesterone • Helps in pregnancy
• Involves mensturation RBCs.
• Helps to fix embryo
 480 BIOLOGY

(iii) Calcitriol: Calcitriol is the active form of vitamin D3. Gastro-intestinal Tract
yy It promotes absorption of calcium and phosphorus in the These are the hormones secreted by the mucosa of stomach and
small intestine and accelerated bone formation. intestine. Most of these are local hormones as they act upon the same
part of the gut which secrete them or on one of its accessory glands.
Gastro Intestinal Hormones

GI hormones Source Target organ Effects

Gastrin Gastric cells in the Stomach It stimulates gastric glands to secrete and release gastric juice.
pyloric region of the Also stimulates gastric mobility.
stomach
Enterogastrone or GIP (Gastric Duodenal Stomach Inhibits the secretion of gastric juices and decrease the rate of
inhibitory peptide) epithelium contraction of stomach.
It shows gastric contraction.
Secretin (1st hormone discovered Duodenal Pancreas, liver and It releases bicarbonates in the pancreatic juice.
by scientists epithelium stomach Also, it increases secretion of bile.
Cholecystokinin pancreozymin Epithelium of entire Gall bladder and It stimulates gall bladder to release bile.
(CCK-PZ) small intestine pancreas It stimulates pancreas to secrete and release digestive enzymes in the
pancreatic juice.
Duocrinin Duodenal Duodenum It stimulates the Brunner’s gland to release mucus and enzymes into
epithelium intestinal juice.
Enterocrinin Epithelium of entire Small intestine It stimulates the crypts of Lieberkuhn to release enzymes into the
small intestine intestinal juice.
Villikinin Epithelium of entire Small intestine It accelerates movement of villi for increased absorption of food.
small intestine

Classification of Hormones yy Hormone receptors include membrane-bound receptors and

intracellular receptors (mostly nuclear receptors).
Several other non-endocrine tissues secrete hormones called
²² Membrane-bound receptors: Present on the cell
growth factors. These are essential for the normal growth of tissues
membrane of the target cell
and their repairing or regeneration.
²² Intracellular receptors: Present inside the target cell
Based on the chemical nature, hormones are classified into three
yy Hormone-receptor complex formation leads to biochemical
categories:
changes in the target tissue, and regulates its metabolism
(a) Amine hormones: These hormones have amino group. E.g.
and physiological changes.
Adrenaline, nor-adrenaline
yy Hormones which interact with membrane-bound receptors
(b) Steroids: These are fat soluble and have sterol group. E.g.
normally do not enter the target cell, but generate second
cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone.
messengers (e.g. cyclic AMP, IP3, Ca2+ etc.), which in turn
(c) Peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones: These are
regulate cellular metabolism.
formed of amino acids interlinked by peptide bonds. They
yy Hormones which interact with intracellular receptors (e.g.
are water soluble hormones. E.g. insulin, glucagon, pituitary
steroid hormones, iodothyronines) mostly regulate gene
hormones, hypothalamic hormones etc.
expression or chromosome function by the interaction
Mechanism of Hormone Action of hormone-receptor complex with the genome.
Cumulative biochemical actions result in physiological
yy Hormones are of two types: water soluble and lipid and developmental effects.
soluble.
(i) Water soluble hormones like amino acid derivatives, 1. Mechanism of Water soluble Hormones
peptides and protein hormones require extracellular yy Amino acid-derived hormones (water soluble) cannot enter
receptors that generate second messengers like cAMP through plasma membrane and function as first messenger.
for carrying out their action. The steps of action are –
(ii) Lipid soluble hormones like steroid hormones can pass ²² Hormone binds to receptor protein present in plasma
through cell membranes and directly enter the cells. membrane.
yy Hormones produce their effects by binding to the specific ²² Receptor protein activates G-protein present inside the
receptors located in the target tissues. cell.
yy A hormone binds to its receptor to form hormone receptor ²² G-protein activates adenyl cyclase of plasma membrane.
complex. Each receptor is specific to one hormone only. ²² Adenyl cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP called
second messenger.
 Chemical Co­ordination and Integration 481

²² cAMP binds to protein kinases which in turn bind to

specific site of DNA and cause gene expression.

Water-soluble hormone
Endocrine
(first messenger)
gland cell

Blood

Fig. Mechanism of steroid hormone

Example: Mechanism of Action of FSH

yy Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted by the pars
distalis region of the anterior pituitary.
yy It regulates the development, growth, and reproductive
processes of the human body. In the ovary, FSH stimulates
the growth and maturation of ovarian follicle. As the follicle
grows and matures, it releases an inhibitory hormone known
as inhibin that ends the process of FSH production.
yy Action of FSH: Follicle stimulating hormone produces
its effect by binding to its specific receptors present on the
ovarian cell membrane.
yy Binding of FSH hormone to its receptor leads to the formation
of hormone receptor complex. The formation of this complex
leads to biochemical changes in the ovarian follicle, present
in the ovarian. The ovarian follicles mature and release a
mature ovum in the fallopian tube for fertilization.

Fig. Mechanism of water-soluble hormone

2. Mechanism of Lipid soluble hormones (Steroid Hormones):

yy The second mechanism involves steroid hormones, which
pass through the plasma membrane and act in a two-step
process.
²² Steroid hormones bind, once inside the cell, to the
nuclear membrane receptors, producing an activated
hormone-receptor complex.
²² The activated hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA
and activates specific genes, increasing production of Fig. Diagrammatic representation of the mechanism of
proteins. protein hormone
 Chapter
Reproduction
23 in Organisms
Reproduction is a process in which an organism gives rise to yy Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:
young ones (offspring) similar to itself. It is a biological process Asexual reproduction lacks genetic variation. All the
through which living organism produce offspring’s similar to them. organisms that reproduce asexually are genetically identical
It ensures the continuity of the species, generation after generation. and therefore share the same weaknesses. If the stable
The period from birth to the natural death of an organism represents environments changes, the consequences could be deadly
its life span. No individual is immortal, except unicellular to all of the individuals.
organisms. There is no natural death in unicellular organisms. Types of asexual reproduction
Life spans of a few organisms (i) Fission: In this, the parent cell divides into two or more
Organism Lifespan Organism Lifespan individuals. E.g. Protists and Monerans.
Elephant 50-70 yrs Parrot 140 yrs Fission is of two types:
Crocodile 60 yrs (a) Binary fission: In this process, the cell divides into
halves, and each half develops into an adult. E.g.,
Dog 22 years Horse 40-50 yrs
Amoeba, Paramecium.
Butterfly 1-2 weeks Fruit fly 2 weeks
(b) Multiple fission: It is the division of parent cell into
Crow 15 yrs Tortoise 100-150 yrs many individuals. E.g. Plasmodium, Amoeba.
Cow 22 yrs (ii) Budding: Budding involves the formation of new
individual from the bulging of parent body. In this, the cell
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION divides unequally to form buds, which remain attached to
yy Based on the number of participants, reproduction is of two the parent body but later detach and develop into a mature
types: individual. E.g. Hydra, Sponge, Yeast, etc.
1. Asexual reproduction (iii) Other asexual reproductive structures: E.g.
2. Sexual reproduction (a) Zoospores : These are microscopic motile structures
in some algae and protists.
1. Asexual Reproduction (b) Conidia : These are non-motile, exogenous spores
yy It is the production of offspring by a single parent. It does found in chains. E.g. Penicillium
not involve the fusion of male and female gametes. (c) Gemmules : E.g. Sponge.
yy The offspring produced are identical to one another and to (iv) Vegetative propagation: It is a mode of asexual
their parent. Such morphologically and genetically similar reproduction in which new plants are obtained from the
individuals are known as clone. vegetative parts of plants. Vegetative parts of the plants
yy Asexual reproduction is found in unicellular organisms, and that are capable of giving rise to new offspring are known
in simple plants and animals. as vegetative propagules. E.g.
yy Advantages of asexual reproduction: (a) Runner- E.g. Gladiolus
Asexual reproduction is advantageous to certain animals (b) Rhizome- E.g. Ginger
that remain in one particular place like Hydra, Planaria and (c) Tuber- E.g. Potato
animals that are unable to look for mates. (d) Bulb- E.g. Onion
It also produces numerous offspring without costing the (e) Sucker- E.g. Chrysanthemum
parent a great amount of energy or time. (f) Offset - E.g. Pistia
 498 BIOLOGY

yy Examples for vegetative propagation: yy Annual and biennial plants show clear cut vegetative
²² Emergence of small plants from the buds (‘eyes’) of the reproductive and senescent phases, but in perennial species
potato tuber, from the rhizomes of banana and ginger. it is very difficult to identify these phases.
They arise from the nodes of modified stems. When the yy Few plants exhibit unusual flowering phenomenon E.g.:
nodes come in contact with damp soil or water, they ²² Bamboo species flower only once in their lifetime (after
produce roots and new plants. 50-100 years); produce large number of fruits and die.
²² Adventitious buds arise from the notches present at ²² Strobilanthus Kunthiana flowers once in 12 years.
margins of leaves of Bryophyllum. These leaf buds have yy In animals, juvenile phase is followed by morphological
the ability to grow and develop into tiny plants when the and physiological changes prior to active reproductive
leaves get detached from the plant and come in contact behaviour.
with moist soil. yy In animals, sexual reproduction is usually seasonal.
yy Asexual reproduction is the common method in simple yy Birds living in nature lay eggs only seasonally. However,
organisms like algae and fungi. During adverse conditions, birds in captivity (e.g., poultry) can be made to lay eggs
they can shift to sexual method. throughout the year.
yy Higher plants exhibit both asexual (vegetative) and sexual yy In placental mammals, there is occurence of cyclical changes
modes of reproduction. But most of the animals show only in the activities of ovaries and accessory ducts as well as
sexual reproduction. hormones.
²² In non-primate mammals like cows, sheep, rat, deer, dog,
2. Sexual Reproduction tiger, etc., these cyclical changes during reproduction is
called oestrus cycle.
yy Sexual reproduction involves formation of the male and ²² In primate mammals like monkey, apes and humans,
female gametes, either by the same individual or by different these cycles are called menstrual cycles.
individuals of the opposite sex. yy Seasonal breeders: The mammals (living in natural
yy It is an elaborate, complex and slow process as compared to conditions) that can reproduce only in the favourable seasons
asexual reproduction. are called seasonal breeders.
yy It results in offspring that are not identical to the parents or yy Continuous breeders: The mammals that can reproduce
amongst themselves. So sexual reproduction give rise to throughout their reproductive phase are called continuous
diversity among living organisms. breeders.
yy Higher organisms have resorted to sexual reproduction (iii) Senescent phase: It is the period when an organism
inspite of its complexity. It is because sexual reproduction grows old and loses the ability to reproduce.
helps in introducing new variations in offspring through yy During this, concomitant changes in the body (slowing of
the combination of the DNA from two different organisms. metabolism etc.) occur. It ultimately leads to death.
These variations allow the individual to cope with various yy In plants and animals, hormones are responsible for transition
environmental conditions and thus, make the organisms between juvenile, reproductive and senescence phases.
better suited for the environment. yy Interaction between hormones and environmental factors
yy Variations also lead to the evolution of better organisms and regulate the reproductive processes and the associated
therefore, provide better chances of survival. behavioural expressions of organisms.

Different phases in sexual reproduction Events in Sexual Reproduction

yy All living organisms pass through three stages: Organisms reproducing sexually exhibit three events:
(i) Juvenile phase: It is the period of growth of an Pre-fertilisation, fertilisation and post-fertilisation events.
individual organism after its birth and before it reaches
its reproductive maturity. It is known as vegetative phase 1. Pre-fertilisation events
in plants. yy These include all events that take place before fusion of
(ii) Reproductive phase: It is the phase when an individual gametes.
organism reproduces sexually. yy It consists of gametogenesis and gamete transfer.
Reproduction in Organisms (a) Gametogenesis
Reproductive phase: It is the phase when an individual organism yy It is the process of formation of male and female gametes by
reproduces sexually. meiosis. Gametes are usually haploid cells.
yy It is easily seen in higher plants. Gametes are called homogametes or isogametes when both
yy In higher plants, the flowering indicates the end of vegetative have same appearance.
phase and the beginning of reproductive phase. yy Homogamete or isogamete: In this, the male and female
yy Some plants flower seasonly and some throughout the gametes are morphologically and physiologically similar.
year. E.g. Algae.
 Reproduction in Organisms 499

yy Gametes are called heterogametes when gametes are different. (b) Gamete transfer
Heterogametes or an isogamete: In this, the male and female yy Male and female gametes need to be physically brought
gametes are distinct types. The gametes are morphologically together to facilitate fusion called fertilization.
dissimilar but physiologically similar. E.g. Humans. yy In most cases, male gamete is motile and the female gamete
²² Male gamete is called the antherozoid (sperm) is stationary, except few fungi and algae, whereby both
²² Female gamete is called the egg (ovum). gametes are motile.
Sexuality in organisms: yy In simple plants like algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes,
yy In plants, gamete transfer takes place through water medium. Male
²² Bisexual term is used for homothallic and monoecious gametes are produced in several thousand times the number
plants, whereby male and female reproductive structures of female gametes produced to compensate the loss during
are found in the same plant. transport.
²² Unisexual term is used for Heterothallic and dioecious yy In higher plants, male gametes are produced in the anther
plants, whereby male and female reproductive structures and need to be transferred to the stigma for fertilization to
are on different plants. occur. This is easy in monoecious plants as both the anther
yy In dioecious (unisexual) flowering plants, the male flower is and the stigma are present close by. In dioecious plants, it
called staminate (bearing stamens) while the female is called takes place by pollination.
pistillate (bearing pistils). E.g. papaya and date palm. yy In dioecious animals, the fertilization helps for successful
yy In monoecious flowering plants, male and female flowers are
transfer and coming together of gametes.
present on same individual. E.g. Cucurbits and coconuts.
yy In animals, 2. Fertilization (syngamy)
²² Bisexual animals: Animals having both male and yy It is the most important event in sexual reproduction.
female reproductive system are called bisexual animals yy It is the fusion of male and female gametes to form a diploid
or hermaphrodites. E.g. Earthworms, leech, sponge, zygote.
tapeworm, etc. yy It is also known as syngamy.
²² Unisexual animals: Animals having one type of yy Parthenogenesis:It is a phenomenon whereby egg formation
reproductive system is called unisexual animals. E.g.
takes place without fertilization. The adults produced by
Cockroach, higher animals etc.
parthenogenesis are often haploid, and their cells do not
yy Fungi may be homothallic (bisexual) or heterothallic
undergo meiosis in forming new gametes. E.g. Rotifers,
(unisexual).
honeybees, some lizards and birds (turkey).
Cell division during gamete formation: yy The process of fertilization might take place either outside
yy Gamete formation takes place by cell division. Gametes are the female body or inside the female body. On the basis of
always haploid irrespective of parents’ body. this, fertilization is divided into two types:
yy Haploid parental body (n) produces haploid (n) gametes by (a)    External fertilization: The fertilization that takes
mitosis. E.g. Many monera, fungi, algae and bryophytes.
place outside the female body is i.e. in the external
yy Diploid parental body (2n) produces haploid (n) gametes
medium (water) is called external fertilization. E.g. most
by meiosis. Such specialized parent cell is called meiocytes
or gamete mother cell. E.g. Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, aquatic organisms (many algae, bony fishes etc.) and
amphibians
angiosperms and animals.
Advantages:
Name of organism Chromosome number
Such organisms show great synchrony between the sexes
In meiocytes (2n) In gametes (n) and release a large number of gametes into the surrounding
Human being 46 23 medium in order to enhance the chances of syngamy.
Housefly 12 24 Disadvantages:
Rat 42 21 ²² In external fertilization the eggs have less chances of
fertilization. This can lead to the wastage of a large
Dog 78 39
number of eggs produced during the process.
Cat 38 19 ²² Further, there is an absence of proper parental care to
Fruit fly 8 4 the offspring. This may result in a low rate of survival
Ophioglossum 1260 630 in the progenies.
Apple 34 17 (b)   Internal fertilization: The fertilization that takes place
Rice 24 12 inside the female body is called internal fertilization. E.g.
terrestrial organisms, belonging to fungi, animals (reptiles,
Maize 20 10
birds, mammals) and plants (bryophytes, pteridophytes,
Potato 48 24 gymnosperms and angiosperms).
Butterfly 380 190 ²² In this, non-motile egg is formed inside the female body,
Onion 32 16 whereby motile male gamete reaches and fuses.
 500 BIOLOGY

²² In seed plants, the non-motile male gametes are carried Embryogenesis

to female gamete by pollen tubes. yy It is the process of development of embryo from the
²² There is large number of sperms produced but the zygote.
number of eggs is very low. yy During embryogenes is, zygote undergoes cell division
3. Post-fertilisation events (mitosis) and cell differentiation.
yy Cell divisions increase the number of cells in the embryo and
yy The event that takes place after the formation of zygote is
cell differentiation helps the cells to undergo modifications
called post-fertilization events.
into various tissues and organs to form an organism.
yy Zygote
yy Based on how and where the development of zygote takes
²² Every sexually reproducing orgbanism begins life as
place, animals are divided into two types:
a zygote.
(a) Oviparous: The animals that lay eggs are called oviparous
²² It is the vital link between organisms of one generation
animals. Eggs can be fertilized or unfertilized.
and the next.
♦♦ E.g. In reptiles and birds, the fertilized eggs are
²² The haploid gamete fuses to form a diploid zygote in
covered by a hard calcareous shell and are released
all organisms.
into the outside environment. They development
²² In organism with external fertilisation, zygote is formed
takes place inside the egg and the young one hatches
in the external medium.
out.
²² In organism with internal fertilisation, zygote is formed
inside body. ♦♦ Unfertilized eggs are laid down in water.
²² The further development of the zygote depends upon (b) Viviparous: The animals that give rise to young baby are
the life cycle of an organism and its surrounding called viviparous animals. Here, the zygote develops into
environment. a young one inside the female body and the developed
♦♦ In some organism, like fungi and algae, zygote does young one is delivered outside. E.g. most of mammals,
not develop immediately. They develop a thick wall including humans.
that is resistant to desiccation and damage. Then they Advantage: Because of proper care and protection, the
undergo a period of rest before germination. chances of survival of young ones are greater in viviparous
♦♦ In organisms with haplontic life cycle, zygote (2n) animals.
divides by meiosis to form haploid spores that grow yy In flowering plants, the zygote is formed inside the ovule.
into haploid individuals. yy Parthenogenesis: It is the process, whereby the female
♦♦ In organisms with diplontic life cycle, zygote gamete develops into new organism. Seedless fruits are
(2n) divides by mitosis and develops into diploid formed by parthenogenesis.
embryo.
 Chapter
Sexual Reproduction
24 in Flowering Plants

All flowering plants (angiosperms) show sexual reproduction. The Stamen is also known as microsporophyll.
flowers are the specialized organs that perform sexual reproduction yy A stamen consists of anther and filament.
in angiosperms. Flowers hold a special aesthetic, cultural and (i) Anther : Anther is a sac-like structure that produces
ornamental value in our lives. pollen grains. It is bilobed and each lobe have two
theca i.e. they are dithecous. Theca is separated by a
PRE-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES AND EVENTS longitudinal groove running lengthwise.
(ii) Filament : Filament is a thin stalk-like structure that
yy Several hormonal and structural changes in plants lead to the supports anther. Its proximal end is attached to the
differentiation and further development of a flower. thalamus or the petal of the flower.
yy Inflorescences are formed which bear the floral buds and
then the flowers. Transverse section of an anther:
yy Anther has 2 lobes (bilobed). Each lobe consists of 2 theca.
Flower Hence it is dithecous.
yy The anther is a tetragonal structure consisting of four
yy A flower is a modified shoot. It is the main reproductive unit microsporangia. They are located at the corners, two in each
in angiosperms. lobe (theca).
yy Flowers carry out sexual reproduction in angiosperms. yy The microsporangia develop further and become pollen sacs,
yy A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged which contain pollen grains.
successively on the swollen end of the stalk, called
thalamus.
yy The different kinds of whorls are: Androecium, Gynoecium,
Calyx and Corolla.
Anther
Pollen grains
Stigma Pollen
sacs
Pistil

Style
Anther Line of
Stamen

Ovary dehiscence
Filament
Locule Petal Accessory
Sepal sex organs

Filament
Ovule (stalk)
Placenta (b)

Fig. Structure of Flower (a)

Male reproductive organ – Androecium
Fig. (a) A typical stamen;
yy Male reproductive organ is called androecium and their unit (b) three–dimensional cut section of an
is called stamen. anther
 512 BIOLOGY

Structure of microsporangium: yy Inside each microsporangium thousands of pollen grains are

yy A typical microsporangium is generally surrounded by four formed that are released with the dehiscence of anther.
wall layers: the epidermis, endothecium, middle layers The development sequence is as follows:
and tapetum. Sporogenous tissue → Pollen mother cell → Microspore tetrad
yy The outer three layers are protective and help in indehiscence → Pollen grain → male gamete
of anther to release the pollens.
Pollen grain(male gametophyte):
yy The tapetum, which is the innermost layer, nourishes the
developing pollen grains. Cells of the tapetum possess dense yy It represents the male gametophyte and is generally
cytoplasm and are multi-nucleated. spherical.
yy The centers of each microsporangium contain homogenous yy A pollen grain has a two-layered wall, called exine and
cells called sporogenous tissues. intine.
Epidermis ²² Exine:It is the hard outer layer made up of sporopollenin.
Endothecium Sporopollenin is a highly resistant organic material,
Middle layers
Tapetum which can withstand high temperature and strong acids
Microsporangium and alkali. Enzymes cannot degrade sporopollenin. Exine
Connective tissue has apertures called germpores where sporopollenin is
absent.
♦♦ Pollen grains are well preserved as fossils due to the
presence of sporopollenin.
♦♦ Exine exhibits a fascinating array of patterns and
Fig. T. S. of young anther designs.
²² Intine: It is the inner wall of pollen grain. It is a thin and
Epidermis continuous layer made up of cellulose and pectin.
Endothecium yy A matured pollen grain contains two cells: Vegetative cell
Middle layers and Generative cell.
²² Vegetative cell: It is bigger, with large irregularly shaped
nucleus. It has abundant food reserve.
Tapetum ²² Generative cell: It is small and floats in the cytoplasm
Sporogenous of the vegetative cell. It is spindle shaped with dense
cells
cytoplasm and a nucleus.
Fig. A portion of enlarged microsporangium showing wall layers yy In over 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at
the 2-celled stage. In others, the generative cell divides
Epidermis mitotically to give rise to the two male gametes before pollen
Endothecium
Middle layers grains are shed (3-celled stage).
Pollen grains yy The viability of pollen grains after they are shed depends on
the prevailing temperature and humidity.
Dehisced anther wall
yy Viability of pollen grains of some cereals (rice, wheat, etc)
is 30 minutes. Some members of Leguminoseae, Rosaceae
and Solanaceae have viability for months.
Economic importance of pollen grains
Fig. T. S. of a mature dehisced anther yy Pollen grains of some plants are allergic for some people.
Microsporogenesis E.g. Parthenium or carrot grass.
yy It leads to chronic respiratory disorders, like asthma,
yy It is the process of formation of microspores from a pollen
bronchitis, etc.
mother cell (PMC) through meiosis.
yy Pollen grains are rich in nutrients and hence used as Pollen
yy It occurs inside the pollen sac of the anther.
tablets for food supplements. Pollen consumption (as tablets
yy During the development of microsporangium, each cell of
sporogenous tissue acts as pollen mother cell and gives rise and syrups) increases performance of athletes and race
to a microspore tetrad, containing four haploid microspores horses.
by the process of meiosis. yy Pollen grains of a large number of species can be preserved
yy As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores for years in liquid nitrogen (–196°C). Such stored pollen
dissociate and develop into pollen grains. The pollen grain can be used as pollen banks, similar to seed banks, in crop
mature and give rise to male gametes. breeding programmes.
 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 513

Female reproductive organ - Gynoecium ²² Chalaza: It is the basal swollen part of the nucellus
yy Gynoecium is the female reproductive organ. The free unit (opposite the micropylar end) from where the integuments
of gynoecium is called pistil or carpel. originate.
yy Carpel is also known as megasporophyll. ²² Nucellus: It is a mass of parenchymatous tissue
yy It may consist of a single pistil (monocarpellary) or more surrounded by integuments from the outside. Nucellus
than one pistil (multicarpellary). provides nutrition to the developing embryo.
yy When there are more than one, the pistils may be fused ²² Embryo sac: The embryo sac or female gametophyte
together (syncarpous) or may be free (apocarpous). is located inside the nucellus. An ovule generally has
yy Each pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary. a single embryo sac formed from a megaspore through
²² Stigma: It is the sticky surface that collects the pollen meiosis.
from the pollinating agent.
Hilum
²² Style: It is a long tube-like structure within which pollen
tube grows.
²² Ovary: It is the basal part of pistil. Inside the ovary Funicle
is the ovarian cavity (locule) in which the placenta is Micropyle
located. Placenta contains the megasporangia or ovules. Micropylar pole
The number of ovules in an ovary may be one (wheat,
paddy, mango etc) to many (papaya, water melon, Outer
Integument
orchids etc). Inner
Nucellus
Embryo sac
Stigma

Style Chalazal pole

Fig. A diagrammatic view of a typical anatropous ovule.

Megasporogenesis:
yy It is the process of formation of the four megaspores from
the megaspore mother cell (MMC) in the region of nucellus
through meiosis.
yy It occurs inside the ovule.
yy Megaspore mother cell (MMC) is large and contains dense
Ovary cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. The MMC undergoes
Thalamus meiotic division to produce four megaspores.
Fig. A dissected flower of Hibiscus showing pistil (other yy In majority of flowering plants, only one megaspore is
floral parts have been removed) functional while the other three degenerate.
Megasporangium (Ovule): Female gametophyte (embryo sac):
yy An ovule is a female megasporangium where the formation yy The embryo sac develops from the functional megaspore
of megaspores takes place. (n). This method of embryo sac formation from a single
yy The various parts of an ovule are: megaspore is termed monosporic development.
²² Funiculus: It is a small stalk like structure which Formation of the embryo sac:
represents the point of attachment of the ovule to the
yy The female gametophyte develops from a single functional
placenta of the ovary.
megaspore. This megaspore undergoes three successive
²² Hilum: It is the point where the body of the ovule is mitotic divisions to form 8-nucleated embryo sac.
attached to the Funiculus. yy The first mitotic division in the nucleus of the functional
²² Integument: Integuments are outer layers surrounding megaspore forms two nuclei. One nucleus move towards the
the ovule that provide protection to the developing micropylar end, while the other nucleus move towards the
embryo. chalazal end. This result into 2-nucleate embryo sac.
²² Micropyle: It is a narrow pore formed by the projection yy Two more sequential mitotic nuclear divisions at their
of integuments. It marks the point where the pollen tube respective ends i.e. at the micropylar and chalazal end of
enters the ovule at the time of fertilisation. the embryo sac result in the formation of the 4-nucleate and
later the 8-nucleate stages of the embryo sac.
 514 BIOLOGY

yy These divisions are strictly free nuclear, i.e. nuclear divisions yy Complete autogamy is rare in flowers with exposed anthers
are not followed immediately by cell wall formation. and stigma. Autogamy in such flowers requires synchrony
yy After the 8-nucleate stage, cell walls are laid down leading in pollen release and stigma receptivity. Also, the anthers
to the organization of the typical female gametophyte or and stigma should lie close to each other to enable self-
embryo sac. pollination.
yy Six of the 8 nuclei get surrounded by the cell wall and yy There are two types of flowers present in Plants like Viola
remaining two nuclei called polar nuclei are situated below (common pansy), Oxalis and Commelina:
the egg apparatus in the large central cell. ²² Chasmogamous flowers: They have exposed anthers
and stigma similar to the flower of other species.
Antipodals ²² Cleistogamous flowers: They do not open at all. They
have closed anthers and stigma, which lie close to each
other.
♦♦ They are autogamous as there is no chance of cross-
pollination. This is because; cleistogamous flowers
never open at all. Also, the anther and stigma lie
close to each other in these flowers. Hence only self-
Polar nuclei pollination is possible in these flowers.
Central cell ♦♦ When anthers dehisce in the flower buds, pollen
Egg grains come in contact with the stigma for pollination.
Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed-set even
in the absence of pollinators.
Synergids
(ii) Cross-pollination: It is the process of transfer of pollen
Filiform grain from one flower to the stigma of another flower. It is
apparatus also called ‘allogamy’.
Allogamy is further divided into two types: Geitonogamy and
Fig. A diagrammatic representation of the mature embryo sac. Xenogamy.
Structure of embryo sac: (i) Geitonogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from the
yy At the micropylar end out of the four nuclei, only three anther to the stigma of another flower of the same plant. It
differentiate into two synergids and one egg cell. Together is functionally cross-pollination involving a pollinating agent.
they are known as egg apparatus. Thus, the egg apparatus It is genetically similar to autogamy since the pollen grains
come from the same plant.
consists of 2 synergids and one egg cell.
(ii) Xenogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther
yy The synergids have special cellular thickenings at the
to the stigma of a different plant. This brings genetically
micropylar tip. These are together called the filiform
different types of pollen grains to the stigma.
apparatus. It helps to guide the pollen tubes into the
synergid. Contrivances of cross-pollination:
yy Similarly, at the chalazal end, three out of the four nuclei (i) Dicliny: Flowers contain either of the essential organs
differentiate as antipodal cells. i.e. androecium or gynoecium. These flowers are called
yy The remaining two cells (of the micropylar end and the ‘unisexual flowers’. E.g. Vallisneria.
chalazal end) move towards the center and are known as (ii) Dichogamy: Androecium and gynoecium of a bisexual
polar nuclei, which are situated in a large central cell. flower mature at different time. It is of two types.
yy Hence, at maturity, a typical mature angiosperm embryo sac (a) Protandry: It is the process of maturation of androecium
(the female gametophyte) appears as a 7-celled structure, earlier than gynoecium. E.g. Helianthus, Clerodendron
though it has 8-nucleate. and Gossypium
(b) Protogyny: It is the process of maturation of gynoecium
POLLINATION earlier than androecium. E.g.: Solanum, Scrophularia
etc.
yy It is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther (iii) Herkogamy: Male and female sex organs in a bisexual
to the stigma of a pistil. flower arranged at different levels.
yy Some external agents help the plants for pollination. (a) In some flowers stigma project beyond the stamen. E.g.:
yy Pollination is of two types: Self-pollination and cross Hibiscus.
pollination. (b) In some flowers the stigmas bend in opposite direction to
(i) Self-pollination: It is the transfer of pollen from anther to the stamens. E.g.: Gloriosa.
the stigma of the same flower. It is also ‘autogamy’.
 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 515

(iv) Heterostyly: The presence of styles in different lengths in yy Often flowers of animal pollinated plants are specifically
the flowers of the same species. adapted for a particular species of animal.
(v) Self-sterility: Pollen fails to germinate on the stigma of the yy Depending on the type of animals which acts as an agent, it
same flower e.g.: Abutilon and Passiflora. is of following types.
²² Ornithophily: Cross-pollination is favoured by birds.
Agents of Pollination E.g.: Bignonia.
²² Chiropterophily: Cross-pollination is favoured by bats.
There are several ways by which a flower gets pollinated. E.g.: Kigetia pinnata
1. Abiotic agents that include water and air (wind) for ²² Entomophily: The cross-pollination takes place
pollination. by insects. It is the most common type of zoophily.
Pollination by wind (anemophily): E.g.: Cestrum nocturmum
²² It is the most common form of abiotic pollination. Features of insect-pollinated flowers:
²² The flowers produce enormous amount of pollen. yy Flowers are large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar.
²² The pollen grains are light and non-sticky to be carried yy Nectar and pollen grains are the usual floral rewards for
easily by wind currents. insects.
²² Plants possess well-exposed stamens (for easy dispersion yy Small flowers form inflorescence to make them visible.
of pollens into wind currents). yy The flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours
²² Plants have large, feathery stigma to trap air-borne to attract animals.
pollen grains. yy The pollen grains are generally sticky and get stuck to the
²² Wind pollinated flowers often have a single ovule body of the pollinator.
in each ovary and numerous flowers packed into yy Some plants provide safe places as floral reward to lay eggs.
E.g. Amorphophallus. It has the tallest flower of about 6
an inflorescence.E.g. Corncob – the tassels are the
feet.
stigma and style which wave in the wind to trap pollen
yy A symbiotic relationship exists between the plant, Yucca and
grains. its pollinator moth. The moth is dependent on plant since,
²² Wind-pollination is quite common in grasses. the moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary of the
Pollination by water (hydrophily): plant and in return, the flower gets pollinated by the moth.
²² It is quite rare in flowering plants. It is limited to about The larvae of the moth come out of the eggs as the seeds
30 genera, mostly monocotyledons. start developing.
²² Vallisneria and Hydrilla (fresh water), Zostera yy Many insects consume pollen or nectar without bringing
(marine sea-grasses) etc are the common examples of about pollination. They are called pollen/nectar robbers.
hydrophily.
Outbreeding devices:
²² In Vallisneria, the female flower reaches the surface of
water by the long stalk and the male flowers or pollen yy Majority of flowering plants produces hermaphrodite flowers
grains are released on to the surface of water. They that can undergo self-pollination (autogamy). Repeated self-
pollination results in inbreeding depression.
are carried by water currents and reach the female
yy Flowering plants have developed many devices to avoid
flowers.
self-pollination and to encourage cross-pollination. Such
²² In sea grasses, female flowers remain submerged in devices are called Outbreeding devices.
water. Pollen grains are long and ribbon like. They are (a) Pollen release and stigma receptivity not coordinated:
carried inside the water and reach the stigma. In some species, pollen release and stigma receptivity are
²² The pollen grains of most of the water-pollinated species not synchronized. Either the pollen is released before the
have a mucilaginous covering to protect from wetting. stigma becomes receptive or stigma becomes receptive
²² Not all aquatic plants use hydrophily. before the release of pollen. It prevents autogamy.
²² In most of aquatic plants, the flowers emerge above the (b) Different positioning of the anther and the stigma: This
level of water for entomophily or anemophily. E.g. water prevents autogamy.
hyacinth, water lily etc. (c) Self-incompatibility: It is a genetic mechanism to prevent
2. Biotic agents (animals) of pollination: Pollination by self-pollen (from the same flower or other flowers of
animals is known as zoophily. the same plant) from fertilization by inhibiting pollen
yy Majority of flowering plants use animals as pollinating germination or pollen tube growth in the pistil.
agents. E.g. Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, (d) Production of unisexual flowers: Presence of male and
female flowers on different plants such that each plant is
moths, birds (sunbirds and humming birds) bats, some
either male or female (dioecy). If male and female flowers
primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwelling) rodents, reptiles
are present on the same plant (i.e., monoecious, e.g. castor
(gecko lizard and garden lizard) etc. and maize), it prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy. In
yy Among the animals, insect particularly by bees is more dioecious plants (e.g. papaya), male and female flowers
common agents for pollination. Pollination by insects is are present on different plants (dioecy). This prevents both
known as Entomophily. autogamy and geitonogamy.
 516 BIOLOGY

Pollen-pistil interaction: DOUBLE FERTILISATION

yy All the events – from pollen deposition on the stigma until
pollen tubes enter the ovule – are together referred as pollen- yy When the pollen grain falls on the stigma, they germinate
pistil interaction. and give rise to the pollen tube that passes through the style
and enter into the ovule.
yy It is a dynamic process involving pollen recognition followed
yy After this, the pollen tube enters one of the of the synergids
by promotion or inhibition of the pollen. and releases two male gametes.
yy Pollination does not guarantee the transfer of the right type yy Out of the two male gametes, one gametes fuses with the
of pollen grain to the right type of stigma. nucleus of the nucleus of the egg cell and forms the zygote.
yy Hence, the pistil has the ability to recognize the right type The process is known as syngamy.
of pollen to promote post-pollination events. yy The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei located
yy This interaction takes place through the chemical components in the central cell to form a triploid primary endosperm
produced by them. nucleus (PEN). Since, the process involves the fusion of
yy If the pollen is compatible (right type), the pistil accepts it three haploid nuclei, it is known as triple fusion.
and allows the pollen to germinate. yy Thus, triple fusion is the fusion of male gamete with two
yy If the pollen is incompatible (wrong type), the pistil rejects polar nuclei inside the embryo sac of the angiosperm.
yy Since two kinds of fusions (syngamy and triple fusion) take
the pollen by preventing pollen germination on the stigma
place in an embryo sac it is known as double fertilisation.
or the pollen tube growth in the style. yy Double fertilisation is unique event to flowering plants.
yy Following compatible pollination, the pollen grain produce yy After triple fusion, the central cell becomes the primary
pollen tube through one of the germ pore. endosperm cell (PEC).
yy Content of the pollen grain move into the pollen tube. yy Primary endosperm nucleus develops into the endosperm
yy Pollen tube grows through the tissues of the stigma and style while the zygote develops into an embryo.
and reaches the ovary. Entry of pollen tube into the ovule
yy If the pollen grain is in 2-celled stage the generative cell
yy The pollen tube enters in the ovary at the time when ovule
divides and forms two male gametes inside the pollen
becomes mature.
tube. yy Inside the ovary, obturators guides the passage of pollen tube
yy If the pollen grain is in 3- cell stage the pollen tube carry two towards the micropyle.
male gametes from the beginning. yy A mature ovule in which embryo sac also matured, has three
yy Pollen tube enters into the ovule through micropyle and then paths for the entry of pollen tube:
into the embryo sac through synergids guided by filiform (i) Porogamy: In this, pollen tube enters into the ovule
apparatus. through the micropyle. It is found in most of Angiospenns
yy A plant breeder can manipulate pollen-pistil interaction, even [Capsella].
in incompatible pollinations, to get desired hybrids.
Pollen tube
Artificial hybridisation:
yy Artificial hybridisationis one of the major approaches of crop
improvement programme to improve crop yield.
yy In this method, desired pollen grains are used for pollination.
This is achieved by emasculation and bagging techniques.
²² Emasculation: Emasculation is the process of removal
of anthers (using forceps) from the bisexual flower
bud without affecting the female reproductive part i.e. Fig.: Porogamy
pistil. (ii) Chalazogamy: In this method, the pollen tube enter into
²² Bagging: Emasculated flowers are then covered with the ovule through the chalaza. This method is discovered
a suitable bag (made up of butter paper) to prevent in Casuarina by Treub [1891], e.g., Betula and Juglans
contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen. This (walnut).
is called bagging.
yy When the stigma of the bagged flower attains receptivity,
mature pollen grains collected from anthers of the male
parent are dusted on the stigma. Then the flowers are
rebagged and allowed to develop the fruits.
yy If the female parent is unisexual, then there is no need for
emasculation. In this case, the female flower buds are directly
bagged before the flowers open. When the stigma becomes Pollen tube
receptive, suitable pollens are dusted onto it so as to allow
germination. Fig.: Chalazogamy
 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 517

(iii) Mesogamy: In this method, pollen tube enter into yy The cylindrical portion of the embryonal axis, which lies
the ovule either through integuments (Cucurbita) or below the level of cotyledons, is hypocotyl. It terminates
through the funiculus (Pistacia and Populus). withthe radicle (root tip). The root tip is covered with a
Pollen tube root cap.

Fig.: Mesogamy

Post-fertilization: Structures and Events

yy Post-fertilization events includes
(a) Development of endosperm.
(b) Development of embryo.
(c) Maturation of ovule(s) into seed(s) and ovary into Fig.: A typical dicot embryo
fruit. (ii) Monocotyledonous embryo
(d) Maturation of ovary into fruit yy A typical monocot embryo possesses only one cotyledon.
(a) Formation of endosperm yy In the grass family, the cotyledon is commonly known
²² The endosperm develops before the embryo because asscutellum. It is situated lateral to the embryonal axis.
the cells of the endosperm are filled with reserve yy At its lower end, the embryonal axis has the radicle and root
food materials. They are used for the nutrition of the cap enclosed in coleorrhiza (an undifferentiated sheath).
developing embryo. Coleorrhiza is an undifferentiated sheath that encloses the
²² The primary endosperm cell divides repeatedly and radicle and root cap in a monocot seed.
forms a triploid endosperm tissue. yy The epicotyl lies above the level of scutellum. It has a shoot
apex and a few leaf primordia enclosed in a hollow foliar
²² In common endosperm development, the PEN undergoes
structure called coleoptile. Coleoptile is a conical protective
successive nuclear divisions to give rise to free nuclei.
sheath that encloses the plumule in monocot embryo.
This stage is called free-nuclear endosperm.
²² Then the endosperm becomes cellular due to the cell
wall formation.
²² The endosperm may be either fully consumed by the
growing embryo (as in pea and bean) or retained in the
mature seed (as in coconut and castor).
²² The tender coconut water is a free-nuclear endosperm
(made up of thousands of nuclei) and the surrounding
white kernel is the cellular endosperm.
(b) Embryo development:
²² Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo
sac where the zygote is situated.
²² The early embryonic developments (embryogeny)is
similar in monocotyledons and dicotyledons, though
the seeds differ greatly,
²² The zygote gives rise to the proembryoand subsequently
to the globular, heart-shaped and mature embryo.
(i) Dicotyledonous embryo
yy A typical dicot embryo consists of an embryonal axis and Fig.: L.S of an embroyo of grass
(c) Seed
two cotyledons.
yy Seed is the final (last) product of sexual reproduction in
yy The portion of embryonal axis, which lies above the level of
angiosperms. It is the fertilized ovule that is developed
cotyledons is the known as epicotyl. It terminates with the
inside a fruit.
plumule (shoot tip).
518 BIOLOGY

yy A seed consists of seed coat(s), cotyledon(s) and an yy Seeds have better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new
embryonal axis. habitats and help the species to colonize in other areas.
yy The cotyledons are simple, generally thick and swollen due yy They have food reserves. So young seedlings are nourished
to storage food (as in legumes). until they are capable of photosynthesis.
yy Mature seeds may be non-albuminous or albuminous. yy The hard seed coat protects the young embryo.
²² Non-albuminous seeds (Endosperm absent): They yy Being products of sexual reproduction, they generate new
have no residual endosperm as it is completely consumed genetic combinations leading to variations.
during embryo development. E.g., pea, groundnut, yy Dehydration and dormancy of mature seeds are crucial for
beans. storage of seeds. It can be used as food throughout the year
²² Albuminous seeds (Endosperm present): They retain a and also to raise crop in the next season.
part of endosperm as it is not completely used up during Viability of seeds after dispersal:
embryo development. E.g., wheat, maize, barley, castor, yy In a few species the seeds lose viability within a few months.
coconut, sunflower, etc. Seeds of many species live for several years.
yy Perisperm: Remnants of nucellus in matured seed are known yy Some seeds can remain alive for hundreds of years. The
as perisperm. E.g. black pepper, beet, etc. oldest is that of a lupine (Lupinusarcticus) excavated from
yy The integuments of ovules harden to form the tough Arctic Tundra. The seed germinated and flowered after an
protective seed coats. It has a small pore called micropyle estimated record of 10,000 years of dormancy.
which facilitates the entry of oxygen and water into the seed yy 2000 years old viable seed is of the date palm (Phoenix
during germination. dactylifera) discovered during the archeological excavation
yy As the seed matures, its water content is reduced and seeds at King Herod’s palace near the Dead Sea.
become dry i.e. 10-15 % moisture by mass. The general
metabolic activity of the embryo slows down. As a result, the
embryo may enter a state of inactivity, called as dormancy. APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY
yy If favourable conditions are available i.e. adequate moisture,
oxygen and suitable temperature, then the seed germinate. yy Apomixis is the production of seeds without involving
(d) Fruit: the process of meiosis and syngamy. E.g. Some species of
yy The ovary of a flower develops into a fruit. Transformation Asteraceae and grasses.
of ovules into seeds and ovary into fruit proceeds yy Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics
simultaneously. sexual reproduction.
yy The wall of ovary develops into wall of the fruit called yy Development of apomictic seeds:
pericarp. ²² In some species, the diploid egg cell is formed without
yy The fruits may be fleshy (E.g. guava, orange, mango, etc.) reduction division and develops into the embryo without
or may be dry (E.g. groundnut, mustard, etc). fertilisation.
yy Many fruits have mechanisms for dispersal of seeds. ²² In many species (E.g. many Citrus & Mango varieties)
yy Fruits are of two types: some of the nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac
²² True fruits: Fruits that develop from the ovary are divide, protrude into the embryo sac and develop into
called true fruits. the embryos. In such species each ovule contains many
²² False fruits: Fruits that develop from the thalamus are embryos.
called as false fruits. E.g. apple, strawberry, cashew, yy Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed is called
etc. polyembryony.
yy In apple, the fleshy receptacle forms the main edible part. Importance of apomixis in hybrid seed industry
yy Parthenocarpic fruits: Fruits that develop without
yy Hybrid seeds have to be produced every year. If the seeds
fertilization are called parthenocarpic fruits. E.g.Banana,
collected from hybrids are sown, the plants in the progeny
guava, apple, etc.
will segregate and lose hybrid characters.
yy Parthenocarpy can be induced through the application of
yy Production of hybrid seeds is costly. Hence the cost of hybrid
growth hormones and such fruits are seedless.
seeds is also expensive for the farmers.
Advantages of seeds: yy If the hybrids are made into apomicts, there is no segregation
yy Since pollination and fertilisation are independent of water, of characters in the hybrid progeny. Then the farmers can
seed formation is more dependable. keep on using the hybrid seeds to raise new crop year after
year.
 Chapter
Human
25 Reproduction
Reproduction is the production of young ones by an organism. (a) Paired testes
Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous. yy It is the primary sex organs of male.
Sexual reproduction involves fusion of male and female gametes yy Testes are located outside the abdominal cavity within a sac
from reproductive organs of two different individuals of different called scrotal sac or scrotum.
sexes. It involves two parents. Each parent produces gametes. Male yy Soon after the birth or at the 8th month of pregnancy they
descent into the scrotal sac (scrotum) through inguinal
gametes are called sperms while female gametes are called eggs.
canal.
During fertilization, these gametes fuse to form zygote which later
yy Scrotum keeps the testes temperature at 2°C lower than the
develops into a new individual. body temperature. The lower temperature is required for
A special organ system called reproductive system is responsible proper functioning of testes and for spermatogenesis.
for carrying out the process of reproduction in humans. yy Each testis is oval in shape. It length is 4-5 cm, and width is
In human beings, the reproductive phase starts after puberty 2-3 cm.
yy Each testis has about 250 testicular lobules. Each lobule
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM contains 1-3 coiled seminiferous tubules.
yy Each seminiferous tubule is lined by germinal epithelium. It
1. Male Reproductive System is lined internally with two types of cells:
²² Spermatogenic cells (called spermatogonia or male
yy Male reproductive system consists of several organs that germ cells): They undergo meiosis to form sperms.
have two major functions: ²² Sertoli cells (supporting cells): They provide nutrition
²² First, production of female gamete called sperm. to the germ cells.
²² Second, transfer of male gamete to female body. yy Spermatogonia are male germ cells which produce primary
yy The male reproductive organs are Paired testes, Accessory spermatocytes by meiotic divisions. Primary spermatocytes
ducts, Accessory glands and external genitalia. undergo further meiotic division to form secondary
spermatocytes and finally spermatids. Spermatids later
metamorphoses into male gametes called spermatozoa.
yy Sertoli cells are known as nurse cells of the testis. They give
shape and provide nutrition to the germ cells.
yy Release of sperms from the sertoli cells is called
spermiation.
yy The region outside the seminiferous tubules is called
interstitial spaces, which contain
²² Small blood vessels.
²² Interstitial cells or Leydig cells: They secrete a steroid
male sex hormone called testosterone (androgens).
²² Immunologically competent cells.
Fig. (a) Diagrammatic sectional view of male pelvis showing
reproductive system
 Human Reproduction 533

yy The secretion of these glands makes up the seminal plasma.

