Disaster management

 Floods, Earthquake, Cyclones and Landslides

A disaster refers to sudden serious disruption of normal functioning of a society, involving large
damages to life, property and environment, beyond its ability to cope with its own resources. It
can be natural or man-made

A natural disaster is a natural process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other
health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption,
or environmental damage. E.g. agricultural diseases & pests, damaging winds, drought and water
shortage, earthquakes, emergency diseases (pandemic influenza), extreme heat, floods and flash
floods, hail, hurricanes and tropical storms, landslides & debris flow, thunderstorms and lighting,
tornadoes, tsunamis, wildfire etc.

Man-made disaster: Human-instigated disasters are the consequence of technological hazards E.g.
hazardous materials, power service disruption & blackout, nuclear blast, radiological emergencies,
chemical threat and biological weapons, cyber-attacks, war etc.

Some disasters can result from combination of both Natural and Man-made causes. These are
called as complex emergencies.

Disaster Management refers to managing disaster response in the country (Table ). India has been
traditionally vulnerable to the natural disasters on the account of its unique geo-climatic
conditions. About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over 40
million hectares is prone to floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to cyclones and 69% of the
area is susceptible to drought.

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is an agency of the Ministry of Home Affairs
and is responsible for framing policies, laying down guidelines and coordinating with the State
Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) to ensure a holistic and distributed approach to
disaster management. NDMA was established through the Disaster Management Act enacted by
the Government of India in May 30, 2005. The Prime Minister is the ex-officio chairperson of it
  FLOODS

Floods occur when land that is usually dry is submerged by large amounts of water. Sudden
submergence or inundation of land area with water is called as flood. The occurrence of floods can
be due to both natural and human causes.

 Anthropogenic causes of floods include: Clearing of forests: Lack of vegetation cover

to hold the soil together on slopes causes erosion and deposition in river beds making
them shallow, flooding occurs when these rivers overflow. Also bare slopes increase
surface runoff and volume of water flowing into the rivers.
 Urban development: The clearing of land for development of residential, commercial and
industrial complexes have rapidly increased built-up areas. These concrete pavements and
roads prevent infiltration of rainwater into the ground coupled with lack of vegetation cover
to intercept the rain water results in increased runoff flowing into the rivers resulting in
flooding.
 Improper farming and other land use practices: The combination of absence of forest
cover on one hand, and inappropriate farming and land-use practices on the other have
aggravated the flood devastation. There are hardly any forests left in the catchment area
of the rivers. It is well known fact that the forest areas are characterized by high
infiltration capacity
 Enhanced Green house effect: Various human activities resulting in increased green
house effect and causing global warming are leading to various climate changes such as
higher rainfall in short duration, melting of more ice etc. All these have lead to increased
incidences of floods .

 Natural causes of floods:

1. Excessive rainfall: Floods occur when rainwater is unable to seep into the ground quickly
enough or rivers overflow their banks because river channels cannot contain excess water.
It is common in tropical areas.
2. Storm Surges: It occurs when strong winds raise the waves in the ocean to exceptionally
high levels, causing them to crash into the coast and flood the land. It is common in coastal
areas with low-lying relief.
3. Melting Snow: Melting of snow in spring releases large amount of water into the rivers,
causing them to overflow their banks. It is common in places with cool temperate climate.
4. Global Atmospheric processes: Abnormal weather phenomenon such as El Nino
(warming of surface ocean waters at Southeastern part of Pacific Ocean).
5. Earthquakes: Earthquakes can bring about landslides or trigger tsunamis. When
landslides occur, loosened soil, rocks, mud debris etc. may be deposited in rivers causing
overflowing of these rivers. Tsunamis triggered by strong undersea earthquakes can flood
and devastate coastal settlements.

 Impact of floods:

1. Loss of life: Floods mostly strike people unprepared, leading to loss of lives in drowning.
Along with livestock and other life forms. Impact is higher in flood plain areas which are
densly populated,
2. Damage to infrastructure and property: Flood cause huge losses to homes, roads, power
supply and other infrastructure.
 3. Spread of Diseases: After flood water recedes, shallow stagnant water may cover areas
over a considerable period of times. This may result in outbreak of water borne diseases.
Moreover homeless flood victims are housed in temporary shelters which are mostly
overcrowded and with poor sanitation conditions which may turn situation worse.
4. Loss of natural habitat: Trees, vegetation and other natural habitats may get destroyed
leading to loss of biodiversity.
 Mitigation of floods

Floods can be mitigated by structural, water control and non-structural measures such as:

 Structural methods include building dams, reservoirs, and retarding basins, channel
management and embankments.
 Water control methods: include increasing forest and vegetation cover, watershed
management, flood proofing and catchment modifications. Schemes of drainage and flood
protection,
 Non-structural methods: flood forecasting, flood warning and emergency preparedness
systems, flood insurance, public information and education, and flood relief

 Earthquake

An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the
Earth, with sudden release of energy in the form of seismic waves on the surface of the earth. The
point inside the crust where the pressure is released is called the focus. The point on the Earth's
surface above the focus is called the epicentre. When earthquake occurs beneath the sea it causes
tsunami. The study of earthquakes is called as seismology and the instrument used to measure
seismic waves is called as seismometer or seismograph. The magnitude of earthquake is measured
by richter scale and intensity by mercalli scale( Table).

Table: Effects on earthquake with various magntitudes,

  Causes of earthquake: According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth is composed of
many individual plates that move and interact, constantly changing and reshaping Earth's
outer layer. Plates do not always move smoothly against each other and sometimes get
stuck. This builds up pressure. When this pressure is eventually released, an earthquake
tends to occur. Volcanoes and earthquakes both result from the movement of tectonic
plates. Volcanoes, tides can also trigger seismicity.Underground nuclear testing and dams
can also cause seismic waves.

Effects:

1) Soil Liquefaction:- Due to earthquakes granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses
its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid (Soil liquefaction). This causes rigid
structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits.
2) Landslides and avalanche :Earthquakes can produce slope instability leading to
landslides and avalanche.
3) Tsunami: When earthquakes occur under sea it causes tsunami. Most destructive tsunamis
are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.
4) Floods: These are secondary effects of earthquakes, as they may occur if dams are
damaged.
5) Fires: Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines.
6) Destabilization: It destabilizes ecological and social structure of nation. Essential services
also got disrupted.
7) Loss of life and property: An earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, general
property damage and collapse or destabilization of buildings. The aftermath may bring
disease, lack of basic necessities, mental consequences such as panic attacks and
depression to survivors etc. E.g. Earthquake in 2005 with Epicenter at Muzaffarabad killed
80,000 people and injured around 1,00,000 and 