It is rich in fructose, calcium and enzymes.
Interstitial yy Functions of accessory glands:
cells ²² Helps for transporting sperms
²² Supplies nutrients to sperms
Spermatogonia ²² Provides an alkaline medium to counteract the acidity
of the uterus.
Spermatozoa ²² Secretions of Cowper’s glands lubricate the penis.
(i) Seminal vesicles: The seminal vesicles fluid is thick,
yellowish and alkaline (neutralizing the natural acidity of the
Sertoll cells vagina) containing mucus, ascorbic acids, fructose (energy
for the sperm), a coagulating enzyme, and prostaglandins.
Fig. Diagrammatic sectional view of seminiferous tubule Prostaglandins in the female reproductive tract can stimulate
yy Functions of testes: contractions of the uterine muscles, which help move the
²² They produce millions of male gametes called semen up the uterus.
spermatozoa by the process of spermatogenesis. (ii) Prostate gland: It is the largest semen-secreting glands.
²² The leydig cells of the seminiferous tubules secrete Prostatic fluid is thin and milky. It contains anticoagulant
the male sex hormone called testosterone. Testosterone enzyme and citrate. When first ejaculated, the semen
controls the development of male secondary sexual coagulates, making it easier for uterine contraction to move
characters. it along; then anticoagulants liquify the semen, and the sperm
(b) Accessory ducts (Duct system) begin swimming through the female tract.
yy It includes rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and (iii)Bulbourethral glands: It is a pair of small glands along
vas deferens. the urethra below the prostate. It secretes clear mucus to
yy The seminiferous tubules open into the vasa efferentia neutralize acidic urine remaining in the urethra. Bulbourethral
through the rete testis. fluid does carry some sperm released before ejaculation,
yy The vasa efferentia open into the epididymis, which leads which cause the high failure rate of the withdrawal method
to the vas deferens. of birth control.
yy The vas deferens opens into the urethra along with the duct (d) Penis (external genitalia)
from the seminal vesicle called the ejaculatory duct. yy It is a copulatory organ made up of special erectile spongy
yy The ejaculatory duct stores the sperms and transports them tissues which when filled with blood causes the erection. It
to the outside.
facilitates insemination.
yy The urethra starts from the urinary bladder, extends through
yy The cone-shaped tip of the penis is called glans penis which
the penis and opens via the urethral meatus.
is covered by a fold of skin called prepuce (foreskin).
yy Seminiferous tubules unite to form straight tubules → open
into rete testis (irregular cavities) → Vasa efferentia 2. Female Reproductive System
(series of fine tubules that conduct sperms) → epididymis
(stores sperms temporarily)→ vas deferens → join with a yy Female reproductive system consist of organs that play an
duct from seminal vesicle to form common ejaculatory important role in
duct → opens into urethra → urethral meatus (external ²² First, production of female gamete called egg cell,
opening). ²² Second, receive sperm for fertilisation, implantation and
(i) Epididymis: It is a long coiled tube that collects and development of foetus.
store sperms temporarily. It helps in storage, nutrition yy It includesa pair of Ovaries, Accessory ducts and
and maturation of sperms. External genitalia.
(ii) Vas deferens: It is a tube like structure that transfer
sperm from epididymis to urethra during ejaculation.
(iii) Ejaculatory duct: It is a short duct that joins two vas
deferens ducts and open into urethra.
(iv) Urethra: It is the draining tube for both the excretory
system and the reproductive system. It runs through the
penis and opens to the outside at the tip of the penis.
(v) The urethra receives the ducts of prostate and Cowper’s
glands and passes through the penis.
(c) Accessory glands
yy It includes a prostate gland, a pair of seminal vesicles
and a pair of Cowper’s glands (bulbo-urethral
glands). Fig. Diagrammatic sectional view of the reproductive system
 534 BIOLOGY

(a) Paired ovaries ²² Inner glandular and vascular endometrium, which

yy It is the primary sex organs of female. lines the uterine cavity.
yy Ovaries are located on both side of the lower abdomen. (iii) Vagina: It is the lowermost part of female reproductive part.
yy Each ovary is about 2-4 cm in length and is connected to the Vagina opens to the exterior between urethra and anus.
pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments. ²² Functions of vagina: It acts both as copulation canal as
yy Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses it receives the sperms from penis during copulation and
the ovarian stroma. birth canal during parturition.
yy The stroma is made up of outer cortex and inner (iv)The lumen of vagina is lined by a glycogen-rich mucous
medulla. membrane consisting of sensitive papillae and Bartholin’s
yy Ovary contains groups of cells called Ovarian or Graafian glands. The secretions of Bartholin’s glands lubricate the
follicles. A follicle consists of one egg cell surrounded by penis during sexual act.
one or more layers of follicle cells, which nourish and protect (c) External genitalia (vulva or pudendum)
the developing egg cell.
yy About 400,000 follicles are formed in woman at birth. After yy It consists of Mons pubis, vestibule, hymen and
puberty, usually one follicle matures and releases its egg clitoris.
during each menstrual cycle. (i) Mons pubis: It is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by
yy Functions of ovary: skin and pubic hair.
²² They produce female gametes called ova by the process (ii) Vestibule: Vulva has a depression called vestibule, in
of oogenesis. front of anus. Vestibule has two apertures- upper external
²² The Graafian follicles secrete female sex hormone urethral orifice of urethra and lower vaginal orifice of
called estrogen. Estrogen controls the development of vagina.
secondary sexual characters in females. ²² Vestibule is surrounded by two pairs of moist skin folds
called labia majora and labia minora.
(b) Accessory ducts (Duct system) ♦♦ Labia majora: It is large, fleshy, fatty and hairy outer
yy It includes two oviducts (Fallopian tubes), a uterus and folds, which extends from mons pubis and surrounds
a vagina. the vaginal opening.
(i) Oviduct (also known as fallopian tube): They are 10 ♦♦ Labia minora: It is small, thin and hairless inner
to 12 cm long, and extend from the ovary to the uterus. fold of skin beneath the labia majora.
yy Each oviduct has three parts: Infundibulum, ampulla and (iii) Hymen (Maiden head): Hymen is a membrane which
Isthmus. partially covers the vaginal opening. It is often torn during
²² Infundibulum: It is the part of oviduct lying towards the first coitus. It can also be broken by a sudden fall or
the ovary. It is funnel-shaped with many finger-like jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon; active participation in
fimbriae. Fimbriae help to collect the ovum after the some sports items etc. In some women, hymen persists
ovulation i.e. release of ovum from ovary. even after coitus. So the hymen is not a reliable indicator
²² Ampulla: Infundibulum leads to the ampulla. It is of virginity.
the wider part of oviduct. (iv) Clitoris: A highly sensitive organ lying just in front of
²² Isthmus: It is the narrow part of the oviduct, which has the urethral opening.
narrow opening into the uterus.
yy The ciliated epithelium lining the lumen of the oviduct Mammary Glands(Breasts)
drives the ovum towards the uterus. yy These are one pair, rounded structures present on the ventral
(ii) Uterus (womb): It is a hollow muscular organ, which is thoracic wall.
inverted pear shaped. yy It is paired and contains glandular tissue and fat.
²² It is supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic yy Each breast contains 15-20 mammary lobes with alveoli.
wall. yy The cells of alveoli secrete milk which is stored in the cavities
²² Uterus consists of three parts-Upper fundus, middle (lumen) of alveoli.
body and terminal cervix. yy The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
²² Cervix connects the uterus to the vagina. It is mainly yy The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct,
formed of most powerful sphincter muscles of the which unite to form a wider mammary ampulla which
body. is connected to lactiferous duct through which milk is
²² Functions of uterus: It is the site of fetal development sucked out.
during pregnancy. It also takes part in placenta formation yy Mammary glands are compound saccular and modified
expelling of the baby during parturition. sweat glands.
yy The uterine wall consists of three layers: yy Milk release in human female is regulated by certain
²² External perimetrium (thin membrane) hormones called prolactin and oxytocin of pituitary.
²² Middle myometrium (thick layer of smooth muscle)
 Human Reproduction 535

Schematic representation of spermatogenesis

Fig. Schematic representation of spermatogenesis

Fig. A diagrammatic view of mammary gland yy After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in
the Sertoli cells and are finally released from seminiferous
GAMETOGENESIS tubules by spermiation.
yy Spermiation is the process when mature spermatozoa are
yy It is the process of formation and differentiation of haploid released from the sertoli cells into the lumen of seminiferous
gametes (sperms and ova) from the diploid primary germ tubules.
cells, gametogonia (spermatogonia and oogonia) present in Role of hormones in spermatogenesis
primary sex organs called gonads (testes in male and ovaries
yy Spermatogenesis starts at puberty by the action of
in female respectively. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) of the
yy It is of two types: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis. hypothalamus.
yy GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete two
1. Spermatogenesis gonadotropins called Luteinizing hormone (LH) and
yy It is the process of formation of sperms (spermatozoa) from the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
immature germ cells in males. It takes place in seminiferous yy LH acts on the Leydig cells of the testes and stimulates
tubules present inside the testis. It consists of two stages: them to release androgens. Androgens stimulate the process
Formation of spermatids and Spermiogenesis. of spermatogenesis.
yy FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of
(a) Formation of spermatids: In this, spermatogonia
some factors which help in the process of spermiogenesis.
(sperm mother cells or immature male germ cells) produce
spermatids. Structure of spermatozoa (Sperm)
(b) Spermiogenesis: It is the process of transformation of yy A mature sperm measures about 60 µ (0.06 mm) long.
non-motile, rounded haploid spermatid into a functional yy A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm.
and motile spermatozoan. Sperm consists of
yy During spermatogenesis, a diploid spermatogonium (male ²² Head: Head is oval shaped and consists of a haploid
germ cell) increases its size to form diploid primary nucleus and a cap like acrosome. Acrosome is formed
spermatocyte. from Golgi complex. It contains lytic enzymes that help
yy The diploid primary spermatocyte undergoes first meiotic in fertilization.
division (meiosis I), which is a reductional division to form ²² Neck: Behind the head is a neck containing proximal
two equal haploid secondary spermatocytes. and distal centrioles.
yy Each secondary spermatocyte then undergoes second meiotic ²² Middle piece: It is composed of axial filament
division (meiosis II) to form two equal haploid spermatids. surrounded by mitochondria and cytoplasm. Mitochondria
produce energy for the sperm motility.
yy Hence, a diploid spermatogonium produces four haploid
²² Tail: It consists of a central axial filament. The sperm
spermatids.
moves in fluid medium and female genital tract by the
yy These spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperm)
undulating movement of the tail.
by the process called spermiogenesis.
 536 BIOLOGY

yy It is unknown that whether the first polar body divides further

or degenerates.
yy The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle
(also known as Graafian follicle).
yy Secondary oocyte forms a new membrane called
zonapellucida.
yy Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary
oocyte (ovum) from the ovary by the process called
ovulation.
yy On entry of a sperm into the secondary oocytes stimulates
it to complete meiosis-II and there is formation of a haploid
ovum and a second polar body (n).

Fig. Structure of a sperm

yy Sperms are transported by the accessory ducts. Secretions of
epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and prostate are
essential for maturation and motility of sperms.
yy Seminal plasma and sperms together constitute the semen.
yy The human male ejaculates about 200-300 million sperms Fig. Schematic representation of oogenesis
during a coitus.
yy For normal fertility at least 60% sperms must have normal Difference between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
shape and size. 40% of them must show vigorous motility. Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
2. Oogenesis It occurs in the seminiferous
It occurs in the ovaries.
tubules of testis
yy It is the process of formation of a mature ovum from the Growth phase is of shorter Growth phase is of longer
oogonia in female. duration. duration.
yy It takes place in Graafian follicles.
Each primary spermatocyte gives Each primary oocyte gives only one
yy Oogenesis is initiated in embryonic stage when millions of egg four sperms. ovum. Polar bodies are formed.
mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each foetalovary.
It begins at embryonic stage and
No more oogonia are formed and added after birth.
It begins at puberty and extends gets suspended at the time of birth.
yy These cells (Oogonia) undergo meiosis but get temporarily up to senility. The remaining part takes place only
arrested at the prophase and are called primary oocytes. after puberty.
yy Each primary oocyte gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa
cells to form primary follicle. Structure of ovum (egg)
yy A large number of primary follicles degenerate during yy Ovum is spherical and non-motile structure of about 0.2
the phase from birth to puberty. Therefore at puberty only mm in diameter.
60,000-80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary. yy It is surrounded by four membranes:
yy Primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa (i) Plasma membrane (Oolemma), which is the innermost
cells and a new theca and are known as secondary layer.
follicles. (ii) Vitelline membrane, which is attached to the plasma
yy The secondary follicles are then converted into a tertiary membrane.
follicle. It has a fluid filled cavity called antrum. The (iii) Zona pellucida. It is the transparent non-cellular layer
theca layer forms an inner theca interna and an outer found outer to the Vitelline membrane.
theca externa. (iv) Corona radiata: It is the outer layer formed of follicle
yy The primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size cells. These cells are bound together by hyaluronic
and undergoes first unequal meiotic division to form a large acid.
haploid secondary oocyte and a tiny first polar body.
The secondary oocyte retains the nutrient rich cytoplasm of
the primary oocyte.
 Human Reproduction 537

²² Secretion of estrogens by Graafian follicles.

yy The level of LH increases gradually leading to growth of
follicle and secretion of estrogen.
yy Estrogens stimulate
²² Proliferation of ruptured uterine endometrium and
mucous lining of oviduct and vagina.
²² Development of secondary sexual characters.
yy Estrogen inhibits the secretion of FSH and stimulates the
secretion of LH. It also causes the thickening of the uterine
endometrium.
III. Ovulatory Phase: 14th Day
yy The LH and FSH are at their peak in the middle of the cycle
Fig. Structure of ovum (14th day).
yy The increased level of LH causes the rupturing of Graafian
MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE) follicle and release of ovum into the fallopian tube.
yy The release of ovum from ruptured Graafian follicle is known
yy Menstrual cycle is the reproductive cycle in all primates.
as ovulation.
yy It begins at puberty. The first menstruation that begins at
puberty is called menarche. IV. Secretory (Luteal) Phase: 15-28th Day
yy The cyclic events starting from one menstruation till the yy After ovulation, the remains of the Graafian follicleget
next that take place during the reproductive period (from converted into the yellow endocrine mass called Corpus
puberty to menopause) of a woman’s life is called menstrual luteum. It secretes progesterone.
cycle. yy Progesterone hormone helps in maintenance and preparation
yy The whole cycle takes around 28 or 29 days to complete. of endometrium for the implantation of the embryo.
yy The end of cycle is accompanied by the breakdown of uterine yy High levels of progesterone hormone in the blood decrease
endothelium which gets released in the form of blood and the secretion of LH and FSH, therefore inhibiting further
mucous through the vagina. This is known as menses. ovulation.
yy Menstrual cycle includes yy During pregnancy all events of menstrual cycle stop and
²² Ovarian cycle: Changes in ovary. there is no menstruation.
²² Uterine cycle: Changes in uterus, oviduct and vagina. yy In the absence of fertilization, corpus luteum degenerates and
yy The Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone becomes a whitish mass called corpus albicans. Since, it
(LH), estrogen and progesterone are the various hormones has no secretory ability, progesterone level in blood decreases.
that regulate the menstrual cycle. It leads to menstruation indicating a new cycle.
yy Menstrual cycle has the following phases:

I. Menstrual Phase: 1-5th Day

yy The cycle starts with menstrual flow (bleeding).
yy It lasts for 3-5 days.
yy It is due to breakdown of endometrial lining and blood vessels
of the uterus that comes out through vagina.
yy Menstruation occurs if the released ovum is not fertilized.
yy Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. It may
also be caused due to stress, poor health etc.

II. Follicular (Proliferative) Phase: 5-13th Day

yy It starts from 5th day after menstruation and is completed
within 8-12 days.
yy In this phase, the primary follicle matures into Graafian
follicles. This causes the regeneration of endometrium.
yy These changes are brought about by ovarian and pituitary
hormone. In this phase, the release of gonadotropins (FSH
and LH) from anterior pituitary gland increases.
yy FSH secreted under the influence of releasing hormone from
the hypothalamus stimulates. Fig. Diagrammatic presentation of various events during
²² Development of primary follicles into Graafian follicles. a menstrual cycle
 538 BIOLOGY

Important terms layers: outer ectoderm, middle mesoderm and inner

endoderm). This 3-layered structure (known as gastrula)
• Menarche: The first menstruation during puberty. forms the embryo.
• Menopause: Stopping of menstrual cycle (at about 50 yrs. of yy After attachment, uterine cells divide rapidly and cover the
age). blastocyst. As a result, the blastocyst becomes embedded in
the endometrium and the process is called implantation.
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION
SEX DETERMINATION
yy During copulation, semen is released by the penis into the
vagina and is called insemination. yy The sex of the child is determined by a thread like structure
yy The motile sperm swim rapidly, pass through cervix, uterus called chromosomes, located inside the nucleus of zygote
and finally reach the junction of isthmus and ampulla or fertilized egg.
(ampullary-isthmic junction). yy Chromosomes are thread like structure that carry information
yy The ovum is also released into the junction for fertilization in the form of genes. Genes determine all inherited characters,
to occur. including the sex of the baby.
yy The process of fusion of sperm and the ovum to from a single yy Each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosome, of these one
cell called zygote is called fertilization. pair is called sex chromosome. There are two types of sex
Sperms → vagina → cervical canal → uterus → isthmus chromosomes- X and Y.
↓ yy Female cell contains two X chromosome (XX) while male
Fertilization ← Ampullary-isthmic Junction cell carry one X and One Y chromosome (XY).
  ↑ yy When the egg gets fertilized, the sex of the child will depend
Ovum (from ovary) → fimbriae → infundibulum → ampulla on the kind of sperm that fertilizes the ovum.
²² If the sperm carry X chromosome fertilizes the egg,
yy Fertilization (sperm + ovum → zygote) only takes place it would be a girl, since the chromosome pair will be
if both sperm and ovum reach ampullary – isthmic junction XX.
simultaneously. It means all copulations do not lead to ²² If the sperm carrying Y chromosomes fertilizes the egg,
fertilization and pregnancy. the baby will be a boy, since the chromosome pattern
yy During fertilization, the sperm induces changes in the will be XY.
zonapellucida and blocks the entry of other sperms.This
ensures monospermythat only one sperm fertilizes the ovum
and prevents polyspermy. PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
yy The enzymatic secretion of acrosome help the sperm enters
yy After implantation, the trophoblast forms finger-like
the cytoplasm of the ovum.
projections called chorionic villi, surrounded by the uterine
yy This causes second meiotic division of the secondary oocyte
tissue and maternal blood.
to form a secondary polar body and a haploid ovum
yy The chorionic villi and uterine tissue gets interdigitated with
(ootid).
each other to form the placenta.
yy Then the haploid sperm nuclei fuse with the haploid nucleus
yy Placenta is a structural and functional unit between embryo
of ovum to form a diploid zygote. (foetus) and the maternal body.
yy Placenta is connected to the embryo by an umbilical cord. It
transports substances to and from the embryo.
CLEAVAGE
yy Functions of placenta:
yy The repeated mitotic division of the zygote without ²² It acts as a barrier between the foetus and the mother.
growth resulting a multicellular ball like embryo is called ²² It helps in transport of soluble inorganic and organic
cleavage. materials, nutrients, hormones, antibodies, etc. through
yy The mitotic division (cleavage) starts as the zygote moves the placenta from the mother to foetus.
through the isthmus towards the uterus and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 ²² It helps in the gas exchange between mother and
daughter cells called blastomeres. foetus.
yy The embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is called a morula. ²² It helps in elimination of nitrogenous wastes of foetus.
yy Morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst. ²² It acts as an endocrine gland by secreting Human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen
yy The cells (blastomeres) in the blastocyst are arranged into an
(hPL), oestrogens, progesterone andrelaxin.
outer layer called trophoblast and an inner group of cells
yy During pregnancy, levels of estrogens, pro gestogens,
called inner cell mass attached to trophoblast.
cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine etc. are also increased in
yy The trophoblast layer then gets attached to endometrium
maternal blood. They support the fetal growth, metabolic
while the inner cell mass gets differentiated into three germ
changes in the mother and maintain pregnancy.
 Human Reproduction 539

yy Immediately after implantation, the inner cells mass (embryo) PARTURITION AND LACTATION
gets differentiated into germ layers, which give rise to the
different tissues (organs). yy The birth of the fully developed foetus is termed as
yy This ability of the inner cell mass is due to the presence of parturition.
multi-potent cells called stem cells. yy The hormones involved in this process are oxytocin and relaxin.
yy The period of pregnancy (from birth to pregnancy) is called (i) Oxytocin leads to the contraction of smooth muscles of
gestation period. myometrium of the uterus, which directs the full term
yy Human pregnancy (gestation period) lasts 9 months. foetus towards the birth canal.
yy For cats: 2 months, dogs: 2 months, elephants: 21 months). (ii) On the other hand, relaxin hormone causes relaxation of
pelvic ligaments and prepares the uterus for child birth.
yy Parturition is a neuroendocrine mechanismand is started by
ORGANOGENESIS the signals from the developed foetus and the placenta.
yy The signals originating from the foetus and placenta induce
yy The process of formation of different organs in the embryo mild uterine contractions (foetal ejection reflex). This causes
is called organogenesis. the release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary.
yy After one month of pregnancy, heart is formed in the yy Oxytocin causes stronger uterine muscle contractions which
embryo. in turn stimulate further secretion of oxytocin. This process is
yy By the end of second month, the foetus develops limbs and continued leading to expulsion of the baby out of the uterus
digits. through the birth canal.
yy By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester), most of the organ yy After parturition, the umbilical cord is cut off.
system is formed. Limbs and external genital organs are well yy The placenta and remnants of umbilical cord are expelled from
developed. the maternal body after parturition. It is called “after birth”.
yy During 5th month, the first movement of the foetus and yy The mammary glands produce milk towards the end of
appearance of hair on the head is observed. pregnancy by the process called lactation.
yy By the end of 24 weeks (second trimester), body is covered yy The yellowish milk produced during the initial few days of
with fine hair, eyelids separate and eye lashes are formed. lactation is called colostrum. It contains several antibodies
yy By the end of 9 months, the foetus is fully developed and is essential to develop resistance for the new born babies.
ready for delivery.
 Chapter

26 Reproductive Health

Reproductive health means a total well-being in all aspects of yy In India, population was nearly 350 million at the time of
reproduction. It includes physical, emotional, behavioural and independence. It crossed 1 billion in May 2000. It means
social well-being. every sixth person in the world is an Indian.
India introduced a number of programmes to ensure reproductive yy According to the 2001 census report, the population growth
health to all in 1951. E.g. reproductive health programmes and rate was still around 1.7% (i.e. 17/1000/year), a rate at which
family planning. our population could double in 33 years.

AIMS OF REPRODUCTIVE AND CHILD HEALTH CARE Reasons for Population Explosion
(RCH) PROGRAMMES yy Increased health facilities and better living conditions.
yy To aware people about reproductions related aspects: yy A rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) such as AIDS, (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR).
gonorrhoea etc. are transmitted from one individual to yy Increase in number of people in reproducible age.
another through sexual contact. It can also lead to unwanted
pregnancies. Hence, it is necessary to create awareness
Impacts of Population Explosion
among people especially the youth, regarding various yy It has led to scarcity of basic requirements such as food,
reproduction related aspects as the young individuals are shelter and clothing. Therefore, it is necessary to check this
the future of the country and they are most susceptible of increase in population.
acquiring sexually transmitted diseases.
yy To create a reproductively healthy society: Spreading Control Measures to Check Population Explosion
awareness regarding uncontrolled population growth and yy Motivate smaller families by using contraceptive methods.
social evils among young individuals will help in bringing yy Aware peoples about a slogan Hum Do Hamare Do (we two,
up a reproductively healthy society. our two). Many couples have adopted a ‘one child norm’.
How has the Government taken measures? yy Statutory rising of marriageable age of the female (18 years)
yy Several audio visual aids and pamphlets have been developed and males (21 years).
by both governmental and non-governmental organisations.
yy Awareness is being created among school children by
BIRTH CONTROL
introducing sex education in schools. yy It is essential to ensure birth control to check the population
Aims and needs of sex education in schools growth.
yy Governments have come out with various programmes that
yy To provide right information about sex-related aspects.
encourage smaller families by means of various contraceptive
yy To avoid sex-related myths and misconceptions.
methods.
yy Proper information about reproductive organs, adolescence
yy Contraceptive devices are used to prevent unwanted
and related changes, safe and hygienic sexual practices,
pregnancy and to prevent the spreading of STDs.
sexually transmitted diseases (STD), AIDS etc.
Contraceptive Method
POPULATION EXPLOSION
yy Contraceptive methods are of two types:
yy In 1900 the world population was around 2 billion (2000 ²² Natural method of contraception
million). By 2000, it rocketed to about 6 billion. ²² Artificial means of contraception
 Reproductive Health 557

yy An ideal contraceptive should be (iii) Hormone releasing IUDs (e.g. Progestasert, LNG-20):
²² User-friendly, easily available, effective and It makes the uterus unsuitable for implantation and
reversible. the cervix hostile to the sperms.
²² No or least side-effects. • IUDs increase phagocytosis of sperms. The Cu ions
²² It should not interfere with sexual drive, desire and sexual suppress motility and fertilising capacity of sperms.
act. • IUDs are ideal contraceptives for the females who want
1. Natural/Traditional methods to delay pregnancy or space children.
(C) Oral contraceptives
It works on the principle of avoiding chances of ovum and
• This method is used by female only.
sperms meeting. It includes
• It is used in the form of tablets, hence known as pills.
(i) Periodic abstinence: It involves avoiding of coitus from
days 10 to 17 of the menstrual cycle, when ovulation
• They contain hormones- either progestogens or
progestogen–estrogen combinations.
could be expected. The chances of fertilization are very
high in this period. It is called fertile period. • Pills are taken daily for 21 days starting within the
(ii) Coitus interruptus (withdrawal): It involves withdrawal first five days of menstrual cycle. After a gap of 7 days
of penis from the vagina just before ejaculation, so as to (during which menstruation occurs) it has to be repeated
avoid insemination into the vagina. in the same pattern till the female desires to prevent
conception.
(iii) Lactational amenorrhea: It involves the prevention of
conception by breastfeeding the child. Ovulation and the • They inhibit ovulation and implantation as well as
cycle do not occur during the period of lactation. It has alter the quality of cervical mucus to prevent entry of
no side effect. However, this is effective up to 6 months sperms.
following parturition. A chance of failure of this method • Pills are very effective with lesser side effects.
is high. • E.g. Saheli: It is a non-steroidal preparation used as
oral contraceptive pills. It is a ‘once a week’ pill with
2. Artificial methods very few side effects and high contraceptive value.
(A) Barrier methods (D) Injectables
• This method prevents the physical meeting of sperm • It involves usage of hormone- Progestogens alone or in
and ovum. It is available for both male and female combination with oestrogen, by females as injections
partners. or implants under skin.
(i) Condoms : Condoms are made of rubber/latex sheath. • Their mode of action is similar to that of pills. It is very
They are used to cover the penis in male or vagina and effective for longer periods.
cervix in the female. They are used just before coitus so (E) Emergency contraceptives
that the semen does not enter into female reproductive ♦♦ These are used within 72 hours of coitus, rape or
tract. causal unprotected intercourse.
Condoms are very popular because: ♦♦ It involves administration of Progestogens or
♦♦ It protects the user from STDs and AIDS. progestogen-oestrogen combinations and IUDs.
♦♦ It is disposable. (F) Surgical methods (also known as sterilization
♦♦ It can be self-inserted and thereby give privacy to user. methods)
(ii) Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults: ²² It is the permanent or terminal method to prevent
♦♦ These are barriers made of rubber that are inserted pregnancy.
into the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix ²² This method blocks the transport of gamete, thereby
during coitus. preventing conception. It is very effective but reversibility
♦♦ They prevent conception by blocking the entry of is poor.
sperms through the cervix. ²² It includes:
♦♦ They are reusable. (i) Vasectomy: It is the sterilization procedure in males.
(iii) Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams are used along In this, a small part of the vas deferens is removed or
with the barriers to increase contraceptive efficiency. tied up through a small incision on the scrotum.
(B) Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs): These devices are used (ii)Tubectomy: It is the sterilization procedure in females.
only by female. These are inserted by doctors or expert In this, a small part of the fallopian tube is removed
nurses in the uterus through vagina. or tied up through a small incision in the abdomen or
• This includes through vagina.
(i) Non-medicated IUDs (E.g. Lippes loop)
(ii) Copper releasing IUDs (E.g. CuT, Cu7, Multiload
375)
 558 BIOLOGY

yy This method was developed so as to determine any kind of

genetic disorder present in the foetus. However, unfortunately,
this technique is being misused to detect the sex of the child
before birth and the female fetus is then aborted.
yy Thus, to prevent the increasing female foeticides, it is
necessary to ban the usage of amniocentesis technique for
determining the sex of the child.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS)

yy Diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse are called
Fig.: (a) Vasectomy Fig.: (b) Tubectomy sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).
yy It is also known as Venereal diseases (VD) or Reproductive
Side effects of anti-natural contraceptives tract infections (RTI).
Nausea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, irregular menstrual yy Some of the STDs are: Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes,
bleeding, breast cancer etc. chlamydiasis, genital warts, trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B and
AIDS.
yy Except hepatitis-B, genital herpes and HIV infections,
MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP) others diseases are completely curable if detected early and
treated properly.
yy The Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before
full term is known as MTP. Early Symptoms
yy It is also known as induced abortion.
yy About 45 to 50 million MTPs are performed in a year yy Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swellings, etc., in the
all over the world (i.e. 1/5th of total number of conceived genital region.
pregnancies). yy STDs remain asymptomatic in female and remain undetected
yy It has a significant role in decreasing population. Sometimes, for long.
yy When not detected and treated in time, it may lead to pelvic
it becomes essential when continued pregnancy may prove
inflammatory diseases (PID), abortions, still births, ectopic
to be fatal to the mother, foetus or both.
pregnancies, infertility, cancer of the reproductive tract etc.
yy MTPs are safe during the first trimester, (up to 12 weeks of
yy All persons are vulnerable to STDs. These are very high
pregnancy). 2nd trimester abortions are very risky.
among persons in the age group of 15-24 years.
yy Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some yy Therefore, prevention and timely detection and cure of these
strict conditions to check indiscriminate and illegal female
diseases are essential to ensure reproductive health.
foeticides.
Prevention
Importance of MTP
yy Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
yy MTP is used to avoid unwanted pregnancies due to casual yy Always use condoms during coitus.
intercourse or failure of the contraceptive used during coitus yy In case of doubt, go to a qualified doctor for early detection
or rapes. and get complete treatment.
yy It is essential in cases where continuation of the pregnancy
could be harmful to the mother or to the foetus or both.
INFERTILITY
Problems related with MTPs
yy Majority of the MTPs are performed illegally. yy It is the inability of couple to produce baby even after
yy Misuse of amniocentesis (a foetal sex determination test unprotected intercourse.
based on the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid). If yy The reasons for this may be physical, congenital, diseases,
the foetus is female, it is followed by MTP. Such practices drugs, immunological or even psychological.
are dangerous for the young mother and foetus. yy Problems of infertility may be in male or female.
yy Infertility clinic can help diagnose and treat infertility.
Amniocentesis: yy In case there are no corrections possible, some special
yy Amniocentesis is a prenatal diagnostic technique that technologies called assisted reproductive technologies.
is used to determine the sex and metabolic disorders of (ART) can be used to have children.
the developing foetus in the mother’s uterus through the
observation of the chromosomal pattern.
 Reproductive Health 559

ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES (ART) male partner) is injected directly into an egg (from female
partner). Then the fertilised egg is implanted into the woman’s
uterus.
1. In vitro fertilisation (IVF- Test tube baby programme):
In this method, ova from the wife/donor and sperms from the 4. Artificial insemination (AI) technique:
husband/donor are collected and are induced to form zygote yy It is the method of transferring semen (sperm) collected from
under simulated conditions in the laboratory. This is followed the husband or a healthy donor into the vagina or the uterus
by Embryo transfer (ET). (IUI – intra-uterine insemination) of the recipient female.
It is of two types: yy This technique is useful for the male partner having inability
(a) Zygote intra fallopian transfer (ZIFT): It involves to inseminate female or has low sperm counts.
transfer of zygote or early embryos (with up to 8
blastomeres) into fallopian tube. 5. Surrogacy
(b) Intra uterine transfer (IUT): It involves transfer of yy Here, a woman (surrogate mother) bears a child for a couple
embryos with more than 8 blastomeres into the uterus. unable to produce children, because the wife is infertile or
The babies thus produced from this method are known as unable to carry.
test tube babies. yy The surrogate is impregnated either through artificial
Embryo formed by in vivo fertilisation (fertilisation within insemination or through implantation of an embryo produced
the female) can also be used for such transfer to assist those by in vitro fertilisation.
females who cannot conceive.
Problems of ART
2. Gamete intra fallopian transfer (GIFT)
yy It requires high precision handling by specialized professionals
It is the method of transfer of gamete (ovum) from a donor into and expensive instrumentation. Therefore, these facilities are
the fallopian tube of another female who is unable to produce available only in very few centres.
ovum, but can provide right conditions for fertilization and yy It has emotional, religious and social problems.
development of an embryo. Legal adoption is one of the best methods for couples looking for
3. Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI): parenthood.
It is a laboratory procedure in which a single sperm (from
 Chapter Principles of

27 Inheritance and
Variation
yy Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with inheritance Important terms
and variation of characters from parents to offspring.
yy Inheritance is the process by characters are passed on from yy In genetics, genes are represented by letters. A capital letter
the parent to offspring while variation is the degree by which shows that a gene is dominant, and a small one that it is
progeny differs from parents. recessive.
yy A dominant factor or allele expresses itself in the presence
or absence of a recessive trait. For example, tall plant,
MENDEL’S HYBRIDIZATION EXPERIMENT round seed, violet flower etc. is dominant characters in a
pea plant.
yy Mendel was the first scientist to study the pattern of yy A recessive trait is able to express itself only in the absence
inheritance. of a dominant trait. For example, dwarf plant, wrinkled seed,
yy He is known as the father of genetics and proposed the laws purple flower etc. are recessive characters in a pea plant.
of inheritance. yy Genotype is the description of genes present in an organism.
yy He selected pea plants (Pisum sativum) to carry out his study E.g. TT, tt or Tt.
on the inheritance of characters from parents to offspring. yy Phenotype is the characteristic which is visible in an organism.
He selected pea plants because: E.g. tall or dwarf are the phenotypes of a plant.
²² Peas have many visible characters like tall/dwarf plants, yy An organism is homozygous for a trait, when it has two
round/wrinkled seeds, green/yellow pod etc. copies of same allele. Genotype for a homozygous possesses
²² Peas have bisexual flowers and therefore they undergo either dominant or recessive, but never both the alleles.
natural self-pollination. Thus, pea plants produce For example, RR or rr. It always produces only one kind
offspring with same traits generation after generation. of gametes.
²² In pea plants, cross pollination can be easily achieved yy An organism is heterozygous for a trait when it has two
by emasculation in which the stamen of the flower is different alleles. Genotype for heterozygous possess both
removed without affecting the pistil. dominant and recessive alleles. E.g. rr. It produces two
²² Pea plants have short life span. different kinds of gametes.
²² They produce a large number of seed in one
generation. INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE
yy Mendel performed his experiments in three stages:
²² Selection of pure or true breeding parents. yy Mendel selected true breeding tall (TT) and dwarf (tt) plants.
²² Hybridisation and obtaining first (F1) generation. Then he crossed these two plants. The seeds formed after
²² Self-pollination of hybrid to get generations like F2 and fertilisation were grown and these plants that were formed
F3 and so on. represented the first filial or F1 generation. All the F1 plants
yy Mendel selected 7 pairs of true breeding pea varieties with obtained were tall.
easily distinguishable contrasting forms. The characters yy Then Mendel self-pollinated the F1 plants and observed that
were: all plants obtained in the F2 generation were not tall. Instead
yy The true breeding variety produces offspring having similar one fourth of the F2 plants were short.
characteristics. For example, white flower plant produced yy From this experiment Mendel concluded that the F1 tall plants
white flowered offspring etc. were not true breeding. They were carrying traits of both short
yy He obtained true breeding lines by continuous self-pollination height and tall height plants. They appeared tall only because
for several generations. the tall trait is dominant over the dwarf trait.
 572 BIOLOGY

Mendel Observations F2-Generation 3 : 1

(i) The F1 hybrid always showed one of the parental forms of
the trait.
(ii) Both the parental forms of the trait (contrasting forms of the
trait) appeared without any change in the F2 generation. 1 tall (pure) 2 tall (impure) 1 Dwarf (pure)
(iii)The two contrasting forms in a trait did not show any blending Sefling ↓ Sefling ↓ Sefling ↓
F3- Generation
either in the F1 generation or in the F2 generation.
All tall 3 tall : 1 dwarf All dwarf
(iv) The form of the trait that appeared in the F2 hybrids is called
Genotype ratio : Pure tall (1) : Impure tall
dominant form and it appeared in the F2 generation about
(2) : Pure dwarf (1)
three times in frequency as its alternate (recessive) form.
Mendelian ratio : Tall (3) : Dwarf (1)
Mendel’s Proposition Studying the Cross,
yy Mendel proposed that something was being stably passed yy TT, tt or Tt are genotypes while the traits, tall and dwarf are
down, unchanged, from parent to offspring through the phenotypes.
gametes, over successive generations. He called these things yy The capital letter T stands for tall trait while small letter t
as ‘factors’. Now a day we call them as genes. Factors stands for dwarf trait.
contain and carry hereditary information. yy Even if a single “T”is present in the genotype, phenotype is
yy Gene is therefore are the units of inheritance. tall. When “T” and “t”are present together, T dominates and
yy Genes which codes of a pair of contrasting traits are known suppresses the expression of “t”. Therefore, T (for tallness) is
as alleles, i.e. they are slightly different forms of the same dominant trait while t (for dwarfness) is recessive trait.
gene. yy TT and tt are homozygous while Tt is heterozygous.
yy From the cross, it can be found that alleles of parental pair
segregate from each other and only one allele is transmitted
MONOHYBRID CROSS to the gamete.
yy Gametes of TT will have only T alleles, gametes of tt will
have only t alleles, but gametes of Tt will have both T and
yy It is a cross between two plants, which differs in only one t alleles.
pair of contrasting characters. e.g. the cross between tall and Punnett Square
dwarf pea plants
yy It is the graphical representation to calculate the probability
yy Steps involved in making a cross between tall and dwarf of all possible genotypes of offspring in a genetic cross.
pea plants yy Possible gametes are written on two sides, usually at top
²² Selection of two pea plants with contrasting characters, row and left columns, and combinations are represented in
say tall and dwarf pea plant. boxes.
²² Removal of anthers (emasculation) of one plant to avoid yy With the help of Punnett square, genotypic ratio in F2
self-pollination. This is the female parent. generation can be found.
²² Collection of pollen grains from the other plant (male yy From the above punnet square, it is evident that genotypic
parent), which is then transferred to female parent for ratio TT:Tt:tt is 1:2:1
pollination. yy T ratio 1:2:1 or ¼ : ½ : ¼ of TT:Tt:tt can be derived from
²² Collection of seeds and production of offspring. binomial expression (ax + by)2
yy Gamete bearing genes are in equal frequency of ½
yy Hence, the expression can be written as
(½ T + ½ t) 2 = (½ T + ½ t) (½ T + ½ t)
Parent Tall × Dwarf
= ¼ TT + ¼ Tt + ¼ Tt + ¼ tt
(Pure) (Pure)
= ¼ TT + ½ Tt + ¼ tt
↓
F1-Generation All tall (Impure) Back Cross and Test Cross
yy Back cross: Back cross is the cross between an F1 hybrid
Self pollination
and any of its parent.
yy Test cross: Test cross is a cross between an organism
Tall Dwarf (Phenotypic ratio with unknown genotype and a recessive parent. It is used
or basic ratio or to determine whether the individual is homozygous or
Mendelian ratio) heterozygous for a trait.
 Principles of Inheritance and Variation 573

yy If the progenies produced by a test cross show 50% dominant The Concept of Dominance
trait and 50% recessive trait, then the unknown individual is
heterozygous for the trait. On the other hand, if the progeny yy In heterozygotes, there are dominant and recessive alleles.
yy The normal (unmodified or functioning) allele of a
produced shows dominant trait, then the unknown individual
gene produces a normal enzyme that is needed for the
is homozygous for a trait. transformation of a substrate. The modified allele is
yy The progeny of monohybrid test cross is 1:1 while the responsible for production of
dihybrid tests cross is 1:1:1:1. 1st case: The normal/less efficient enzyme or
2nd case: A non-functional enzyme or
3rd case: No enzyme at all
yy In the first case: The modified allele is same as unmodified
allele i.e. it produces the same phenotype/trait. The
unmodified allele which represents the original phenotype
is called the dominant allele.
yy In 2nd and 3rd cases: The phenotype/trait is only dependent
on the functioning of the unmodified allele. Here, the
modified allele is generally termed as recessive allele.
INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES (DIHYBRID CROSS)
yy Dihybrid cross is a cross between two parents, which differs
Fig. Test Cross in two pairs of contrasting characters.
yy For e.g. cross between pea plantshaving round and yellow
MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE coloured seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled and green coloured
yy Based on his experiments, Mendel proposed three laws of seeds (rryy).
inheritance. yy In a dihybrid cross between two pea plants having round
1. Law of dominance yellow and wrinkled green seeds, four types of gametes- RY,
2. Law of segregation Ry, rY, ry, are produced.
3. Law of independent assortment yy Each of these gamete segregate independent of each other,
1. First law - Law of dominance each having a frequency of 25% of the total gametes
²² According to this law, produced.
♦♦ Characters are controlled by discrete units called yy On observing the F2, Mendel found that the yellow and green
factors, which occur in pairs. colour segregated in a 3:1 ratio. Round and wrinkled seed
♦♦ It states that a dominant allele expresses itself in a shape also segregated in a 3:1 ratio.
monohybrid cross and suppresses the expression of
recessive allele. However, this recessive allele for a
character is not lost and remains hidden or masked
in the progenies of F1 generation and reappears in
the next generation.
♦♦ This law explains the expression of only one of the
parental character in F1 generation and expression of
both in F2 generation.
♦♦ For e.g., When pea plants with round seeds (RR)
are crossed with plants with wrinkled seed (rr), all
seeds in F1 generation were found to be round (Rr).
When these round seeds were self-fertilized, both the
round and wrinkled seeds appeared in F2 generation
in 3:1 ratio. Hence, in F1 generation the dominant
characters (round seed) appeared and the recessive
character (wrinkled seeds) got suppressed, which
reappeared in F2.
2. Second law- Law of segregation or Purity of gametes
²² It states that “During gamete formation, the factors
(alleles) of acharacter pair present in parents segregate
from each othersuch that a gamete receives only one of
the two factors”.
²² Homozygous parent produces all gametes that are similar
i.e. they contain same type of allele while heterozygous
parent produces two kinds of gametes (each having one
allele) with equal proportion. Fig. Result of a dihybrid cross.
 574 BIOLOGY

yy Dihybrid phenotypic ratio= 9:3:3:1

Round yellow: Round green: Wrinkled yellow: Wrinkled
green
The ratio of 9:3:3:1 can be derived as a combination series
of 3 yellow: 1 green, with 3 round: 1 wrinkled. i.e. (3: 1)
(3: 1) = 9: 3: 3: 1
yy Dihybrid genotypic ratio: 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
RRYY =1 RRYy =2 RrYY =2
RrYy =4 RRyy =1 Rryy =2
rrYY =1 rrYy =2 rryy =1
Based on the observations made on dihybrid cross, Mendel
proposed a set of generalisation that we call Mendel’s law
of independent assortment.

3. Third Law -Mendel’s law of independent assortment:

yy It states that ‘when two pairs of traits are combined in
a hybrid, segregation of one pair of characteristics is
independent of the other pair of characters’.

NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
(1) Incomplete Dominance
yy When one of the two alleles of a gene is incompletely
dominant over the other allele, it is termed as incomplete
dominance.
yy In this, neither of the alleles of a character is completely
dominant over the other and the F1 hybrid is intermediate Fig.: Results of monohybrid cross in the plant Snapdragon,
between the two parents. where one allele is incompletely dominant over the other
yy For e.g. Flower colour in snapdrag on (dog flower or allele.
Antirrhinum sp.) and Mirabilis jalapa (4’O clock plant). 2. Co-dominance
²² A monohybrid cross between the plants having red yy When two alleles of a gene are equally dominant and express
flowers and white flowers in Antirrhinum species will themselves even when they are together, are known as co-
result in all pink colour flowers in the F1 generation. dominance.
²² The progeny obtained in F 1 generation does not yy E.g. ABO blood grouping in human.
resemble either of the parents and exhibit intermediate yy ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I. Theplasma
characteristics. This is because, the dominant allele R, membrane of the RBC has sugar polymers thatprotrude from
is partially dominant over the other allele, r. its surface and is controlled by the gene.
²² Therefore, the recessive allele, r, also gets expressed yy The gene (I) has three alleles IA, IB and i. The alleles IA and
in the F 1 generation resulting, in the production IB produce a slightly different form of the sugar whileallele
of intermediate pink flowering progenies with Rr idoesn’t produce any sugar.
genotypes. yy Each person possesses any two of the three I gene alleles.
²² Here, phenotypic and genotypic ratios are same. yy I A and I Bare completely dominant over i, but when IA and
Phenotypic ratio= 1 Red: 2 Pink: 1 White IB are present together they both express their own types of
Genotypic ratio= 1 (RR):2 (Rr):1(rr) sugars, i.e. they are co-dominant.
²² This means that R was not completely dominant over r. yy Hence red blood cells have both A and B type sugars.
 Principles of Inheritance and Variation 575

Alleles from Alleles from Genotype of Blood types yy Chromosomal Theory of inheritance (1902):
parent I parent II offspring (Phenotypes) ²² It was proposed by Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveriin
IA IA IA IA A
1902.
²² They discovered that behaviour of chromosomes was
IA IB IA IB AB
parallel to behaviour of genes.
IA i IAi A ²² Chromosome and genes both occur in pair. The two
IB IA IA IB AB alleles of a gene pair are located on homologous sites
IB IB IBIB B of homologous chromosomes.
IB I IBi B ²² They further proposed that the pairing and separation
of a pair of chromosomes lead to segregation of a pair
i i ii O
of factors they carried.
²² Sutton united chromosomal segregation with Mendelian
principles and proposed chromosomal theory of
inheritance. It states that,
♦♦ Chromosome and genes are present in pairs in diploid
cells.
♦♦ Homologous chromosomes separate during gamete
formation (meiosis)
♦♦ Fertilization restores the chromosome number to
diploid condition.
♦♦ The chromosomal theory of inheritance claims that,
it is the chromosomes that segregate and assort
3. Multiple allelism independently.
yy When a gene exists in more than two allelic forms, it shows Experimental verification of chromosomal theory
the phenomenon of multiple allelism. E.g. ABO blood yy Thomas Hunt Morgan formulated chromosomal theory of
grouping. Gene for blood group exist in three allelic forms,I, inheritance using fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster).
IB and i. yy He chose Drosophila as his experimental model because,
4. Pleiotropy ²² It breeds very quickly
yy It is the ability of a gene to have multiple phenotypic effects ²² They complete their life cycle in about two weeks.
as it influences a number of characters simultaneously. Therefore, breeding can be done throughout the year.
yy The gene that has a multiple phenotypic effect because of ²² A single mating could produce a large number of
its ability to control expression of a number of characters is progeny flies.
called pleiotropic gene. ²² They can be grown on simple synthetic medium in the
yy For e.g. in Garden Pea, the gene which controls the flower laboratory.
colour also controls the colour of seed coat and presence of ²² Easily distinguishable male and female
red spot in the leaf axil. ²² Hereditary variations that can be clearly seen with low
power microscopes.
CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE
Morgan’s experiment
yy Mendel’s work remained unrecognized for several years yy Morgan carried out several dihybrid crosses in Drosophila
because of the following reasons. to study sex-linked genes. E.g.
²² Lack of communication. ²² Cross 1:
²² His mathematical approach to explain biological Yellow-bodied, white-eyed females X Brown-bodied,
phenomenon was new and unacceptable to many of the red-eyed males (wild type)
biologists at that time. ²² Cross 2:
²² His concept of genes (factors) as stable and discrete White-eyed, miniature winged X Red eyed, large
units was not accepted in the light of variations occurring winged (wild type)
continuously in nature, by his contemporaries. yy Their F 1 progenies were obtained which were inter-
²² Mendel could not provide any physical proof for the crossed
existence of factors. yy Then he obtained F2 progeny and F2 ratio was observed
Rediscovery of Mendel Results yy He found that
²² The two genes did not segregate independently of each
yy In 1900, three scientists namely, de Vries, Correns and von
other and the F2 ratio deviated from the 9:3:3:1 ratio,
Tschermak independently rediscovered Mendel’s results on
(expected when the two genes are independent).
the inheritance of character.
576 BIOLOGY

PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE & VARIATIONS

Parallelism of Behaviour between Chromosomes

and Mendelian Factors:
(i) Both the chromosomes and Mendelian factor are
transmitted from one generation to another in an unaltered
form.
(ii) A trait is represented by only one Mendelian factor inside a
gamete. A gamete similarly contains a single chromosome
out of a pair of homologous chromosomes due to meiosis
that occurs before the formation of gametes.
(iii) An offspring contains two chromosomes of each types
that are obtained from two parents through their gametes
that are involved in fusion and formation of zygote. It
also contains two Mendelian factor for each character.
The factors come from two different parents through their
gametes.
Linkage and Recombination
yy Recombination: It is the generation of non-parental gene
combinations.
yy Linkage: Linkage is defined as the co-existence of two or
more genes in the same chromosome. If the genes are situated
on the same chromosome and lie close to each other, then they
are inherited together and are said to be linked genes.
²² For example, a cross between yellow bodied and
white eyes and wild type parent in a Drosophila will
yy Explanation of deviation from Mendelian ratio:
produce wild type and yellow white progenies. It is
²² Genes involved are located on the X chromosome. because yellow bodied and white eyed genes are linked.
²² When two genes are located on the same chromosome, Therefore, they are inherited together in progenies.
the proportion of parental gene combinations was much
higher than the non-parental type. Morgan attributed
this due to the physical association or linkage of the two SEX DETERMINATION
genes and coined the term linkage.
²² Morgan found that even when genes were grouped on
Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes (Allosomes)
the same chromosome, some genes were very tightly
linked while others were loosely linked. yy Those chromosomes (X and Y) which are involved in
²² Tightly linked genes show low recombination. the determination of sex of an individual are called sex
Looselylinked genes show high recombination. chromosomes while the other chromosomes are called
²² Genes white and yellow were very tightly linked and autosomes.
showed only 1.3% recombination while white and yy Number of autosomes is same in males and females.
miniature wing showed 37.2% recombination, hence yy Henking (1891) studied spermatogenesis in some insects
loosely linked. and observed that 50 % of sperm received a nuclear structure
after spermatogenesis, whereas other 50 % sperm did not
yy Alfred Sturtevant used the recombination frequency between
receive it. Henking called this structure as the X body (later
gene pairs as a measure of physical distance between genes
it is called as X-chromosome).
and ‘mapped’ their position on the chromosome.
yy In this way, genetic maps were prepared, which are used
(i) Sex determination in grasshopper (XX-XO type)
today for genome sequencing projects as in Human Genome
Project. yy Sex-determination in grasshopper is XX-XO type.
 Principles of Inheritance and Variation 577

yy Here, female is homogametic, i.e. XX (all gametes are with yy The sex of the baby is determined by the type of male gamete
X chromosomes) while male is heterogametic, i.e. XO (X or Y) that fuses with the X chromosome of the female.
(Gametes with X and gametes without X.
yy Egg fertilized with sperm (with ‘X’ chromosome) became
female (22+XX). MUTATION
yy Egg fertilized with sperm (without ‘X’ chromosome) became
yy It is a sudden heritable change in DNA sequence, which
male (22 + XO)
results in changes in the genotype and the phenotype of an
(ii) Sex determination in insects and mammals (XX-XY type): organism.
yy Both male and female has same number of chromosomes. yy Mutation and Recombination are two phenomena, which
yy Female have autosomes and a pair of X chromosomes. leads to variation in DNA.
(AA+ XX). yy Frame-shift mutation: Mutation which results due to
yy Male have autosomes and one large ‘X’ chromosome and loss (deletions) or gain (insertion/ duplication) of a DNA
one very small ‘Y-chromosomes. (AA+XY)
segment.
yy This is called male heterogamety and female
homogamety.. yy Point mutation: Mutation that arise due to change in a single
base pair of DNA, by substitution, deletion or insertion of a
(iii) Sex determination in birds (ZZ-ZW type):
single nitrogenous base. E.g. sickle cell anaemia. It involves
yy Female birds have two different sex chromosomes designated mutation in a single base pair in the beta globin chain of
as Z and W.
haemoglobin pigment in the blood. Glutamic acid in short
yy Male birds have two similar sex chromosomes and called ZZ.
yy Such type of sex determination is called female heterogamety arm of chromosome II gets replaced with valine at the sixth
and male homogamety. position.
yy Mutation results in Chromosomal abnormalities (aberrations).
(iv) Sex determination in honey bee:
Chromosomal aberrations are seen in cancer cells.
yy Sex determination in honey bee is based on the number of
sets of chromosomes an individual receives. Mutagens
yy An offspring formed from the fertilization of a sperm and
an egg developed into either queen (female) or worker yy Mutagens are agents that lead to mutations.
(female). yy It include,
yy An unfertilized egg develops as a male (drone), by means ²² Physical mutagens: UV radiation, α, β, γ rays, X-ray
of parthenogenesis. etc.
yy The male have half the number of chromosome than that ²² Chemical mutagens: Mustard gas, phenol, formalin,
of female.
etc.
yy The female are diploid having 32 chromosomes and males
are haploid i.e. having 16 numbers of chromosomes.
yy This is called haplo-diploid sex determination system.
yy Male produce sperms by mitosis.
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
(v) Sex Determination in humans (XX-XY type) yy Pedigree analysis is a record of occurrence of a trait in several
yy Human has 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs are autosomes generations of a family.
and 1 pair is sex chromosomes). yy It is based on the fact that certain characteristic features are
yy A pair of X-chromosomes (XX) is present in the female, heritable in a family, for e.g. eye colour, skin colour hair
whereas X and Y chromosomes are present in male. form and colour and other facial characteristics. Along with
yy During spermatogenesis male produces two types of gametes. those features, there are other genetic disorders such as
50 % with X-chromosome and 50 % with Y-chromosome.
Mendelian disorders that are inherited in a family, generation
yy Females produce only one ovum with an X-chromosome.
yy There is an equal probability of fertilization of the ovum with after generation.
the sperm carrying either X or Y chromosome. yy Hence, by using pedigree analysis, for the study of specific
traits or disorders, generation after generation, it is possible
to trace the pattern of inheritance. In this, the inheritance of
trait is represented as a tree, called family tree.
yy The representation or chart showing family history is called
family tree (pedigree).
 578 BIOLOGY

Importance of pedigree analysis: yy The pattern of inheritance of Mendelian disorders can be

yy It is useful for genetic counsellors to advice intending couples traced in a family by the pedigree analysis.
about the possibility of having children with genetic defects yy E.g. Haemophilia, Cystic fibrosis, Sickle-cell anaemia,
like haemophilia, thalassemia, etc. Colour blindness, Phenylketonuria, Thalesemia, etc.
yy It is helpful to study certain genetic trait and find out the yy Mendelian disorders can be:
possibility of absence or presence of that trait in homozygous ²² Autosomal dominant: E.g. Muscular dystrophy.
or heterozygous condition in a particular individual. ²² Autosomal recessive: E.g. Sickle cell anaemia,
yy In human genetics, pedigree study is utilized to trace the Albinism
inheritance of a specific trait, abnormality or disease. ²² Sex linked: E.g. Haemophilia.
yy By pedigree analysis one can easily understand whether the
trait is dominant or recessive.

Fig.: Pedigree analysis of (a) Autosomal dominant trait (E.g. Myotonic

dystrophy) (b) Autosomal recessive trait (E.g. Sickle-cell anaemia).
(i) Haemophilia (Royal disease):
yy It is a sex linked recessive disease.
yy It is transmitted from unaffected carrier female to their sons
(male progeny).
yy In this a single protein that is a part of the cascade of proteins
involved in the clotting of blood is affected. Due to this, in an
affected individual a simple cut will result in no-stop bleeding.
yy The heterozygous female (Carrier) for haemophilic may
transmit the disease to sons.
yy The possibility of a female becoming a haemophilic is very
rare because mother of such female has to be at least carrier
and father should be haemophilic.
yy It is called royal disease because it shows a number of
haemophilic descents as Queen Victoria was a carrier of
the disease.
(ii) Sickle-cell anaemia:
yy This is an autosome linked recessive disorder.
yy It can be transmitted from parents to the offspring when both
the partners are carrier for the gene (or heterozygous).
Fig.: Symbols used in the human pedigree analysis yy It is caused by point mutation in the beta-globin chain of
haemoglobin pigment of the blood.
GENETIC DISORDERS yy The disease is controlled by a pair of allele, HbA and HbS.
yy A large number of diseases are known to be inherited from ²² Homozygous dominant (HbAHbA): Normal
the parents to the offspring. Such diseases are known as ²² Heterozygous (HbAHbS):Carrier of this disease.
genetic disorder. ²² Homozygous recessive (HbSHbS): Affected (Diseased)
yy Most of these diseases are caused by expression of recessive yy The defect is caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid
allele. (Glu) by Valine (Val) at the sixth position of the β- globin
yy Genetic disorder can be grouped into two categories: chain of the haemoglobin (Hb).
Mendelian disorders and Chromosomal disorders. yy This is due to the single base substitution at the sixth codon
of the β-globin gene from GAG to GUG.
1. Mendelian Disorders
yy The mutant Hb moleculeso formed undergoes polymerization
yy It is caused by alteration or mutation in the single gene. under low oxygen tension causing the change in shape
yy Their mode of inheritance follows the principles of of the RBC from biconcave disc to elongated sickle like
Mendelian genetics. structure.
 Principles of Inheritance and Variation 579

(iii) Phenylketonuria: (ii) Monosomy (2n-1): One chromosome is lost from

yy It is an inborn error of metabolism. diploid set.
yy It is an autosomal recessive disease. (iii) Trisomy (2n+1): One chromosome is added to diploid
yy The affected individual lacks an enzyme (phenylalanine set.
hydroxylase) that converts the amino acid phenylalanine into (iv) Tetrasomy (2n+2): Two chromosomes are added to
tyrosine. As a result, phenylalanine accumulates andconverts diploid set.
into phenyl pyruvic acid and other derivatives. (b) Polyploidy (Euploidy): It is an increase in a whole
yy This acid accumulates in brain and leads to mental set of chromosomes due to failure of cytokinesis after
retardation. telophasestage of cell division. This is often seen in
yy Phenyl pyruvic acid also gets excreted through urine since, plants.
kidneys poorly absorb it. Examples for chromosomal disorders
(iv) Thalassemia (i) Down’s syndrome (Mongolism):
Cause: Presence of an additional copy of chromosome
yy Thalassemia is an autosomal recessive disorder of the red
number 21 (trisomy of 21).
blood cells.
Genetic constitution: 45 A + XX or 45 A + XY
yy In Thalassemia one of the components of the haemoglobin
(i.e. 47 chromosomes).
molecule is inadequately produced or not produced at all.
²² If there is lack of α- chain production then the result is Features of affected individual:
known as α-thalassemia. ²² They are short statured with small round head.
²² If the component that is lacking is the β-chain, then the ²² Broad flat face.
resulting condition is β- thalassemia. ²² Furrowed big tongue and partially open mouth.
yy The reason for the inadequate or non- production of these ²² Many “loops” on finger tips.
components is a change in the genetic code (mutation), in ²² Palm is broad with characteristic palm crease.
that part of the DNA, which is the template for the production ²² Retarded physical, psychomotor and mental
of the protein. development.
yy A mutation may exist on one chromosome of a pair. The ²² Congenital heart disease.
protein produced by the one, “healthy”, and chromosome is
enough to keep the individual well, even though his/her red (ii) Klinefelter’s syndrome:
cells are smaller than normal. Such an individual is known Cause: Presence of an additional copy of X-chromosome in
as a carrier (or heterozygote). A carrier may give his/her male.
offspring either the healthy   chromosome or the one bearing Genetic constitution: 44 A + XXY (i.e. 47 chromosomes).
the mutation. Features of affected individual:
yy Severe thalassaemia (Thalassemia Major) will result if a child ²² Overall masculine development, however, the feminine
inherits the abnormal (mutation bearing) chromosome from development is also expressed. E.g.
both parents. In other words both parents must be carriers if ♦♦ Development of breast (Gynaecomastia).
a major Thalassaemia disorder is present in the child. This ♦♦ Sterile.
situation is known as homozygous thalassemia. ♦♦ Mentally retarded.
(iii) Turner’s syndrome:
2. Chromosomal Disorders Cause: Absence of one ofthe X chromosomes in female.
Genetic constitution: 44 A + XO (i.e. 45 chromosomes).
yy They are caused due to absence or excess or abnormal
Features of affected female:
arrangement of one or more chromosomes.
²² Sterile as their ovaries are rudimentary.
yy It is of two types:
²² Lack of other secondary sexual characters.
(a) Aneuploidy: The phenomenon ofgain or loss of one
²² Dwarf.
or more chromosomes due to failure of segregation of
²² Mentally retarded.
homologous pair of chromosomes during meiosis.
It includes,
(i) Nullisomy (2n-2): A chromosome pair is lost from
diploid set.
 Chapter
Molecular Basis of
28 Inheritance
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are the building blocks of genetic (ii) A pentose sugar: Ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in
material. DNA is the genetic material in most of the organisms. DNA DNA.
stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. RNA is the genetic material in
some viruses. RNA stands for ribonucleic acid. It mostly functions
as messengers.

POLYNUCLEOTIDE CHAIN
yy They are polymers, composed of monomers called
nucleotides.
yy A nucleotide has three components: ²² A nitrogen base is attached to the pentose sugar at
(i) A nitrogenous base C1 of pentose sugar by N-glycosidic linkage to form
²² Purines (double carbon-nitrogen rings):It includes nucleoside.
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G). Nitrogenous base + pentose sugar = nucleoside
²² Pyrimidines (single carbon-nitrogen ring):It includes According to the nature of pentose sugar, two types of nucleosides
Cytosine (C), Thymine (T-only in DNA) and Uracil are formed ribonucleoside and deoxyribonucleotides.
(U-only in RNA). Ribonucleosides Deoxyribonucleosides
O • Adenosine • Deoxyadenosine
NH2 H3C
N • Guanosine • Deoxyguanosine
OH N N OH
• Cytidine • Deoxycytidine
HO P O HO P O
N CH2 O N O • Uridine • Deoxythymidine.
CH2 O N O
O adenine thymine

HO HO (iii) Phosphate group : Phosphate group is linked to 5´-OH

OH
OH of a nucleoside through phosphodiester linkage to form
O NH2 nucleotide. (Ribonucleotide or deoxyribonucleotides
N depending on the sugar unit).
N
OH N OH Nucleoside + Phosphate group = Nucleotide.
HO P O
CH2 O N NH2
HO P O
CH2 O
N or Nitrogen base + sugar + phosphate group = Nucleotide
N cytosine
O O
guanine NUCLEOTIDE POLYMERISATION
HO HO N
OH OH yy Nucleotides can join together by a condensation reaction
(results in the removal of water) between the phosphate
group of one nucleotide and the hydroxyl group on carbon
3 of the sugar of the other nucleotide. The bonds linking
the nucleotides together are strong, covalent phosphodiester
bonds. Many nucleotides form a polynucleotide.
 602 BIOLOGY

yy Each polynucleotide chain has two distinct ends: SALIENT FEATURES OF DOUBLE HELIX
(i) a 3' end → carbon 3 of the deoxyribose is closest to the
end
STRUCTURE OF DNA
(ii) a 5' end → carbon 5 of the deoxyribose is closest to the yy DNA is double-stranded, so there are two polynucleotide
end stands along side each other.
yy Two nucleotides are joined by 3'-5' phosphodiester linkage
yy The strands are antiparallel, i.e. they run in opposite
to form dinucleotide.
yy More than two nucleotides joined to form polynucleotide directions (5' → 3' and 3'→5')
chain. yy The two strands are wound round each other to form a
double helix.
ERWIN CHARGAFF’S RULE yy The two strands are joined together by hydrogen bonds
between the bases. The bases therefore form base pairs,
yy Chargaff analyzed the base composition of DNA from a
which are like rungs of a ladder.
number of different organisms.
yy H-bond confers stability of the helical structure of the
yy He found that:
²² The base composition of DNA varies from one species DNA.
to another. yy Adenine of one strand pairs with thymine of another strand
²² Also he noted regularity in the ratios of nucleotide bases by two hydrogen bonds and vice-versa.
within a single species. This means, yy Guanine of one strand pairs with cytosine of another strand
♦♦ Number of adenines approximately equalled the by three hydrogen bonds and vice-versa.
number of thymines. yy A=T (2 hydrogen bonds)       C≡G (3 hydrogen bonds)
♦♦ Number of guanines approximately equalled the yy The base pairs are specific. Purine comes opposite to a
number of cytosines. pyrimidine. This generates uniform distance between the
yy This observation led to the formation of Chargaff’s rule. 2 strands.
yy It states that in any species, DNA molecule should have an
yy Hence, A only binds to T (and T with A), and C only binds
equal ratio of pyrimidine (cytosine and thymine) and purine
to G (and G with C). These are called complementary base
(adenine and guanine) i.e. the number of adenine molecules
is equal to thymine molecules and the number of guanine pairs. This means that whatever the sequence of bases along
molecules is equal to cytosine molecules. one strand, the sequence of bases on the other strand must
yy [A] + [G] = [T] + [C]. be complementary to it.
yy The two chains are coiled in a right handed fashion.
HISTORY OF DNA yy The pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm (34 Å) with 10 bp in each
turn.
yy DNA in the nucleus was first identified by Friedrich Meischer yy Distance between adjacent base pairs is 0.34 nm (3.4 Å).
in 1869. He named it as ‘Nuclein’.
yy 1953, double helix structure of DNA was given by James
Watson and Francis Crick, based on X-ray defraction data Hydrogen bond
produced by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.
yy Hallmark of their proposition was base pairing between 1nm
two strands of polynucleotide chains. This was based on
3.4
observation of Erwin Chargaff. nm
yy Chargaff’s observation was that for a double stranded DNA,
the ratio between Adenine and Thymine, and Guanine and
Cytosine are constant and equal one.
Important Information
yy The Length of DNA is based on the number of nucleotides
present in it. A pair of nucleotides is referred to as base
pairs. 0.34 nm
yy 174 (a bacteriophage) has 5386 nucleotides.
yy Bacteriophage lambda has 48502 base pairs (bp). (a) (b)
yy E. coli has 4.6 × 106 bp.
yy Haploid content of human DNA is 3.3 × 109 bp. Fig. (a) Double helical DNA strand.
(b) Arrangemnet of various constituents of DNA duplex.
 Molecular Basis of Inheritance 603

Length of DNA = Number of base pairs × distance between two THE SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL
adjacent base pairs.
Number of base pairs in human = 6.6 × 109 Griffith’s Experiment (Transforming Principle)
Hence, the length of DNA = 6.6 ×109 × 0.34 × 10–9
yy Griffith used mice and Streptococcus pneumoniae.
= 2.2 m yy Streptococcus pneumoniae has two strains:
In E. coli, length of DNA = 1.36 mm = 1.36 × 10– 3 m. ²² Smooth (S) strain (Virulent): It has polysaccharide
\The number of base pairs = 4 × 106bp mucus coat and can cause pneumonia.They are
pathogenic because they have a capsule that protects
them from an animal’s defense system
PACKAGING OF DNA HELIX ²² Rough (R) strain (Non-virulent): It has no mucous
yy In prokaryotes (E.g. E. coli) coat and are therefore non-pathogenic.
²² The DNA is not scattered throughout the cell. DNA, yy To test for the trait of pathogenicity, Griffith injected mice
being negatively charged, is held with some positively with mixes of the two strains
²² S-strain → Inject into mice → Mice die
charged proteins and form ‘nucleoid’.
²² R-strain → Inject into mice → Mice live
yy In eukaryotes
²² S-strain (Heat killed) → Inject into mice → Mice live
²² There is a set of positively charged, basic proteins called
²² S-strain (Heat killed) + R-strain (live) → Inject into
histones. Histones are rich in positively charged basic mice → Mice die
amino acid residues like lysines and arginines. yy He concluded that some ‘transforming principle’, transferred
²² Histones are organised to form a unit of eight molecules from heat-killed S-strain to R-strain. It enabled R-strain to
called histone octamer. synthesize smooth polysaccharide coat and become virulent.
yy Negatively charged DNA is wrapped around histone octamer This must be due to the transfer of some genetic material.
to form a structure callednucleosome. yy However the biochemical nature of genetic material was not
DNA H1 histone defined from his experiment.

Biochemical Characterization of Transforming

Histone Principle
octamer
yy It was discovered by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and
Maclyn McCarty.
yy They worked to determine the biochemical nature of
Core of histone molecules ‘transforming principle’ in Griffith’s experiment.
Fig. Nucleosome yy They purified biochemicals (proteins, DNA, RNA etc.) from
the heat killed S cells to see which ones could transform live
yy A typical nucleosome contains 200 bp of DNA helix.
R cells into S cells.
yy Therefore, the total number of nucleosomes in human yy They discovered that
6.6 × 109 bp ²² DNA alone is transformed.
= = 3.3 × 107 ²² Proteases and RNases did not affect transformation.
200
²² Digestion with DNase inhibited transformation,
yy Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a structure
suggesting that the DNA caused the transformation.
in nucleus calledchromatin. Chromatin is the thread-like
yy They concluded that DNA is the hereditary material, but not
stained bodies.
all biologists were convinced.
yy The nucleosomes are seen as ‘beads-on-string’ structure
when viewed under electron microscope. The Hershey-Chase Experiment (Blender
yy The beads on string structure in chromatin are packaged to
form chromatin fibres that are further coiled and condensed Experiment)
at metaphase stage to form chromosome. yy In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase performed
yy The packaging of chromatin at higher level requires experiment on bacteriophage (viruses that infect bacteria)
additional set of proteins called non-histone chromosomal and E.coli showing that DNA is the genetic material.
(NHC) proteins. yy They used different radioactive isotope to label DNA and
yy Chromatin includes: protein coat of the bacteriophage.
²² Euchromatin: The region of chromatin, which is loosely yy They grew some bacteriophage on a medium containing
packed and transcriptionally active. It stains light. radioactive phosphorous P32 to identify DNA and some
²² Heterochromatin: Heterochromatins are chromatin on medium containing radioactive sulphur S35 to identify
that is densely packed and transcriptionally inactive. protein.
It stains dark.
 604 BIOLOGY

yy Then these radioactive labelled phages were allowed to Function of DNA

infect E.coli bacteria. After infecting, the protein coat of the yy DNA is the genetic material, and genes are made of DNA.
bacteriophage was separated from bacterial cell by blending DNA therefore has two essential functions: replication and
and then subjected to the process of centrifugation. expression.
yy Since, the protein coat was lighter, it was found in the ²² Replication means that the DNA, with all its genes, must
supernatant while the infected bacteria got settled at the be copied every time a cell divides.
bottom of the centrifuge tube. Hence, it was proved that ²² Expression means that the genes on DNA must control
DNA is the genetic material as it was transferred from virus characteristics. A gene was traditionally defined as a
to bacteria. factor that controls a particular characteristic (such as
Bacteriophage 32
Radioactive ( P) flower colour), but a much more precise definition is that
a gene is a section of DNA that codes for a particular
35
Radioactive ( S) labelled labelled DNA
Protein capsule protein. Characteristics are controlled by genes through
the proteins they code for, like this:
shape and
Sequence of determines
1. Infection Sequence of dermines function of determines characteristics
amino acid in
bases in DNA protein of cell
polypeptides
(e.g. enzyme)

2. Blending ²² Expression can be split into two parts:

♦♦ Transcription (making RNA)
♦♦ Translation (making proteins).
3. Centrifugation
35 32
²² These two functions are summarised in this diagram
No Radioactive ( S) Radioactive ( P)
detected in cells detected in cells
(called the central dogma of genetics).
+ + Expression
Radioactive (35S) No Radioactivity
detected in supernatant detected in supernatant transcription translation
DNA RNA Protein
Fig. The Hershey-chase experiment
Repliction
PROPERTIES OF GENETIC MATERIAL
yy A genetic material should
RNA WORLD
²² Be able to generate its replica (Replication). yy RNA was the first genetic material.
²² Be chemically and structurally stable. yy Essential life processes like metabolism, translation, splicing,
²² Provide the scope for slow changes (mutations) that are etc. evolved around RNA.
required for evolution. yy It acts as genetic material and catalyst. RNA being catalyst
²² Be able to express itself as ‘Mendelian Characters’. was reactive and hence unstable. Hence DNA has evolved
yy DNA is a better genetic material. It is because it is more from RNA with chemical modifications that make it more
stable than RNA. stable.
yy DNA being double stranded and having complementary strand
Reasons for stability (Less Reasons for mutability (High further resists changes by evolving a process of repair.
reactivity) of DNA reactivity) of RNA
DNA is double stranded RNA is single stranded MECHANISM OF DNA REPLICATION
Presence of thymine in DNA Presence of uracil in RNA
yy Replication is the copying of DNA from parental DNA
Absence of 2' - OH Presence of 2' - OH, which is a highly
reactive group, makes RNA labile and strand.
easily degradable. yy Watson and Crick observed that the two strands of DNA are
anti-parallel and complementary to each other with respect
Better Genetic Material : DNA or RNA? to base sequences.
yy Both DNA and RNA are able to mutate. In fact RNA being yy This type of arrangement of DNA molecule led to the
unstable mutatesand evolves at a faster rate. hypothesis that DNA replication is semi-conservative. It
yy RNA can directly code for the protein synthesis, hence can means that the double stranded DNA molecules separates
easily express the characters. DNA, however, is dependent and then, each of the separated strand acts as a template for
on RNA for protein synthesis. the synthesis of a new complementary strand. As a result,
yy Both RNA and DNA can functions as genetic material, but each DNA molecule would have one parental strand and a
DNA being more stable is preferred for storage of genetic newly synthesized daughter strand.
information. For the transmission of genetic information yy Meselson and Stahl experimentally proved it.
RNA is better.
 Molecular Basis of Inheritance 605

Competing Models Included Messelson and Stahl’s Experiment

(i) Conservative model: The 2 parental strands re-associate yy They used the bacterium E. coli together with the technique
after acting as templates for new strands, thus restoring the of density gradient centrifugation, which separates molecules
parental double helix on the basis of their density.
(ii) Dispersive model: Each strand of both daughter molecules yy They cultured E.coli in a medium containing N salts labeled
contains a mixture of old and newly synthesized DNA. with 14N (a lighter isotope of nitrogen). 14N was incorporated
in both strands of DNA and became lighter.
yy Then they cultured E.coli in a medium containing 15NH4Cl for
Semiconservative many generations. (15N is the heavy isotope of Nitrogen).
(Watson and Crick)
yy Result: 15N was also incorporated into both strands of
bacterial DNA and the DNA became heavier.
yy The two types of DNA can be separated by centrifugation in
a CsCl density gradient.
yy Then, they took E.coli cells from 15N medium and transferred
Conservative to 14N medium.
yy After one generation, they isolated and centrifuged the DNA.
Its density was intermediate between 15N DNA and 14N
DNA. This shows that the newly formed DNA one strand is
old (15N type) and one strand is new (14N type). This confirms
semi-conservative replication.
Dispersive

15
N cells transferred to 14N medium
Control: E.coli grown for many 1. E.coli grown for many 2. Cells replicate once to 3. Cells replicate a second
generations in 14N medium generations in 15N medium produce first generation 30 time to produce a second
of daughter cells. minutes generation of daughter cells.

Extract DNA from cells Extract DNA from cells Extract DNA from cells Extract DNA from cells

Centrifuge Centrifuge Centrifuge Centrifuge

DNA bands in cesium chloride gradient

14
14
N 14N
N 14N 15
15
15
N 14N N 14N
N 15N

Results confirm prediction of semiconservative replication

Fig. Meselson and Stahl's experiment

 606 BIOLOGY

The Machinery and Enzymes for Replication yy In eukaryotes, the replication of DNA takes place at S-phase
of the cell cycle. Failure in cell division after DNA replication
yy The process of DNA replication begins at a point called the results in polyploidy.
origin of replication (ori).
yy A unit of replication with one origin is called a replicon. Parental double helix

²² E.coli chromosome is circular with a single origin of 5′ 3′

Topoisomerase
replication. (Unwinds Double
Helicase
²² A eukaryotic chromosome may have 100s-1000s Single strand Helix)
of origins of replication. It helps to speed up DNA binding protein (SSB)
replication of very long DNA molecules. DNA Polymerase III
yy An enzyme called helicase unwinds the DNA double helix DNA
3′ 5′ makes short stretches
Polymerase III
and separates it into two strands. Lagging Strand
of DNA with gaps
yy A Y-shaped replication forkwill form as the double synthesized 3′ Gaps filled
unwinds. discontinuously 5′
by DNA
Polymerase
yy As the parental strand separates, single-stranded DNA Leading strand RNA Primer
3′
synthesized produced by primase
binding proteins help keep the strands separate and prevent 3′ continuously by 3′
the strands from getting back together. 5′ DNA Sugar phosphate backbone will be
yy The untwisting of the double helix causes tighter twisting RNA Primer Polymerase III
made continuous by DNA ligase
and strain ahead of the replication fork.
yy Topoisomerase corrects this “over winding” ahead of Fig. Continuous replication of a daughter DNA strand on leading
replication forks by breaking, swivelling, and re-joining strand and discontinuous replication of lagging strand
DNA strands.
Table: Bacterial DNA replication Proteins and their functions
yy The separated strands act as templates for the synthesis of
new strands. Proteins/Enzymes Functions
yy DNA replicates in the 5'→3' direction.
Helicase Unwinds parental double stand at replication
yy Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates(dATP, dGTP, dCTP forks.
& TTP) act as substrate and also provide energy for
Single stranded binding Binds to and stabilizes single stranded DNA
polymerization. proteins until it can be used as a template.
yy DNA polymerase is an enzyme that assembles a new DNA
Topoisomerases Relieves “over-winding”strain ahead of
strand that is complementary to the template strand.
replication forks by breaking, swivelling and
yy A primer, which is a short single strand of RNA, is needed in rejoicing DNA strands
order for the DNA replication to start. Primers are synthesized
Primase Synthesizes an RNA primer at 5’end of leading
by primase. strand and of each Okazaki fragment of lagging
yy Primers bind to the origin of replication and initiate the strand.
synthesis of new strands. DNA polymerase III It synthesises new DNA strand by covalently
yy Then the DNA polymerase begins adding nucleotides to the adding nucleotide to the 3’ end of pre-existing
3' end of the primer. DNA strand or RNA primer.
yy DNA polymerase can only add a nucleotide to the 3’ end. DNA polymerase I Removes RNA nucleotides of primer from 5’end
yy DNA polymerase continues to move along the template and replaces them with DNA nucleotides
strand and add new nucleotides to the growing or complement DNA ligase It joins the okazaki fragments of lagging
strand until the entire genome is replicated. strand.
yy Remember, replication occurs in both directions because the
two DNA strands are anti-parallel. yy There are two different types of nucleic acid polymerases:
yy The DNA polymerase forms one new strand (leading strand) (i) DNA dependent DNA polymerases: It uses a DNA
in a continuous stretch in the 5'→3' direction (Continuous template for synthesizing a new strand of DNA.
synthesis). (ii) DNA dependent RNA polymerases: It used DNA
yy The other new strand is formed in small stretches (Okazaki template strand for synthesizing RNA.
fragments) in 5'→3' direction (Discontinuous synthesis).
yy The Okazaki fragments are then joined together to form a CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
new strand by an enzyme, DNA ligase. This new strand is
Transcription
called lagging strand.
yy If a wrong base is introduced in the new strand, DNA yy It is the process of synthesis of RNA from DNA template.
polymerase can do proof reading. A segment of DNA gets copied into mRNA during this
yy E.coli completes replication within 38 minutes. i.e. 2000 process.
bp per second. yy Here, adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine.
 Molecular Basis of Inheritance 607

yy Both strands are not copied during transcription, because yy The DNA strand having polarity 3'→5' is called template
²² If both strand of DNA acts as template, they would be strand for transcription.
translated into two RNA of different sequences and in yy The other strand of DNA having polarity 5'→3' is called
turn if they code for proteins, the sequence of amino coding strand.
acids in the protein would be different. Hence one yy The sequences of nitrogen base in the RNA transcribed from
segment of DNA would be coding for two different the template strand are same as the coding strand of DNA
proteins. except having thymine in place of uracil.
²² The two RNA molecules, if produced simultaneously, yy All the reference point defining a transcription unit is made
would be complementary to each other, hence will with the coding strand only, not the template strand.
form double stranded RNA. This would prevent RNA
(iii) Terminator
translation into protein.
yy The terminator located towards 3’ end (downstream) of
Transcription vs. replication coding strand.
yy Principle of complementarity governs the process of yy It terminates the process of transcription.
transcription except adenosine of DNA forms base pair with yy It is also a short segment of DNA which recognizes the
the uracil instead of thymine. During replication adenine termination factor. (ρ-factor)
pairs with thymine instead of uracil. yy If the position of promoter is changed with terminator the
yy During replication once started the whole DNA is duplicated, definition of coding and template strand will be reversed.
whereas transcription takes place only a segment of DNA. yy Since the 2 strands have opposite polarity and the DNA-
yy In replication both strand acts as template, whereas in dependent RNA polymerasecatalyse the polymerization in
transcription only one strand is acts as template to synthesize only one direction, i.e. 5'→3'.
RNA. yy 3'→5' acts as template strand. 5'→3' acts as coding strand.
yy In replication DNA copied from a DNA, whereas in yy 3'-ATGCATGCATGCATGCATGCATGC-5' Template
transcription RNA copied from the DNA. strand.
5'-TACGTACGTACGTACGTACGTACG-3' Coding strand.
Transcription unit
Transcription unit and gene
yy The process of transcription starts from at the promoter
region of the template and terminates at the terminator yy Gene is defined as thefunctional unit of inheritance. It is the
regions. The region of DNA between these two regions is DNA sequence coding for RNA molecule.
known as transcription unit. It consists of three regions: yy Cistron is a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide.
yy Structural gene in a transcription unit is monocistronic (in
(i) A promoter (Transcription start site): It is the
eukaryotes) or polycistronic (in prokaryotes).
binding site for RNA polymerase.
²² Monocistronic genes: They code for single polypeptide.
(ii) The structural gene: It is the region between promoter
They have interrupted coding sequences called split
and terminator where transcription takes place.
genes.
(iii) A terminator: It is the end of the process of
♦♦ The coding sequences or expressed sequences that
transcription.
transcribe for proteinsare called as exons.
Transcription start site ♦♦ The exons are interrupted by introns. Introns are
intervening sequences.
Promoter Template strand Terminator
3'
Structural gene
5' ²² Polycistronic genes: They code for more than one
polypeptide.
5' 3' ♦♦ In polycistronic, there are no split genes.
Coding strand
RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
(i) Promoter yy They are single stranded molecule.
yy RNA is found in nucleus and cytoplasm.
yy The promoter is located towards 5' end (upstream) of the
yy It contains ribose sugar and the nitrogen base uracil (U)
structural gene. instead of thymine, so A pairs with U.
yy It is a short sequence of DNA that provides binding site for yy Base pairings are A-U and C-G.
RNA polymerase. (mostly TATA , Commonly called TATA yy There are three types of RNA: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
box)
yy The presence of promoter defines the template and coding (i) mRNA (Messenger RNA)
strands. yy Single, uncoiled, straight strand of nucleic acid.
yy It is found in the nucleus and cytoplasm.
(ii) Structural gene yy The mRNA provides the template for protein synthesis
yy Structural gene is the region between promoter and (translation) and has genetic information in the form of
terminator, where transcription takes place. genetic code.
 608 BIOLOGY

yy It copies DNA’s instructions and carries them to the yy There is a single DNA dependent RNA polymerase that
ribosomes where proteins can be made. catalyses transcription or synthesis of all three types of RNAs
yy mRNA’s base sequence is translated into the amino acid in prokaryotes.
sequence of a protein. yy The process of transcription is completed in three steps:
yy Three consecutive bases on mRNA called a codon (e.g. (i) Initiation: Here, the enzyme RNA polymerasebinds at
UAA, CGC, AGU). the promoter site of DNA and initiates the process of
transcription. It causes the local unwinding of the DNA
(ii) tRNA (Transfer RNA) double helix. An initiation factor (σ)present in RNA
yy The tRNA is called sRNA (soluble RNA). polymerase initiates the RNA synthesis.
yy It acts as an adapter molecule. (ii) Elongation: The RNA chain is synthesized in the 5’-3’
yy It is the single stranded molecule containing 80 nucleotides direction.
in the shape of a cloverleaf. ♦♦ RNA polymerase unzips the DNA double helix and
yy The tRNA brings the amino acids to ribosomes and read the forms an open loop.
genetic code of mRNA. ♦♦ One of the strands, called sense strand, acts as
yy tRNA has an template for mRNA synthesis.
²² Anticodon loop that base complementary to the codon. ♦♦ The enzyme, RNA polymerase, utilizesribonucleoside
Three bases on tRNA that are complementary to a codon triphosphates(ATP, GTP, UTP and CTP) as substrate
on mRNA are called anticodons(e.g. codon- UUA; and polymerizes them to form mRNA following the
anticodon- AAU). rule of complementarity.
♦♦ This process of opening of helix and elongation of
²² Amino acid accepterend to which it binds with amino
polynucleotide chain continues until the enzyme
acid.
reaches the terminator gene.
yy Each tRNA bind with specific amino acid i.e. 61 types of
(iii) Termination:
tRNA are found.
♦♦ RNA polymerase recognizes the terminator gene by
yy One specific tRNA with anticodon UAC is called initiator
a termination-factor called rho (ρ) factor.
tRNA.
♦♦ After RNA polymerase reaches the terminator region,
yy There is no tRNA for stop codons. (UAA, UGA, UAG)
the newly synthesized mRNA transcript along with
yy Secondary (2-D) structure of tRNA looks like a clover-leaf.
enzyme is released.
3-D structure looks like inverted ‘L’.
♦♦ The proceeded mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters
the cytoplasm.
3' 3'
tRNA
5' 5'
Promoter DNA helix
RNA polymerase Sigma factor
Initiation
3' 5'
5' 3'
Elongation Terminator
U C A Antricondon AUG RNA
A G U Condon UAC mRNA
5' 3'
3' 5'
Fig. tRNA - the adapter molecule
5' 3'
RNA
(iii) rRNA (Ribosomal RNA) Termination Polymerase
yyIt is globular shape. RNA
Rho factor
yyIt helps make up the structure of the ribosomes.
yyrRNA and protein make up the large and small subunits of Fig. Process of transcription in bacteria
ribosomes. yy In bacteria (Prokaryotes) transcription and translation are
yy Ribosomes are the site of translation (making polypeptides). coupled because
yy It aids in moving ribosomes along the mRNA strand as amino ²² mRNA requires no processing to become active.
acids are linked together to make a protein. ²² Transcription and translation take place in the
Process of transcription in prokaryotes same compartment (no separation of cytosol and
yy The process by which the DNA message is copied into a nucleus). Translation can begin before mRNA is fully
strand of mRNA is called transcription. transcribed.
yy It takes place in the nucleus. yy In eukaryotes, there are two additional complexities:
yy The transcription requires RNA polymerase enzyme, a DNA (i) There are three RNA polymerases:
template, four types of Ribonucleotides and certain co-factors (a) RNA polymerase I: It transcribes rRNAs (28S, 18S
such as Mg2+. and 5.8S).
 Molecular Basis of Inheritance 609

(b) RNA polymerase II: It transcribes the heterogeneous 3. Asparagine (Asn) 13. Methionine (Met)
nuclear RNA (hnRNA). hnRNA is the precursor of 4. Aspartic acid (Asp) 14. Phenyl alanine (Phe)
mRNA. 5. Cystein (Cys) 15. Proline (Pro)
(c) RNA polymerase III: It transcribes tRNA, 5S rRNA 6. Glutamine (Gln) 16. Serine (Ser)
and snRNAs (small nuclear RNAs). 7. Glutamic acid (Glu) 17. Threonine (Thr)
(ii) Post transcriptional processing: (occurs inside the 8. Glycine (Gly) 18. Tryptophan (Trp)
nucleus) 9. Histidine (His) 19. Tyrosine (Tyr)
(a) Splicing: 10. Isoleucine (Ile) 20. Valine (Val)
♦♦ The primary transcript (hn RNA) contain both exons
and introns and required to be processed before they History of Genetic Code
become translationally active (mRNA). yy The process of replication and transcription based on
♦♦ The introns are removed by a process called RNA complementarity.
processing or RNA splicing. yy The process of translation is the transfer of genetic
♦♦ This process is catalysed by large complex of SnRNP, information from a polymer of nucleotides to a polymer of
called spliceosome that excises theintrons exons are amino acids. There is no complementarity exist between
joined together. nucleotides and amino acids.
(b) Capping: yy If there is change in the nucleic acid (genetic material) there
♦♦ Here, an unusual nucleotide called methyl guanosine is change in amino acids in proteins.
triphosphate(cap) is added to the 5' end of hnRNA. yy Therefore, there must be a genetic code that could direct the
(c) Tailing (Polyadenyaltion): sequence of amino acids in proteins during translation.
²² Here, adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 3' end yy George Gamow proposed the code should be combination of
of hnRNA in a template independent manner. bases, he suggested that in order to code for all the 20 amino
yy The processed hnRNA is now called mRNA and transported acids, the code should be made up of three nucleotides.
out of the nucleus for translation. yy Har Govind Khorana developed the chemical method
insynthesizing RNA molecules with desired combinations
5'
5'
of bases (homopolymer and copolymers).
3'
3' yy Marshall Nirenberg’s developed cell – free system for
mRNA protein synthesis, which finally helped in the discovery of
Capping 3'
Cap genetic code.
Intron
m
Gppp yy Severo Ochoa enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase) is
5'
Exon RNA splicing Polyadenylation used to polymerize RNA with desired sequences in a template
m
Gppp 3' independent manner (enzymatic synthesis of RNA).
5'
Poly A tail
m
Salient Features of Genetic Code
Gppp
5'
3' yy There are 64 codons. 61 codes for amino acids and 3 codons
m
Gppp are stop codon.
5'
yy The codon is triplet (three-letter code). Three nitrogen base
Fig. Process of transcription in eukaryotes sequences constitute one codon.
yy The genetic code is non-ambiguous i.e. one codon specify
Difference between template strand and coding strand only one amino acid.
yy Template strand: Template strand of DNA acts as a template yy Degeneracy: A single amino acid is represented by many
for the synthesis of mRNA during transcription. It runs from codons. Such codons are called degenerate codons.
3' to 5'. yy Comma less: The codon is read in mRNA in a continuous
yy Coding strand: Coding strand is a sequence of DNA that has fashion. There is no punctuation.
the same base sequence as that of mRNA (except thymine yy Universal:Genetic code is universal.From bacteria to human,
that is replaced by uracil in DNA. UUU codes for phenyl alanine.
yy Non-overlapping: The genetic code reads linearly.
GENETIC CODE yy Direction: the code only read in 5’ → 3’ direction.
yy Anticodon: Each codon has a complementary anticodon
It is the sequence of nucleotides (nitrogen bases) in mRNA that on tRNA.
contains information for protein synthesis (translation). yy Initiation codon: AUG is the initiator codon. In eukaryotes,
20 amino acids involved in translation are: methionine is the first amino acid and formyl methionine in
prokaryotes.
1. Alanine (Ala) 11. Leucine (Leu) yy Termination codons (non-sense codons/stop codons) are UAA,
2. Arginine (Arg) 12. Lysine (Lys) UAG and UGA. They do not indicate any amino acids.
 610 BIOLOGY

MUTATION • Now the large subunit (50S) binds to the small subunit
to complete the initiation complex.
yy Relationship between DNA and genes are best understood • Large subunit (70S) has two binding sites to which
by mutation. tRNA-carrying amino acids can bind. One is called
(i) Point mutation: aminoacyl tRNA binding site (A site) and the other is
• It occurs due to change in a single base pair of DNA, by called peptidyl site (P site).
substitution, deletion or insertion of a single nitrogenous • There is also a third site called the exit or E site where
base. tRNAs are released.
• E.g. sickle cell anaemia. It involves mutation in a single • Initiation codon for methionine is AUG. So methionyl
base pair in the beta globin chain of haemoglobin tRNA complex would have UAC at the Anticodon
pigment in the blood. Glutamic acid in short arm of site.
chromosome II gets replaced with valine at the sixth 3. Elongation
position. • The initiating tRNA carrying fomyl methionine binds,
(ii) Frame shift mutation: to the P site.
• It occurs due to loss (deletions) or gain (insertion/ • Another aminoacyl tRNA complex with an appropriate
duplication) of a DNA segment. amino acid enters the ribosome and attaches to A site. Its
• There is change in whole sequence of amino acid from anticodon binds to the second codon on the mRNA and a
the point of insertion or deletion.
peptide bond is formed between first and second amino
• E.g. β-thalassemia.
acids in presence of an enzyme, peptidyltransferase.
TRANSLATION (PROTEIN SYNTHESIS) • The ribosome now advances a distance of one codon
and the tRNA that carried the formyl methionine is
yy It refers to polymerization of amino acids to form a released at the E-site.
polypeptide. • A tRNA carrying the next amino acid now moves to
yy The triplet sequence of base pairs in mRNA defines the order the A site where the anticodon on the tRNA matches
and sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. the codon on the mRNA. This is called translocation.
yy It takes place in ribosomes. Ribosome is the cellular factory • The ribosome shifts down by a distance of one codon.
As the shift occurs, the two amino acids on the tRNA
for protein synthesis.
in the P site are transferred to the new amino acid and
yy Important functions of ribosome during translation:
the second tRNA is released from the E site.
²² Ribosome acts as the site where protein synthesis takes
• The ribosome continues to move along the mRNA and
place from individual amino acids. It is made up of two new amino acids are added to the growing polypeptide
subunits. The smaller subunit comes in contact with chain.
mRNA and forms protein synthesizing complex whereas • A group of ribosomes associated with a single mRNA
the smaller subunit acts as an amino acid binding site. for translation is called a polyribosome (polysomes).
²² Ribosome acts as a catalyst for forming peptide bond. 4. Termination
For example, 23 rRNA in bacteria acts as ribozyme. • Elongation of a polypeptide is terminated when
a stop codon moves into the A site. A stop codon
Process of Translation does not specify an amino acid and does not have a
1. Charging of tRNA (Aminoacylation of tRNA) corresponding tRNA.
• Here, amino acids are activated (amino acid + ATP) • When aminoacyl tRNA reaches the termination codon
like UAA, UAG andUGA, known as stop codon, the
and linked to their cognate tRNA in the presence of
termination of translation occurs. The polypeptide and
aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. This process is commonly
tRNA are released from the ribosomes.
known as charging of tRNA or aminoacylation of tRNA.
• The ribosome dissociates into large (50S) and small
2. Initiation
(30S) subunits at the end of protein synthesis.
• Translation is initiated by formation of an initiation
• An mRNA has additional sequences that are not
complex consisting of 30S ribosomal subunit, formyl-
translated (untranslated regions or UTR). UTRs are
methionyl (fMet) tRNA, and mRNA.
present at both 5'-end (before start codon) and 3'-end
• It begins at the 5’-end of mRNA in the presence of an
(after stop codon). They are required for efficient
initiation factor. translation process.
• The mRNA binds to the small subunit of ribosome.
AUG is recognized by the initiator tRNA.
• Initiation codon for methionine is AUG. So methionyl
tRNA complex would have UAC at the Anticodon
site.
 Molecular Basis of Inheritance 611

²² Three structural genes (z, y and a).

(i) z-gene: Codes for β-galactosidase, which hydrolyze lactose
to galactose and glucose.
Growing polypeptide chain
(ii) y-gene: Codes for Permease, which increases the
permeability of the cell to lactose.
(iii) a-gene: Codes for a transacetylase.
yy The genes present in the operon function together in the same
or related metabolic pathway. There is an operator region
for each operon.
yy In lac operon, lactose acts as an inducer. The lactose is
transported into the E.coli cells by the action of permease.
yy In the presence of lactose (inducer):
5' 3' ²² Lactose (inducer) binds with repressor protein and
mRNA Ribosome inactivates it. So repressor protein cannot bind to
operator gene. The operator gene becomes free and
induces the RNA polymerase to bind with promoter
Fig.: Translation
gene. Hence, three structural genes express their product
and respective enzymes are produced. These enzymes
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION act on lactose so that lactose is metabolized into glucose
and galactose.
yy Gene expression results in the formation of a polypeptide. yy In the absence of lactose (inducer):
yy In eukaryotes, the regulation includes the following levels: ²² When the level of inducer decreases as it is completely
1.    Transcriptional level (formation of primary transcript). metabolised by enzymes, it causes synthesis of repressor
2.    Processing level (regulation of splicing). from repressor gene. The repressor binds to the operator
3.    Transport of mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm. gene and blocks RNA polymerase from transcribing the
4.    Translational level. operon. Hence, the transcription is stopped. This type of
yy The metabolic, physiological and environmental conditions regulation is known as negative regulation.
regulate expression of genes. E.g.
²² In E.coli the enzyme, beta-galactosidase hydrolyses In absence of inducer
lactose into galactose and glucose. If the bacteria do not
have lactose the synthesis of beta-galactosidase stops. Repressor binds to the operator region(o)
and prevents RNA polymerase from
²² The development and differentiation of embryo into Repressor mRNA
transcribing the operon
adult are a result of the expression of several set of
genes. Repressor

OPERON CONCEPT In presence of inducer

Transcription
yy It states that “Each metabolic reaction is controlled by a
set of genes”. Repressor mRNA lac mRNA
yy Francois Jacob and Jacque Monod were the first to describe Translation
a transcriptionally regulated system of gene expression. β-galactosidase permease transacetylase
yy All the genes regulating a metabolic reaction constitute an Inducer
operon. E.g. lac operon, trp operon, ara operon, his operon,
val operon etc. (Inactive repressor)
yy When a substrate is added to growth medium of bacteria, a
set of genes is switched on to metabolize it. This is called Fig. The lac operon
induction.
yy When a metabolite (product) is added, the genes to produce
it are turned off. This is called repression. HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)
yy Genome is the entire DNA in the haploid set of chromosome
Lac Operon in E.coli of an organism.
yy It is the operon that controls the lactose metabolism. yy In human genome, DNA is packed in 23 chromosomes.
yy The lac operon consists of yy Human genome project (1993-2006) was considered mega
²² One regulatory gene (i-gene), which codes for project because it had a specific goal to sequence every base
repressor. pair present in the human genome.
 612 BIOLOGY

yy It was a 13 year project coordinated by the U.S. Department of yy 99.9% nucleotide bases are identical in all people. 0.1% is
energy and National Institute of Health and got accomplished what makes each of us unique.
in the year 2006. yy The functions of over 50% of discovered genes are
yy It is the first effort in identifying the sequence of nucleotides unknown.
and mapping of all the genes in human genome. yy Chromosome I has most genes (2968) and Y has the fewest
yy Human genome contains about 3 × 109 bp. (231).
Goals of HGP yy Less than 2% of the genome codes for proteins.
yy Repeated sequences make up very large portion of human
yy To identify all the estimated genes in human DNA genome. Repetitive sequences are stretches of DNA
yy To determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base sequences that are repeated many times. They have no
pairs that makes up human DNA. direct coding functions, but they shed light on chromosome
yy To store this information in databases. structure, dynamics and evolution.
yy To improve tools for data analysis. yy About 1.4 million locations where single-base DNA
yy To transfer related technologies to other sectors. differences (known as SNPs- Single nucleotide polymorphism
yy To address the ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI) that or ‘snips’) occur in humans.
may arise from the project.

Methodologies of HGP BIOINFORMATICS

There were two major approaches yy HGP was closely associated with Bioinformatics.
yy Expressed sequence tags (ESTs): It focused on identifying yy Bioinformatics is the application of computational and
all the genes that are expressed as RNA. statistical techniques to the field of molecular biology.
yy Sequence annotation: It was the blind approach of simply yy It solves the practical problems arising from the management
sequencing the whole set of genome containing all the and analysis of biological data.
coding and non-coding sequence and later assigning different yy The field of bioinformatics developed after the completion of
regions in the sequence with functions. Human geneome project. This is because enormous amount
yy The commonly used hosts for sequencing were bacteria and of data has been generated during the process of HGP that has
yeast and vectors were called as BAC (bacterial artificial to be managed and store for easy access and interpretation
chromosome) and YAC (yeast artificial chromosome). for future use by various scientists.
yy Hence, bioinformatics involves the creation of biological
Procedure:
databases that store vast information of biology.
yy Isolate total DNA from a cell → Convert them into random yy It develops certain tools for easy and efficient access to the
fragments → Clone in suitable host (e.g. BAC and YAC) for information and utilisation. Bioinformatics has developed
amplification → Fragments are sequenced using Automated new algorithms and statistical methods to find out the
DNA sequencers (using Frederick Sanger method) → relationship between the data, to predict protein structure
Sequences are arranged based on overlapping regions → and their functions, and to cluster protein sequences into
Alignment of sequences using computer programs their related families.
yy Genetic and physical maps on the genome were generated
using information on polymorphism of restriction
DNA FINGERPRINTING (DNA PROFILING)
endonuclease recognition sites and some repetitive DNA
sequences (microsatellites). yy It is the technique to identify the similarities of the DNA
fragments of two individuals.
Salient Features of Human Genome
yy It was developed by Alec Jeffreys in 1985.
yy The human genome contains 3164.7 million nucleotide
Basis of DNA Fingerprinting
bases.
yy The total numbers of genes were about 30,000. yy DNA fingerprinting involves identifying differences in some
yy Average gene consists of 3000 bases, but sizes vary. specific regions in DNA called repetitive DNA variable
The largest known human gene called dystrophin on number tandem repeats (VNTR), because in these sequences,
X-chromosome contains 2.4 million bases. a small stretch of DNA is repeated many times.
 Molecular Basis of Inheritance 613

yy The size of VNTR varies in size from 0.1 to 20 kb. This yy Different steps of DNA fingerprinting are:-
number of repeats is specific from person to person. ²² Isolation of DNA. (From any cells like blood stains,
yy These repetitive DNA are separated from bulk genomic DNA semen stains or hair roots).
as different peaks during density gradient centrifugation. ²² Make copies (amplification) of DNA by polymerase
yy The bulk DNA forms a major peak and the other small peaks chain reaction (PCR).
are called as satellite DNA. ²² Digestion of DNA by restriction endonucleases.
yy Satellite DNA is classified into many categories, (micro- ²² Separation of DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis.
satellites, mini-satellitesetc) based on base composition ²² Transferring (blotting) of separated DNA fragments to
(A:T rich or G:C rich), length of segment and number of synthetic membranes, such as nitrocellulose or nylon
repetitive units. and then baked in a vacuum oven at 80°C for 3-5 hours
yy These sequences dose not code for any proteins. (to fix the DNA fragment on the membrane).
yy These sequences show high degree of polymorphism and ²² Double stranded DNA made single stranded.
form basis of DNA fingerprinting. ²² Hybridization using labeled VNTR probe.
yy Polymorphism in DNA sequence is the basis of genetic mapping ²² Detection of hybridized DNAfragments by autoradiography.
of human genome as well as of DNA fingerprinting. After hybridization with VNTR probe the autoradiogram
yy Polymorphism (variation at genetic level) arises due to gives many bands of different sizes. These bands give a
mutations. characteristic pattern for an individual DNA. It differs
yy If an inheritable mutation is observed in a population at high from individual to individual.
frequency it is referred as DNA polymorphism. ²² The image (in the form of dark & light bands) obtained
yy Polymorphism is higher in non-coding DNA sequence. is called DNA fingerprint.
Because mutations in these sequences may not have any yy The DNA from a single cell is enough to perform DNA
immediate effect in an individual’s reproductive ability. fingerprinting.
yy These mutations accumulate generation after generation Application of DNA fingerprinting
and cause polymorphism. For evolution and speciation,
yy It is used in forensic science to identify potential crime
polymorphisms play important role.
suspects.
Difference between repeated DNA and satellite DNA yy It is used to establish paternity and family relationships.
yy Repetitive DNA is DNA sequences that contain small yy It is used to identify and protect the commercial varieties of
segments, which are repeated many times. crops and livestocks.
yy Satellite DNA is DNA sequences that contain highly yy It is used to find out evolutionary history of an organism
repetitive DNA. and trace out the linkages between various groups of
organisms.
Steps of DNA Fingerprinting
yy He used satellite DNA as the basis of DNA fingerprinting
that shows very high degree of polymorphism. It was called
as Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTR).
 Chapter
Evolution
29
yy Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another yy One of the firm believers in spontaneous generation was
Evolutionary Biology is the study of history of life forms. Aristotle.
yy Aristotle believed that dead leaves falling from a tree into
ORIGIN OF LIFE a pond would transform into fishes and those falling on
soil would transform into worms and insects. He also held
yy Origin of life means the appearance of simplest life form that some insects develop from morning dew and rotting
from non-living forms. manure. Egyptians believed that mud of the Nile River could
yy Big Bang Theory states that universe originated about 20 spontaneously give rise to many forms of life.
billion years ago, by a thermonuclear explosion (big bang) yy The theory of Spontaneous Generation was disproved in
of a dense entity. the course of time due to the experiment conducted by
Francesco Redi, (1665), Spallanzani (1765) and later by
yy The universe expanded and hence the temperature came
Louis Pasteur (1864) in his famous Swan neck experiment.
down.
This theory was disapproved, as scientists gave definite
yy Hydrogen and Helium formed sometimes later. proof that life comes from pre-existing life.
yy The gases condensed under gravitation and formed the
2. Theory of biogenesis: It was proposed by Francisco Redi,
galaxies of the present day universe.
Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur. It states that, life originates
yy In the solar system of the Milky Way galaxy, earth was from pre-existing life.
supposed to have been formed about 4.5 billion years back. (i) In 1665, Francesco Redi, an Italian physician, challenged
yy There was no atmosphere on early earth. Water vapour, the concept of spontaneous generation. With his experiment,
CH4, CO2 and NH3 released from molten mass and covered he convinced that life could only come from life. He was
the surface. even more specific, flies could only come from flies just
yy The UV rays from the sun broke up water into Hydrogen like humans come from other humans. He showed that
and oxygen and lighter H2 escaped. (H2O → H2 + O2) maggots come from eggs laid by flies, rather than forming
spontaneously from the decaying matter in which they are
yy Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form
found.
water, CO2 and others.
(ii) Pasteur sterilized two containers, both of which contained a
NH3 + O2→ water broth rich in nutrients. He exposed both containers to the air,
CH4 + O2→ CO2 but one had a trap in the form of a loop in a connecting tube,
yy The ozone layer was formed. which prevented dust and other particles from reaching the
broth. Bacteria and mold quickly grew in the open container
yy As it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain, to fill all the
and made its broth cloudy and rank, but the container
depressions and form oceans.
with the trap remained sterile. Pasteur interpreted this
yy Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth. experiment as indicating that microorganisms did not arise
spontaneously in the open container, but were introduced
Theories of Origin of Life by dust and other airborne contaminants.
1. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis): 3. Cosmic theory (Theory of panspermia): It states that, the
yy It states that, life came out of non-living things i.e. decaying units of life (spores) were transferred to different planets
and rotting matter like straw, mud etc. including earth.
 Evolution 635

4. Theory of special creation: It states that, living and non-living the atoms of these elements could not combine to form
things was created by some supernatural power (God). molecules.
yy As the earth started cooling gradually, the atoms started
5. Theory of chemical evolution: This theory was proposed by
combining with one another to form molecules.
Oparin and Haldane. It states that, the first form of life was
(i) Formation of inorganic molecules and compounds: With
originated from non-living inorganic and organic molecules
a considerable decrease in the earth’s temperature over
such as CH4, NH3, H2O, sugars, proteins, nucleic acids etc.
thousands of years, the atoms of different elements came
i.e. “Abiogenesis first, but biogenesis ever since”.
together at random and formed inorganic molecules.
yy Since the lighter elements (hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and
Urey-Miller Experiment nitrogen) were the most abundant in the outermost layer,
yy A British scientist, J.B.S. Haldane, suggested that life their atoms reacted with each other to form the first inorganic
originated from simple inorganic molecules. Two scientists, molecules.
Stanley Miller and Harold Urey were the first to put to test, yy The earliest molecules formed were those of hydrogen (H2),
the Oparin - Haldane theory, in the year 1953. nitrogen (N2), ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), carbon
yy They created a condition similar to that of primitive earth dioxide (CO2) and water vapour (H2O). All the atoms of
oxygen combined with those of hydrogen and carbon to
(i.e. high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere
form water vapour and carbon dioxide.
containing ammonia (NH3), water vapour (H2O), hydrogen
yy The energy required for the configuration of these molecules
(H2), methane (CH4). came from the ultraviolet rays in the sunlight or electric
yy They made electric discharge in a closed flask containing discharge, or heat or combination of these.
CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapour at 800o C. As a result, some (ii) Formation of simple organic compounds: As the earth
amino acids are formed. cooled further, the primitive inorganic molecules interacted
yy In similar experiments, others observed formation of sugars, and combined with one another to form simple organic
nitrogen bases, pigment and fats. compounds. Simple sugars, fatty acids, glycerol, amino
acids and nitrogen bases (purines and pyrimidines) were
probably the simple organic compounds that resulted from
the interactions of the inorganic molecules.
Water vapour present in the primitive atmosphere formed
the clouds, which then resulted in rainfall continuously for
several centuries. This rain water filled the hollows and basins
of the earth’s crust to form the oceans. Water in these oceans
contained ammonia and methane. These compounds reacted
among themselves to form the primitive organic compounds.
Thus, ocean water provided the basis for formation of organic
compounds.
(iii) Formation of complex organic compounds: The smaller
and simpler organic compounds that were formed initially in
the earth, gradually started combining among themselves to
form complex organic compounds.
yy Simple sugars combined among themselves to form complex
polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose.
yy Fatty acids and glycerol molecules combined to form
lipids.
Fig. Diagrammatic representation of Miller’s experiment yy Amino acids combined among themselves to form
Steps Involved in Origin of Life on Earth polypeptides and proteins.
yy Purines and pyrimidines combined with simple sugars and
yy The primitive atmosphere was reducing due to lack of phosphates to form nucleotides, which in turn combined to
free molecular oxygen. The early atmosphere contained form nucleic acids.
ammonia (NH3), water vapour (H2O), hydrogen (H2),
yy Heat of the sun probably provided the energy required for
methane (CH4). At that time there was no free oxygen.
the formation of complex organic compounds.
yy Heavy elements such as iron and nickel were found in
Haldane suggested that due to the accumulation of complex
the center while comparatively lighter ones like those of
aluminium and silicon formed the middle layer. The lightest organic molecules, the sea ultimately became a sort of ‘hot
elements like hydrogen, oxygen and carbon were found in dilute soup’ where in, the molecules collided, reacted and
the outermost layer. Due to the extremely high temperature, aggregated to form more complex molecules.
 636 BIOLOGY

(iv) Formation of molecular aggregates: It is suggested that both, aerobic animal-like organisms and photosynthetic
the large organic molecules (formed abiotically in the like organisms.
primitive earth) came together spontaneously and due to yy Aerobic photoautotrophs: They evolved 3300 to 3500
intermolecular attraction, formed large colloidal aggregates million years ago. They were like present day cyanobacteria
called Coacervates. and could release O2 into the atmosphere because they used
yy An envelope of water molecules formed around each such water as the reagent. Thus, the whole reducing atmosphere
aggregate due to the hydrophilic nature of some of these changed to an oxidising atmosphere. The appearance
compounds. of photosynthetic organisms resulted in the release of
yy A membrane of fatty acids protected and enclosed these free molecular oxygen into the atmosphere gradually
molecules, increasing the chances of chemical reactions. transforming it into an oxidizing type from the existing
yy Gradually, breakdown and building up reactions started for reducing type.
which the energy required was provided by the breakdown
reactions. EVOLUTION
yy The coacervates selectively absorbed proteins and other
materials from the ocean resulting in their active growth. yy Evolution is the formation of complex organisms through
yy The coacervates not only started growing rapidly but also ‘change’ from simple ancestral types over the course of
started multiplying. geological time.
yy Coacervate like aggregates were probably the precursors yy It is through the constant process of evolution (since the
of the first living cells. origin of life) that has resulted into enormous variety of
(v) Formation of first cells (Protobionts): The coacervates plants and animals that have come to exist on this earth at
were in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly taking present.
in new materials from the oceans and releasing degraded yy The term organic evolution is used to describe the slow and
materials. Thus, they had all the basic properties of life such gradual process by which living organisms have undergone
as metabolism, growth and reproduction. However, they lacked changes from the simplest unicellular forms of life to the
the complexity of molecular organization, catalytic proteins most complex multi-cellular forms that can be seen today.
(enzymes) and precise control of nucleic acids. Later, the
nucleic acids are said to have taken control of coacervate and Evidences for Evolution
the process of replication became precise in the due course of
1. Palaeontological evidences
time. With the nucleic acids being established as the genetic
yy Palaeontology is the study of fossils.
material, the coacervates got transformed into the primitive
yy Fossils are the remains or traces of animal and plant life of
living systems which have been called as protobionts or
the past, found embedded in rock either as petrified hard
eobionts.
parts or as moulds, casts or tracks.
(vi) First life forms: The first forms of life developed among the
yy Fossils are written documents of evolution.
organic molecules, in the oxygen free atmosphere. They were
yy Significance of fossils:
heterotrophs, requiring ready-made organic compounds as
²² To study phylogeny (evolutionary history or race
food.
history). E.g. Horse evolution.
yy Early atmosphere of earth had no free oxygen, the forms
²² To study the connecting link between two groups of
until then could at best be only “anaerobic”. Chlorophyll
organisms. E.g. Archaeopteryx.
bearing organisms later released free oxygen which gave
²² To study about extinct animals. E.g. Dinosaurs
greater possibilities for life to evolve.
²² To study about geological period by analysing fossils
yy Chemoheterotrophs were the first to evolve during the
indifferent sedimentary rock layers. The study showed
evolution of life.
that life forms varied over time and certain life forms
yy Chemoheterotrophs: (Greek- Chemo: Chemical, hetero:
are restricted to certain geological time spans.
another, troph: nourishment): Chemoheterotrophs are
anaerobic prokaryotic like bacteria that depend nutritionally 2. Morphological and anatomical evidences
on an external supply of organic compounds. They are Comparative anatomy and morphology shows that different
dependent on the organic molecules present in the broth forms of animals have some common structural features.
for body building and obtaining energy. This can be explained as follows:
yy Chemoautotrophs (Greek- Chemo: Chemical, auto: self, (a) Homologous organs and homology
troph: nourishment): Chemoautotrophs are organisms yy Homologous organs are the organs having fundamental
that obtains energy through chemical process, which is similarity in structure and origin but different functions.
by the oxidation of electron donating molecules from the yy This phenomenon is called Homology.
environment, rather than by photosynthesis. E.g. Homology in animals:
yy Evolutionary scientists believe that chemoautotrophs ²² Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing, and
produced oxygen as a by-product and later evolved into Cheetah’s foot. All these perform different functions,
but are constructed on the same plan.
 Evolution 637

²² Homology can be seen in skeleton (E.g. humerus, radius, The insectivorous, blood sucking, and other species of
ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges), heart, blood finches with varied dietary habits have evolved from a
vessels, excretory system, brain etc. single seed eating finch ancestor.
²² Homology in plants: E.g. Thorns of Bougainvillea and ²² Australian marsupials. A number of marsupials each
tendrils of Cucurbita. different from the other evolved from an ancestral stock.
yy The origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent But all within the Australian island continent.
evolution. Sugar Tasmanian
yy Divergent evolution is the process by which related species Glider wolf
become less similar in order to survive and adapt indifferent Marsupial Tiger cat
environmental condition). mole
yy Homology indicates common ancestry.
Koala Marsupial Banded
(b) Analogous organs and analogy radiation anteater
yy Analogous organs are the organs having similar function but
different structure and origin. This phenomenon is called Bandicoot Marsupial rat
Analogy. Wombat Kangaroo
E.g.
²² Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of chitin) and Fig. Adaptive radiation of marsupials of Australia
wings of birds (modified forelimbs).
²² Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive
²² Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin) and mammals (retina radiation in evolving into varieties of such placental
from embryonic brain). mammals each of which appears to be ‘similar’ to a
²² Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins. corresponding marsupial (E.g. placental wolf and
²² Sweet potato (modified root) and Potato (modified Tasmanian wolf-marsupial).
stem). ²² When more than one adaptive radiation appears in an
²² Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of isolated geographical area, this leads to convergent
vertebrates (from endoderm). evolution. E.g. Australian Marsupials and Placental
yy Origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution mammals
yy Convergent evolution is the process by which unrelated
4. Biochemical evidences
species become more similar in order to survive and adapt
yy Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function
in similar environmental condition. among diverse organisms give clues to common ancestry.
3. Adaptive radiation (Bio-geographical evidences) 5. Embryological evidences
yy Adaptive radiation (evolution by adaptation) is the yy During development, all vertebrates have a post-anal tail and
evolutionary process that produces new species from a paired pharyngeal pouches.
single, rapidly diversifying lineage. This process occurs yy Organisms that show similarities in their embryonic
due to natural selection. development may have a common ancestry.
yy An example of adaptive radiation is Darwin finches, found 6. Evidences for evolution by natural selection
in Galapagos Island. A large variety of finches is present in yy Natural selection is the process by which the organisms
Galapagos Island that arose from a single species, which that are best suited for their environment survive and
reached this island accidently. As a result, many new reproduce.
species have evolved, diverged, and adapted to occupy E.g. Industrial melanism (In England)
new habitats. ²² Before industrialization (1850s), it was observed that
yy These finches have developed different eating habits and there were more whitewinged moths (Biston betularia)
different types of beaks to suit their feeding habits. on trees than darkwinged or melanised moths (Biston
yy The insectivorous, blood sucking, and other species of carbonaria).
finches with varied dietary habits have evolved from a single ²² Reason: There were more white coloured lichens that
seed eating finch ancestor. covered the trees. Hence, white winged moths were able
E.g. to camouflage themselves and survived. But the dark
²² Darwin’s finches found in Galapagos Islands: A large coloured moths were picked out by predators.
variety of finches is present in Galapagos Island that ²² After industrialization (1920), there were more dark
arose from a single species, which reached this island winged moths and less white winged moths.
accidently. As a result, many new species have evolved, Reason: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial
diverged, and adapted to occupy new habitats. smoke and soot. Under this condition the white winged
These finches have developed different eating habits and moth did not survive as the predators could identify
different types of beaks to suit their feeding habits. them easily. However, dark winged moth survived
because of suitable dark background.
 638 BIOLOGY

yy Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics or drugs, (ii) Limited food and space: There is limitation of food
etc. resulted in selection of resistant varieties. This is known and space of earth. Therefore, populations of different
as natural selection by anthropogenic action. species cannot increase beyond a certain limit.
(iii) Struggle for existence: The immense power of
THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION reproduction ensures a competition among the offsprings
for food, shelter, clothing, light, mating partner and all
1. Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of
other necessities of life. The competition is maximum
Acquired Characters) amongst members of the same species. i.e. intraspecific
competition.
yy It was proposed by Lamarck.
(iv) Variations: The differences of offsprings from their
yy Principles of Lamarckism or Lamarckian theory were based
same species are called variations. These are the most
on four theoretical aspects of evolution of organisms. These are:
important aspects of evolution. No two individuals
(i) Internal urge of organisms: All the living things and
were exactly alike. Such variations were of two kinds,
their component parts are continually increased due to
some were inheritable while others were not inheritable.
an urge or internal force of life and due to an inherent
Further, the variation may be beneficial, harmful or
ability of organism itself.
neutral.
(ii) Environmental change and new needs: Environment
(v) Survival of fittest: The organisms with useful variations
keeps on changing and thus, influences the organism
have an upper hand in the struggle for existence and they
by creating new needs. The new needs are met with by
producing new structures. Thus change in environment come out successful. They win the struggle, survive and
brings about the development of new characters which propagate the variation to the next generation. Others
results structural modifications and behavioral change with harmful variations perish.
in the organism, so that one organism develop adaptive (vi) Natural selection: According to Darwin, nature selects
features to co-op with new environment. the fittest ones to survive and rejects the unfit ones. In
(iii) Use and disuse of organs: A constant use of an organ nature, only those organisms which are best adapted
results in its better development whereas disuse leads to a given set of conditions are most likely to survive.
to its ultimate degeneration and loss. In this way, in species advantageous characters are
(iv) Inheritance of acquired character: The modifications increasingly accumulation generation after generation
produced during the whole life of an organism the and disadvantageous characters gradually disappear.
transferred to its offspring in the process of heredity. An E.g. of such selection is antibiotic resistance in
Therefore acquired characters are inherited leading to bacteria. When bacterial population was grown in an
morphological and anatomical changes in a species lead agar plate containing antibiotic penicillin, the colonies
to be evolved. that were sensitive to penicillin died, whereas one or
yy Thus Lamarckism holds the view that evolution taking place few bacterial colonies that were resistant to penicillin
by the cumulative effect of environment on organism in survived.
relation to heredity over a long period of time. This is because these bacteria had undergone chance
E.g. mutation, which resulted in the evolution to penicillin drug.
²² Long neck of giraffe is due to continuous elongation of Hence, the resistant bacteria multiplied quickly as compared
their neck to forage leaves on tall trees. This acquired to non-resistant (sensitive) bacteria, thereby increasing their
character was inherited to succeeding generations. number. Hence, the advantage of an individual over other
²² Disappearance of limbs in snakes. helps in the struggle for existence.
(vii) Inheritance of useful variations: Individual with useful
2. Darwinism (Theory of Natural Selection) variations reproduces and transfers the variations to the
yy It was proposed by Charles Darwin. next generation. Next generation repeats the process of
yy It is based on two key concepts: Branching descent and formation of new variations and natural selection. There
natural selection. is therefore, a continuous selection.
yy The theory states that organic evolution occurs through (viii) Formation of new species: Accumulation of variations
natural selection and accumulation of heritable variations produces a completely new species.
that provide structural and functional superiority to some
individual over others in their survival and reproduction. Criticism of Darwinism
yy The important features of the theory are as follows: ²² Darwin did not distinguish between somatic and
(i) Over production: Every plant and animal has a tendency germinal variations.
to produce in geometrical progression (Malathian ²² Darwin explained the survival of fittest but not arrival
concept). Population size grows exponentially if of fittest.
everybody reproduces maximally (E.g. bacterial ²² Natural selection operates on small variations, most of
population). which are notheritable.
 Evolution 639

²² Overspecialisation of organs cannot be explained by pests, and food availability can change suddenly at only one place.
natural selection. At that time, only those variants resistant to these conditions would
On the basis of these objections and other scientific researches it be able to survive. This will slowly lead to the evolution of a better
can be said that natural selection is an important cause of variation adapted species. Thus, variation helps in the evolution of sexually
but not its sole reason. “Recently the theory has been modified and reproducing organisms.
known as Neo-Darwinism.
Neo-Darwinism or Modern synthetic theory is an integration of SPECIATION
separate ideas on evolution, and genetics. It is based on Mutations
Origin of a new species from the existing one due to reproductive
+ natural selection + isolation.
isolation of a part of its population is called speciation. It is an
important aspect of evolutionary process.
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION There are four geographical modes of speciation in nature:
(i) Allopatric speciation (Geographical isolation):
yy Darwin ignored about origin of variation and mechanism Population splits into two geographically isolated regions
of speciation. and each population undergoes genotypic and/or phenotypic
yy Hugo de Vries proposed Mutation Theory of evolution. divergence. E.g. Darwin finches.
yy He conducted some experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana (ii) Peripatric speciation: New species are formed in isolated
(evening primrose) and believed that evolution takes place small peripheral population that are prevented from
through mutation and not by minor variation. exchanging genes with the main population. Genetic drift
plays an important role here.
Difference between Darwin’s theory of natural (iii) Parapatric speciation: Two populations are partially
selection and deVries theory of mutation separated geographically, so individuals of each species
Darwin’s theory Mutation theory may come in contact with the other from time to tome
Evolution is caused by minor It is the mutation which causes but reduced fitness of the heterozygote prevents breeding
variations. evolution. between the two species.
Darwinian variations are small, Mutations are random, sudden and (iv) Sympatric speciation (reproductive isolation): It refers
slow and directional directionless to the formation of two or more descendents species from a
Evolution for Darwin was deVries believed mutation caused single ancestral species all occupying the same geographical
gradual. speciation and hence called it saltation location.
(single step large mutation).
HARDY- WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
VARIATIONS yy Hardy-Weinberg law is an algebraic equation that describes
the genetic equilibrium within a population.
Variations can be defined as the differences that occur in the yy It states that in a large, random-mating population, the gene
characteristics between members of the same species. Variations pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) tends
occur with reference to every character. In the absence of variations, to remain constant from generation to generation unless
every species would have continued to exist in the same form and outside forces act to change it. In such a way even the rarest
no new species would have arisen from the existing one. Thus, forms of genes, which one would assume would disappear,
variations are the raw materials for organic evolution. are preserved.
yy Hardy Weinberg principle assumes that, within a given
There are many causes of variation as this chart shows: population:
Variation (i) Mating is random. There is no mating preference. For
example an AA male does not prefer an aa female.
Genetic Environmental (ii) No mutations are arising i.e. the alleles must not
change.
Mutations Sexual Reproduction (iii) No gene flow i.e. Exchange of genes between the
(new combinations of existing genes) population and another population must not occur.
(iv) No natural selection. Natural selection must not favour
Chromosome Gene Mutations any particular individual.
Mutations (new genes) Random Crossing Random
Assortment Over Fertilisation (v) Population size is infinitely large. The population must
be large to minimize random sampling errors.
Insertion Deletion Substitution yy Importance: The Hardy-Weinberg model enables us to
Variation and evolution: Variation helps the species to survive compare a population’s actual genetic structure over time
in all the conditions. Environmental conditions such as heat, light, with the genetic structure we would expect if the population
were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (i.e., not evolving).
 640 BIOLOGY

If genotype frequencies differ from those we would expect Medium sized individuals

Number of individuals
under equilibrium, we can assume that one or more of the are favoured

model’s assumptions are being violated, and attempt to

determine which one (s).
yy Consider a population whose gene pool contains the alleles
A and a. Extreme
yy Hardy and Weinberg assigned the letter p to the frequency
of the dominant allele A and the letter q to the frequency of Fig. Stabilizing Selection
the recessive allele a.
yy Since the sum of all the alleles must equal 100%, then (ii) Directional selection: It is the selection that favours one
p + q = 1. They then reasoned that all the random possible of the extreme variations of a trait. This selection results
in a shift towards one extreme.
combinations of the members of a population would equal
This occurs whenever the environment changes in a
(p+q) 2 or p2+ 2pq + q2.
particular way. There is therefore selective pressure
yy The overall equation for the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is
for species to change in response to the environmental
expressed in this way:p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [binomial expansion change.
of (p+q) 2]. E.g. The peppered moth, Bacterial resistance to antibiotics,
Pesticide resistance.
Factors Affecting Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Peak shifts to one
(i) Gene migration: It is the gene flow from one population direction

Number of individuals
to another. When migrations of a section of population to
another place occur, gene frequencies change in the original
as well as in the new population. New genes/alleles are
added to the new population and these are lost from the old
population. One extreme
is favoured
(ii) Gene flow: Gene migration that happens multiple times is
Fig. Directional Selection
termed as gene flow.
(iii) Genetic drift: Genetic drift is the accidental gene flow (iii) Disruptive selection: It is the selection that favours
causing change in frequency. Sometimes, the change in both extremes of the phenotype. Hence, the Intermediate
frequency is so different in the new sample of population phenotype is eliminated.
that they become a different species. The original drifted This selection results in favouring either extreme of a trait’s
population becomes founders and the effect is called variation.
founder effect. This occurs where an environment change may produce
(iv) Mutation: Mutations result in formation of new phenotypes. selection pressures that favour two extremes of a
Over few generations, this leads to speciation. characteristic.
(v) Genetic recombination: It is the reshuffling of gene Two peaks form
Number of individuals

combinations during crossing over resulting in genetic

variation.
(vi) Natural selection: Natural selection is the process by which
the organisms that are best suited for their environment
survive and reproduce. Both extremes
are favoured
yy There are three kinds of natural selection:
(i) Stabilizing selection: It is the selection that favours the Fig. Disruptive selection
intermediate phenotype. Hence, both extremes of the
variation of a trait are eliminated. A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
This selection results in favouring the average individuals A Trip through Geologic Time: By looking at fossils and by
in a population. figuring out the age of rocks, scientists have come up with something
This occurs when the environment doesn’t change. like a calendar of Earth’s history. This calendar is called the geologic
Natural selection doesn’t have to cause change, and if time scale. The scale is divided into four sections called eras.
an environment doesn’t change there is no pressure for a Each era represents a very long period of time. The four eras are:
well-adapted species to change. Fossils suggest that many Precambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Coenozoic.
species remain unchanged for long periods of geological Each era is subdivided into periods. Scientists selected the
time. One of the most stable environments on Earth is the divisions based on information from fossils. Each division of the
deep ocean. time scale is based on the kinds of organisms that lived during
 Evolution 641

that time. The fossil record also shows several times when a mass It is hard to understand the huge amounts of time that have passed
extinction took place. A mass extinction is an event that happens since the early history of Earth. If we compare the geologic time
when many organisms disappear from the fossil record at the same scale to an imaginary calendar, it will be easier.
time. The figure below shows the four eras of Earth’s geologic
time scale.

Major events during geological time

Era Period Age of Events

Precambrian Origin of life, Oxygen evolution through photosynthesis

Palaezoic Cambrian Invertebrates Flourishing of the invertebrates, increase in algal diversity, and appearance
of vertebrates.
Ordovician Plants begin to colonize land.
Silurian Fishes Increase in diversity of fish.
Devonian Amphibians appear.
Carboniferous Amphibians Extensive forest, dominance of amphibians, increase in diversity of insects,
first reptiles appear.
Permian Age of reptiles begin, End of trilobites.
Mesozoic Triassic Reptiles Dinosaurs evolve and spread, first mammal appear.
Jurassic First bird and first flowering plant appear.
Cretaceous Dominance of flowering plants.
Coenozoic Tertiary Mammals Age of mammals begin, Extinction of dinosaurs.
Quaternary Evolution of human, Large mammals and birds become extinct.

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

yy Human evolution is a gradual process that took place slowly in time. It represents an example of anagenesis.
Years Name Brain capacity Posture Food Features
10 mya Dryopithecus --- Knuckle walker, They were Soft fruit and Canines large, arms and legs are of equal
Africans hairy and walked like gorillas leaves length.
and chimpanzees. They were
more ape like)
15 mya Ramapithecus ___ Semi-erect posture (More man- Seeds, nuts Canines were small while molars were
like) large.
2 mya Australopithecus 450 cm3 Full erect posture. H e r b i v o r o u s Hunted with stone weapons, lived at trees,
Africans Height-1.05 m (ate fruits) canines and incisors were small.
1.2 mya Homo Habilis 735 cm3 Fully erect posture Carnivorous Canines were small, They were first tool
First human-like Height- 1.5 m makers.
being (hominid).
1.5 mya Homo erectus 800-1100 cm3 Fully erect posture Omnivorous They used stone and bone tools for hunting
Height- 1.5-1.8 m games.
40,000- 1 lakh Homo 1300-1600 cm3 Fully erect posture Omnivorous Cave dwellers, used hides to protect their
yrs ago Neanderthals Height-1.5-1.66m bodies, and buried their dead.
25,000 mya Homo sapiens 1650 cm3 Fully erect posture Omnivorous They had strong jaw with teeth close
fossilis Height- 1.8 m together. They were cave-dwellers, made
paintings, and carvings in the caves. They
developed a culture and were called first
modern man.
25,000 mya Homo sapiens 1200-1600 cm3 Fully erect posture, Omnivorous They are the living modern man, with high
sapiens Height- 1.5-1.8 m intelligent. They developed art, culture,
language, speech etc. They cultivated crops
and domesticated animals.
 Chapter
Human Health
30 and Disease
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well- Causes of Diseases
being. It increases the productivity and ensures longevity.
Causes of diseases are basically agents and factors that produce
Ways to ensure good health diseases in body. Although, there can be a number of causes for a
²² Balanced diet disease, they can be broadly divided into immediate causes and
²² Personal hygiene contributory causes.
²² Exercise (i) Immediate causes: It is the primary cause of the disease.
²² Awareness about prevention and control of diseases Hence, it is also known as first level of cause. It includes
²² Proper waste disposal and control of vectors external agents like micro-organisms.
²² Vaccination Organisms like virus, bacteria, and other micro-organisms
yy Health is affected by can cause diseases in a person. Suppose an individual is
²² Genetic disorders suffering from diarrhea. The immediate or the first level
of cause is the pathogen which may be viral or bacterial
²² Infections
infection.
²² Sedentary life style which includes junk food, lack of
(ii) Contributory causes: Even though a virus can be the
exercise, habits, etc.
immediate cause of a disease, other associated causes might
allow the entry of the virus into the body. These causes are
DISEASE known as contributory causes.
These include the following conditions:
yy A disease can be defined as any condition that may lead
yy Unhealthy condition: Infectious agents like virus and
to discomfort, distress, health problems, or death of the bacteria enter the body through contaminated food or water.
affected person. Thus, the consumption of contaminated food or water can
yy It may be due to defective heredity, inappropriate diet, be another cause of disease.
disturbed metabolism or pathogenic attack. yy Improper public service: The lack of proper public service
yy A person is said to be disease free, if there is no discomfort is the main reason for the lack of clean drinking water and
or derangement of the functioning of the body. food.
yy Poverty: Lack of nourishment can also lead to the occurrence
Difference between a healthy and a disease-free state of human body of diseases in a person.
Healthy Disease-free
Types of Diseases
It is the state of complete physical, It is the state of absence of
mental and social well-being. discomfort or derangement. Diseases are broadly classified into two categories:
It depends on both the individual It is related to the individuals only. (a) Congenital diseases: These are diseases which are present
as well as physical and social since birth. For instance, hole in the heart of an infant. They
environment. are caused by some genetic abnormalities or metabolic
A healthy individual is disease free A disease free individual can be disorder or malfunctioning of an organ.
as well. healthy or unhealthy. (b) Acquired diseases: These are diseases which may occur
after birth during one’s lifetime.
 Human Health and Disease 657

Based on their ability or inability to spread from one individual Classification of Human Diseases
to another, acquired diseases are of two types:
(i) Infectious or Communicable diseases: The diseases which
can be transmitted from diseased person to healthy person
by means of infectious agents are known as infectious
or communicable diseases. For example, tuberculosis,
measles, malaria etc.
(ii) Non-infectious or Non-communicable diseases: The
diseases which cannot be transmitted from an affected
individual to a healthy person are known as non-infectious
or non-communicable diseases. For example, high blood
pressure, Cancer, Allergy, Obesity etc.
Non-infectious diseases are not caused by any pathogen or
living organism. They are mostly due to internal or intrinsic
non-infectious causes. For example, High blood pressure is
caused due to lack of exercise or excessive weight.Similarly, Impotant Terms:
Cancer is caused due to genetic abnormalities. yy Pathogens: Pathogens are disease causing organisms. They
Difference table between Infectious (Communicable) and
enter the human body through various means, then multiply;
Non-infectious (Non-communicable) diseases interfere with normal vital activities and causes harm to the
human body.
Infectious Non-infectious yy Parasites are pathogens as they harm the host by living in
(Communicable) (Non-communicable) diseases or on them.
Diseases
Common Infectious Diseases in Man
It can be transmitted from It cannot be transmitted from one
diseased person to healthy person to another.
person. 1. Bacterial diseases
(a)Typhoid:
They are caused by attack of They are caused by factors other yy Pathogen: Salmonella typhi.
pathogens i.e. external agents than living pathogens i.e. caused by yy Organ affected: Small intestine, migrate to other organs
or factors. internal factors, such as deficiency of through blood.
nutrients, genetic abnormalities etc. yy Mode of transmission: It spreads through food and water
Transmission of disease occurs Transmission of disease by contact and migrates to other organs through blood.
through direct contact or some is absent. yy Symptoms:
medium (water, food, air etc). ²² Continuous fever, headache, and slow pulse rate.
²² Reddish rashes appear on the upper abdomen.
Examples: Malaria, Cholera, Examples: Diabetes, Cancer, Obesity
Tuberculosis etc. ²² Diarrhoea which becomes haemorrhagic (loss of
blood)
Non-infectious diseases are further classified as: yy Widal test is used for confirmation of the disease.
(i) Degenerative diseases: The diseases caused by the (b) Pneumonia:
malfunction of some vital organs of the body. E.g. heart
yy Pathogen: Streptococcus pneumonia and Haemophilus
failure. influenza.
(ii) Deficiency diseases: These are caused due to nutritional yy Organs affected: Alveoli of lungs, alveoli get filled with
deficiency such as that of minerals or vitamins in the diet. fluid.
E.g. Anaemia (due to deficiency of B12), Beri- beri (due to yy Mode of transmission: It spreads by the sputum of the
deficiency of vitamin B). infected person.
(iii) Allergies: These are caused due to hypersensitivity of the yy Symptoms:
body to certain foreign substances. ²² Infects lung alveoli. The alveoli get filled with fluid
(iv) Cancer: This is an abnormal, uncontrolled and unwanted leading to respiratory problems.
growth of cells. E.g. Breast cancer, leukemia ²² Fever, chills, cough, headache.
²² In severe cases, lips and finger nails turn grey to bluish
colour.
 658 BIOLOGY

2. Viral diseases Life cycle of Plasmodium

Common cold: yy Life cycle of plasmodium starts with inoculation of
yy Pathogen: Rhinoviruses. sporozoites (infective stage) through the bite of infected
yy Organs affected: Nose and respiratory passage female Anopheles mosquitoes.
yy Mode of transmission:It is an air-borne disease that spreads yy The parasite initially multiplied within the liver cells and then
by inhaling droplets resulting from cough or sneezes. It is attack the red blood cells (RBCs) resulting in their rupture.
also transmitted through contaminated objects.
yy Symptoms: yy There is release of a toxic substance called hemozoin from
²² It infects nose and respiratory passage. the ruptured RBCs which responsible for the chill and
²² Nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness, high fever.
cough, headache, tiredness etc. yy From the infected human the parasite enters into the body
²² The disease Last for 3-7 days. of Anopheles mosquito during biting and sucking blood.
3. Protozoan diseases yy Further development takes place in the body of Anopheles
mosquitoes.
(a) Malaria: yy The female mosquito takes up gametocytes with the blood
yy Pathogen: Plasmodium sp. (P. vivax, P. malariae, and meal.
P. falciparum). yy Formation of gametes and fertilization takes place in the
yy Organs affected: Liver and RBC.
yy Mode of transmission: It is a vector borne disease that intestine of mosquito.
spreads by biting of the female Anopheles mosquito. yy The zygote develops further and forms thousands of
yy Symptoms: sporozoites which migrated into the salivary gland of
²² Headache, nausea and muscular pain mosquito.
²² Feeling of chill and shivering followed by fever yy When the mosquito bite another human sporozoites are
recurring every 3-4 days. injected.
²² Patient becomes weak, exhausted and anaemic. yy The malarial parasite requires two hosts – human and
²² The malaria may secondarily cause enlargement of liver
Anopheles, to complete their life cycle.
and spleen.

Fig. Stages in the life cycle of Plasmodium

 Human Health and Disease 659

(b)   Amoebiasis (Amoebic dysentery): Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Droplets from patient or

yy Pathogen: Entamoeba histolytica. tuberculosis carrier
yy Organs affected: large intestine of man. Tetanus Clostridium tetani Contamination of wound by
yy Mode of transmission: It is a vector-borne disease that bacteria
spreads by means of contaminated food and water. The Whooping cough Bordetella Contact, Droplets
vector involved in the transmission of disease is houseflies pertussis
(mechanical carriers). Leprosy Mycobacterium Direct contact
yy Symptoms: leprae
²² Formation of ulcers in intestine.
Anthrax Bacillus anthrasis Contact with cattle
²² Feeling of abdominal pain and nausea.
Weil’s disease Leptospira Contact with rodents, dogs
²² Acute diarrhea and mucus in stool.
etc.
4. Helminth Diseases
(a)Ascariasis: Viral Diseases
yy Pathogen: Ascaris (Intestinal parasite). Disease Pathogen Transmission
yy Organs affected: Intestine of man. Rabies Rabies virus Rabid dogs etc
yy Mode of transmission: It spreads via contaminated food and
Dengue Dengue virus Aedes mosquito
water containing eggs of parasites.
yy Symptoms: Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, Influenza Influenza virus Coughing & sneezing
anaemia and blockage of intestinal passage.
Measles Rubeola virus Droplets
(b) Filariasis (Elephantiasis):
yy Pathogen: Filarial worms or Wuchereria (W. bancrofti German measles Rubella virus Close contact
and W. malayi).
yy Organs affected: Lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs, Mumps Mumps virus Air borne droplets
genital organs. Chicken pox Varicella zoster Air borne droplets
yy Mode of transmission: Bite of female Culex mosquito.
yy Symptoms: Small pox Variola virus Direct contact
²² Fever Polio Polio virus Faeces and Air
²² Collection of endothelial cells and metabolites in the
wall of lymph vessels. Chikungunya Chikungunya Aedes mosquito
²² Swelling of legs which appear as legs of elephant, so (CHIK) Virus
this disease is also called elephantiasis. Avian flu H5N1 virus Contact with infected poultry.
Air borne spread
5. Fungal diseases
H1N1(Swine flu) H1N1 virus Contact with pigs, cough &
(a) Ring worms: sneeze of infected person.
yy Pathogens are Microsporum, Trichophyton and
Epidermophyton. They are seen in groin, b/w toes, etc.
Prevention and Control of Diseases
yy Organs affected: Skin, nails, folds of skin, groin. (i) Personal hygiene: This measure includes maintaining a
yy Mode of transmission: From soil or by using towels, cloths, clean body, consumption of healthy and nutritious food,
comb etc. Heat and moisture help fungi to grow. drinking clean water etc.
yy Symptoms: Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various (ii) Public hygiene
body parts such as skin nails and scalp. Intense itching. ²² Proper disposal of wastes and excreta.
²² Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs,
Other Infectious Diseases
pools, cesspools and tanks.
Bacterial Diseases ²² Standard practices of hygiene in public catering.
Disease Pathogen Transmission (iii) Vector eradication: Various diseases such as malaria,
Dysentery Shigella Contact, Contaminated food Filariasis, dengue and Chinkungunya spread through
and water vectors. Thus, these diseases can be prevented by providing
Plague Pasteurellapestis Rat fleas a clean environment and by preventing the breeding of
mosquitoes. This can be achieved by:
Diphtheria Corynebacterium Contaminated food, Direct
²² Avoid stagnation of water.
diphtheriae contact
²² Regular cleaning of household coolers.
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Food and water contaminated ²² Use of mosquito nets.
with faeces
²² Introduce larvivorous fishes like Gambusiain ponds.
 660 BIOLOGY

²² Spraying insecticides in ditches, drainage and ²² Mucosal associated lymphoid tissue (MALT): It is
swamps. located within the lining of respiratory, digestive and
²² Doors and windows should be provided with wire mesh urinogenital tracts. It constitutes 50% of lymphoid tissue.
to prevent entry of mosquitoes.
(iv) To prevent air borne diseases Immunity
²² Stay away from the diseased person. Immunity is the ability of body to protect itself from infection and
²² Wear a mask when you need to contact a diseased disease. The immune response varies from person to person. This
person. is why; some people are more sensitive or prone to infection than
²² Cover your mouth and nose while coughing or sneezing other.
to prevent the spread of the disease. For example, if a child has suffered from small pox once,
then there is almost no chance of him suffering from it again.
Immune System
This happens because, when the immune system of the body
yy It is the system that gives immunity to the body by recognizing, encounters a virus or an antigen for the first time, it reacts against
responding and remembering foreign antigens. it and remembers it. Therefore, when the virus enters the body for
yy It plays an important role in allergic reaction, auto- a second time, the immune system reacts more strongly to prevent
immune disease and organ transplantation. It includes chances of suffering from the disease again. Therefore, it can be
lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble molecules like concluded that if we infect the body of a person with something
antibodies. that mimics the microbe, then the immune system will remember it
and will prevent the actual disease-causing microbe from causing
Lymphoid Organs
any disease.
These are the organs where origin, maturation and proliferation of On the basis of immunity possessed by the body, Immunity is
lymphocytes occur. It is of two types. divided into two types: Innate and Acquired.
(a) Primary lymphoid organs 1. Innate (non-specific) immunity
yy Here, the production and maturation of lymphocytes take yy It is the non-specific type of defence that is present at the time
place. The immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen- of birth. They are called the first line of defense.
sensitive lymphocytes. yy It provides barriers to the entry of foreign agents into our
E.g. Bone marrow and thymus. body.
²² Bone marrow is the site of formation of blood cells. yy It consists of four types of barriers.
²² Thymus is a bilobed organ located near the heart (i) Physical barriers: E.g. Skin and Mucous coating of the
beneath the breastbone. It is large during birth but respiratory, gastro-intestinal and urino-genital tracts prevent
gradually reduces in size and becomes very small size the entry of microbes into the body.
in puberty. (ii) Physiological barriers: E.g.Hydrochloric acid in stomach,
²² B-lymphocytes are produced and matured in bone saliva in mouth, Lysozyme in tears, saliva and snotetc.
marrow. (iii) Cellular barriers: E.g. Polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes
²² T-lymphocytes are produced in bone marrow but mature (PMNL-neutrophils), macrophages, and natural killer cells
in thymus. in the blood and tissues kill pathogen by phagocytosis.
(b) Secondary lymphoid organs (iv) Cytokine barriers: Virus infected cells secrete proteins
called interferon which protect non-infected cells from
yy It is the site where proliferation and differentiation of
spread of viral infection.
lymphocyte takes place. The matured lymphocytes
migrate to these organs, interact with the antigens and then 2. Acquired (specific) immunity
proliferate to become effector cells. yy It is pathogen specific immunity.
E.g. Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’spatches MALT yy Acquired immunity has following unique features:
and appendix. (i) Specificity: It helps to distinguish specific foreign
²² Spleen: It is a bean-shaped organ, which contains molecules.
lymphocytes and phagocytes. It acts as a filter of the (ii) Diversity: It recognizes vast variety of foreign molecules.
blood by trapping blood-borne micro-organisms. T
(iii) Discrimination between self and non-self: It is able to
removes worn-out RBCs and microorganisms from
recognize and respond to molecules that are foreign or non-
blood. It is a reservoir of erythrocytes in foetus.
self. It will not respond to our own cell or molecules.
²² Lymph nodes: It is a small solid structure located at
(iv) Memory: When a pathogen for the first time infects a
different points along the lymphatic system. They trap
person; it produces primary immune response which is
microorganisms or other antigens. The antigen trapped
into the lymph node is responsible for activation and of low intensity. When the same pathogen attacks again,
differentiation of lymphocytes and cause immune highly intensified secondary (anamnestic) response is
response. generated, thereby preventing the occurrence of disease.
 Human Health and Disease 661

yy The primary and secondary immune responses are carried ²² CMI causes rejection of graft.
out with B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes. ²² The body is able to differentiate ‘self’ and ‘non-self’.
(i) B-lymphocytes (B-cells): The B-lymphocytes produce a ²² Tissue matching and blood group matching are essential
group of proteins in response to pathogen into the blood before undertaking any graft or transplant. After this, the
to fight with them called antibody. patient has to take immune-suppressants all his life.
(ii) T-lymphocytes: They help B-cells to produce antibodies.
Active immunity and Passive immunity
Difference between innate immunity and acquired immunity 1. Active immunity: It is a type of acquired immunity in
Innate immunity Acquired immunity which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-
It is a non-pathogen specific type It is a pathogen specific type of causing antigens. It is a slow process but has long lasting
of defense mechanism. defense mechanism. effect. It is produced by two ways:
It is inherited from parents and It is acquired after the birth of an (a) Natural active immunity: During natural infection by
protects the individual since individual microbes.
birth. (b) Artificial active immunity: Injecting the microbes
It operates by providing barriers It operates by producing primary and deliberately during immunization.
against the entry of foreign secondary responses, mediated by 2. Passive immunity: It is a type of acquired immunity in
infectious agents. B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes which readymade antibodies are transferred from one
It does not have specific It is characterised by an individual to another. It is fast and provides immediate
memory. immunological memory. relief.
It is produced by two ways:
Structure of an Antibody Molecule (a) Natural passive immunity: E.g.
� Antibodies (IgG) from mother → Placenta →
yy Each antibody has four polypeptide chains: Two small light
Foetus
chains and two larger heavy chains (H2L2).
� Antibodies (IgA) in colostrum → infants
(b) Artificial passive immunity: E.g. Anti-tetanus serum
(ATS)
Difference between active immunity and passive immunity
Active immunity Passive immunity
It is a type of acquired immunity in It is a type of acquired immunity
which the body produces its own in which readymade antibodies are
antibodies against disease-causing transferred from one individual to
antigens. another.
It has a long lasting effect. It does not have a long-lasting
effect.

It is slow. It takes time in producing It is fast. It provides immediate

antibodies and giving responses. relief.
Fig. Structure of an antibody molecule
E.g. Injecting microbes through E.g. Transfer of antibodies present
yy Different types of antibodies produced in our body are: IgG, vaccination inside the body. in the mother’s milk to the infant.
IgA, IgM, IgE andIgD.
Immunization and Vaccination
Acquired immune response is further divided into two types.
1. Humoral or Antibody mediated response/Antibody yy Vaccination may be defined as protection of the body from
mediated immunity (AMI): communicable diseases by the administration of some agents
²² Immune response by the B-cells by production of that mimic the microbe.
antibody is called Antibody mediated immune yy The agent can be a suspension of killed or attenuated
response or humoral immune response. Here, microbes, or a substance that mimics the disease-causing
antibodies are found in blood plasma. So, called as microbes. This is known as a vaccine.
humoral immune response. yy Vaccines protect humans and other animals from several
2. Cell-mediated response/cell-mediated immunity (CMI): diseases such as Cholera, Typhoid, Tuberculosis, Hepatitis,
²² Immune response by T-lymphocytes (T-cells) is by Chicken pox, Measles, Polio, and Small pox.
activation of cytotoxic killer cells which detects and yy This is based on ‘memory’ of the immune system.
destroys the foreign cells and also a cancerous cell is yy It is of two types: Active immunization and passive
called cell mediated immune response. immunization.
 662 BIOLOGY

1. Active immunization (Vaccination) to or destruction of ‘Helper’ lymphocytes lead to the

²² In this, a preparation of vaccine (antigenic proteins of developmentof a cellular immune deficiency which makes
pathogen or inactivated pathogen) is introduced into the patient susceptible to wide variety of infections
body. yy Syndrome is a group of symptoms, signs, physical or
²² The antibodies produced in the body against the physiological disturbances that are due to a common
antigens neutralize the pathogenic agents during actual cause.
infection. yy AIDS is considered as a syndrome because it is a complex
²² The vaccines also generate memory B and T-cells that of diseases and symptoms which develop due to failure of
recognize the pathogen quickly. immune system of the body. HIV that causes AIDS damages
²² E.g. Polio vaccine, Hepatitis B vaccine, DPT vaccine the immune system of patient. As a result, even a small
etc. cold leads to pneumonia; a minor infection leads to severe
²² Vaccines are produced using DNA recombinant diarrhoea and blood loss and simple skin rashes develop
technology (E.g. Hepatitis B vaccine produced from into ulcers.
Yeast). yy AIDS is the deficiency of immune system that is acquired
2. Passive immunization during life time.
²² It is the direct injection of pre-formed antibodies or yy AIDS was first reported in America in 1981.
antitoxin when quick immune response is required Pathogen: It is caused by HIV (Human Immuno
E.g. Immunization against Tetanus, snake venom, etc. Deficiency Virus), a retrovirus having RNA genome.
Allergies Mode of transmission
yy Allergy is the exaggerated response of the immune system
²² Unprotected sexual contact with infected person.
to certain antigens present in the environment.
²² Transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products
yy The substances two which such immune response is produced
from an infected person to a healthy.
is known as allergen. E.g. mites in dust, pollens, animal
²² Sharing of infected needles and syringes.
dander, fur, etc.
²² From infected mother to her child through placenta.
yy Antibodies produced against the allergens are of IgE type.
yy Symptoms: Sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, difficulty High risk of getting this infection includes
in breathing, etc.
²² Individuals with multiple sexual partners
yy Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and
²² Drug addicts who take drugs intravenously
serotonin from the mast cells.
²² Individuals who require repeated blood transfusion
yy To determine the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to
²² Children born to an HIV infected mother
or injected with very small doses of possible allergens, and
yy HIV does not spread by mere touch or physical contact; it
the reactions studied.
spreads only through body fluids.
yy Drugs like anti-histamine, adrenaline and steroids quickly
yy There is a time-lag (from a few months to many years i.e.
reduce the symptoms of allergy.
5-10) between the infection and appearance of symptoms.
yy Modern-day life style results lowering of immunity and more
sensitivity to allergens. Life cycle of HIV:
yy Asthma is the respiratory disease due to allergy. ²² AIDS is caused by HIV via sexual or blood-blood
contact.
Autoimmunity
²² After entering the human body, the HIV virus attacks
It is the memory based acquired immunity, which is able to and enters the macrophages. Inside the macrophages,
distinguish foreign molecules or cells (pathogen) from self-cells. the RNA of the virus replicates with the help of enzyme
Sometimes due to genetic and other unknown reasons the body reverse transcriptase and give rise to viral DNA.
attacks self-cells. This results in damage to the body cells and is ²² Then, this viral DNA incorporates into the host DNA
called auto-immune disease. E.g. Rheumatoid arthritis, Multiple and directs the synthesis of virus particles.
sclerosis
²² At the same time, HIV enters the helper T-lymphocytes.
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) It replicates and produces viral progeny here. These
newly formed progeny viruses get released into the
yy The word “immuno deficiency” signifies that the immune blood, attacking healthier helper T-lymphocytes in the
system becomes very weak. It is a disorder of cell-mediated body.
immune system of the body. ²² As a result, the number of T-lymphocytes in the body
yy Lymphocytes are the main cells of the immune system i.e. of an infected person decreases progressively, thereby
T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes.‘Helper T’ lymphocytes decreasing the immunity of the body.
play a great role in regulating the immunesystem. Damages
 Human Health and Disease 663

yy Cancerous cells appear to have lost the property of contact

inhibition.
yy They just continue to divide giving rise to masses of cell
called tumors.
yy Tumors are of two types:
²² Benign tumors: They remain confined to the place of
its origin. Hence, they cause little damage.
²² Malignant tumors:They are the mass of proliferating
cells called neoplastic or tumor cells. These cells grow
very rapidly and invade and damage surrounding
tissues.
yy Metastasis: Metastasis is the pathological process of
spreading cancerous cells to the different part of the body.
It is exhibited by malignant tumors. These cells divide
uncontrollably, forming a mass of cells called tumor. From
the tumor, some cells get sloughed off and enter into the
blood stream. From the blood stream, these cells reach
distant parts of the body and therefore, initiate the formation
of new tumors by dividing actively.
Types of cancer
²² Carcinoma: It is a cancer of epithelial cells
²² Sarcoma: It is a cancer of connective tissues.
²² Melanomas: It is a cancer of melanocytes.
Fig. Replication of retrovirus ²² Leukemia: It is a blood cancer.
²² Lymphomas: It is a cancer of spleen and lymph
yy HIV infected person may be infected with Mycobacterium, nodes.
viruses, fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma.
yy Diagnosis: ELISA test (Enzyme-linked immune-sorbent Assay). Difference between normal cells and cancerous cells
yy Treatment: No medicine or vaccine is known to be available Normal cell Cancerous cell
against HIV infection. AIDS has no cure, prevention is the
best option. Normal cell show the property Cancerous lack the property of
Prevention of AIDS: of contact inhibition. Therefore, contact inhibition. Therefore, they
²² Educate peoples about AIDS. when these cells come into continue to divided, thereby forming
contact with other cells, they a mass of cells or tumor.
²² Use safe blood for transfusion.
stop dividing.
²² Use of disposable needles and syringes.
²² Advocating safe sex and free distribution of condoms. They undergo differentiation after They do not undergo differentiation.
²² Controlling drug abuse. attaining a specific growth.
²² Regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible population.
These cells remain confined to a These cells do not remain confined
Facts about HIV transmission particular location. to a particutlar location. They move
yy HIV is a weak virus and hard to get infected with. It cannot be into neighbouring tissue and disturb
transmitted through air or water outside the human body. their functions.
yy A person cannot get AIDS by hugging or sneezing of an Causes of cancer (Carcinogens)
infected person, insect bites (including mosquito), sharing the
yy The agents which causes cancer is known as carcinogens.
same comb, plates, glass, handkerchiefs, knives or cutlery.
The normal cells are transformed into cancerous neoplastic
yy A person cannot get AIDS by using public toilets, swimming
cells by physical, chemical and biological agents.
pools, showers and telephones.
yy Physical agents: E.g. Ionizing radiations like X-rays and
yy HIV does not transmit by being near to someone, touching
gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like UV.
someone or working with someone who is suffering from
yy Chemical agents: Tobacco smoke (major cause of lung
AIDS.
cancer), vinyl chloride, caffeine, nicotine, mustard gas etc.
Cancer yy Biological agents: E.g. oncogenic viruses, cellular
oncogenes (c-onc or proto oncogenes) etc. When C-onc (in
yy Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled multiplication of normal cells) is activated the cells becomes oncogenic.
cells resulting in the formation of tumor.
 664 BIOLOGY

Cancer detection and diagnosis odourless, bitter crystalline compound produced by

yy Biopsy and histopathological study of the tissue:In this, a acetylation of morphine. It is a depressant and slows down
thin piece of the suspected tissue is stained and examined body functions. It is consumed by snorting or injection.
under microscope. E.g.In case of leukemia, biopsy and yy Codeine: They are mild analgesic and used in cough
histopathological studies is done. It involves the test of syrups.
blood and bone marrow for increased cell counts. 3. Stimulants
yy Radiography (use of X-rays) yy They stimulate central nervous system.
yy CT (Computerized tomography) scan yy E.g. Cocaine, Caffeine (cardiac stimulant), amphetamines.
yy MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging). yy Amphetamines andanabolic steroids are misused by some
yy Use of Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens. athletes.
yy Techniques of molecular biology to detect genes related to Coca alkaloid (Cocaine or coke/crack):
cancer. Such individuals may be advised to avoid exposure
yy They are obtained from coca plant, Erythroxylumcoca.
to particular carcinogens (e.g. tobacco smoke).
yy It interferes with the transport of neurotransmitter
Treatment of cancer dopamine.
yy Radiation therapy: Tumor cells are irradiated lethally, yy Cocaine is commonly called as coke or crack is usually
without damaging surrounding normal tissues. snorted.
yy Chemotherapy: Use of chemotherapeutic drugs. Many drugs yy It stimulates central nervous system producing euphoria
have side effects like hair loss, anaemia etc. and increased energy.
yy Immunotherapy: The patients are given biological response yy Its excessive dosage causes hallucination.
modifiers (e.g. α- interferon) which activates their immune 4. Hallucinogens:
system and helps in destroying the tumor. yy They cause colourful hallucinations, change thoughts,
yy Surgery. feelings and perceptions.
yy Most cancers are treatedby combination of surgery, E.g. Mescaline, Psilocybin, Cannabinoids and LSD
radiotherapy and chemotherapy. (Lysergic Acid diethylamide).
yy Atropa belladonna and Datura are plants with
hallucinogenic property.
DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE
Cannabinoids:
A. Drugs yy Cannabinoids are drugs that interact with cannabinoid
1. Depressants: They depress brain activity. They include receptors in brain.
yy Sedatives: Sedatives give calmness and relaxation to yy They are generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion.
body. Their high doses induce sleep. E.g. Barbiturates yy Natural cannabinoids are obtained from Cannabis sativa
(sleeping pills). (Hemp plant). Its flower tops, leaves and resin are used to
yy Tranquilizers: They lower the tension and anxiety produce bhang, ganja, charas (hashish), marijuana etc.
without inducing sleep. E.g. Benzodiazephines (e.g. yy It affects cardiovascular system.
Valium).
2. Opiate narcotics (pain killers): B. Alcoholism
yy These are the drugs which bind to specific opioid yy Alcohols include,
receptors in central nervous system and gastrointestinal ²² Beverages: Wine, beer and toddy (5-15% alcohol).
tract. ²² Spirits: Whisky, brandy, rum, gin, arrack etc. (more
yy They are analgesic and depressant. They lower the than 50% alcohol).
tension, anxiety, blood pressure, respiration rate and yy The victims of alcoholism are known as alcoholics.
reduce visual activity.
E.g. Opium and its derivatives (Opiates or Opioids): Effects of alcoholism
Opium is obtained from dried latex of unripe capsules On the individual: Alcohol has an adverse effect on the body
of Poppy plant (Papavar somniferum). of an individual.
yy It affects thinking ability, speech, movements, reflexes
Opium derivatives
etc.
yy Morphine: They are strong analgesic and sedative extracted yy It causes amnesia, blurred vision, loss of body balance,
from the latex of poppy plant. They are useful during nausea, vomiting, headache etc.
surgery. yy Cirrhosis and fatty liver.
Brown sugar yy Alcoholic polyneuritis and loss of appetite
yy Cardiovascular diseases and hypertension.
yy Heroin: Heroinis commonly called smack, and chemically
yy Ulcer, pancreatitis and gastritis.
diacetylmorphine. It is the most dangerous, white,
 Human Health and Disease 665

yy Loss of sexual drive and necrospermia. Addiction and dependence

yy Foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS or Alcohol Embryopathy). yy Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects
Effect on the family: such as euphoria and a temporary feeling of well-being
associated with drugs and alcohol.
yy Consumption of excess alcohol by any family member can
yy With repeated use of drugs the tolerance level of the
have devastating effects on the family.
receptors present in our body increases. Consequently the
yy It leads to several problems such as quarrels, frustrations,
receptors respond only to higher doses of drugs or alcohol
insecurity etc.
leading to greater intake and addiction.
Effects on the society: yy Dependenceis the tendency of the body to manifest a
yy Rash behaviour characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if
yy Malicious mischief and violence regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This
yy Deteriorating social network results in anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating.
yy Loss of interest in social and other activities. yy Dependence leads to social adjustment problems.
yy Effects of alcoholism on traffic accidents Effects of drug/alcohol abuse
yy Affects co-ordination and correct judgment of distance
An individual who is addicted to drugs creates problems not only
yy Affects vision; often causes Tunnel vision
for himself but also for his family.
yy Increases reaction time
yy On individual: Drugs have an adverse effect on the
yy Affects behaviour
central nervous system of an individual. This leads of
C. Tobacco/Smoking malfunctioning of several other organs of the body such
as kidney, liver etc. The spread of HIV is most common
yy Tobacco is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff. in these individuals as they share common needles while
yy Tobacco contains nicotine, an alkaloid, which stimulates injecting drugs in their body. Drugs have long term side
adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline, effects on both male and females. These side effects include
causing high blood pressure and increased heart rate. increased aggressiveness, mood swings and depression.
yy Smoking causes cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat, Use of drugs and alcohol by pregnant woman adversely
bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer affect the foetus.
etc. Tobacco chewing causes oral cancer. yy On family and society: People addicted to drugs create
yy Smoking also increases carbon monoxide content in problems for his family and society. A person dependent on
blood and reduces oxyhaemoglobin. This causes oxygen drugs becomes frustrated, irritated, and anti-social.
deficiency in the body. yy Warning sign of drug and alcohol abuse among youth
include:
yy Drop in academic performance and absence from school.
ADOLESCENCE AND DRUGS yy Lack of interest in personal hygiene.
yy Adolescence: It is ‘a period’ and ‘a process’ during which yy Withdrawal and isolation.
a child becomes mature in terms of his/her attitudes and yy Depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behaviour,
beliefs for effective participation in society. deteriorating relationship between family and friends.
yy It is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood (period of yy Loss of interest in hobbies.
12-18 years of age). It is very vulnerable phase of mental yy Fluctuations in sleeping, eating habits, weight, appetite etc.
and psychological development. Prevention and control
Common causes of drug/alcohol use in Adolescence period: yy Avoid undue peer pressure.
yy Curiosity and Experimentation. yy Education and counselling.
yy Need for adventure and excitement. yy Seeking help from parents and peers.
yy To escape facing problems. yy Looking for danger signs.
yy Stress from pressure to excel in academics or examination. yy Seeking professional and medical help.
yy Television, movies, newspapers, internet etc. ²² Psychologists and psychiatrists.
yy Unstable or unsupportive family structures and peer ²² De-addiction and rehabilitation programmes.
pressure.
 Chapter Strategies for

31 Enhancement in
Food Production
I. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ²² Cattle should also be given healthy and nutritious food
consisting of roughage, fibre concentrates, and high
yy It is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising levels of proteins and other nutrients.
livestock by applying scientific principles. ²² Cattle should also be housed in proper cattle houses
yy It deals with the scientific management of livestock. It and should be kept in well ventilated roofs to prevent
includes various aspects such as feeding, breeding and them from harsh weather conditions such as heat, cold
control diseases to raise the population of animal live or rain.
stock. ²² Regular baths and proper brushing should be ensured
yy Animal husbandry usually includes animals such as cattle, to control diseases.
pig, sheep, poultry, and fish which are useful for humans ²² Also, time to time check ups by a veterinary doctor for
for various ways. symptoms of various diseases should be undertaken.
yy These animals are managed for the production of ²² Stringent cleanliness and hygiene (of cattle and handlers)
commercially important products such as milk, meat, wool, while milking, storage and transport of the milk.
egg, honey, silk etc. yy To ensure these stringent measures there should be
yy The increase in human population has increased the demand ²² Regular inspections, with proper record keeping. It also
of these products. Hence, it is necessary to improve the helps to identify and rectify the problems.
management of livestock scientifically. ²² Regular visits by a veterinary doctor.
yy More than 70% of the world livestock population is in India
andChina. However, the contribution to the world farm 2. Poultry Farm Management
produce is only 25%, i.e., the productivity per unit is very
yy Poultry is the domesticated birds used for food or eggs.
low. Hence new technologies have to be applied to achieve
Example includes chicken, ducks, turkey and geese.
improvement in quality and productivity.
yy Components of poultry farm management:
²² Selection of disease free and suitable breeds. The
MANAGEMENT OF FARMS AND FARM ANIMALS improved breed of poultry is Leghorn.
1. Dairy Farm Management (Dairying) ²² Proper and safe farm conditions.
²² Proper feed and water.
yy Dairy farm management deals with processes which aim at ²² Hygiene and health care.
improving the quality and quantity of milk production.
yy Milk production is primarily dependent on choosing
improved cattle breeds, provision of proper feed for cattle, ANIMAL BREEDING
maintaining proper shelter facilities and regular cleaning
of cattle. yy A breed is a special variety of animals within a species. It is
yy Hence, for the yield potential: similar in characters such as general appearance, features,
²² Choosing improved cattle breeds is an important factor size etc. Breeding is the modification of genotype of an
of cattle management. Hybrid cattle breeds are produced organism to make that organism more useful to humans.
from improved productivity. Therefore, it is essential Jersey and Brown Swiss are examples of foreign breeds
that hybrid cattle breeds should have combination of of cattle. These two varieties of cattle have the ability
various desirable genes such as high milk production to produce abundant quantity of milk. The milk is very
and high resistance to diseases. nutritious with high protein content.
 Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production 681

yy Aims of Animal breeding: ♦♦ The desirable qualities of two different breeds are
²² To increase the yield of animals. combined.
²² To improve the desirable qualities of the animals ♦♦ The progeny hybrid animals may be used for
produce. commercial production or may be subjected to
²² To produce disease resistant varieties of animals. inbreeding and selection to develop new stable
yy Animal breeding is the method of mating closely related superior breeds.
individuals. It is classified into following categories: E.g. Hisar dale (sheep) developed in Punjab by
A. Natural methods of breeding: crossing Bikaneri ewes and Marino rams.
It includes Inbreeding and Out-breeding. (iii) Interspecific hybridization:
a. Inbreeding ♦♦ In this type of breeding, the mating occurs between
yy It is the mating of more closely related individuals different species.
within the same breed for 4-6 generations. This strategy ♦♦ In some cases, the progeny may combine desirable
is as follows: features of both the parents, and may be of
♦♦ Superior males and superior females of the same considerable economic value. E.g. Mule (male ass
breed are identified and mated in pairs. X female horse).
♦♦ The progeny obtained are evaluated and superior B. Artificial methods of breeding:
males and females among them are identified for It includes modern techniques of breeding. It involves
further mating. controlled breeding experiments.
♦♦ In cattle, a superior female produces more milk per It is of two types: Artificial insemination and multiple ovulation
lactation. embryo transfer technology (MOET).
♦♦ A superior male (bull) gives rise to superior (i) Artificial insemination:
progeny. ²² It is a process of introducing the semen collected from
yy Advantages of Inbreeding: male parent into the oviduct or uterus of the female
♦♦ It increases homozygosityto evolve a pure line body by the breeder.
animal. ²² The semen may be used immediately or can be frozen
♦♦ It exposes harmful recessive genes that are eliminated and used later. It can also be transported in a frozen form
by selection. to where the female is housed.
♦♦ It helps in accumulation of superior genes and ²² Success rate of crossing mature male and female
elimination of less desirable genes. This approach animals is low even though artificial insemination is
increases the productivity of inbred population. carried out.
yy Continued inbreeding, especially close inbreeding, (ii) Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology
may reduce fertility and productivity. This is called (MOET)
inbreeding depression. To solve this problem, selected ²² It is a programme for herd improvement, in which super-
animals should be mated with unrelated superior ovulation is induced by the hormone injection. Then
animals of the same breed. fertilization is achieved by artificial insemination and
b. Out-breeding early embryos are collected. Each of these embryos is
yy Breeding between animals of different breeds is known then transplanted into the surrogate mother for further
as out-breeding. It is of three types: Outcrossing, cross- development of the embryo.
breeding and inter-specific hybridization. ²² In this, a cow is administered hormones, with FSH-
(i) Out-crossing: like activity, to induce follicular maturation and super
♦♦ In this type of out breeding, the mating of animals ovulation (production of 6-8 eggs per cycle instead of
occurs within the same breed. Thus, they have no one egg).
common ancestors on either side of their pedigree ²² The animal is either mated with an elite bull or artificially
up to 4-6 generations. inseminated. Fertilised eggs at 8–32 cells stages are
♦♦ The offspring of such a mating is known as out-cross. recovered and transferred to surrogate mothers.
♦♦ It is the best method for animals having low ²² This technology has been demonstrated for cattle, sheep,
productivity in milk production, growth rate in beef rabbits, buffaloes, mares, etc.
cattle, etc. ²² High milk yielding breeds of females and high quality
♦♦ It helps to overcome inbreeding depression. (lean meat with less lipid) meat-yielding bulls have been
(ii) Cross-breeding: bred successfully to increase herd size in a short time.
♦♦ In this type of breeding, the mating occurs between
Which method is best- Natural method Or Artificial method of
different breeds of same species, thereby producing
breeding?
a hybrid.
The best method to carry out animals breeding is the artificial
♦♦ In this method, superior males of one breed are mated
method of breeding, which includes artificial insemination and
with superior females of another breed.
MOET. It is because;
 682 BIOLOGY

yy These technologies are scientific in nature. They help algaculture (the production of kelp/seaweed and other
overcome problems of normal mating and give high success algae); fish farming; shrimp farming, shellfish farming, and
rate of crossing between mature males and females. the growing of cultured pearls aquaculture.
yy Also, it ensures that production of hybrids with the desired yy The development and flourishing of the fishery industry is
qualities. called Blue revolution.
yy This method is highly economical as a small amount of
semen from the male can be used to inseminate several II. PLANT BREEDING
cattle.
yy Plant breeding is the purposeful manipulation of plant species
3. Bee-keeping (Apiculture) in order to create desired plant types that are better suited for
yy Bee keeping is also known as apiculture. cultivation, give better yields and are disease resistant.
yy Apiculture is the practice of bee-keeping for production of yy Green Revolution: It is the development and flourishing
various products such as honey and beeswax. of the agriculture. It flourished due to plant breeding
yy Honey is a food of high nutritive values and also used as techniques which developed high yielding variety of wheat,
medicine. It is useful for treatment of many disorders such rice, maize etc.
as cold, flu and dysentery. yy Classical plant breeding involves hybridization of pure lines
yy Honey bees also produce beeswax and bee pollen, Beeswax and artificial selection to produce desirable traits of higher
is used for preparation of cosmetics and polishes of various yield, nutrition and resistance to diseases. These days, plant
kinds. breeding is carried out by using molecular genetic tools.
yy Bee-keeping is practiced in area with sufficient bee pastures Desirable traits that breeders have tried to incorporate into
of some wild shrubs, fruit orchards and cultivated crops. the plants are:
yy Apis indica is most common species used in apiculture.
²² Increased crop yield
The following points are important for successful bee-keeping: ²² Improved quality
²² Knowledge of the nature and habits of bees. ²² Increased tolerance to environmental stresses (salinity,
²² Selection of suitable location for keeping beehives. extreme temperatures and drought), resistance to pathogens
²² Catching and hiving of swarms (group of bees). ²² Increased tolerance to insect pests
²² Management of beehives during different seasons
²² Handling and collection of honey and of beeswax. Steps of plant breeding are:
(i) Collection of genetic variability
4. Fisheries yy It is the root of any breeding programme.
yy Genetic variability from various wild relatives of the
yy Fishery is an industry, which deals with catching, processing
cultivated species is collected to maintain the genetic
and marketing of fishes and other aquatic animals such as
diversity of a species. The entire collection of the diverse
prawn, crab, lobster, edible oyster etc. that have a high
alleles of a gene in a crop is called germplasm collection.
economic value.
²² Common freshwater fishes are Catla, Rohu, common (ii) Evaluation of germplasm and selection of parents
carp etc. yy The germplasm collected is then evaluated so as to identify
²² Common Marine fishes are Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel, plants with desirable combination of characters.
Pomfrets etc. yy The selected plants with the desired genes are then used as
yy Fisheries play an important role in the Indian economy. This parents in plant breeding experiments and are multiplied by
is because; a large part of the Indian population is dependent the process of hybridisation.
on fishes as a source of food, which is both cheap and high (iii) Cross hybridisation among the selected parents
in animal protein. yy The next step in plant breeding is to combine the desirable
yy A Fishery is an employment generating industry especially characters present in two different parents to produce
for people staying in the coastal areas. Both freshwater and hybrids. E.g. high protein quality of one parent is combined
marine fishes are of high economic value. with disease resistance from another parent. This is possible
yy Aquaculture and pisciculture are the techniques to by cross hybridizing the two parents to produce hybrids that
increase the production of aquatic plants and animals, both genetically combine the desired characters in one plant.
freshwater and marine water. yy It is a tedious job as one has to ensure that the pollen grains
yy Pisciculture refers to the breeding, hatching, and rearing of collected from the male parent reach the stigma of the
fish under controlled conditions. female parent.
yy Aquaculture is the cultivation of aquatic organisms. Unlike Limitations:
fishing, aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, implies the ²² This is a very time-consuming and tedious process.
cultivation of aquatic populations under controlled conditions. ²² The hybrids may not combine the desirable
Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine characters.
environments. Particular kinds of aquaculture include
 Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production 683

²² Usually only one in few hundred to a thousand crosses yy Bacterial: Black rot of crucifers.
shows the desirable combination. yy Viral: Tobacco mosaic, turnip mosaic, etc.
(iv) Selection of superior hybrids Methods of breeding for disease resistance:
yy The progenies of the hybrids having the desired characteristics Include conventional breeding techniques and mutation breeding.
are selected through scientific evaluation. The selected 1. Conventional method: The steps are:
progenies are then self-pollinated for several generations ²² Screening germplasm for resistance sources.
till they reach a state of uniformity (homozygosity), so that ²² Hybridisation of selected parents.
the characters will not segregate in the progeny. ²² Selection and evaluation of the hybrids.
yy It yields plants that are superior to both of the parents. ²² Testing and release of new varieties.
(v) Testing, release and commercialization of new cultivars
Some crop varieties bred by this methods
yy The newly selected lines are evaluated for characters such
as yield, disease resistance, performance etc. by growing Crop Variety Resistance to
them in research fields for at least three different parts of the Wheat Himgiri Leaf and stripe rust, hill
country. After thorough testing and evaluation, the selected bunt
varieties are given to the farmers for growing in fields for Brassica Pusa swarnim (Karan rai) White rust
a large scale production. Cauliflower Pusa Shubhra, Pusa Black rot and curl
Product-wheat and rice: Snowball K-1 Blight black rot
yy The development of high yielding varieties of wheat and Cow pea Pusa Komal Bacterial blight
rice in the mid-1960s, through plant breeding techniques Chilli Pusa Sadabahar Chilly mosaic virus,
has increased food production in our country. This phase Tobacco mosaic virus,
is known as the Green Revolution. and leaf curl.
yy During the period 1960-2000, wheat production increased Conventional breeding is constrained by the availability of
from 11 million tons to 75 million tons. The rice production limited number of disease resistance genes.
went up from 35 million tons to 89.5 million tons. 2. Mutation breeding
yy Nobel laureate Norman E. Borlaug (International Centre
for Wheat and Maize Improvement, Mexico) developed yy It is the process by which genetic variations are created
semi-dwarf wheat. through changes in the base sequence within genes resulting
yy In 1963 several varieties such Sonalika and KalyanSona in the creation of a new character or trait not found in the
high yielding variety was introduced in India. parental type.
yy Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8, yy It is possible to induce mutations artificially through use of
(developed at International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), chemicals or radiations, and selecting and using the plants
Philippines) and Taichung Native-1 (from Taiwan). that have the desirable character as a source in breeding.
Laterbetter-yielding semi dwarf varieties Jaya and Ratna yy For example, in mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic
virus and powdery mildew were induced by mutations.
were developed in India.
yy Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in bhindi (Abelmoschuses
Product- sugarcane: culentus) was transferred from a wild species and resulted
yy Saccharum barberi of north India with poor sugar content in a new variety of A. esculentus called Parbhanikranti.
and yield crossed with Saccharumofficinarum with thick yy All the above examples involve sources of resistance genes
stems and higher sugar content to produce sugar cane of that are in the same crop species, which has to be bred for
high yield, thick stems, and high sugar. disease resistance, or in a related wild species.
yy Transfer of resistance genes is achieved by sexual
Product-millets: hybridisation between the target and the source plant
yy Hybrid maize, jowar and bajra developed in India. It followed by selection.
includes high yielding varieties resistant to water stress.
Plant breeding for developing resistance to insect Pests
Plant breeding for disease resistance yy Another major cause of large scale destruction of crop plants
yy It enhances food production and helps to reduce the use of is the insect and pest infestation.
fungicides and bactericides. yy Insect resistance in host crop plants may be due to
yy Resistance of the host plant is the genetic ability to prevent morphological, biochemical or physiological
the pathogens from disease. characteristics.
yy Characters that make the plant resistance to insect pest:
Some plant diseases: ²² Hairy leaves in several plants make them resistant to
yy Fungal: Rusts. E.g. brown rust of wheat, red rot of insect pest. E.g., resistance to jassids in cotton and cereal
sugarcane and late blight of potato. leaf beetle in wheat.
 684 BIOLOGY

²² Solid stems in wheat lead to non-preference by the yy Single cell proteins can be produced from algae, fungi,
stem sawfly. yeasts and bacteria.
²² Smooth leaved and Nectar-less cotton varieties do yy Microorganism despite being small, are capable of
not attract bollworms. producing tonnes of proteins due to their higher rates of
²² High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in biomass production.
maize leads to resistance to maize stem borers. E.g. Presently Spirulina, an alga is widely used as a source
yy Sources of resistance genes for breeding are cultivated of SCP.
varieties, germ plasm collections of crop or wild relatives. yy Spirulina is rich in protein, minerals, fats, carbohydrate
andvitamins. It is grown on materials like waste water from
Some crop varieties bred for insect pest resistance
potato processing plants, straw, molasses, animal manure
Crop Variety Insect pests and sewage. It is economical and eco-friendly as well.
Brassica (rapeseed Pusa Gaurav Aphids yy A 250 Kg cow produces 200 g of protein/day. In the same
mustard) period, 250g of a micro-organism like Methylophilus
Flat bean Pusa Sem 2, Jassids, aphids and fruit methylotrophus produce 25 tonnes of protein.
Pusa Sem 3 borer. yy Another example is production of biomass like mushroom
Okra (Bhindi) Pusa Sawani, Shoot and Fruit from straw.
Pusa A-4 borer

Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality IV. TISSUE CULTURE

(Biofortification)
yy Tissue culture is the process of developing a complete plant
yy More than 840 million people in the world do not have from a part of a plant. The plant part is called an explant.
adequate food. 3 billion people suffer from micronutrient, yy Explant can be grown in sterile conditions in special nutrient
protein and vitamin deficiencies (‘hidden hunger’). media to regenerate complete plants.
yy Bio fortification is the process of breeding crops with yy The ability to generate a whole plant from any cell/explant
higher levels of vitamins, minerals, proteins and fat content. is called totipotency.
This method is employed to improve public health. yy The nutrient medium must provide a carbon source (such as
Objectives of breeding for improved nutritional quality sucrose), inorganic salts, vitamins, amino acids and growth
(biofortification) are: regulators like auxins, cytokinins etc.
yy To improve Protein content and quality. yy Apical and axillary meristems of plants are used for making
yy To improve Oil content and quality. virus free plants. In a diseased plant, only this region is not
yy To improve Vitamin content. affected by the virus as compared to the rest of the plant
yy To improve Micronutrient and mineral content. region. Hence, the scientists remove axillary and apical
Examples for hybrids with improved nutritional quality: meristems of the diseased plants and grow in vitro to obtain
yy Hybrid maize developed with twice the amount of amino a disease free and healthy plant.
acids lysine and tryptophan, compared with existing yy Virus free plants of banana, sugarcane, and potato have been
maize. obtained using this method by scientists.
yy Wheat variety Atlas 66, having high protein content has
been used as donor for improving cultivated wheat. Micropropagation:
yy Iron fortified rice developed with five times more iron than ²² Micro propagation is a method of producing new plants
existing variety. in a short duration through tissue culture.
IARI New Delhi developed: ²² Each of the plants grown by micro propagation are
yy Vitamin A enriched carrots, spinach, pumpkin. genetically identical and are called somaclones. Tomato,
yy Vitamin C enriched bitter gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato. banana, apple etc. are produced using this method.
yy Iron and Calcium enriched spinach and bathua ²² Examples: Many important food plants like tomato,
yy Protein enriched beans- broad, lablab, French and garden banana, apple, etc., have been produced on commercial
peas. scale using this method.
²² Advantages of micro propagation:
♦♦ It helps in the propagation of a large number of plants
III. SINGLE CELL PROTEIN (SCP) in a short span of time.
yy One of the alternating sources of proteins for animal and ♦♦ The plants produced are identical to the mother
human is SCP. plant.
yy Single cell protein means that microbes are used as a ♦♦ It leads to the production of healthier plant lets, which
source of protein. exhibit better disease resistant powers.
 Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production 685

Somatic hybridization: yy These hybrids are called somatic hybrids while the process
yy The first step in somatic hybridization is to remove the is called somatic hybridization.
cell wall by digesting it with enzymes like pectinase and yy For e.g. production pomato plant from potato and tomato. A
cellulase. protoplast of tomato has been fused with that of potato, to
yy Isolated protoplasts from two different varieties of plants form new hybrid plants with the characteristics of tomato
– each having a desirable character – can be fused to get and potato. But it has no all desired characteristics for its
hybrid protoplasts, which can be further grown to form a commercial utilization.
new plant.
 Microbes in Human Welfare 697

Chapter
Microbes in
32 Human Welfare
Microorganisms are the smallest living organisms that are present (i) Fermented beverages
everywhere in our environment, in soil, in water and in air. They are ²² The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Brewer’s yeast)
also present in our house, in the bathroom, in refrigerator, in foods, is used in the production of beverages by fermenting
on the floor, toys, everywhere, even on and in our body. malted cereals and fruit juices to produce ethanol.
²² Wine and Beer are produced without distillation.
²² Whisky, Brandy and Rum are produced by distillation
MICROBES IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS of fermented broth.
yy A common example is the production of curd from milk. (ii) Antibiotics
Curd contains numerous lactic acid bacteria (LAB) or ²² Antibiotics are medicines that are produced by
Lactobacillus. These bacteria produce acids that coagulate certain micro-organisms to kill other disease causing
and digest milk proteins. microorganisms. These medicines are commonly
²² A small amount of curd (which contains LAB) + fresh obtained from bacteria and fungi.
milk converts to curd. ²² E.g. Penicillin- Obtained from Penicillium notatum.
²² It also improves its nutritional quality by increasing Penicillin was the first antibiotic to be discovered and
vitamin B12. it was a chance discovery. Alexander Fleming while
²² In our stomach too, LAB helps to check pathogens. working on Staphylococci bacteria, once observed a
yy The dough, which is used for making bread, is fermented mould growing in one of his unwashed culture plates
by using baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). The around which Staphylococci could not grow. He found
puffed up appearance of dough is due to the production of out that it was due to a chemical produced by the mould
CO2 gas. and he named it penicillin after the mould Pencillium
yy “Toddy”, a traditional drink of some parts of southern India notatum. Later, Ernest Chain and Howard Florey made
is made by fermenting sap from palms. its full potential effective antibiotic.
yy Microbes are also used to ferment fish, soya bean and ²² Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded Nobel Prize
bamboo-shoots to make foods. in 1945.
yy Microbes are used to produce cheeses differing in flavor, (iii) Chemicals, enzymes and other bioactive molecules
taste and texture. Examples, (a) Organic acids: Examples:
²² Large holes in ‘Swiss cheese’ are due to production of ♦♦ Aspergillus niger(a fungus): Citric acid
CO2 by Propionibacterium sharmanii (a bacterium). ♦♦ Acetobacter aceti(a bacterium): Acetic acid
²² ‘Roquefort cheese’ is ripened by growing a specific ♦♦ Clostridium butylicum(a bacterium): Butyric acid
fungus on them that gives them a particular flavor. ♦♦ Lactobacillus (a bacterium): Lactic acid
(b) Alcohol: Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is used to
produce ethanol.
MICROBES IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS
(c) Enzymes:
yy Production of beverages, antibiotics etc. on an industrial ♦♦ Lipases: They are used in detergent formulations. It
scale, requires growing microbes in very large vessels called helps to remove oily stains from the laundry.
fermenters.
 710 BIOLOGY

Chapter Biotechnology:

33 Principles and
Processes
Biotechnology refers to the technology using biology, which has introducing undesirable genes into target organism.
application in agriculture, food processing industry, bioremediation, yy In a chromosome, there is a specific DNA sequence called
medicine diagnostic, waste treatment and energy production. It origin of replication, which is responsible for initiating
deals with techniques of using live organisms or their enzymes to replication. Therefore, for the multiplication of any alien
produce products and processes useful to humans. piece of DNA in an organism, it needs to be a part of a
The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) defines chromosome which has specific sequence called ‘origin of
Biotechnology as ‘the integration of natural science and organisms, replication’.
cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and yy Thus, an alien DNA is linked with the origin of replication,
services’. so that, this alien piece of DNA can replicate and multiply
Biotechnology deals with: itself in the host organism. This is known as cloning.
²² Microbe-mediated processes (making curd, bread, wine
etc). yy The construction of first recombinant DNA was emerged
²² In vitro fertilisation (‘test-tube’ baby programme) from the possibility of linking a gene of antibiotic resistance
²² Synthesis and using of a gene with a native plasmid of Salmonella typhimurium.
²² Preparation of a DNA vaccine yy The cutting of DNA at specific locations became possible
²² Correcting a defective gene with the discovery of the so-called “Molecular scissors”
i.e., restriction enzymes.
yy The cut piece of DNA was then linked with the plasmid DNA
PRINCIPLES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY with the help of another enzyme called DNA ligase.
The two core techniques that enabled birth of modern biotechnology yy These plasmid DNA act as vectors to transfer the piece of
are: DNA attached to it.
(a) Genetic engineering: It is the technique in which the
yy A plasmid can be used as vector to deliver an alien piece of
genetic material (DNA and RNA) is chemically altered and
DNA into the host organism.
introduced into host organisms to change their phenotype.
It is also known as recombinant DNA technology. yy Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer in 1972 isolated the
(b) Maintenance of microbial contamination free surrounding antibiotic resistance gene by cutting out a piece of DNA
(sterile ambience): It is necessary in chemical engineering from a plasmid.
processes to enable growth of only desired microbe/ yy Recombinant DNA technology (also called genetic
eukaryotic cell in large quantities. engineering) deals about, the production of new combinations
of genetic material (artificial) in the laboratory. These
Development of the Principle of Genetic Engineering recombinant DNA molecules are then introduced into host
yy Traditional hybridization procedures used in plant and animal cells, where they can be propagated and multiplied.
breeding lead to inclusion of undesirable genes along with yy Three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism are:
desired genes.
yy However, the technique of genetic engineering which includes ²² Identification of DNA with desirable gene
creation of recombinant DNA, use of gene cloning and gene ²² Introduction of the identified DNA into the host.
transfer, overcome this limitation and allows us to isolate ²² Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer
and introduce only one or a set of desirable genes without of the DNA to its progeny.
 Biotechnology: Principles and Processes 711

TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. Restriction Enzymes (‘Molecular Scissors’)

yy Restriction enzymes are molecular scissors used in molecular
biology for cutting DNA sequences from a specific site.
yy It plays an important role in gene manipulation.
yy The enzyme recognises a specific six box pair sequence
known as the recognition sequence and cut the sequence at
a specific site.
yy The first restriction endonuclease is Hind II. It always cuts
DNA molecules at a particular point by recognizing a specific
sequence of six base pairs. This is known as the recognition
sequence for Hind II.
yy Today more than 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated
from over 230 strains of bacteria.
yy Some restriction enzymes digest DNA into fragments with
“sticky ends”.These DNA fragments will hydrogen bond to
each other due to their complementary sequences.
yy Other restriction enzymes generate blunt ends.

5' - GAATIC - 3' Eco RI 5' - G AATTC - 3' Fig. Steps in formation of recombinant DNA by action of
restriction endonuclease enzyme- EcoRI
3' - CTTAAG - 5' Digest 3' - CTTAA G - 5'
5' sticky-ends yy Each restriction endonuclease recognizes a specific
palindromic nucleotide sequences in the DNA.
yy Palindromes: The palindrome in DNA is a sequence of
base pairs that reads the same on the two strands in 5' → 3'
direction and in 3' → 5' direction.
5' - CCCGG - 3' 5' - CCC GGG - 3 yy E.g. 5' —— GAATTC —— 3'
Smal
3' —— CTTAAG —— 5'
3' - GGGCC - 5' Digest 3' - GGG CCC - 5'
blunt ends
5' — G AATTC 3'
yy Restriction enzymes belong to a class of enzymes called
3' — CTTAA G 5'
nucleases. They are categorized into two types: Exonucleases
and endonucleases
(i) Exonucleases: It is a type of restriction enzymes that yy Restriction enzymes cut the strand a little away from the
remove the nucleotide from either 5’or 3’ends of the centre of the palindrome sites, but between the same two
DNA molecules. bases on the opposite strands. This leaves single stranded
overhanging stretches at the ends. They are called sticky
(ii) Endonucleases: It is a type of restriction enzymes
ends. This stickiness facilitates action of the enzyme DNA
that make a cut within the DNA at a specific site. This ligase.
enzyme acts as an important tool in genetic engineering. yy When foreign DNA and the host DNA are cut by the same
It is commonly used to make a cut in the sequence to restriction enzyme, the resultant DNA fragments have the
obtain DNA fragments with sticky ends. Sticky ends same kind of sticky-ends and these are joined together by
are single stranded portions of DNA which can form DNA ligases.
hydrogen bonds with their complementary cut DNA Convention of naming restriction enzymes
segments. These ends are later on joined by enzyme yy The first letter of the name comes from the genus.
ligase. yy Second two letters come from the species of the prokaryotic
²² Ligase are enzymes that form phosphodiester bonds cell from which the enzyme isolated
between adjacent nucleotides and covalently links two yy The fourth letter is in capital form derived from the Strain
individual fragments of double stranded DNA. of microbes.
 712 BIOLOGY

yy The Roman letter followed is the order of discovery. 2.Cloning Vectors (Vehicles for Cloning)
yy E.g. EcoRI comes from Escherichia coli RY 13
yy The term ‘cloning’ means exact copy of the parent. It
²² E Escherichia (Genus) is a duplicate or look-alike carrying the same genetic
²² co coli (Species) signature.
²² R RY13 (Strain) yy Cloning is the best application of recombinant DNA
²² I First Identified order (Id) in Bacteria technology.
yy Molecular cloning is carried out in-vitro where a specific
Restriction O r g a n i s m f r o m Recognition Remarks
fragment of DNA is isolated from an organism ‘donor’ and
enzyme which isolated sequence
introduced into a ‘plasmid’ that replicates in a ‘host’ cell
EcoRI E. coli GAATCC 6 bp cutter, leaves making multiple copies of that DNA fragment.
5'overhangs
yy Vector serves as a vehicle to carry a foreign DNA sequence
BamHI Bacillus GGATTC 6bp cutter, leaves into a given host cell.
myloliquefaciens 5' overhangs
yy The most commonly used vectors are:
Hind III Haemophilus AAGCTT 6bp cutter, leaves (i) Plasmids (5-10 kb): Plasmid is an extra-chromosomal
influenzae 5' overhangs DNA molecule in bacteria that is capable of replicating,
Alu I Arthobacter AGCT 4bp cutter, Leaves independent of chromosomal DNA. It is double stranded
luteus blunt end and many cases, circular. They are mostly found inside
Separation and isolation of DNA fragments certain bacterial species such as E.coli. Some plasmids
have only 1-2 copies per cell. Others may have 15-100
yy The cutting of DNA by restriction endonucleases results in copies per cell. E.g. pUC18 (2686 bp, in host it replicates
the fragments of DNA. 500 copies per cell and contains several RE sites).
yy These DNA fragments can be separated by a technique called ²² There are two types of plasmid integration into host
gel electrophoresis. bacteria:
yy Gel electrophoresis
²² DNA fragments are negatively charged. They can be
separated by forcing them to move towards the anode Bacterial DNA Plasmids
under an electric field through a medium/matrix.
²² Most commonly used matrix is agarose. Agarose is a Cell replication
natural polymer extracted from sea weeds.
²² The DNA fragments separate (resolve) according to their
size through sieving effect provided by the agarose gel.
Hence, the smaller sized fragment move farther.
²² Ethidium bromide is used as stain for DNA, which Integrated plasmid
on exposure to UV-light appear as orange coloured
bands. Plasmid
²² Separated bands of DNA are cut out from agarose gel. integration
This is called elution.
²² These DNA fragments are used in recombinant DNA Cell
by joining them with cloning vectors. replication
Wells
DNA
bands
Largest Smallest
Fig.
(ii) Bacteriophage (10-15 kb): They are virus that uses
bacteria as their host to replicate. Hence, it can be used to
transfect and create several copies of the DNA fragment
of interest by replicating several times in bacteria.
Bacteriophages (high number per cell) have very high
copy numbers of their genome within the bacterial cells.
Fig. A typical agarose gel electrophoresis showing migration E.g. Lambda (able to replace 1/3 of the chromosome
of undigested (lane 1) and digested set of DNA fragments with large pieces of foreign DNA), M13a
(lane 2 to 4) Note: Alien DNA linked with the vector multiply its number
equal to the copy number of the plasmid or bacteriophage.
 Biotechnology: Principles and Processes 713

Other examples of vectors:

yy Cosmids (50 kb): Hybrid vectors, part plasmid – part EcoR I Cla I Hind III
lambda
yy BACs (bacterial artificial chromosomes), and YACs
Pvu I
(Yeast artificial chromosomes)- 300 kb, up to 1,000 kb
BamH I
Features of cloning vector Pst I
amp
R
tetR
(a) Origin of replication (ori):
yy Cloning vector should contain an origin of replication (ori)
pBR 322
so that it is able to multiply within the host cell. Sal I
yy Ori is a DNA sequence in a genome from where replication
initiates. The initiation of replication can be either uni-
directional or bidirectional. orl
yy Any piece of DNA when linked to ori can be made to replicate rop
within the host cells. This sequence is also responsible for
controlling the copy number of the linked DNA.
yy So, for getting many copies of the target DNA it should be
Pvu II
cloned in a vector whose origin support high copy number.
(b) Selectable marker (marker gene): Fig. E.coli cloning vector pBR 322 showing restriction sites,
Ori and antibiotic resistance genes
yy It is a gene which helps in identifying and eliminating non-
transformants from transformants (having recombinant DNA) Identification of recombinants:
by selectively permitting the growth of transformants. yy Insertional inactivation
yy The process through which a piece of DNA is introduced in The most efficient method of screening for the presence
a host bacterium is called transformation. of recombinant plasmids is based on the principle that the
cloned DNA fragment disrupts the coding sequence of a
yy The genes encoding resistance to antibiotics like ampicillin,
gene. This is termed as insertional inactivation.
chloramphenicol, tetracycline or kanamycin, etc. are yy If a foreign DNA ligated or inserted at the Bam H I site
considered useful selectable marker for E.coli. The normal of tetracycline resistance gene in the vector pBR322, the
E. coli cells do not carry resistance against any of these recombinant plasmid will lose tetracycline resistance. This
is known as insertional inactivation.
antibiotics.
yy The recombinant plasmids lose tetracycline resistance due
yy Thus vector should incorporate a selectable marker (antibiotic to insertion of foreign DNA. But they can be selected out
resistancegene), which will allow to select those host cells from non-recombinant ones by plating the transformants on
ampicillin containing medium.
that contain the vector from amongst those that do not.
yy Then these transformants are transferred on tetracycline
(c) Cloning sites: medium. The recombinants grow in ampicillin medium but
yy A location on a cloning vector into where a foreign gene can not on tetracycline medium. But, non-recombinants will grow
be introduced is called a cloning site. on the medium containing both the antibiotics.
yy The vector must have very few (preferably single) recognition yy In this case, one antibiotic resistance gene helps to select the
transformants, whereas the other antibiotic resistance gene
sites. The presence of more than one recognition sites within gets inactivated due to insertion of alien DNA, and helps in
the vector will produce several fragments which will make selection of recombinants.
the process of gene cloning more complicated. yy Selection of recombinants due to inactivation of antibiotics
yy Therefore, the foreign DNA is ligated at a restriction site requires simultaneous plating on two plates having different
antibiotics. Therefore, alternative selectable markers
present in one of the two antibiotic resistance genes. have developed to differentiate recombinants from non-
yy The commonly used vector for E.coli is pBR 322. The recombinants on the basis of their ability to produce colour
ligation of alien DNA is carried out at a restriction site present in the presence of a chromogenic substrate.
in one of the two antibiotic resistance genes.
 714 BIOLOGY

Alternative selectable marker yy Similarly, Retroviruses have also been disarmed and are now
yy A recombinant DNA is inserted within the coding sequence used to deliver desirable genes into animal cells.
of an enzyme, β-galactosidase. As a result, the gene gets yy So, once a gene or a DNA fragment had been ligated into
inactivated due to insertion of alien DNA. This results into a suitable vector it is transferred into a bacterial, plant or
inactivation of enzyme, which is referred to as insertional animal host, where it multiplies.
inactivation.
3. Competent Host (Introduction of DNA into Host Cells)
yy The presence of chromogenic substrate gives blue-colour
colonies if the plasmid in bacteria does not have an insert. yy Competent host is essential for transformation with
yy Presence of insert results into insertional inactivation of the recombinant DNA. In order to force bacteria to take up the
β-galactosidase and the colonies do not produce any colour, plasmid, the bacterial cells must first be made competent to
these are referred to as recombinant colonies. take up DNA.
(d) Vectors for cloning genes in plants and animals: yy Cells that are able to take up DNA are called competent
yy The tumor inducing (Ti) plasmid of Agrobacterium cells.
tumifaciens is modified into a cloning vector which is not yy Methods to introduce alien DNA into host cells:
pathogenic to the plants but is able to use the mechanisms ²² This is done by treating bacterial cell with specific
to deliver genes of interest into a variety of plants. concentration of divalent cation such as calcium.
Agrobacterium tumifaciens is a pathogen of many dicot Calcium increases the efficiency with which DNA enters
plants. the bacterium through pores in its cell wall.

²² Recombinant DNA can also be forced into cells by yy In this, specific nucleotide sequences are cut’ from the DNA
incubating the cells with recombinant DNA on ice of an organism and “pasted” into plasmids. Hence, the DNA
followed by placing them briefly at 42˚C (heat shock), of the plasmid carrying nucleotide sequence of another
and then putting them back on ice. This enables the organism is known as recombinant DNA.
bacteria to take up the recombinant DNA. yy It is then inserted into bacteria. Bacteria divide repeatedly and
²² Micro-injection: In this, recombinant DNA is directly
a clone of bacteria with the recombinant DNA is obtained.
injected into the nucleus of an animal cell.
yy It includes the following steps:
²² Biolistics (gene gun): In this, cells are bombarded with
high velocity micro-particles of gold or tungsten coated 1. Isolation of DNA.
with DNA. This method is suitable for plants. 2. Fragmentation of DNA by restriction endonuclease.
²² ‘Disarmed pathogen’ vectors (Agrobacterium 3. Isolation of desired DNA fragment by gel electrophoresis.
tumifaciens) which when infects the cell transfer the 4. Amplification of gene using PCR.
recombinant DNA into the host. 5. Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector.
6. Culturing the host cells in a medium at large scale in a
PROCESSES OF RECOMBINANT DNA bioreactor.
7. Extraction of desired product by down stream
TECHNOLOGY
processing.
yy Recombinant DNA technology is a “cut and paste”
technology.
 Biotechnology: Principles and Processes 715

1. Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA) yy The enzyme utilises building blocks dNTPs (deoxynucleotides)
yy For the process of recombinant DNA technology, DNA must to extend the primer.
be present in its pure form. yy Through continuous DNA replication, the DNA segment is
yy Therefore, to get pure DNA (free from other macro- amplified up to 1 billion copies.
molecules), the bacterial cells/plant or animal tissue are
treated with enzymes such as lysozyme (for bacterial cell),
cellulase (for plant cells), chitinase (for fungal cell) etc. to
E.coli
break open the cell to release cellular components such as Human cell
DNA, RNA, proteins, polysaccharides and lipids.
yy Genes (DNA) are interwined with proteins such as histones. Plasmid
Therefore, DNA
²² RNA is removed by treating with ribonuclease. Restriction
Restriction endonuclease endonuclease
²² Proteins are removed by treatment with protease.
yy Addition of chilled ethanol ultimately precipitates out the Sticky end
Insulin
purified DNA, which can be seen as collection of fine threads gene
in the suspension. Complementary pairing

2. Fragmentation of DNA by Restriction Enzymes

yy DNA is cut into fragments with the help of restriction
enzymes.
yy Restriction enzyme digestions are performed byincubating
purified DNA with the restriction enzyme, at the optimal Ligase
conditions.
yy Agarose gel electrophoresis is employed to check the
progression of a restriction enzyme digestion. As DNA is
negatively charged, it moves towards the anode. The process Plasmid with insulin gene
is repeated with the vector DNA also.
yy After cutting the source DNA and the vector DNA, the cut
out gene (DNA segment) of interest from the sourceDNA
and the cut vector are mixed and ligase is added.
yy This creates recombinant DNA. Fig Diagrammatic representation of recombinant DNA
yy Thus, Recombinant DNA is obtained by hybridising ‘gene of technology
interest ’with vector, with the help of enzyme DNA ligase.
yy Each cycle has three steps: Denaturation, primer
3. Amplification of Gene of Interest Using annealing and extension of primers.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) ²² Denaturation: The double stranded DNA molecules
are heated to a high temperature (94˚C) so that the two
yy Recombinant DNA can be amplified by Polymerase Chain strands separate into a single stranded DNA molecule.
Reaction. Several identical copies of it can be synthesized This process is called denaturation. Each strand acts as
in vitro. template for DNA synthesis.
yy Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a technique in ²² Annealing: In this step, the two oligonucleotide
molecular biology to amplify a gene or a piece of DNA to primers anneal (hybridize) to each of the single stranded
obtain several copies. DNA template, since, the sequence of the primers is
yy It is extensively used in the process of gene manipulation. complementary to the 3’ends of the template DNA. This
step is carried out at a lower temperature depending on
yy The process involves in-vitro synthesis of sequences using the length and sequence of the primers. This results in
a primer, a template strand, and a thermostable DNA the duplication of the original DNA molecule.
polymerase enzyme, obtained from a bacterium called ²² Extension of primers: DNA polymerase (Taq
Thermus aquaticus. polymerase) extends the primers using the nucleotides
yy Primers are small chemically synthesized oligonucleotides provided in the reaction. The optimum temperature for
that are complementary to the regions of DNA. this polymerization step is 72°C.
 716 BIOLOGY

yy This process is repeated over several cycles to obtain multiple yy If a protein encoding gene is expressed in a heterologous
copies of rDNA fragment. host, it is called a recombinant protein.
yy The amplified fragment can be used to ligate with a vector for yy The cells with foreign genes may be grown on a small scale
in the laboratory. The cultures may be used to extract the
further cloning. This result recombinant DNA (rDNA).
desired protein and purify it by using different separation
techniques.
yy The cells can also be multiplied in a continuous culture
system. Here, the used medium is drained out from oneside
while fresh medium is added from the other. It maintains the
cells more physiologically active and so produces a larger
biomass leading to higher yields of desired protein.
Bioreactors
yy Bioreactors are large vessels used for large scale production
of biotechnology products from the raw materials. Here,
the raw materials are biologically converted into specific
products, enzymes etc., using microbial plant, animal or
human cells.
yy They provide optimal conditions to obtain the desired product
by providing the optimum temperature, pH, vitamin, oxygen
etc.
yy The most commonly used bioreactors are of stirring type
(stirred-tank reactor).

Fig. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

yy PCR is also used to detect and quantitate the amount of RNA
in living cells. The method is called reverse transcriptase
PCR (RT-PCR). It involves the following steps:
²² RNA is isolated from a sample.
²² It is mixed with reverse transcriptase and a primer that
will anneal to the 3’end of the RNA of interest.
²² This generates a single-stranded cDNA which can be Fig. (a) Simple stirred-tank biorector; (b) Sparged stirred-
used as template DNA in conventional PCR. tank bioreactor
yy Stirred tank bioreactor
4. Transfer of Recombinant DNA into the Host
²² It is usually cylindrical or with a curved base to facilitate
Cell/Organism the mixing of the reactor contents. The stirrer facilitates
yy The ligated DNA is introduced into the recipient cell. The even mixing and oxygen availability. Alternatively air
recipient cell makes itself competent to receive and take up
can be bubbled through the reactor. The bioreactor has
DNA present in the surrounding.
yy There are several methods of introducing the ligated DNA ♦♦ An agitator system
into recipient cells. Recipient cells take up DNA present in ♦♦ An oxygen delivery system
its surrounding. ♦♦ A foam control system
yy If a recombinant DNA bearing ampicillin resistant gene (a
selectable marker gene) is transferred into E. coli cells,the ♦♦ A temperature control system
host cells become ampicillin-resistant cells. ♦♦ pH control system
yy If the transformed cells are spread on agar plates containing ♦♦ Sampling ports (for periodic withdrawal of the
ampicillin, only transformants will grow, untransformed
culture).
recipient cells will die.
²² The shake flask method is used for a small- scale
5. Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product production of biotechnological products in a laboratory.
yy The cell containing the foreign gene is cultured on On the other hand, stirred tank bioreactors are used for
suitable medium and the product can be extracted from the
large scale production of biotechnology products.
medium.
 Biotechnology: Principles and Processes 717

²² Stirred tank bioreactors have several advantages over processes include separation and purification. This is known
shake flasks. as down streaming processing. Down streaming processing
(i) Small volumes of culture can be taken out from the is the method of separation and purification of foreign gene
reactor for sampling or testing. products after the completion of biosynthetic stage.
(ii) It has a foam breaker for regulating the foam. yy The product is subjected to various processes in order to
(iii) It has a control system that regulates the temperature separate and purify the product. After down streaming
and pH. processing, the product is formulated with suitable
preservatives and is passed through various clinical trials
6. Downstream Processing for quality control and other tests.
yy The products so obtained undergo a series of processes yy The downstream processing and quality control testing vary
before putting them in market as a finished product. The from product to product.
 Biotechnology and Its Applications 731

Chapter
Biotechnology and
34 Its Applications
Biotechnology has a wide range application such as resistance, which increases the crop productivity and
biopharmaceuticals, therapeutics, diagnostics, and genetically therefore, reduces the reliance on chemical pesticides.
modified crops for agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, yy It helps to reduce post harvesting loss of crops.
waste treatment and energy production. yy It increases efficiency of mineral usage by plants. This
Three critical research areas of biotechnology are: prevents early exhaustion of fertility of soil.
(a) Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved yy It enhances nutritional value of food. This is known as bio-
organism usually a microbe or pure enzyme. fortification. E.g. Golden rice is transgenic variety in rice,
(b) Creating optimal conditions through engineering for a which is rich in vitamin ‘A’.
catalyst to act. yy GM is used to create tailor-made plants to supply alternative
(c) Downstream processing technologies to purify the
resources to industries, in the form of starches, fuels and
protein or organic compound.
Applications of genetic engineering: pharmaceuticals.
It can be considered in three groups: Disadvantages of genetically modified plants
(i) Gene products: This is achieved by using genetically
(i) It can affect the native biodiversity in an area. For e.g.
modified organisms (usually microbes) to produce
the use of Bt toxin to decrease the amount of pesticide
chemicals, usually for medical or industrial
applications. in posing a threat for beneficial insect pollinators such as
(ii) New phenotypes: This is achieved using gene bee. If the gene is expressed for Bt toxin gets expressed
technology to alter the characteristics of organisms in the pollen, then the honey bee might be affected. As a
(usually farm animals or crops). result, the process of pollination by honey bees would be
(iii) Gene therapy: This involves using gene technology on affected.
humans to treat a disease. (ii) Also, genetically modified crops are affecting human
health. They supply allergens and certain antibiotic
Biotechnology & its Applications resistant markers in the body.
The three options that can be thought for increasing the production (iii) Also, they can cause genetic pollution in the wild relatives
of food are: of the crop plants. Hence, it is affecting our natural
(i) Agro-chemical based agriculture environment.
(ii) Organic agriculture
(iii) Genetically engineered crop based agriculture. Golden rice
The green revolution has succeeded in tripling the food supply Golden rice is a genetically modified variety of Rice, Oryza sativa,
but yet it was not enough to feed the growing human population. which has been developed as fortified food for areas where there is
Therefore, scientists have decided that the use of genetically shortage of dietary vitamin A. It contains a precursor of pro-vitamin
modified crops is a possible solution. A, called beta-carotene, which has been introduced into the rice
The plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes are altered by through genetic engineering.
manipulation are called genetically modified organisms (GMO). The rice plant naturally produced beta-carotene pigment in
Advantages of genetic modification in plants its leaves. However, it is absent in the endosperm of the seed.
yy It makes crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses like cold, This is because beta-carotene pigment helps in the process of
drought, salt, heat, etc. photosynthesis, while photosynthesis does not occur in endosperm.
yy Most of the GM plants have been developed for pest- Since, beta-carotene is a precursor of pro-vitamin A, it is introduced
 732 BIOLOGY

into the rice variety to fulfil the shortage of dietary vitamin A. it is yy Using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode-specific genes
simple and less expensive alternative to vitamin supplements. (DNA) were introduced into the host plant (Tobacco
plant).
Bt cotton
yy Introduction of DNA produces both sense and anti-sense
yy Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis have proteins that kill RNA in the host cells.
insects like coleopterans (beetles), lepidopterans (tobacco yy These two RNA’s being complementary to each other formed
budworm, armyworm) and dipterans (flies, mosquitoes, a double stranded (dsRNA) that initiated RNAi and thus,
etc.). silenced the specific mRNA of nematode.
yy Bacillus thuringiensis forms protein crystals during a yy The consequence was that the parasite cannot survive in a
particular phase of their growth. These crystals contain a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA.
toxic insecticidal protein.
yy These proteins are present in inactive protoxin form, but
become active toxin in the alkaline pH of insect gut. BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE
yy The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial
yy The rDNA technology helps for the mass production of safe
cells and creates pores that cause cell swelling and lysis and
and more effective therapeutic drugs.
eventually cause death of the insect.
yy The recombinant therapeutics does not induce unwanted
yy Specific Bt toxin genes were isolated form B. thuringiensis
immunological responses as is common in case of similar
and genetically transferred to several crop plants such as
products isolated from non-human sources.
cotton.
yy At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been
yy Most Bt toxins are insect-group specific. The toxin is coded
approved for human-use. In India, 12 of these are presently
by a gene named cry.
being marketed.
yy The protein coded by genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the
cotton bollworms. Genetically Engineered Insulin
yy The protein coded by gene cryIAb controls corn borer.
yy Insulin, a hormone, regulates sugar metabolism in human.
Pest resistant plants It is produced by the β- cells of islets of Langerhans of
yy Pest Resistant Plants act as bio-pesticide. It reduces the need pancreas. Human insulin contains 51 amino acids, arranged
for insecticides. in two polypeptide chains. The chain A has 21 amino acids
yy E.g. Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato, soyabean etc. while the chain B has 30 amino acids.
Nematode resistance in tobacco plants: yy Insulin is in great demand due to increase in number of
patients with adult onset diabetes.
yy A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of yy Now, it is possible to produce human insulin using
tobacco plants and causes a great reduction in yield. bacteria.
yy RNA interference (RNAi) strategy is used to prevent this yy Insulin from the pancreas of animals (cattle and pigs) causes
infestation. allergy or other types of reactions in some patients.
yy RNAi is a method of cellular defense in all eukaryotic yy Insulin is made of two short polypeptide chains, called
organisms. It is a process by which double-stranded RNA chain A and chain B that are linked together by disulphide
(dsRNA) directs sequence-specific degradation of mRNA. linkage.
It prevents translation of a specific mRNA (silencing) due yy In mammals, insulin is synthesized as a pro-hormone, which
to a complementary dsRNA molecule. needs to be processed before it becomes a fully mature and
Steps of RNA Interference functional hormone.
yy The source of this complementary RNA is from an infection yy The pro-hormone is a single polypeptide chain with an
by RNA viruses or mobile genetic elements (transposons) extra stretch called the C-peptide. This is removed during
that replicate via an RNA intermediate. maturation.

Fig. Insulin formation

 Biotechnology and Its Applications 733

yy In 1983, Eli Lilly an American company prepared two DNA yy However, very low concentration of a bacteria or virus can be
sequences corresponding to A and B chains of human insulin detected by amplification of their nucleic acid by Polymerase
and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin Chain Reaction.
chains. (i) PCR: PCR is used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS
yy Chains A and B were produced separately, extracted and patients. It is also used to detect mutations in genes in
combined by creating disulphide bonds to form human suspected cancer patients. It is a powerful technique to
insulin. identify many other genetic disorders.
²² A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a
Gene Therapy radioactive molecule (probe) is allowed to hybridise to
yy It is a technique for correcting a defective gene through gene its complementary DNA in a clone of cells followed by
manipulation. It involves the delivery of a normal gene into detection using autoradiography.
the individual to replace the defective gene. ²² The clone having the mutated gene will hence not appear
yy First clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4-year old on the photographic film, because the probe will not have
girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. complementarity with the mutated gene.
yy The disorder is caused due to the deletion of the gene for (ii) ELISA: ELISA is a sensitive immunoassay that uses an
adenosine deaminase, the enzyme crucial for the immune enzyme linked to an antibody or antigen as a marker for
system to function. the detection of a specific protein, especially an antigen
yy This enzyme is required for breakdown of deoxyadenosine or antibody.
into uric acids. ²² It is often used as a diagnostic test to determine exposure
yy In the absence of ADA toxic deoxyadenosine is accumulated to a particular infectious agent, such as the AIDS virus,
and destroy the infection fighting immune cells called T-cells by identifying antibodies present in a blood sample.
and B-cells. Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence
of antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by detecting
Treatment the antibodies synthesized against the pathogen.
yy The individual suffering from this disorder can be cured by
transplantation of bone marrow cells.
yy The first step involves the extraction of lymphocyte from the
patient’s bone marrow. Then, a functional gene for ADA is
introduced into lymphocytes with the help of retrovirus.
yy These treated lymphocytes containing ADA gene are then
introduced into the patient’s bone marrow.
yy Thus, the gene gets activated producing functional
T-lymphocytes and activating the patient’s immune system.
There are two basic approaches to human gene therapy: Somatic
gene therapy and Germ line gene therapy.
(i.) Somatic cell therapy means genetically altering specific
body (or somatic) cells, such as bone marrow cells, pancreas Fig. ELISA Test
cells, etc, in order to treat the disease. This therapy may treat
or cure the disease, but any genetic changes will not be passed TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
on their offspring.
(ii.)Germ-line therapy means genetically altering those cells yy Animals that have their DNA manipulated to possess or
(sperm cells, sperm precursor cell, ova, ova precursor cells, express an extra gene are called transgenic animals.
zygotes or early embryos) that will pass their genes down yy E.g. Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish.
the “germ-line” to future generations. Alterations to any of yy Over 95% of all existing transgenic animals are mice.
these cells will affect every cell in the resulting human, and yy Transgenic bacteria contain foreign gene that is intentionally
in all his or her descendants. introduced into its genome. They are manipulated to express
the desirable gene for the production of various commercially
Molecular Diagnosis important products.
yy E.g. E.coli. In the plasmid of E.coli, the two DNA sequences
yy Recombinant DNA technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction
corresponding to A and B chains of human insulin are
and Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA) are
inserted, so as to produce the respective human insulin
some techniques for early diagnosis.
chains. Hence, after the insertion of insulin gene into the
yy Presence of a pathogen is normally suspected only when
bacterium, it becomes transgenic and starts producing chains
the pathogen has produced a symptom. By this time the
of human insulin. Later on, these chains are extracted from
concentration of pathogen is already very high in the body.
E.coli and combined to form human insulin.
 734 BIOLOGY

Benefits of Transgenic Animals (iv) Vaccine safety testing: Transgenic mice are being
developed and used in testing the safety of vaccines
(i) To study normal physiology and development: Transgenic before they are used for humans. Polio vaccine is tested
animals are used to study how genes are regulated, in mice.
and how they affect the normal body functions and its (v) Chemical safety testing (toxicity testing): Transgenic
development. animals are made to know the effect of toxic chemicals.
E.g. study of complex factors such as insulin-like growth This is also known as toxicity/safety testing.
factor. Genes (from other species) that alter the formation
of this factor are introduced and the biological effects are
studied. This gives information about the biological role ETHICAL ISSUES
of the factor in the body.
(ii) To study the contribution of genes in the development yy Indian Government has set up organizations like GEAC
of a disease: Transgenic models help for investigation of (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee), which make
new treatments for human diseases. decisions about the validity of GM research and the safety
E.g. transgenic models for many human diseases such of GM-organisms for public services.
as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and yy A patent is the right granted by a government to an inventor
Alzheimer’s to prevent others from commercial use of his invention.
(iii) Biological products: Some medicines contain biological yy Patents granted for biological entities and for products
products, but they are often expensive. Transgenic derived from them; these patents are called biopatents.
animals are used to produce useful biological products by yy India has 27 varieties of Basmati. Basmati rice has unique
introducing genes which codes for a particular product. aroma and flavour. In 1997, an American company got patent
E.g. rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent and Trademark
²² Human protein (α-1-antitrypsin) used to treat Office. This allowed the company to sell a ‘new’ variety
emphysema, of Basmati. This had actually been derived from Indian
²² Proteins for treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU) and farmer’s varieties. Indian Basmati was crossed with semi-
cystic fibrosis etc dwarf varieties and claimed as a novelty. Other people selling
In 1997, Rosie (first transgenic cow) produced human Basmati rice could be restricted by the patent.
protein-enriched milk (2.4 gm per litre). It contains the yy Biopiracy: It is the use of bio-resources by multinational
human α-lactalbumin and is nutritionally more balanced companies and other organizations without proper
product for human babies than natural cow-milk. authorization from the countries and people concerned.
 Organisms and Population 745

Chapter
Organisms and
35 Populations
Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms and between ²² Regional and local variations within each biome lead to
the organisms and its physical (abiotic) environment. the formation of different habitats.
Ecology is concerned with four levels of biological organization: ²² Temperature, water, light and soil are the key elements
²² Organisms: Every individual of a species is known that lead to so much variation in the physical and
as organism. An organism is a self-reproducing chemical conditions of habitats.
system, which is capable of growing and maintaining ²² Both abiotic (physico-chemical) and biotic components
itself. Organisms are also directly influenced by the (pathogen, parasites, predators, competitions)
surrounding environment. characterize the habitat of an organism.
²² Populations: A population is a group of similar yy Life not only exists in favourable habitats but also in extreme
organisms living in a geographical area, sharing similar and harsh conditions.
resources and capable of interbreeding. Population yy E.g. Rajasthan desert, rain-soaked Meghalaya forests, deep
members bred with each other and live in the same ocean trenches, torrential streams, Polar Regions, high
area at the same time. The group of deer living in one mountain tops, thermal springs, and compost pits.
forest or the group of fish living in one pond belong to yy Our intestine also acts as a habitat for many microbes.
one population.
Components of environment
²² Communities: A community is made up of different
populations in a certain area at a certain time. It includes The environment of an organism can be divided into two components:
assembly of population of all different species living Abiotic and Biotic components.
in an area and interacting. For example all the living 1. Abiotic components: The non-living things form the abiotic
organisms in a pond belong to one community. component of the environment. It can be classified into two
²² Biomes: It includes large flora and fauna in a species categories:
climatic zone. (i) Physical components: They are the various climatic
characteristics such as light, temperature, humidity,
precipitation, pressure and soil profile.
ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT (ii) Chemical components: It includes inorganic components
yy Environment is defined as the sum total of all biotic and and organic components.
abiotic factors that surround and influence an organism in (a) Inorganic components: Carbon, carbon dioxide,
its survival and reproduction. nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus sulphur, zinc, water and
yy Factors affecting environment are: many other minerals are the inorganic nutrients required
²² The rotation of earth and the tilt of its axis cause annual by all living beings.
variations in temperature, resulting into distinct seasons. (b) Organic components: The complex molecules such
This leads to the formation of various biomes such as as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are the organic
desert, rain forest, tundra, Grassland, temperate forest substances in an ecosystem.
etc. 2. Biotic components: The living organisms form the biotic
component of the environment. The biotic components can
be classified as producers, consumers and decomposers.
 746 BIOLOGY

(a) Producers: Only plants are capable of capturing solar (c) Light
energy and transforming it into food energy for all the yy Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis. Hence light is very
other living organisms are called as producers. These plants important for autotrophs.
are also named as autotrophs since they make their own yy Plant species like herbs and shrubs (canopied by tall plants)
food. are adapted for photosynthesize under very low light.
(b) Consumers: Animals depend upon the plants directly or yy Many flowering plants are dependent on sunlight for
indirectly for their food and are called consumers. Their photoperiodism.
mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic. Consumers can yy Many animals use the diurnal and seasonal variations in
be herbivores, carnivorous, omnivorous, and parasitic or light intensity and photoperiod for timing their foraging,
scavengers. reproductive and migratory activities.
(c) Decomposers: Decomposers feed on dead and decaying yy Sun is the ultimate source for light and temperature on land.
animals and plants. They are small microscopic organisms Deep (>500m) in the oceans, the environment is dark and
and help in recycling of nutrients in the environment. there is no energy available from sun.
Major abiotic factors: yy The spectral quality of solar radiation is also important for
life. The UV component of the spectrum is harmful to many
(a) Temperature organisms.
yy It is the most ecologically relevant environmental factor.
(d) Soil
yy The average temperature on land varies seasonally. It
yy The nature and properties of soil in different places vary.
gradually decreases from the equator towards the poles and
It is dependent on the climate, the weathering process,
from plains to the mountain tops. It ranges from subzero
sedimentation, method of soil development etc.
levels (in polar areas and high altitudes) to >50°C (in tropical
yy The various characteristics of the soil like soil composition,
deserts).
grain size and aggregation, determine the percolation and
yy In habitats like thermal springs and deep-sea hydrothermal
water holding capacity of the soils.
vents average temperatures exceed 100°C.
yy These characteristics along with parameters such as
yy Temperature affects kinetics of enzymes, basal metabolism
pH, mineral composition and topography determine the
and other physiological functions of the organism.
vegetation and animals in any area.
yy Based on range of thermal tolerance, organisms are of
two types: Responses to abiotic factors
²² Eurythermal: Organisms that can tolerate and thrive yy All organisms in order to sustain maximum functionality
in a wide range of temperature. maintain a constant internal environment (homeostasis).
²² Stenothermal: Organisms that can tolerate only a Homeostasis is the process by which an organism maintains a
narrow range of temperature. constant internal environment in respect to changing external
(b) Water environment.
yy Water is also an important factor influencing the life of yy An organism may adopt one of the following strategies for
organisms. homeostasis:
yy Productivity and distribution of plants is dependent on (a) Regulate
water. • Certain animals have the ability to maintain a constant
yy For aquatic organisms the quality (chemical composition, temperature and constant osmolarity to keep up their
pH) of water is important. homeostasis. E.g. All birds and mammals, very few
yy The salinity varies in aquatic environment: lower vertebrates and invertebrates.
²² 5% in inland waters (fresh water) • Thermo regulation in mammals: Mammals have
²² 30-35 in sea water a constant body temperature (37˚C) irrespective of
²² More than 100 percent in hyper saline lagoons. the outside temperature. In summers, to maintain the
yy Many freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea water temperature, we sweat and in winters we shiver to
and vice-versa because of the osmotic problems.
produce heat.
yy Based on the range of tolerance to salinity, organisms
are or two types: (b) Conform
²² Euryhaline: They can tolerate and thrive in a wide • 99% of animals and nearly all plants cannot maintain a
range of salinities. constant internal environment. Their body temperature
²² Stenohaline: They can tolerate only a narrow range or osmotic concentration change with the surrounding
of salinity. conditions. They are called conformers. Hence, the
internal environment of conformers changes with
external environment.
Organisms and Population 747

The phenomenon of hibernation is exhibited by bats,

squirrels, and other rodents.
♦♦ Aestivation of some snails and fishes during
summer.
♦♦ Diapause of manyzooplanktons in lakes and ponds.
Diapause is a stage of suspended development to
cope with unfavourable conditions. Many species of
zooplankton and insects exhibit diapause to tide over
adverse conditions during their development.

Adaptations
Fig. Diagrammatic representation of organismic response yy Adaptations are certain characteristics that organism develop
in order to survive and reproduce better in their habitat.
• In aquatic animals, osmotic concentration of body These adaptations may be morphological, physiological and
fluids changes with that of the ambient osmotic behavioural attribute that enables an organism to survive and
concentration. reproduce in its habitat.
• Thermoregulation is energetically expensive yy Many adaptations have evolved over a long evolutionary
especially for small animals like shrews, humming time and are genetically fixed.
birds etc. Theycannot afford so much energy for yy Adaptations of kangaroo rat in North American deserts:
thermoregulation. ²² Kangaroo rat meets their water requirement from
• Heat loss or heat gain is a function of surface area. oxidation of fat.
Small animals have a larger surface area relative to ²² Also they have the ability to excrete concentrated urine
their volume. so that minimal volume of water is used to remove
• Small animals have larger surface area relative to their excretory products.
volume, so they tend to lose body heat very fast when Adaptations of desert plants (xerophytes):
it is cold outside; then has to expend much energy to ²² Presence of thick cuticle on leaf surfaces. Their stomata
generate body heat through metabolism. are arranged in deep pits to minimise water loss through
• This is why very small animals are rarely found in Polar transpiration.
²² A special photosynthetic pathway (CAM) that enables
Regions.
their stomata to remain closed during day time and
(c) Migrate remains open during night.
• Many animals like birds move away temporarily from ²² Desert plants like Opuntia have no leaves. Their leaves
stressful habitat to a more hospitable area and return are reduced to spines. Photosynthesis takes place by
when stressful condition is over. means of flat green stems.
• For example, during winter, Keolado National Park Adaptations of mammals:
(Bhartpur, Rajasthan) hosts migratory birds coming ²² Mammals from colder climates have shorter ears and
from Siberia and other extremely cold northern limbs to reduce heat loss. This is called Allen’s Rule.
regions. ²² Aquatic mammals like seals have a thick layer of fat
(d) Suspend (blubber) below their skin that acts as an insulator and
• In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, thick walled spores reduces loss of body heat.
are formed which help them to overcome stressful, Physiological and biochemical adaptations:
unfavourable conditions. Spores germinate when ²² Archaebacteria (Thermophiles) are ancient forms of
conditions are favourable. bacteria that are found in the hot springs and deep sea
• In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative hydrothermal vents. They are able to survive in high
reproductive structures serve to tide over periods of temperatures (which far exceed 100˚C) because their
stress. They reduce their metabolic activity and go into bodies have adapted to such environmental conditions.
a state of ‘dormancy’. They germinate under favourable These bacteria contain specialised thermo-resistant
moisture and temperature. enzymes which carry out metabolic functions that do
• In animals: Examples are not get destroyed at such high temperatures.
♦♦ Hibernation of bears during winter. Hibernation ²² Many marine invertebrates and fishes live at great depths
or winter sleep is a resting stage where in animals in the ocean where the pressure is >100 times the normal
escape winters (cold) by hiding themselves in their atmospheric pressure.
shelters. They escape the winter season by entering ²² At a high altitude place (>3,500 m) a person might
a state of inactivity by slowing their metabolism. develop altitude sickness. The symptoms of altitude
 748 BIOLOGY

sickness are nausea, fatigue and heart palpitations. The

Age pyramid: If the age distribution (% individuals of a
sickness is due to low atmospheric pressure. As a result, given age or age group) is plotted for the population, the
the body does not get enough oxygen. Gradually, we resulting structure is called an age pyramid. The shape of
acclimatize the situation and the body and breathing rate the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population
and decreasing the binding capacity of haemoglobin. like growing, stable or declining.
Behavioural adaptations:
²² Desert lizards are conformer hence they cope with
the stressful environment by behavioural adaptations.
They bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body
temperature is low, but move into shade when the
ambient temperature starts increasing.
²² Some species are capable of burrowing into the soil to Fig. Representation of age pyramids for human population
hide and escape from the above-ground heat. Population size or population density (N)
yy Population size or population density is the number of
POPULATIONS individuals of a species per unit area or volume. E.g.
population density of Siberian cranes atBharatpur wetlands
yy A population is defined as a group of individuals of the
in any year is <10. It is millions for Chlamydomonas in a
same species that live in a particular geographical area at a
pond.
particular time and functioning as a unit. For example, all
yy In some cases, population size is measured in % cover or
human beings living at a particular place at a particular time
biomass. E.g. consider in an area, 200 Partheniumplants and
constitute the population of humans. They share or compete
a single huge banyan tree is seen. In such cases, the
for similar resources and potentially reproduce.
yy % cover or biomass is a more meaningful measure of the
yy Population ecology is an important area of ecology as it links
population size to show the importance of banyan tree.
ecology to population genetics and evolution. yy Total number is a difficult measure for a huge population.
In such cases, relative population density (without knowing
Population Attributes
absolute population density) is used.
The main attributes or characteristics of a population residing in yy E.g. the number of fish caught per trap indicates its total
a given area are: population density in the lake.
(i) Birth rate (Natality): It is the ratio of live births in an area yy In some other cases, indirect estimation of populationsizes
to the population of an area. It is expressed as the number is performed. E.g. Tiger census in national parks andtiger
of individuals added to the population with respect to the reserves based on pug marks andfecal pellets.
members of the population.
E.g. Consider in a pond there are 20 lotus plants last year Population growth
and through reproduction 8 new plants are added. yy The size of a population is ever changing aspect since
Hence, the current population = 28 it depends upon availability of food, predation, weather
The birth rate = 8/20 = 0.4 offspring per lotus per year. conditions, etc.
(ii) Death rate (Mortality): It is the ratio of deaths in an yy This gives us an idea whether a certain population is growing
area to the population of an area. It is expressed as the or declining.
loss of individuals with respect to the members of the yy The population size changes in time, depending on various
population. factors like food availability, predation pressure and
E.g. Consider 4 individuals in a laboratory population of weather.
40 fruit flies died during a week. yy Changes in population density give some idea about the
Hence, the death rate = 4/40 = 0.1 individuals per fruit fly population – whether it is flourishing or declining.
per week. yy Population size fluctuates due to changes in four basic
(iii) Sex ratio: It is the number of males or females per thousand processes. They are:
individuals. E.g. 60% of the population is females and 40% (i) Natality (B): It is the number of births during a given
males. period in a population.
(iv) Age distribution: It is the percentage of individuals of (ii) Mortality (D): It is the number of deaths in a population
different ages in a given population. At any given time, during a given period.
the population is composed of individuals that are present (iii) Emigration (E): It is the number of individuals of the
in various age groups. The age distribution pattern is population who left the habitat and gone elsewhere during
commonly represented through age pyramids. a given time period.
(v) Population density: It is defined as the number of (iv) Immigration (I): It is the number of individuals of
individuals of a population present per unit area at a given the same species that have come into the habitat from
time. elsewhere during a given time period.
 Organisms and Population 749

²² Growth is not so realistic.

²² If in a population of size N, the birth rates (per capita
births) are represented as b and death rates (per capita
deaths) as d, then the increase or decrease in N during
aunit time period t (dN/dt) will be
dN/dt = (b – d) × N
Let (b–d) = r, then
dN/dt = rN
yy The r (‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’) is an important
parameter for assessing impacts of any biotic or abiotic factor
� Natality and immigration increase the population density and on population growth.
mortality and emigration decrease the population density.
� If N is the population density at time t, then its density at (2.) Logistic growth
time t +1 is: yy A population with limited resources show initially a lag
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)] phase, followed by phases of acceleration and deceleration
where B = the number of births and finally an asymptote, when the population density
I = the number of immigrants reaches the carrying capacity. This type of population growth
D = the number of deaths is called Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth.
E = the number of emigrants. yy Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth is described by the
N = Population density following equations
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
t = Time period
K = Carrying capacity (The maximum where, N = Population density at time t
population size that an environment can sustain) r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
yy This equation indicates that population density increases if K = Carrying capacity
B + I is more than D + E. Otherwise it will decrease. Logistic Growth (Sigmoid curve is obtained)
Growth models ²² When responses are limiting the Growth.
(1)Exponential growth ²² Resources for growth for most animal populations
yy When resources are unlimited, each species realizes its innate are finite and become limiting.
potential to grow in number. Therefore, population grows ²² The logistic growth model is a more realistic one.
exponentially. Population growth curves:
yy The Exponential growth equation is Nt = N0ert
where,
Nt = Population density after time t
N0 = Population density at time zero
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase. For human population
in 1981, r = 0.0205
e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
yy In exponential growth, “J” shaped curve is obtained.
yy The population grows in an exponential or geometric
fashion
²² When resources are not limiting the growth.
²² If resources are unlimited, each species shows its full Fig. (a) Indicates exponential growth (J-shaped curve)
innate potential to grow in number (b) Indicates logistic growth (Sigmoid curve).
 750 BIOLOGY

Population Interactions Finally, the invasive cactus was brought under control only
after a cactus-feeding predator (a moth) was introduced into
yy A natural habitat consists of many organisms living the country.
together and these organisms communicate and interact yy Biological control methods are based on the ability ofthe
with each other. For example, plants depend on insects for predator to regulate prey population.
pollination. yy Predators also help in maintaining species diversity in a
yy In nature, animals, plants and microbes interact in various community, by reducing the intensity of competition among
ways to form a biological community. competingprey species. E.g. the starfish Pisaster is a predator
yy Inter specific interactions are interactions between two in the rocky intertidal communities of the American Pacific
different species of organisms. They can be either beneficial Coast. In an experiment, when all the starfishes were removed
or harmful to one or both partners. They arise from the from an enclosed intertidal area, more than 10species of
interaction of populations of two different species. They invertebrates became extinct within a year, dueto interspecific
include
competition.
(i) Mutualism: Both the species are benefitted (+).
(ii) Competition: Both the species are harmed (–). Defense developed by prey against predators
(iii) Parasitism: One species (parasite) is benefitted and (i) Animals:
other species (host) is harmed. yy Some insects & frogs are camouflaged (cryptically coloured)
(iv) Predation: One species (predator) is benefitted and other to avoid being detected by the predator.
species (prey) is harmed. yy Some are poisonous and therefore avoided by the predators.
(v) Commensalism: One species is benefitted and the other yy The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator
is neither benefitted nor harmed (0). (bird) due to a special chemical in its body. This chemical
(vi) Amensalism: One species is harmed and the other is is acquired during its caterpillar stage by feeding on a
unaffected. poisonous weed.
Species A Species B Name of the interaction (ii) Plants:
+ + Mutualism yy Several plants have evolved various mechanisms both
– – Competition morphological and chemical to protect themselves against
herbivory.
+ – Predation
yy Morphological defense mechanisms
+ – Parasitism ²² Cactus plants (Opuntia) are modified into sharp spines
+ 0 Commensalism (thorns) to deter herbivores from feeding on them.
– 0 Amensalism ²² Sharp thorns along with leaves are present in Acacia to
deter herbivores.
Note: + Positive effect – Detrimental effect 0 neutral effect ²² In some plants, the margins of their leaves are spiny or
yy In predation, parasitism and commensalisms, the interacting have sharp edges that prevent herbivores from feeding
species live closely together. on them.
yy Chemical defense mechanisms
(a) Predation ²² All parts of Caloptropis weeds contain toxic glycosides,
yy Interspecific interaction where organism of higher trophic which can prove to be fatal if ingested by herbivores.
level (predator) feeds on organism of lower trophic level ²² Chemical substances such as nicotine, caffeine, quinine
(prey) is called the predation. and opium are produced in plants as a part of self-
yy It is beneficial to the predator while the prey is harmed. defence.
yy It acts as a means of transfer of energy to the next trophic
level and of maintaining balance in the ecosystem. (b) Competition
yy In a broad ecological context, all carnivores, herbivores etc yy Interspecific competition is a potent force in organic
are predators. About 25 % of all insects are phytophagous. evolution.
yy If a predator overexploits its prey, then the prey might become yy Competition is a process in which fitness of one species
extinct. It results in the extinction of predator. This is the (measured as ‘r’ value) is significantly lower in presence of
reason why predators in nature are ‘prudent’. another species.
yy Competition generally occurs when closely related species
Importance of predators compete for the same resources that are limiting, but this
yy Predators keep prey populations under control. not entirely true:
yy When certain exotic species are introduced into a geographical yy Competition occurs when closely related species compete
area, they spread fast due to the absence its natural predators for the same limited resources.
in the invaded land. E.g. the prickly pear cactus introduced ²² Unrelated species can also compete for the resource. E.g.
into Australia in the early 1920’s caused havoc by spreading. Flamingos and fishes in some shallow South American
lakes compete for zooplankton.
 Organisms and Population 751

²² Competition occurs in abundant resources also. E.g. ²² Loss of digestive system,

In interference competition, the feeding efficiency ²² High reproductive capacity etc.
of one species is reduced due to the interfering and yy Life cycles of parasites are often complex.
inhibitory presence of other species, even if resources yy E.g.
are abundant. ²² Human liver fluke depends on two intermediate hosts (a
snail and a fish) to complete its life cycle.
Evidences for competition
²² Malarial parasite needs mosquito to spread to other
yy The Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct hosts.
within a decade after goats were introduced on the island,
Effects of parasite
due to greater browsing efficiency of the goats.
²² Majority of the parasites harm the host.
yy ‘Competitive release’: A species, restricted to a small
²² They may reduce the survival, population density,
geographical area (due to the presence of competitively
growth and reproduction of the host.
superior species), expands its distributional range when the
²² They might render the host more vulnerable to predation
competing species is experimentally removed.
by making it physically weak.
yy Connell’s field experiments showed that on the rocky sea
Types of parasites:
coasts of Scotland, the larger and competitively superior
(i) Ectoparasites: Parasites that feed on the external surface
barnacle Balanusdominates intertidal area, and excludes the
of the host organism are called Ectoparasites. E.g. lice on
smaller barnacle Chathamalusfrom that zone.
humans and ticks on dogs. Many marine fish are infested
Gause’s ‘Competitive Exclusion Principle’ with ectoparasitic copepods. Cuscuta, a parasitic plant that
yy It states that two closely related species competing for is commonly found growing on hedge plants, has lost its
the same resources cannot co-exist indefinitely and the chlorophyll and leaves in the course of evolution. It derives
competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually. its nutrition from the host plant which it parasitizes.
yy This may be true in limited resources, but not otherwise. (ii) Endoparasites: Parasites that live inside the host body
yy Species facing competition may evolve mechanisms that atdifferent sites (liver, kidney, lungs, RBC etc.) are called
promote co-existence rather than exclusion. E.g. ‘resource endoparasites.The life cycles of endoparasites are more
partitioning’. complex. Theirmorphological and anatomical features are
yy Resource partitioning: If two species compete for thesame simplified with highly developed reproductive system.
resource, they could avoid competition by choosingdifferent Brood parasitism in birds
times for feeding or different foraging patterns. yy It is a special type of parasitism found in birds.
yy E.g. MacArthur showed that five closely related speciesof yy Here, the parasitic birds lay eggs in the nest of its host and
warblers living on the same tree were able to avoid lets the host incubate them.
competition and co-exist due to behavioural differences in yy During the course of evolution, the eggs of the parasitic bird
their foraging activities. have evolved to resemble the host’s egg in size and colour
(c) Parasitism to reduce the chances of the host bird detecting the foreign
eggs and ejecting them from the nest.
yy Parasitism is an interaction between two species in which yy E.g. Brood parasitism between cuckoo and crow.
one species (parasite) derives benefit while the other species
(host) is harmed. For example, ticks and lice (parasites) (d) Commensalism
present on the human body represent this interaction where This is the interaction in which one species benefits and the
in the parasites receive benefit (as they derive nourishment other is neither benefited nor harmed.
by feeding on the blood of humans). On the other hand, Examples:
these parasites reduce host fitness and cause harm to the ²² Orchid (+) growing as epiphyte on a mango branch (0).
human body. Epiphytes are plants growing on other plants which
yy Many parasites have evolved to be host-specific (they can however do not derive nutrition from them. Therefore,
parasitize only a single species of host) in such a way that the relationship between mango tree and an orchid is
both host and the parasite tend to co-evolve. i.e., if the host an example of commensalism, where one species gets
evolves special mechanisms for rejecting or resisting the benefitted while the other remains unaffected. In the
parasite, the parasite has to evolve mechanisms to counteract above interaction, the orchid is benefitted as it gets
and neutralize them, in order to be successful with the same support while the mango tree remains unaffected.
host species. ♦♦ Barnacles (+) growing on the back of a whale (0).
Adaptations of parasites ♦♦ Cattle egret (+) and grazing cattle (0). The egrets for
²² Loss of sense organs, age close to where the cattle are grazing. As the cattle
²² Presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to move, the vegetation insects come out. Otherwise it is
the host, difficult for the egrets to find and catch the insects.
 752 BIOLOGY

♦♦ Sea anemone (0) and clown fish (+). The fish gets laying sites in fruits. The fig offers the wasp some
protection from predators with the help of stinging developing seeds, as food for the wasp larvae.
tentacles of seaanemone. The anemone has no any ♦♦ Orchids show diversity of floral patterns. They
benefit. can attract the right pollinator insect (bees and
bumblebees) to ensure pollination. Not all orchids
(e) Mutualism offer rewards.
It is an interaction between two living organism where both ²² Sexual deceit:
are equally benefited. No one is harmed. ♦♦ Mediterranean orchid Ophrys employs ‘sexual
Examples: deceit’.
²² Lichen: It is an intimate mutualistic relationship ♦♦ One petal of its flower resembles female bee in size,
between a fungus and photosynthesizing algae or colour and markings. So, male bee ‘pseudo copulates’
cyanobacteria. with the flower. The bee is dusted with pollen from
²² Mycorrhiza is association between fungi and the the flower. When the same bee ‘pseudo copulates’
roots of higher plants. The fungi help the plant in the with another flower, it transfers pollen to it.
absorption of essential nutrients from the soil while the ♦♦ If the female bee’s colour patterns change slightly
plant provides the fungi with carbohydrates. during evolution, pollination success will be reduced
²² Mutualism between plant and animal through pollination unless the orchid flower co-evolves to maintain the
and seed dispersion: resemblance of its petal to the female bee.
Examples:
♦♦ Many fig trees and wasps. The fig species is (f) Amensalism
pollinated only by its ‘partner’ wasp species and It is an interaction between two different species, in which
no other species. The female wasp pollinates the one species is harmed and the other species is neither harmed
fig inflorescence while searching for suitable egg- nor benefitted.
 Ecosystem 767

Chapter
Ecosystem
36
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms
interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical
chain and obtain nutrients by breaking down the remains of
dead plants and animals.
environment. For example, a pond is a good example of ecosystem. Decomposers can be divided into two groups based on their
mode of nutrition.
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM ²² Detrivores: They are the organisms that ingest non-
living organic matter. These can include earthworms,
1. Biotic components: It is the living component of an beetles and many other invertebrates.
ecosystem that includes biotic factors such as producers, ²² Saprotrophs: They are the organisms that live on or in
consumers, decomposers and scavengers. non- living organic matter, secreting digestive enzymes
(a) Producers: They include plants and algae. They contain into it and absorbing the products of digestion. These
chlorophyll pigment which helps them carry out the include fungi and bacteria.
process of photosynthesis in the presence of light. Thus, yy Scavengers: Scavengers are animals which eat dead bodies
they are also called as converters or transducers. of other animals. Vultures, crows, jackals and hyena are
(b) Consumers: Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms few examples of scavengers. They are basically a kind of
that obtain organic molecules by eating or digesting cleansing agents of the environment. They eat up the dead
other organisms. These are the herbivores and carnivores bodies of animals and therefore help in keeping forest
of the ecosystem. By eating other organisms they gain environment clean.
both food as an energy supply and nutrient molecules 2. Abiotic components: They are the non-living component
from within the biomass ingested. of an ecosystem such as light, temperature, water, soil, air,
Based on food preferences they can be grouped into three inorganic nutrients etc.
broad categories. They are grouped into three categories:
(i.) Herbivores that feed directly on plants. E.g. cow, deer
(a) Physical factors: It includes sunlight, temperature,
and rabbit etc.
rainfall, humidity and pressure.
(ii.) Carnivores are animals which eat other animals. E. g.
(b) Inorganic substances: Carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
lion, cat, dog etc.
oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, water, rock, soil and other
(iii.) Omnivores are organisms that feed upon plants and
minerals.
animals. E.g. human, pigs and sparrow.
(c) Organic compounds: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
yy Decomposers: They include microorganisms such as
and humic substances. They are the building blocks
bacteria and fungi. They form the largest population in a food
living systems.

Components of Ecosystem

Abiotic components Biotic components

Physical factors Inorganic substances Organic substances

• Temperature • Water • Proteins
• Humidity • Oxygen • Carbohydrates
• Light • Carbon dioxide • Lipids
• Atmospheric pressure • Nitrogen
Producers Consumers Decomposers
(Green plants) (Animals) (Microorganisms)

Flow Chart: Components of ecosystem

 768 BIOLOGY

Three distinct zones of aquatic plants can be seen with

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
increasing depth of water in the following order:
Ecosystem are classified into two types: natural ecosystem and ♦♦ Zone of emergent vegetation: E.g. Typha, Bulrushes
man-made ecosystem. and Sagittaria.
(i) Natural ecosystems are totally dependent on solar radiations. ♦♦ Zone of rooted vegetation with floating leaves.
They are further divided into: E.g. Nymphaea
²² Terrestrial ecosystem: E.g. Forest, grassland, desert ♦♦ Zone of submergent vegetation: E.g. All pond
etc. weeds like Hydrilla, Rupia, musk grass, etc.
²² Aquatic ecosystem: E.g. Pond, lake, wetland, river 2. Consumers/Heterotrophs: They are the animals which feed
and estuary directly or indirectly on autotrophs. E.g. Tadpole, snails,
(ii) Man-made ecosystem: E.g. Crop fields and aquarium. sunfish, bass, etc.
Pond animals can be classified into the following groups:
The entire biosphere can be regarded as a global ecosystem.
²² Zooplanktons are floating animals. E.g. Cyclops,
PondasanExampleofanEcosystem(AquaticEcosystem) Cypris
²² Nektons are the animals that can swim and navigate at
A pond is a shallow, simple, self-sustainable water body that exhibits will. E.g. fishes
all basic components of an ecosystem. ²² Benthic animals are the bottom dwellers: E.g. Beetle,
I. Abiotic components in pond: mites, mollusks and some crustaceans.
(i) Light: Solar radiation provides energy that controls 3. Decomposers: They are distributed throughout the entire in
the entire system. Penetration of light depends on the whole pond but in the sediment most abundant. There are
transparency of water, amount of dissolved or suspended bacteria and fungi. E.g. Rhizopus, Penicillium, Curvularia,
particles in water and the number of plankton. Cladosporium are found at the bottom of the pond.
On the basis of extent of penetration of light a pond Pond performs all the functions of an ecosystem such as
can be divided into euphotic, mesophotic and aphotic (a) Conversion of inorganic into organic material with the
zones. help of the radiant energy of the sun by the autotrophs.
Plenty of light is available to plants and animals in (b) Consumption of the autotrophs by heterotrophs.
euphotic zone. No light is available in the aphotic (c) Decomposition and mineralization of the dead matter to
zone. release them back for reuse by the autotrophs.
(ii) Inorganic substances: These are water, carbon, (d) Unidirectional flow of energy towards the higher
nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and a few other elements trophic levels and its dissipation and loss as heat to the
like sulphur depending on the location of the pond. The environment.
inorganic substances like O2 and CO2 are present in
dissolved state in water. All plants and animals depend Ecosystem – Structure and Function
on water for their food and exchange of gases- nitrogen,
yy The interaction between the various biotic and abiotic
phosphorus, sulphur and other inorganic salts are held
components of an ecosystem leads to maintenance of the
in reserve in bottom sediment and inside the living
ecosystem. These components function as a unit.
organisms.
yy Vertical distribution of different species occupying different
(iii) Organic compounds: The commonly found organic
levels is called stratification. E.g. trees occupy top vertical
matter in the pond is amino acids and humic acids and
strata (layer) of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and
the breakdown products of dead animals and plants.
grasses occupy the bottom layers.
They are partly dissolved in water and partly suspended
yy The aspects taken into consideration to study the
in water.
functioning of ecosystem are:
II. Biotic components:
(i.) Productivity   
1. Producers or autotrophs: They synthesize food for all the
(ii.) Decomposition
heterotrophs of the pond. They can be categorized into two
(iii.) Energy flow
groups: Floating microorganisms and plants and rooted
(iv.) Nutrient cycling
plants.
(i) Floating microorganisms (green) and plants: They Productivity
are called phytoplankton (“phyto”- plants, “plankton”
–floating). They are microscopic organisms. Sometimes yy The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is
they are so abundant in pond that they make it look expressed in terms of g–2 yr–1 or (kcal m–2) yr–1. It is used
green in colour e.g., Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, to compare productivity of different ecosystems.
Diatoms, Volvox. yy A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for
(ii) Rooted plants: These are arranged in concentric zones any ecosystem to function and sustain.
from periphery to the deeper layers. (i) Primary productivity: It is the amount of biomass
produced per unit area in a given time period by plants
 Ecosystem 769

during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight yy Detritus (dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers
(g–2) or energy (kcal m–2). and dead remains of animals, including fecal matter) is the
GPP – R = NPP raw material for decomposition.
Where, GPP-Gross Primary Productivity yy The various processes involved in decomposition are:
NPP-Net Primary Productivity (a) Fragmentation: It is the first step in the process of
It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and decomposition. It involves the breakdown of detritus into
net primary productivity (NPP). smaller particles by detritivores such as earthworm.
²² Gross primary productivity: It is the rate of production (b) Leaching: It is the process where the water soluble
of organic matter during photosynthesis. A considerable inorganic nutrients go down into the soil layers and get
amount of GPP is utilized by plants in respiration. locked as unavailable salt.
²² Net primary productivity: Gross primary productivity (c) Catabolism: It is the process in which bacteria and fungi
minus respiration losses (R) is the net primary degrade detritus through various bacterial and fungal
productivity (NPP). NPP is the available biomass enzymes into smaller pieces.
for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores and Fragmentation, leaching and catabolism operate
decomposers). simultaneously on the detritus.
NPP = GPP – R (d) Humification: The next step is humification which leads
Primary productivity depends on to the formation of a dark coloured colloidal substance
(a) The plant species inhabiting a particular area called humus. Humus is resistant to microbial action and
(b) Environmental factors so decomposes very slowly. Being colloidal in nature it
(c) Availability of nutrients serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
(d) Photosynthetic capacity of plants
(e) Mineralization: The humus is further degraded by the
²² Therefore, it varies in different types of ecosystems. action of microbes, which finally leads to the release
²² The annual net primary productivity of the whole of inorganic nutrients into the soil. This process of
biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) releasing inorganic nutrients from the humus is called
of organic matter. Of this, despite occupying about 70% mineralization.
of the surface, the productivity of the oceans is only 55
Decomposition produces a dark coloured, nutrient rich
billion tons. Rest of course, is on land. substance called humus. Humus finally degrades and releases
(ii) Secondary productivity: It is defined as rate of inorganic raw materials such as CO2, water and other nutrient
production of organic matter by consumers over a period in the soil.
of time.
Factors influencing decomposition
Decomposition yy Chemical composition of detritus: Decomposition rate is
yy Decomposition is the process that involves the breakdown slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker,
of complex organic matter or biomass from the body of if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances
dead plants and animals with the help of decomposers into like sugars.
inorganic raw materials such as carbon dioxide, water and yy Climatic factors like temperature and soil moisture:
other nutrients. Warm and moist environment favour decomposition whereas
yy It is largely an oxygen-requiring process. low temperature and anerobiosis inhibit decomposition
resulting in build-up of organic materials.

Table: Difference between production and decomposition

Production Decomposition
It is the rate of producing organic matter (food) by producers. It is the process of breaking down of complex organic matter from the body
of dead animals and plants with the help of decomposers into organic raw
materials such as CO2 and H2O and other nutrients.
It depends on the photosynthetic capacity of the producers. It occurs with the help of decomposers.
Sunlight is required by plants for primary production. Sunlight is not required by decomposition by decomposers.

Ecosystem Function-Energy Flow Through Ecosystem Energy Flow

Food chains and energy flow are the functional properties of yy All life depends upon the flow of energy and materials
ecosystems which make them dynamic. The biotic and abiotic through ecosystems. Food chain shows energy pathways.
components of an ecosystem are linked through them. Energy passes from producer (plants) to plant-eaters, to
animal-eaters and on to tertiary consumer.
 770 BIOLOGY

yy Energy enters the ecosystem from the sun. Sun is the captured by green plants (producers) during photosynthesis
only source of energy for all ecosystems (except deep sea to be converted into food. The rate at which the biomass
hydro-thermal ecosystem). Plants and other photosynthetic is produced by plants during photosynthesis is termed as
organisms utilise less than 50% of the solar radiation known “gross primary productivity”. When these green plants are
as photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). consumed by herbivores, only 10 % of the stored energy
yy Plants and photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria from producers is transferred to herbivores. The remaining
(autotrophs), fix solar radiant energy to make food. 90% of this energy is used by plants for various processes
yy Solar radiations pass through the atmosphere and are such as respiration, growth and reproduction. Similarly, only
absorbed by the Earth’s surface. These radiations help 10% of the energy of herbivores is transferred to carnivores.
plants in carrying out the process of photosynthesis. Also, This is known as ten percent law of energy flow.
they help maintain the Earth’s temperature for the survival yy Ecosystems obey 2nd Law of thermodynamics. They need
of living organisms. Some solar radiations are reflected by a constant supply of energy to synthesise the molecules
the Earth’s surface. Only 2- 10 percent of solar energy is they require, to counteract the universal tendency toward
increasing disorderliness.

NU
NU
NU
NU
Sun light Secondary
Autotroph Herbivores Primary Decomposers
Camivores Camivores
R
R R
R
Light reflected R

→
10,000 kcal 1000 kcal
NU = Not utilized
→ 100 kcal
→
R = Respiration
10 kcal

Fig. Energy flow

The entire process of energy flow can be summarized in the yy Animals, which eat the plants, form the second link of the chain.
following four steps: Plant-eaters are the first or primary food consumers in a
yy The flow of energy in an ecosystem is always linear or food chain. Next come predators which feed on the plant eaters
one-way. (i.e. primary consumer). These animal-eaters are second
yy At every step in a food chain the energy received by or secondary food consumers. Some animals-eaters (i.e.
the organism is also used for its own metabolism and secondary consumers) are in turn eaten by other animals,
maintenance. The left over is passed to next higher trophic for example, a snake feed on a toad which in turn feeds
level. Thus energy flow decreases with successive trophic on fruit fly. These animal-eaters are called tertiary food
levels. consumers.
yy It follows the ecological thumb rule of 10%. yy The last link of food chain is occupied by decomposers, which
yy The number of steps is limited to four or five in a food chain feed on dead plants and animals. Decomposer decomposes
for the transfer of energy. the dead bodies of plants and animals into nutrients, water
and carbon dioxide. The nutrients and water are returned to
Ten Percent Law the soil while carbon dioxide is released into the air, which
yy It was given by Lindemann in 1942. in turn are re-used for the growth of new plants.
yy It states that during transfer of energy from one trophic yy The first link in a food chain is always a producer and the
level to another, only about 10% is stored at higher levels; last link is always a decomposer.
remaining 90% is lost in respiration (heat). Position of human beings in the food chain: Human beings
are consumers and may occupy primary, secondary or tertiary
Food Chain and Food Web levels. Vegetarian people are ‘primary consumers; when they
consume small fish chicken or goat meat they are ‘secondary’
yy A food chain starts with green plants because they are food consumers and when they consume big fishes, they are ‘tertiary’
producers. consumers.
 Ecosystem 771

There are two types of food chains: Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead
(i) Grazing food chains: It extends from producers through and waste materials into simple, inorganic materials, which
herbivores to carnivores. are subsequently absorbed by them.
A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted below: In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy
Grass Goat Man flow.
(Producer) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer) In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy
(ii) Detritus food chains: It begins with dead organic matter flows through the DFC than through the GFC.
to the detrivores organisms which in turn make food for DFC may be connected with GFC at some levels. Some of
protozoan to carnivores etc. It is made up of decomposers the organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals. Some
(saprotrophs) which are heterotrophic organisms, e.g. animals (cockroaches, crows etc.) are omnivores. These
fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient interconnections of food chains make a food web.
requirements by degrading dead organic matter or detritus.

Difference between Grazing food chain and detritus food chain

Grazing Food Chain Detritus Food Chain

In this food chain, energy is derived from the sun. In this food chain, energy comes from organic matter or detritus generated
in trophic levels of the grazing food chain.

It begins with producers, present at the first trophic level. The plants It begins with detritus such as dead bodies of animals or fallen leaves, which
biomass is then eaten by herbivores which in turn are consumed by are then eaten by decomposers or detrivores. These detrivores are in turn
a variety of consumers. consumed by their predators.

Grazing food chains are long sized chains. Detritus food chains are small sized chains.

Trophic Level

yy Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in
in a community according to their feeding relationship. A a unit area. Biomass of a species is expressed in terms of
specific place of organisms in the food chain is known as fresh or dry weight. Measurement of biomass in terms of
their trophic level. dry weight is more accurate.
yy Producers belong to the first trophic level, herbivores to the yy The number of trophic levels in a food chain is restricted by
second and carnivores to the third. 10 % flow of energy, less amount of energy available to the
4th trophic level (top carnivore) last trophic level.
Ter. consumer yy In an ecosystem the two chains are interconnected and make
E.g. Man. lion etc.
y-shaped food chain. These two types of food chains are:
3rd trophic level (consumer)
Sec. consumer ²² Producers → Herbivores → Carnivores
E.g. Birds, fishes, wolf etc.
²² Producers → Detritus Feeders → Carnivores
2nd trophic level (herbivore)
Primary consumer
E.g. Zooplankton, grasshopper, cow etc. Food Web
1st trophic level (plants) yy Trophic levels in an ecosystem are not linear rather they are
Primary producer E.g. phytoplankton, grass, trees etc. interconnected and make a food web. Thus food web is a
network interconnected food chains existing in an ecosystem.
Fig. Various trophic levels
yy Green plants are eaten by several plant-eaters. These plant-
yy The amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. eaters in turn are eaten by several animal-eaters. In this way,
When an organism dies it becomes dead biomass (detritus) many food chains become linked together to form a web
that serves as an energy source for decomposers. called food web. Food web shows many food chains linked
yy Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower together. One animal may be a member of several different
trophic level for their energy demands. food chains.
yy Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a yy Food webs are more realistic models of energy flow through
particular time called as the standing crop. It is measured an ecosystem.
 772 BIOLOGY

Example

Fig. Food web

numbers can be upright or inverted depending on the
Table: Difference between food chain and food web number of producers.
Food chain Food web For e.g. in a grassland ecosystem, the pyramid of
numbers is upright. In this type of food chain, the
It is a single linear sequence of It contains a number of
number of producers (plants) is followed by the number
organisms interconnected food chain.
of herbivores (mice), which in turn is followed by the
Members present at higher trophic One organism has alternate number of secondary consumers (Snakes) and tertiary
levels feed on single types of food sources. carnivores (eagles). Hence, the number of individuals at
organisms. the producer level will be maximum, while the number
Food chains are straight. They are never straight. of individuals present at top carnivores will be least.
C4
Ecological Pyramids
Top Carnivore
yy The representation of a food chain in the form of a pyramid C3
is called ecological pyramid.
Secondary
yy An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of various Carnivore
ecological parameters such as the number of individuals C2
present at each trophic level, the amount of energy or the
Primary
biomass present at each trophic level. Carnivore
yy Ecological pyramids represent producers at the base, while C1
the apex represents the top level consumers present in an Herbivores
ecosystem. P
yy There are three main types of pyramids: Producers
(i) Pyramid of numbers: It is the graphical representation A
of the number of individuals present at each trophic
level in a food chain of an ecosystem. The pyramid of Fig. Upright pyramid of numbers showing decreasing number at
successive stage.
 Ecosystem 773

On the other hand, in parasitic food chain, the pyramid of Examples for inverted pyramids:
numbers is inverted. In this type of food chain, a single tree ²² Insects feeding on a big tree.
(producer) provides food to several fruit eating birds, which ²² Pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted
in turn support several insect species. because the biomass of fishes far exceeds that of
phytoplankton.
Hyperparasites Carnivore ²² Pyramid of energy is always upright, because when
energy flows from a trophic level to the next trophic
Parasites level, some energy is always lost as heat at each step.
Herbivores
Herbivores (iii) Pyramid of energy: A pyramid of biomass is a graphical
representation of the amount of energy trapped per unit
Producers time and area in different trophic level of a food chain
Producers
with producers forming the base and the top carnivores
Inverted Spindle-shapped at the tip. It is always upright. It is because when energy
flows from a particular trophic level to the next, some
Fig. An inverted and spindle-shaped pyramids of numbers of a
energy is always lost as heat at each step.
tree ecosystem.
(ii) Pyramid of biomass: A pyramid of biomass is a graphical
representation of the total amount of living matter present
at each trophic level of an ecosystem. It can be upright or Tertiary
inverted. It is upright in grassland and forest ecosystems as Consumers
the amount of biomass present at the producer level is higher
than at the top of carnivore level. The pyramid of biomass Secondary
Consumers
is inverted in a pond ecosystem as the biomass of fishes far
exceeds the biomass of zooplankton (upon which they feed).
Primary Consumers

Producers
Energy
Decreases Sun Light
Top Carnivore
1Kg Fig. Upright pyramid of energy
Difference between upright and inverted pyramid
Primary Carnivore
10Kg
Upright pyramid Inverted pyramid
Herbivores The pyramid of energy is always The pyramid of biomass and pyramid
100Kg upright. of numbers can be inverted.
In the upright pyramid, the number In an inverted pyramid, the number
1000Kg and biomass of organisms in the and biomass of organisms in the
producer level of an ecosystem producer level of an ecosystem
Producers
is the highest, which keeps on is the lowest , which keeps on
decreasing at each trophic level increasing at each trophic level.
Fig. Upright pyramid of biomass in a Terrestrial Ecosystem
in a food chain.

Limitations of ecological pyramids

Carnivore /m 2 yy It does not take into account the same species belonging to
gm two or more trophic levels.
12
yy It assumes a simple food chain that almost never exists in
8g
m/
m2
nature.
Herbivores yy It does not accommodate a food web.
yy Saprophytes are not included in ecological pyramids even
2
/m

though they play a vital role in the ecosystem.

m
4g

Producers
Ecological Succession
yy Ecological succession is a gradual, slow and predictable
change in the species composition of an area leading to a
Fig. Inverted pyramid in an Aquatic Ecosystem climax community.
 774 BIOLOGY

yy The composition of all ecosystems keeps on changing with (i) Hydrarch succession: It takes place in water areas. The
change in their environment. These changes finally lead to successional series progress from hydric to the mesic
the climax community. conditions.
yy Climax community is the community which is in equilibrium (ii) Xerarch succession: It takes place in dry areas. The
with its environment. It remains stable as long as the series progress from xeric to mesic conditions.
environment remains unchanged. The Rainforest is an yy Both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to medium water
example of climax community ecosystem. conditions (mesic) – neither too dry (xeric) nor too wet (hydric).
yy During succession some species colonize an area and become yy The species invading a bare area are called pioneer species.
more numerous, whereas populations of other species decline Xerarch Succession/Primary succession on rocks (xerophytic
and disappear. habitat):
yy The entire sequences of communities that successively change yy The species that invades bare area are called pioneer species.
in a given area are called sere. The individual transitional yy In primary succession on bare rock the pioneer species is
communities are termed seral stages (seralcommunities). the lichen.
Seral communities: yy Lichen secretes acid to dissolve rock, helping in weathering
²² Hydrosere - Community in freshwater and soil formation. The little soil, leads to growth of small
²² Lithosere - Community on rock plants like bryophytes (mosses). They need only small
²² Pssamosere - Community on sand amount of soil.
²² Halosere - Community in saline body yy The mosses speed up the process of soil accumulation by
²² Xerosere - Community in dry area trapping wind-blown particles.
yy In the successive seral stages there is a change in the diversity yy Lichen moss carpet provides suitable substratum for the
of species, increase in the number of species and organisms germination of seeds of herbaceous plants.
and an increase in the total biomass. yy Gradually more soil is accumulated and herbaceous species
yy The present day communities are the results of succession make way for the invasion of shrubs followed by trees.
that occurred over millions of years. yy The climax community is generally dominated by trees.
yy Succession and evolution would have been parallel processes yy The climax community remains stable as long as the
at that time. environment remains unchanged.
yy Succession is divided into two types: Hydrarch succession/ Primary succession in water:
(i) Primary succession: yy In primary succession in water, the pioneer species are
²² The succession that takes place in areas where no living phytoplankton. Zooplanktons → Sub merged plant stage
organisms ever existed. E.g. newly cooled lava, bare (rooted hydrophytes) → Sub merged and free-floating plant
rock, newly created pond or reservoir. stage. Reed-swamp stage → Marsh-meadow stage → Shrub
²² In primary succession, pioneer species are lichens, stage → Trees → The climax again would be the forest →
phytoplankton, etc. With time the water body is converted into land → All the
²² It is a slow process. It is because, before a biotic succession whether taking place in water or on land, proceeds
community is established, there must be formation of to a similar climax community – the mesic.
fertile soil through natural processes.
(ii) Secondary succession: NUTRIENT CYCLING
²² The succession that takes place in areas which have
lost all life forms due to destructions and floods. yy The amount of nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
E.g. abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands calcium, etc. present in the soil at any given time, is referred
that have been flooded. Pioneer species – grasses, wild to as the standing state. It varies in different kinds of
flowers, algae. ecosystems and also on a seasonal basis.
²² Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is yy Organism needs constant supply of nutrients to grow,
faster than primary succession. reproduce, and regulate various body functions.
²² The species that invade depend on the condition of the yy Nutrients are never lost from the ecosystems. They are recycled
soil, availability of water etc. again and again. The movement of nutrient elements through
yy In succession, changes in vegetation affect food and shelter various components of an ecosystem is called nutrient
of various animals. Thus, as succession proceeds, the number cycling (biogeochemical cycles). Hence, the cyclic flow of
and types of animals and decomposers also change. nutrients between non-living environment (soil, air and water)
yy Natural or human induced disturbances (deforestation, fire etc.), and the living organisms is called biogeochemical cycle.
can convert a particular seral stage of succession to an earlier yy In biosphere the nutrients exist in two states: Reservoir
stage. Such disturbances create new conditions that encourage pool and cycling pool.
some species and discourage or eliminate other species. (i) Reservoir pool: It is the pool/storehouse of nutrients
Succession in Plants from which the nutrients are slowly transferred to
yy Based on the nature of the habitat, succession of plants cycling pool.
is of two types: hydrarch and xerarch. (ii) Cycling pool: It is the pool of nutrients which is
 Ecosystem 775

repeatedly exchanged between the biotic and abiotic yy Now, it is necessary to recycle this absorbed carbon dioxide
components of biosphere. back into the atmosphere to complete the cycle. There are
yy Based on existent of nutrients, nutrient cycles are of two various processes by which carbon is recycled back into the
types: atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide gas.
(a) Gaseous cycle: Reservoir for these types of cycles exists yy The process of respiration breaks down glucose molecules to
in the atmosphere. E.g. Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle produce CO2 gas. The process of decomposition also releases
(b) Sedimentary cycle: Reservoir for these types of cycles carbon dioxide from dead bodies of plants and animals into
exists in earth’s crust. Sedimentary cycles have their the atmosphere.
reservoirs in the Earth’s crust or rocks. Elements such yy Combustion of fuels, industrialisation, deforestation,
as sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium have volcanic eruptions and forest fires act as other major sources
sedimentary cycles. of carbon dioxide.
yy Environmental factors (soil, moisture, pH, temperature, etc.) Influence of human activity on carbon cycling.
regulate the rate of release of nutrients into the atmosphere. yy Rapid deforestation.
The reservoir meets with the deficit of nutrients due to yy Massive burning of fossil fuel for energy and transport
imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux. yy Increased the rate of release of CO2 into the atmosphere.
yy Importance of biogeochemical cycle:
(i) The minerals such as carbon, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen
cycle through living and non-living components of the
biosphere.
(ii) The amount of various materials cycling through biosphere
remains more or less constant.

1. Carbon Cycle
yy The cyclic flow of carbon in biosphere between its abiotic
(soil, air and water) and biotic (plants and animals)
components is called carbon cycle.
yy The carbon cycle is an important gaseous cycle which has
its reservoir pool in the atmosphere. Carbon constitutes
49 percent of dry weight of organism. Out of total global
carbon:
²² 71 percent carbon found dissolved in ocean. Fig. Carbon Cycle
²² About 1 percent in the atmosphere.
yy Carbon is a fundamental element found in all living forms. 2. Phosphorus Cycle
All biomolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins yy Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes,
required for life processes are made of carbon. nucleic acids and cellular energy transfer systems. Many
yy Carbon is incorporated into living forms through a animals use phosphorus to make shells, bones and teeth.
fundamental process called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis yy The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock which contains
uses sunlight and atmospheric carbon dioxide to produce a phosphorus in the form of phosphates.
carbon compound called “glucose”. This glucose molecule is yy During weathering of rock small amount of phosphates
utilised by other living organisms. Thus, atmospheric carbon dissolved in soil solution and are absorbed by the roots of
is incorporated in living forms. the plants.

Fig. Phosphorus Cycle

 776 BIOLOGY

yy Herbivore and other animals obtain organic form of ²² Cycle nutrients.

phosphorus from plants. ²² Generates fertile soil.
yy The waste product and dead organisms are decomposed by ²² Provide wildlife habitat.
phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing phosphorus. ²² Maintain biodiversity.
Differences between carbon and phosphorous cycles ²² Pollinate crops.
yy There is no respiratory release of phosphorus into ²² Provide storage site for carbon.
atmosphere. ²² Provide aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values.
yy Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much yy Robert Constanza and his colleagues have tried to put price
smaller. tags on nature’s life-support services.
yy Gaseous exchange of phosphorus between organism and yy Researchers have put an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion
environment are negligible. a year on these fundamental ecosystems services. This is
nearly twice the value of the global gross national product
Ecosystem Services GNP which is (US $ 18 trillion).
yy The products of ecosystem processes are called ecosystem yy Out of the total cost of various ecosystem services, the soil
services. formation accounts for about 50%.
yy Healthy forest ecosystems yy Contributions of other services like recreation and nutrient
²² Purify air and water. cycling are less than 10% each.
²² Mitigate droughts and flood. yy The cost of climate regulation and habitat for wildlife are
about 6 % each.
 792 BIOLOGY

Chapter
Biodiversity and
37 its Conservation
Biodiversity is the variety of living forms present in various Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem exists
ecosystems. It includes variability among life forms from all along 3 levels.
source including air, water and land. It is the diversity of biological (a) Alpha diversity: It is the biodiversity within a particular
organisation ranging from cellular macromolecules to biomes. area, community or ecosystem. It is usually expressed by
The term was coined by Edward Wilson. Biodiversity as the number of species i.e. species richness in that ecosystem.
This can be measured by counting the number of taxa within
describes by Edward Wilson is the combined diversity at all levels
the ecosystem.
of biological organisation.
(b) Beta diversity: It is the diversity which works by comparing
the species diversity between ecosystems. This involves
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY comparing the number of taxa that are unique to each of the
ecosystems. It is the rate of change in species composition
(i) Genetic diversity across habitats or among communities.
yy Diversity shown by a single species at genetic level is called (c) Gamma diversity: It refers to the total species richness over
genetic diversity. a large area or region. It is a measure of the overall density
yy E.g. Rauwolfia vomitoria (Himalaya) shows genetic variation of component ecosystems and the β-diversity between
in terms of potency and concentration of the chemical component ecosystems.
reserpine. India has more than 50,000 different strains of rice Biodiversity is defined as the combined diversity at all levels of
and 1000 varieties of mango. biological organisation.
yy The genetic diversity enables a population to adapt to its yy An ecosystem with high species diversity is much more stable
environment and to respond to natural selection. The amount than an ecosystem with low species diversity. Also, high
of genetic variation is the basis of speciation. Genetic biodiversity makes the ecosystem more stable in productivity
diversity within a species often increases with environmental and more resistant towards disturbances such as alien species
variability. invasions and floods.
(ii) Species diversity yy If an ecosystem is rich in biodiversity, then the ecological
yy Diversity at the species level is called as species diversity. E.g. balance would not get affected. As we all know, various
Western Ghats have greater amphibian species than Eastern trophic levels are connected through food chains. If anyone
Ghats. It gives an idea about Species richness and species organism or all organisms of any one trophic level is killed,
evenness. then it will disrupt the entire food chain. For example, in a
yy Species richness refers to the number of species per unit area. food chain, if all plants, if all plants are killed, then all deer’s
yy Species Evenness refers to the relative abundance with which will deer die due to lack of food. If all deer’s are dead, soon
each species is represented in an area. the tigers will also die. Therefore, it can be concluded that
(iii) Ecological diversity if an ecosystem is rich in species, then there will be the
other food alternatives at each trophic level which would
yy Diversity at the ecosystem level is called ecological
diversity. not allow any organism to die due to the absence of their
food resources.
yy E.g. in India, deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs,
yy Hence, biodiversity plays an important role in maintaining
wet lands, estuaries and alpine meadows are seen.
the health and ecological balance of an ecosystem.
 Biodiversity and its Conservation 793

TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES ON EARTH (GLOBAL yy Applying May’s global estimates, India would have more
than 1 lakh plant species and 3 lakh animal species.
SPECIES DIVERSITY)
yy The diversity of living organism present on the Earth is very Hotspots
fast. According to an estimate by teachers, it is about seven yy Hot spots are the areas or regions of high endemism and
millions. very high levels of species richness. These are the richest
yy According to IUCN (2004), the total numbers of plant and and the most threatened reservoirs of plant and animal life
animals species are more than 1.5 million species described on earth.
so far. yy There are 34 hot spots in the world, of which three are in
yy According to Robert May’s, Global estimate is about 7 million India; namely Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma
(considering the species to be discovered in the tropics. i.e. and Himalaya.
only 22% of the total species have been recorded so far). Number of plants and animal species in different groups recorded
yy Animals are more diverse (above 70%) than plants including in India
Plantae and Fungi (22%).
yy Most species rich taxonomic group among animals: Insects Anglosperms 17500
(70%, i.e. out of every 10 animals, 7 are insects). Gymnosperms 64
yy Number of fungi species is more than the combined total of Pleridophyles 1100
the species of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals. Bryovcvvvphotes 2850
yy These estimates do not give any figure for prokaryotes Lichens 2000
for the following reasons: Fungl 14500
²² The conventional taxonomic methods are not sufficient Algae 6500
for identifying these microbial species Bacteria 850
Number of species of plants and bacteria
²² Many of these species cannot be cultured under 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
laboratory conditions.
²² Biochemical and molecular biology techniques would
Mammalia 390
put their diversity into millions. Aves 1232
yy The total number of species present in the world is calculated Reptillia 456
by ecologists by statically comparison between a species Amphibia 209
Pisces 2546
richness of a well-studied group of insects of temperate and Protochordata 199
tropical regions. Then, these ratios are extrapolated with other Other invertebrates 8329
groups of plants and animals to calculate the total species Artropoda 68389
richness present on the Earth. Mollusca
Protozoa
5070
2577
Number of species of plants and bacteria
BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000

yy India is one of the twelve mega biodiversity countries of

the world. Mammalia 390
yy India has only 2.4% of the land area of the world; it has 8.1% Aves 1232
Reptillia 456
of the global species biodiversity. Amphibia 209
yy There are about 45,000 species of plants and about 90,000- Pisces 2546
1,00,000 species of animals. Protochordata 119
Other invertebrates 8329
yy New species are yet to be discovered and named. Artropoda 68389
yy Applying Robert May’s global estimate, only 22% of the total Mollusca 5070
species have been recorded, India has probably more than Protozoa 2577
1, 00,000 species of plants and 3, 00,000 species of animals Number of species of plants and bacteria

to be discovered and described. 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000

yy More than 70 percent of species recorded on the Earth are

animals and 22 percent species are plants. There is a quiet PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY
difference in their percentage. This is because; animals have
adapted themselves to ensure their survival in changing yy Biodiversity is not uniform throughout the world but varies
environments in comparison to plants. For example, insects with latitude and altitude.
and other animals have developed a complex nervous system yy Favourable environmental conditions favour speciation and
to control and coordinate their body structure. Also, repeated make it possible for a larger number of species to exist there,
body segments with paired appendages and external cuticles i.e., biodiversity is more in such areas than the others.
have made insects versatile and have given them the ability to (i) Latitudinal gradients
survive in various habitats as compared to other life forms. yy Species diversity decreases from the equator towards the poles.
 794 BIOLOGY

yy Tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5ºN to 23.5ºS) have more S = Species richness         
species than temperate or polar areas. A = Area      
²² Colombia (near equator) has about 1400 species of C = Y-intercept
birds. Z = slope of the line (regression co-efficient)
²² New York (41ºN): 105 species of birds yy Ecologists have found that Z value ranges between 0.1 and
²² Greenland (71ºN): 56 species of birds 0.2 irrespective of the taxonomic group or the region.
²² India (tropical latitudes): > 1200 species yy In very large area like continents, Z value ranges between
yy Equator (Tropical forest region) has up to 10 times as many 0.6 and 1.2.
species of vascular plants as a forest of equal area in Midwest
of USA (temperate region).
yy Greatest biodiversity on earth: Tropical Amazonian rain forest
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
in South America (> 40000 species of plants, 3000 fishes, 1300 yy Different species have been extinct due to human activities.
birds, 427 mammals, 427 amphibians, 378 reptiles and more yy IUCN Red List (2004) documents extinction of 784 species
than 1,25,000 invertebrates. (338 vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and 87 plants) in the last
yy There are three different hypothesis proposed by scientists 500 years. E.g. Dodo (Mauritius), Quagga (Africa), Thylacine
for explaining species richness in the trophics. (Australia), Stellar’s sea cow (Russia) and 3 subspecies (Bali,
(i) Tropical latitude receives more solar energy than temperate Javan, Caspian) of tiger.
regions, which lead to high productivity and high species yy 27 species have been disappeared in the last 20 years.
diversity. yy More than 15,500 species are facing threat of extinction.
(ii) Tropical regions have less seasonal variations and have yy 12% birds, 23% mammals, 32% amphibians, 31%
more or less constant environment. This promotes the niche gymnosperm species face the threat of extinction.
specialisation and thus, high species richness. yy The current extinction rate is 100 to 1000 times faster than
(iii) Temperate regions were subjected to glaciations during ice in the pre-human times. If this trend continues, nearly 50%
age, while tropical regions remained undisturbed which led species on earth might be wiped out within next 100 years.
to an increase in the species diversity in this region.
(ii) Species- area relationship Impacts of Loss of Biodiversity
yy Alexander Von Humboldt has observed that within a region, yy Decline in plant production
species richness gets increased when explored area is yy Environmental perturbations such as drought.
increased, but only up to a limit. yy Increased variability in ecosystem processes such as plant
yy Relation between species richness and area for a wide variety productivity, water use and pest and disease cycles.
of taxa gives a rectangular hyperbola.
yy The slope of regression (z) has a great significance in Causes of Biodiversity Losses (‘The Evil Quartet’)
order to find a species-area relationship. It has been found
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation
that in smaller areas (where the species-area relationship
yy Habitat of various organisms are altered or destroyed by
is analysed), the value of slopes of regression is similar uncontrolled and unsustainable human activities such as
regardless of the taxonomic group or the region. However, deforestation, slash, and burn agricultural, mining and
when a similar analysis is done in greater areas, then the urbanisation. This results in the breaking up of the habitat
slope of regression is much steeper. into small pieces, which effects the movement of migratory
Graph showing species-area relationship animals and also, decreases the genetic exchange between
populations leading to a declination of species.
S – CA
Z
yy E.g.
Log S – log C+ Z log A ²² Tropical rain forests (loss from 14% to 6%). Thousands
Species richness

hectares of rain forests is being lost within hrs.

e
cal ²² The Amazon rain forest is being cut for cultivating soya
logs
log- beans or for conversion of grass lands for cattle.
²² Due to fragmentation, animals requiring large territories
and migratory animals are badly affected.
Area
2. Over-exploitation
yy Due to over-hunting and over-exploitation of various
Fig. Showing species area relationship. Note that plants and animals by humans, many species have become
on log scale the relationship becomes linear endangered or extinct.
yy On a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a straight line and ²² Many species like Stellar’s sea cow, Passenger pigeon
the equation is described as Log S = log C + Z log A etc. extinct due to over exploitation.
where,
 Biodiversity and its Conservation 795

3. Alien species invasions (v) 54 animal species are endangered.

yy Accidental or intentional introduction of non-native species (vi) 143 animal species are vulnerable.
into a habitat has led to the declination or extinction of (i) Extinct species: Species that no longer exist on earth are
indigenous species. Alien species cause decline or extinction called extinct species. Dodo, passenger pigeon etc. are some
of indigenous species. examples of extinct species.
yy E.g. (a) Dinosaur got extinct due to natural reasons.
²² The Nile Perch introduced in Lake Victoria (East Africa) (b) Dodo became extinct mainly due to people hunting it
caused extinction of more than 200 species of native fish, for food.
cichlid fish in the lake. (ii) Threatened species: Threatened species are species that
²² Invasive weed species like carrot grass (Parthenium), are likely to disappear from the world sooner or later. In
Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia) caused damage the Red list, all species listed under the categories critically
to our native species. endangered, vulnerable and endangered are together
²² The illegal introduction of the African Catfish (Clarias described as threatened species.
gariepinus) for aquaculture is posing a threat to the
(a) Endangered species are those species that are on the
indigenous catfishes in our rivers.
verge of becoming extinct. For example, blue whale,
4. Co-extinctions
tiger, leopard, etc.
yy In a native habitat, one species is connected to the other in an
(b) Vulnerable species are those species that already
intricate network. The extinction of one species causes the
existed in low number and are likely to move into
extinction of other species, which is associated with it in an
obligatory way. endangered category in the near future, if causal factors
yy E.g. such as habitat destruction, over exploitation and other
²² Extinction of the parasites when the host is extinct. environmental disturbances continue over a period of
²² Co-evolved plant-pollinator mutualism where extinction time. E.g. Musk deer, Sambhar deer, black buck.
of one leads to the extinction of the other. (c) Rare species are those species whose populations in
the world are very small. So if they are not protected
IUCN Red List Categories then they might fall into the category of vulnerable or
endangered species. E.g. Indian elephant, Wild buffalo,
International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural
Bengal fox, Gaur, etc.
Resources (IUCN) works towards assessing the global conservation
status of plant and animal species. It maintains a comprehensive
list shown as IUCN Red List of threatened species. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
The uses of this red list are:
(i) Developing awareness about the importance of threatened Reasons for conservation are divided into three categories.
bio-diversity. (a) Narrowly utilitarian arguments
(ii) Identification and documentation of endangered species. yy Human derive economic benefits from nature such as food,
(iii) Providing a global index of the decline of biodiversity. firewood, fibre, construction material, industrial products
(iv) Defining conservation priorities at the local level and (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes) and medicines.
guiding conservation action. yy More than 25% of the drugs are derived from plants and more
Also, IUCN has recognised eight Red List categories of species. than 25,000 species of plants have medicinal value.
They are:
(b) Broadly utilitarian arguments
(i) Extinct
yy Biodiversity plays an important role in maintaining and
(ii) Extinct in the world
sustaining supply of goods and services. It means biodiversity
(iii) Critically Endangered
has many ecosystem services. E.g.
(iv) Endangered
(v) Vulnerable ²² Amazon forest (‘lung of the planet’) produces 20% of
(vi) Lower risk total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere.
(vii) Data deficient ²² Pollination through bees, bumblebees, birds and bats.
(viii) Not evaluated ²² Aesthetic pleasures.
The 2000 red list contains assessment of more than 18,000 (c) Ethical arguments
species, 11,000 of which are threatened. yy There are thousands of plants, animals and microbes on this
According to the Red list in India earth which are not useless.
(i) 44 plant species are critically endangered. yy Each one has some intrinsic value even if it is not of any
(ii) 113 plant species are endangered. economic value to us.
(iii) 87 plant species are vulnerable. yy It is therefore our moral duty to ensure well-being of all the
(iv) 18 animal species are critically endangered. living creatures’ for the utilization.
 796 BIOLOGY

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY (iv) Sacred forests (Sacred groves): Sacred groves are forests
which are regenerated around places of worship.
There are two basic approaches towards conservation of bio Sacred grooves are found in:
diversity: In situ conservation and Ex situ conservation (i) Sacred groves in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya
(ii) Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan
(iii) Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra
Biodiversity
Conservation
(iv) Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas (Madhya Pradesh).
Sacred groves help in protection of many rare, threatened and
endemic species of plants and animals found in an area. The process
In situ
of deforestation is strictly prohibited in this region by tribals. Hence,
Ex situ
the sacred grove biodiversity is a rich area.
Protected
area network (b) Ex situ conservation (off site)
Sacred Seed banks Biotanical
plants Field gene banks gardens It is the conservation of organisms outside their habitats. E.g.
home Cryopreservation Arborata genetic resource centres, zoological parks, botanical gardens, gene
gardens Zoological
Sacred Biosphere National parks gardens banks etc.
groves reserves wildlife Aquaria (i) Use of seed bank, Gene banks or germplasm: Seeds
sacred lakes sanctuaries
have the ability to show variable periods of dormancy.
Therefore, many seed plants can be preserved in the form
Terrestrial Marine of their seeds in small packets for longer periods. Places
where seeds are stored are called seed bank, gene bank or
germplasm banks.
(a) In situ conservation (on site) Germplasm refers to any living plant organ or its part from
yy It is the conservation of genetic resources within natural or which a complete new plant can be generated. This utilises
human-made ecosystems in which they occur. E.g. protected the technique of cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen at a
areas such as National Parks, Sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves, temperature of -196˚C.
cultural landscapes, natural monuments. Plants are propagated by using tissue culture methods called
yy India has 600 protected areas, which includes over 90 national micro propagation.
parks, over 500 wildlife sanctuary, and 15 biosphere reserves. (ii) Animal translocation: It involves the release of animals
Protected areas contain maximum biodiversity. in a new locality. It takes place when,
(i) National Park: It is a protected area, which is strictly (a) A species is endemic or restricted to a particular
reserved for the welfare of the wildlife and where activities region.
like forestry, grazing and cultivation are not permitted. (b) A species on which an animal is dependent becomes
Their boundaries are well marked and circumscribed. In rare.
national parks, the emphasis is on the preservation of a (c) Due to habit destruction and unfavourable conditions.
single plant or animal species. (d) Increase in population in an area.
(ii) Sanctuary: It is a protected area which is reserved for the (iii) Botanical garden: Botanical garden is a place where,
conservation of only animals. Here, human activities like flowers, fruits and vegetables are grown. Such garden
harvesting of timber, collection of minor forest products provides beauty and calm environment. India has
are allowed to a certain extent as long as they do not harm 35 botanical gardens. E.g. Lloyd botanical garden in
the animals. Darjeeling, Indian Botanical garden in Calcutta, etc.
Boundaries of sanctuaries are not well-defined and controlled (iv) Zoological garden: Zoological garden or zoos are place
biotic interference is permitted like tourist activity. where animals are maintained in captivity. There are about
(iii) Biosphere Reserves: It is a large protected area where 275 zoological parks.
human population also forms a part of the system. Out
of 425 biosphere reserves in the world, 14 are in India. International Efforts for Conserving Biodiversity
A biosphere reserve has three parts: Core, buffer, and
yy The Earth Summit (Rio de Jeneiro, 1992): It has three
transition zone.
main objectives:
(a) Core zone: It is the innermost zone that is undisturbed
and legally protected area. (a) Conservation of biodiversity
(b) Buffer zone: It is the zone between the core and (b) Sustainable use of biodiversity
transition zone. Some research and educational (c) Sharing of benefits in the utilization of genetic
activities are allowed here. resources.
(c) Transition zone: it is the outermost part of the yy The World Summit on Sustainable Development
biosphere reserve. Here, cropping, forestry, recreation, (Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002): In this summit, 190
fishery and other activities are allowed. countries pledged to reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss.
 810 BIOLOGY

Chapter
Environmental
38 Issues
Human population is increasing tremendously. Therefore there (c) Vegetable oils, kerosene, and coal as household
is a lot of demand for food, electricity, clothing, roads, housing, fuels.
vehicles, etc. These are exerting a lot of pressure on land, water, (d) Pesticide residues in air.
air and other resources. It leads to pollution and degradation of (e) Sewers and domestic drains emanating foul smell.
the environment and biodiversity that is a part of it. (f) Deforestation (cutting down of trees).
yy According to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB),
particulate size of less than 2.5mm in diameter (PM 2.5)
POLLUTION causes greatest harm to human health. It causes respiratory
problems, irritation, inflammations and damage to lungs and
yy Pollution is any undesirable change in physical, chemical or
premature deaths.
biological characteristics of air, land, water or soil.
yy Pollution by natural source is much less in comparison to
yy Agents that cause pollution are called as pollutants.
man-made pollution.
yy The Government of India has passed the Environment
(Protection) Act in 1986 to control environmental pollution Air Pollutants
and protect and improve the quality of our environment.
yy The agents that pollute the environment are called
pollutant.
AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL yy Major air pollutants are:
(i) Carbon dioxide (CO2): It is mainly produced during the
yy Air is a complex, dynamic natural entity, which is essential combustion of fuel in factories, power stations, household, etc.
for supporting life on earth. Effects:
yy Air pollution is the addition of unwanted substances into (a) It increases the atmospheric temperature due to
the atmosphere that has an adverse effect on organisms and greenhouse effect.
the environment. (b) It reduces the productivity of marine ecosystem. It is
because, the water in the oceans become more acidic
Sources of Air Pollution:
due to increased concentration of CO2 in the air, which
yy All human activities from cooking at home to the working then get dissolved in the water.
of industries contribute to air pollution. (c) The increased temperature of the earth causes melting
yy The sources of air pollution can be divided into two of continental and mountain glaciers. This in turn would
categories: cause flooding of coastal areas of some countries. This
(i) Natural sources: process is known as global warming.
(a) Forest fire (ii) Sulphur dioxide (SO2): It is produced by burning of coal in
(b) Dust storm powerhouses and vehicles.
(c) Pollen grains from flowers. Effects:
(d) Smoking volcanoes (a) In plants, it causes chlorosis (yellowing of leaves) and
(ii) Man-made sources: necrosis.
(a) Burning of fossil fuels in industries, vehicles and (b) In humans, it causes, irritation in eyes and injury to the
thermal power plants. respiratory tract leading to diseases like asthma and
(b) Emissions from industries. bronchitis.
 Environmental Issues 811

(c) SO 2 is also responsible for discolouration and Effects: It causes depletion of ozone layer and thereby, the

deterioration of building. exposure of humans to the harmful effects of UV rays of the
(d) It causes acid rain. The high concentration of sulphur sun.
dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in rain drops to form
sulphuric acid which causes acid rain. Harmful Effects of Air Pollution:
(iii) Carbon monoxide (CO): It is produced as a result of yy Air pollutants cause injury to all living organisms.
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels like coal and petroleum. yy They reduce growth and yield of crops and cause premature
Carbon dioxide is more dangerous than CO2. It is a poisonous death of plants.
gas, which causes major respiratory diseases. When carbon yy Air pollutants affect the respiratory system. The particulate
monoxide is inhaled, it reaches the blood stream. Due to its size 2.5 micrometers or less are responsible for breathing
high affinity for haemoglobin, it replaces oxygen. and respiratory symptoms like irritation, inflammations and
Effects: It causes giddiness, headache and interferes with damage to the lungs and premature death.
normal functioning of heart.
(iv) Nitrogen oxides (NO): Oxides of nitrogen such as nitric Control of Air Pollution
oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are
produced from thermal power stations, automobiles, industries yy Methods to reduce vehicular pollution:
and from aircrafts due to burning of coal and petroleum. (i) Use of lead free petrol or diesel can reduce vehicular
pollution.
Effects: (ii) Catalytic converter:
(a) It reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. ♦♦ Catalytic converters are devices fitted in automobiles
(b) It may also cause irritation in eyes and lungs, and skin to reduce vehicular pollution. .
cancer in human beings. ♦♦ These devices contain expensive metals such
(c) Acid rain damages materials (metals and stone). as platinum, palladium and rhodium that act as
catalysts.
Acid rain
♦♦ As the vehicular discharge passes through catalytic
Acid rain is caused by presence of excess of nitrogen oxides, sulphur converter, the unburnt hydrocarbons present in it get
dioxide and chlorides in the atmosphere. converted into carbon dioxide and water.
yy Air contains acidic gases such as SO2 and NO2 as air ♦♦ Carbon monoxide and nitric oxide released by
pollutant. These gases are released from industries and catalytic converters are converted into carbon dioxide
automobile exhaust. In the presence of moisture in air, and nitrogen di oxide respectively.
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water ♦♦ Motor vehicles having catalytic converter should use
producing sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) unleaded petrol because lead in the petrol inactivates
respectively. These acids then comes down to earth surface the catalyst.
and water bodies along with rain. (iii) Electrostatic precipitator:
yy The rain containing acids in the form of H2SO4 and HNO3 ♦♦ It is the device widely used to remove particulate
and weak carbonic acid in it is known as acid rain. matter such as dust, smoke etc. from air using force
Effects of acid rain on environment: of an electrostatic charge.
(i) It causes respiratory and skin disorders. ♦♦ It can remove over 99% particulate matter present in
(ii) It damages the leaves of plants, thereby affecting its the exhaust from a thermal power plant.
productivity. ♦♦ The electrode wires, maintained at several thousand
(iii) It enters the soil and affects the soil pH. volts produce a corona that release electrons. Electrons
(iv) It has an adverse effect on marble, thereby damaging the bind to dust particles giving them a negative charge.
buildings and monuments like Tajmahal. The positively charged collecting plates, on the other
(v) Smog: Smog a dark brown smoky mist that occurs in cold hand, attract the charged dust particles.
weather. It is a mixture of smoke, dust particles and small ♦♦ The velocity of air between the plates must be low
drops of fog. It is a visible indicator of air pollution. enough to allow the dust to fall.
♦♦ They are highly effective and consume very less
Effects: energy for their use.
(i) It causes necrosis and develops a white coating on the (iv) Scrubber:
leaves of the plants. ♦♦ Scrubber removes gases like sulphur dioxide.
(ii) In humans, it may cause asthma and allergies. It is highly ♦♦ In particulate scrubbers, the polluted gas is passed
suffocating. through a layer of scrubbing liquid, or forced through
(vi) Aerosol spray propellants: These are suspended fine a pool of liquid.
particles in the air. It contains chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs) ♦♦ These are highly effective in the removal of pollutants
and fluorocarbons. from the gas.
 812 BIOLOGY

♦♦ Disadvantages: These scrubbers have a high chance Control of Noise Pollution

of corrosion as the toxic gases removed are highly
acidic and these scrubbers require large amount of Noise pollution can be controlled by:
power. yy Use of sound absorbent materials in industries.
♦♦ Also it is hard to dispose of the waste – water. yy Delimitation of horn-free zones around hospitals and schools.
(v) In Delhi, compressed natural gas (CNG) in public yy Keeping permissible sound-levels of crackers and
transport (buses) is used. loudspeakers.
²² Advantages of CNG yy Delimiting the timings of using loudspeakers.
♦♦ CNG burns most efficiently and very little of it is
left unburnt. WATER POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL
♦♦ They cannot be siphoned off by thieves.
♦♦ They cannot be adulterated like petrol or diesel. yy Water bodies are lifeline of all living organisms.
♦♦ CNG is cheaper than petrol and diesel. yy Due to human activities, the ponds, lakes, stream, rivers,
²² Problem of use of CNG: estuaries and oceans are becoming polluted.
♦♦ CNG has difficulty in laying down pipelines to yy The Government of India has passed the Water (Prevention
deliver CNG and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to safeguard our water
♦♦ Also, they have difficulty in ensuring interrupted resources.
supply. yy Water pollution is the addition of undesirable substances
yy Laws and policies in India to control vehicular pollution: in water that has an adverse effect on organisms and the
²² Auto fuel policy has laid out a road map to cut down environment.
vehicular pollution in Indian cities. It has steadily
reduced the sulphur and aromatic content in petrol and Sources of Water Pollution
diesel fuels.
²² Euro II norms: It stipulates that It could be due to natural or man-made activities.
♦♦ Sulphur be controlled at 350 parts-per-million (i) Natural sources of water pollution:
(ppm) in diesel and 150 ppm in petrol. Aromatic (a) Soil erosion
hydrocarbons are to be contained at 42% of the (b) Decaying of organic matter
concerned fuel. The goal is to reduce sulphur to (c) Leaking of minerals from rocks
50 ppm in petrol and diesel and bring down the (ii) Man-made sources of water pollution:
level to 35%. Vehicle engines will also need to be (a) Domestic sewage is the waste originating from the
upgraded. kitchen, toilet, laundry and other sources. It contains
²² Due to above steps taken by Delhi Govt, there is impurities such as suspended solid (sand, clay, and
substantial fall in CO2 and SO2 level between 1997 salt), colloidal material (faecal matter, bacteria, plastic,
and 2005. and cloth fibre), dissolved nutrient (nitrate, phosphate,
calcium, sodium, ammonia) and disease causing
microorganisms. Domestic sewage is discharged into
NOISE POLLUTION rivers from areas located on its banks.
When organic wastes from the sewage enter the water
yy Noise is undesired high level of sound.
bodies, it serves as a food source for microorganisms
yy In India, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
such as algae and bacteria. As a result, the population
(1981) was amended in 1987 to include noise as an air
of these microorganisms in the water body increases.
pollutant. Here, they utilize most of the dissolved oxygen for
their metabolism. This results in increase in the levels
Sources of Noise Pollution
of Biodegradable oxygen demand (BOD) in river water
Music instruments, loudspeaker, crackers, industries etc. and results in the death of aquatic organisms. Also, the
nutrients in the water lead to the growth of planktonic
Harmful Effects of Noise algae, causing algal bloom. It imparts a distinct colour
yy Noise causes psychological and physiological disorders. to the water bodies and deteriorates the water quality
yy The sound level above 150 dB may damage ear drums. E.g. resulting in death of fishes. Some bloom-forming algae
Noise generated by take-off of a jet plane or rocket. are extremely toxic to human beings and animals.
yy Noise causes sleeplessness. (b) Industrial effluents containing high concentration of
yy Increased heartbeat and breathing. heavy metals, toxic chemicals, acids, oils, grease etc.
All of these are harmful to aquatic life and also make
yy Stress.
the water unfit for drinking.
 Environmental Issues 813

(c) Fertilizers added to crop fields also lead to water Biomagnification

pollution. A small part of fertilizers leach down to
pollute ground water while large part of it passes down yy To protect the crops from the several diseases and pests, a
to water bodies through rain water. Fertilizers cause large number of pesticides are used. These pesticides reach
eutrophication of water bodies. the soil and are absorbed by plants with water and minerals
(d) Pesticides sprayed over crops are passed into water from the soil.
bodies during rains. It has an adverse effect on aquatic yy Due to rain, these chemicals can also enter water sources
organisms. and into the body of aquatic plants and animals. As a result,
(e) Oils from refineries, automobile workshops pollute chemicals enter the food chain. Since these chemicals cannot
water thereby killing aquatic life and affecting growth be decomposed, they keep on accumulating at each trophic
of phytoplankton. level. The maximum concentration is accumulated at the
(f) The passage of hot water from thermal plants changes top carnivore’s level. This increase in the concentration
the temperature of water source. As a result, the content of pollutants or harmful chemicals with an increase in
of oxygen decreases. Reduced oxygen content kills the the trophic level is called biological magnification or
aquatic animals and reduces the decomposition rate of biomagnification.
organic matter, which, therefore accumulates. yy For example, high DDT concentrations were found in a pond.
The producers (phytoplankton) were found to have 0.04 ppm
Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
concentration of DDT. Since many types of phytoplankton
yy The amount of biodegradable organic matter in sewage water were eaten by zooplankton (consumers), the concentration of
is estimated by measuring Biochemical Oxygen Demand DDT in the bodies of zooplankton was found to be 0.23 ppm.
(BOD). Small fish that feed on zooplankton accumulate more DDT
yy Biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen in their body. Thus, large fish (top carnivore) that feed on
required for oxidizing all organic matter present in one litre several small fish have the highest concentration of DDT.
of water.
yy Invasive plant water hyacinth: It is used to control and
remove BOD, suspended solids, nutrients (phosphorous, 13.8ppm Large fish
nitrogen), heavy metals and organochlorides from water
bodies that have been polluted with mineral, industrial and 2.07ppm Small fish
chemical wastes. Water Hyacinth manage and optimize water
hyacinth’s natural capability to extract nutrient pollutants to
ensure sustainability and increased treatment performance. 0.23ppm Zooplankton
But if their growth is unchecked then it spreads across water
bodies quickly. In India it is also called ‘Terror of Bengal’. Phytoplankton
0.04
Effects of water pollution
(i) The toxic materials in water cause serious water-borne
diseases like cholera, typhoid, jaundice and hepatitis in Fig. Biomagnification
humans. Eutrophication:
(ii) The presence of acid and alkalies in water destroys micro-
organisms, thereby disturbing the self-purification process yy Eutrophication is the natural ageing process of a lake caused
in rivers. due to nutrient enrichment.
(iii) Polluted water causes spread of epidemics like cholera, yy It is brought down by the runoff of nutrients such as animal
tuberculosis, jaundice, typhoid in human beings. wastes, fertilizers, and sewage from land which leads to an
(iv) Usage of polluted water for irrigation of agricultural increased fertility of the lake.
fields damages crops severely. This in turn reduces the yy The nutrients present in the waste materials (which are
agricultural productivity. thrown in water) are absorbed by the water plants due to
(v) Heavily polluted water affects the fertility of soil, and kills which their growth becomes very high. This leads to an
increased growth of algae, resulting into algal blooms. The
soil micro-organism.
algae bloom covers the entire surface of water and thus
(vi) Contamination of sea water due to oil spilling causes
prevents any sunlight to penetrate the water column. This
ecological disasters which result in the death of aquatic
then creates a couple of consequences:
organisms including fishes.
²² It prevents photosynthesis from occurring below the
(vii) Water pollution affects the fish and other aquatic life.
surface of the water, lowering the dissolved oxygen
Biomagnification and Eutrophication content of the water, and
²² It stops oxygen transfer occurring through surface
The excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides for increasing
aeration.
agricultural yield has led to the phenomenon of eutrophication yy As a result, a body of water extremely depleted of oxygen
and biomagnification. and sunlight is formed. This causes fish and plant life to
 814 BIOLOGY

suffer. When fish and plants begin to die off, decomposing a resource (as natural fertiliser), which reduces the need for
bacteria use the remaining oxygen to break down the dead chemical fertilisers. There are ‘EcoSan’ toilets in many areas
organic compounds. The result is a body of water covered in of Kerala & Sri Lanka.
algae, lacking in aquatic life and oxygen, both of which are
necessary to promote a healthy aquatic ecosystem. Later, the Control of Water Pollution
decomposition of these algae depletes the supply of oxygen, yy The waste water should be treated before dumping in rivers
leading to the death of other aquatic animal life. and lakes.
yy Cultural or Accelerated eutrophication: Eutrophication yy Plant more and more trees to reduce acid rain and pollution
is the aging of a lake to convert into land, which generally of ground water.
takes 1000s of years or more. But human activities have yy Domestic waste water should be mildly treated and used
accelerated this natural process and as a result many lakes for irrigation.
are already extinct. It is caused due to dumping of nutrient yy Rain water harvesting should be done to conserve water and
rich and thermal waste into lakes. This phenomenon is called reduce wastage of fresh water.
Cultural or Accelerated Eutrophication. yy Prevent use of rivers for purposes related to religious
yy The prime contaminants are nitrates and phosphates, which ceremonies.
act as plant nutrients. They over stimulate the growth of yy Use of dry composting toilets that do not require water.
algae, causing unsightly scum and unpleasant odours, and
robbing the water of dissolved oxygen vital to other aquatic
life. At the same time, other pollutants flowing into a lake SOLID WASTES
may poison whole populations of fish; whose decomposing yy Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in trash.
remains further deplete the water’s dissolved oxygen yy Municipal solid wastes are wastes from homes, offices,
content. stores, schools, hospitals, etc., that are collected and disposed
yy Heated (thermal) waste water from electricity-generating by the municipality.
units (e.g. thermal power plants) eliminates organisms yy It includes paper, food wastes, plastics, glass, metals, rubber,
sensitive to high temperature. It may enhance the growth of leather, textile, etc.
plants and fish in extremely cold areas but, only after causing yy The burning reduces the volume of the wastes, although it
damage to the indigenous flora and fauna. is generally not burnt to completion and open dumps often
Integrated waste water treatment serve as the breeding ground for rats and flies.
yy It includes artificial and natural processes. yy Sanitary landfills were adopted as the substitute for open-
yy An example is the town of Arcata, situated along the northern burning dumps. In a sanitary landfill, wastes are dumped in
coast of California. a depression or trench after compaction, and covered with
yy Collaborating with biologists from the Humboldt State dirt every day.
University, the townspeople created an integrated waste water yy Landfills are also not really much of a solution since the
treatment process within a natural system. amount of garbage generation especially in the metros has
yy The cleaning occurs in two stages: increased so much that these sites are getting filled too. Also
(a) Sedimentation, filtering and chlorine treatments. After this there is danger of seepage of chemicals, etc., from these
stage, lots of dangerous pollutants like dissolved heavy landfills polluting the underground water resources.
metals still remain. To combat this, an innovative approach yy All wastes can be categorized into three types:
was taken. (a)    Bio-degradable
(b) The biologists developed a series of six connected marshes (b)    Recyclable
over 60 hectares of marshland. Appropriate plants, algae, (c)    Non-biodegradable
fungi and bacteria were seeded into this area, which yy It is important to sort out the garbage generated. Kabadiwallahs
neutralize, absorb and assimilate the pollutants. Hence, and rag-pickers help to separate materials for recycling.
as the water flows through the marshes, it gets purified yy The biodegradable materials can be put into deep pits in the
naturally. The marshes also constitute a sanctuary, with ground and be left for natural breakdown. That leaves only
a high level of biodiversity in the form of fishes, animals the non-biodegradable to be disposed off.
and birds that now reside there. A citizens group called yy State Governments are trying to push for reduction in use
Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) is responsible for of plastics and use of eco-friendly packaging. We can use
the upkeep and safeguarding of this wonderful project. carrying cloth or other natural fibre carry-bags instead of
yy Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for handling polythene bags for shopping.
human excreta, using dry composting toilets. This is a yy Hospital wastes contain disinfectants and other harmful
practical, hygienic, efficient and cost-effective solution to chemicals, and also pathogenic micro-organisms. The
human waste disposal. The key point to note here is that with incinerators are used to dispose hospital wastes.
this composting method, human excreta can be recycled into yy E wastes are electronic wastes generally include electronic
good such as computers etc. Such wastes are rich in metals
 Environmental Issues 815

such copper, iron, silicon, gold etc. These metals are highly Nuclear waste is rich in radioactive material that generates
toxic and pose serious health hazards. People of developing large quantities of ionizing radiations such as gamma rays.
countries are involved in recycling process of these metals These rays cause mutation in organisms, which often results
and therefore, get exposed to toxic substances present in in skin cancer. At high dosage, these rays can be lethal.
these wastes. yy Safe disposal of radioactive wastes is a big challenge. It is
yy Recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e-waste, recommended that nuclear wastes should be stored after
provided it is carried out in an environment friendly manner. pre-treatment in suitable containers, which should then be
yy Defunct ships are dead ships that are no longer in use. Such buried in rocks.
ships are broken down for scrap metal in countries such
as India and Pakistan. These ships are a source of various
toxicant such as asbestos, lead, mercury etc. Thus, they GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING
contribute to solid wastes that are hazardous to health.
yy The Greenhouse is a small glass house used for growing
Polyblend: A remedy for plastic waste plants during winter. The glass panel lets the light in, but
yy Ahmed Khan (A plastic sack manufacturer in Bangalore) does not allow heat to escape. Therefore, the greenhouse
developed Polyblend. It is a fine powder of recycled modified warms up.
plastic. Polyblend is mixed with the bitumen and is used to yy Greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon responsible for
lay roads. heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere. It maintains the
yy Blend of Polyblend and bitumen enhances the bitumen’s present average temperature i.e. about 15°C.
water repellant properties and helps to increase road life. yy It is an overall increase in the average temperature of the
Earth due to the presence of greenhouse gases.
yy The gases that cause the greenhouse effect are
AGRO-CHEMICALS AND THEIR EFFECTS ²² Carbon dioxide (60% effect)
yy In the wake of green revolution, use of inorganic fertilisers, ²² Vapour
pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc. has increased manifold ²² Methane (20% effect)
for enhancing crop production. ²² Nitrogen oxide (6% effect)
yy These are toxic to non-target organisms that are important ²² Ozone
components of the soil ecosystem. These can be biomagnified ²² Chlorofluorocarbons (14% effect)
in the terrestrial ecosystems. yy The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere around the Earth
yy Chemical fertilisers cause eutrophication and bio act like a glass of the greenhouse chamber.
Note: Carbon dioxide is the major greenhouse gas. 60% of the
magnification.
global greenhouse effect is due to it.
Integrated Organic Farming yy Earth receives a large amount of energy from the Sun,
which emits UV (ultra violet) radiations, visible light and
yy It is a cyclical, zero-waste procedure, where waste products Infra-red (IR) radiations. Some of the solar radiations are
from one process are cycled in as nutrients for other reflected away by the atmosphere and Earth, while some of
processes. This allows the maximum utilization of resource the Infrared rays is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions
and increases the efficiency of production. by the greenhouse gas molecules. This helps in keeping our
yy Ramesh Chandra Dagar (a farmer in Sonipat, Haryana) planet warm and thus, helps in human survival.
included bee-keeping, dairy management, water harvesting,
composting and agriculture in a chain of processes, which
support each other and allow an extremely economical and escaping radiation
sustainable venture. edge of
atmosp
rellected
yy There is no need of chemical fertilisers, as cattle excreta here

(dung) are used as manure. Crop waste is used to create

compost, which can be used as a natural fertilizer or can be
used to generate natural gas for satisfying the energy needs radiation
of the farm. absorbed by
green house
yy Dagar has created the Haryana Kisan Welfare Club, with a delorestation
oil and gases
membership of 5000 farmers to spread information on the CFCs petrol green house
practice of integrated organic farming. engine gases and
fossil fuels

RADIOACTIVE WASTES
yy Radioactive wastes are generated during the process of Fig. Greenhouse effect
generating nuclear energy from radioactive materials.
 816 BIOLOGY

yy Gases that cause the greenhouse effect are responsible for yy The part of atmosphere which is rich in ozone is called ozone
increasing the temperature of the Earth and thus contributing layer or ozonosphere.
to the phenomenon called global warming. yy ‘Bad’ ozone is formed in the lower atmosphere i.e.
Global warming troposphere. It harms plants and animals.
yy Global warming is defined as an increase in the average yy The ‘good’ ozone is found in the stratosphere. It acts as a
temperature of the Earth’s surface. shield absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
yy Causes of global warming: Global warming occurs as a yy Ozone is continuously formed by the action of UV rays on
result of the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in molecular oxygen, and also degraded into molecular oxygen
the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, in the stratosphere.
methane, and water vapour. An increase in the amount of yy The high energy ultraviolet radiations split ozone into
greenhouse gases can lead to an excessive increase in the molecular and atomic oxygen with large amount of heat. This
Earth’s temperature, leading to global warming. Global heat is used in warming the stratosphere. Ozone is reformed
warming is a result of industrialization, burning of fossil as atomic oxygen is highly reactive.
fuels, and deforestation. O3 → O2 + [O] + Heat
Effects of global warming: O2 + [O] → O3
(i) Deleterious changes in the environment resulting in odd yy Production and degradation of ozone in the stratosphere
climatic changes (e.g. El Nino effect). It has been observed should be balanced. But the balance is disrupted due to ozone
that in the past three decades, the average temperature of the degradation by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Earth has increased by 0.6ºC. As a result, the natural water yy CFCs (used as refrigerants) move upward and reach
cycle has been disturbed resulting in changes in the pattern stratosphere. UV rays act on them releasing Cl atoms. In
of rainfall. It also changes the amount of rain water. presence of Cl (catalyst), ozone degrades releasing molecular
(ii) Melting of Polar ice caps and mountain glaciers, which have oxygen (O2). This causes ozone depletion. It has formed
caused a rise in the sea level, leading to the inundation of ozone hole over the Antarctic region.
coastal regions. yy Farman et al, in 1985, found that ozone hole is more
(iii)Upper parts of atmosphere have become cooler due to prominent over the region of Antarctica.
reduced passage of long wave radiations. This in turn had
led to shrinking of atmosphere. Ozone depletion:
(iv) Air pollution, changes in food and water supplies resulting yy Ozone depletion is the reduction in concentration of ozone
from global warming, will all affect human health. layer. It is formed due to an increased concentration of ozone-
yy Control measures for preventing global warming depleting substances such as chlorofluorocarbons, chlorine,
²² Reducing the use of fossil fuels methyl bromide, nitrogen oxides etc in the atmosphere.
²² Use of bio-fuels yy Chlorine is mainly released from chlorofluorocarbons
²² Improving energy efficiency (CFC’s) widely used as refrigerants. The CFC’s magnate
²² Use of renewable source of energy such as CNG etc.
from the troposphere to the stratosphere, where they release
²² Reforestation.
chlorine atoms by the action of UV rays on them. The release
²² Recycling of materials
of Chlorine atoms causes the conversion of ozone into
²² International initiatives are also being taken to reduce the
molecular oxygen. One atom of chlorine can destroy around
emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
10,000 molecules of ozone and causes ozone depletion.
yy Effects of ozone hole:The formation of the ozone hole will
OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHERE result in an increased concentration of UV - B radiations on
the Earth’s surface. UV −B damages DNA and activates the
yy The ozone layer is a deep layer in the stratosphere, encircling
process of skin ageing. It also causes skin darkening and skin
the earth that has large amount of ozone in it. The layer
cancer. High levels of UV −B cause inflammation of cornea
shields the entire earth from much of harmful ultraviolet
(Snow blindness), corneal cataract in human beings.
radiations that come from the sun.
yy The thickness of the ozone (O3) in a column of air from the yy The Montreal Protocol (an international treaty in Canada,
ground to the top of the atmosphere is measured in terms of 1987) was signed to control the emission of ozone depleting
Dobson units (DU). substances. Subsequently many more efforts have been made
yy Ozone is triatomic oxygen (O3). It is highly poisonous and protocols have laid down definite roadmaps, separately
to living system. It is present in stratosphere part of the for developed and developing countries, for reducing the
atmosphere. emission of CFCs and other ozone depleting chemicals.
 Environmental Issues 817

Degradation by Improper Resource Utilisation (ii) Natural causes of deforestation:

and Maintenance (a) Forest fires: These are started by lightning and strong
winds that helps to spread the flames.
yy Soil erosion and desertification: (b) Severe droughts: drought in the forest has increases the
²² Human activities like over-cultivation, deforestation, amount of flammable bush and debris on the forest fires.
grazing and poor irrigation practices, leads to soil erosion. As a result, the forest catches fire easily and destroys the
It results in arid patches of land and desertification. immeasurable amount of valuable timber.
²² The increased urbanization also creates desertification. (c) Volcanic eruption: it is one of the several natural forces
yy Water logging and soil salinity: that are capable of causing damage to forests. The ashes
²² These are the problems as a part of Green Revolution. emitted during the eruption coat tree leaves, which in turn
²² Irrigation without proper drainage of water leads to interfere with photosynthesis and destroys the plants.
water logging in the soil. (d) Natural disasters: Natural disasters like Tsunami;
²² It draws salt to the surface of the soil. The salt is earthquake destroys large forests areas in a short span of
deposited on the land surface or collects at the plant time.
All these activities are causing qualitative as well as
roots. This in turn damages the agriculture.
quantitative depletion of forests.
Consequences of deforestation
DEFORESTATION
(i) Deforestation increases the temperature and pollution level
yy It is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested ones. It on Earth. Plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere to perform
is the cutting or removal of trees or other vegetation from an photosynthesis. If the plants are destroyed then the level of
area for industrial, agricultural and other purposes. CO2 in the atmosphere will rise. As a result, CO2 will trap
yy Forests are cut for many reasons without planting new trees more radiations, there by adding to global warming. Global
to replace the lost ones. warming refers to an average increase in earth’s temperature.
yy Almost 40% forests have been lost in the tropics, compared An increase in the temperature of the earth will disturb the
to only 1% in the temperate region. natural water cycle. As a result, there will be a change in
rainfall pattern. This in turn could lead to drought.
Causes of Deforestation (ii) Deforestation leads to loss of biodiversity. If we go on cutting
trees the natural habitats of many animals will get completely
The cause of deforestation can be classified into two classes: destroyed. As a result the biodiversity of many areas will be
Man-made causes and Natural causes. severely affected.
(i) Man-made causes of deforestation: These are the primary (iii) It also destroys the habitat of many wild animals. The habitat
and the most common causes of deforestation. of an animal provides shelter, food and protection to animals.
(a) Population Growth and their ever-increasing demands: If the habitat of an animal is disturbed then it will force the
As the human population is continuously growing the animals to go other places in search of food and shelter. As
consumption of forest resources is also increasing. a result, the animal could get killed easily by other animals
The forest wood is used up for construction, furniture, in this process.
deriving energy (coal and firewood). Thus the increasing (iv) Deforestation increases soil erosion. Roots of plants hold
demand for timber, energy, paper andpaper products has soil particles together. In the absence of plants, the top layer
led to massive destruction of forests. of the soil will be easily removed by the action of high speed
(b) Industrial Growth: With the increasing industrialisation, winds or water flow. Thus deforestation increases the chances
the use of all the resources is rising. of soil erosion.
(c) Urbanisation of the modern human society: Urbanisation, (v) Deforestation leads to desertification. In the absence of trees,
soil erosion occurs more rapidly exposing the lower hard
whereby cities grow is also one of the reasons for
and rocky layer. As a result, soil loses humus and becomes
deforestation.
less fertile. Hence, a fertile land, which act as a source of
(d) Slash and burn agriculture (Jhum cultivation) in the
living for farmers, gets converted into a desert. This process
north-eastern states of India. In this, the farmers cut down is known as desertification of land.
the trees of the forest and burn the plant remains. The ash (vi) Deforestation also reduces the level of ground water. It is
is used as a fertiliser and the land is then used for farming because in the absence of tree cover the seeping of water is
or cattle grazing. After cultivation, the area is left for reduced and thus the ground water does not get replenished.
several years so as to allow its recovery. In earlier days, This could then cause floods.
enough time-gap was given for recovery. With increasing (vii) It causes the shortage of products we get from forests.
population and repeated cultivation, this recovery phase There, we need to conserve biodiversity for our survival and
is done away with, resulting in deforestation. to maintain the natural ecological balance.
 818 BIOLOGY

Reforestation (i) Bishnoi movement: The Bishnoi community in Rajasthan

strictly believed in the concept of living peacefully with
Reforestation is the process of planting more trees. It is a positive nature. In 1731, the king of Jodhpur ordered the ministers
step towards restoration of forests and also wild life. However, to arrange wood for construction of his new palace. For this
it is a slow process, since; the new sapling would take many purpose, the minister and workers went to bishnoi village.
years to grow big. There, a Bishnoi woman called Amrita Devi along with
yy If the deforested area is left undisturbed, it re-established her daughter and hundreds of other Bishnois showed the
itself. This is known as natural reforestation. There is no courage to step forward and stop them from cutting trees.
role of human being in it. They embraced the trees and lost their lives at the hands of
Advantages of replenishing forests are: soldiers of king. This resistance by the people of the village
(i) Trees help in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil forced the king to give up the idea of cutting trees.
intact. yy Government of India has instituted the Amrita Devi Bishnoi
(ii) They are the natural habitat of animals. Trees help in wildlife protection award for individuals or communities
conserving and preserving plants and animals. from rural areas for extraordinary courage and dedication in
(iii) Trees help in lowering atmospheric temperature and also protectory wildlife.
in purification of air. (ii) Chipko Movement of Garhwal Himalayas: The chipko
(iv) Trees transpire large amount of water that helps in movement was started in 1974 in the Grahwal region of the
formation of cloud. Himalayas. In this, the women from the village stopped the
(v) Trees maintain the supply of wood and other forest contractors from cutting trees by embracing them.
products. Realizing the significance of participation by local
(vi) Trees maintain a healthy balance between carbon dioxide communities, the Government of India in 1980s has
and oxygen in atmosphere. They provide us oxygen. introduced the concept of Joint Forest Management
(JFM) so as to work closely with the local communities for
People’s Participation in Conservation of Forests protecting and managing forests. In return for their services
to the forest, the communities get benefit of various forest
Women and communities have played a major role in products (e.g., fruits, gum, rubber, medicine, etc.), and thus
environmental conservation movements. the forest can be conserved in a sustainable manner.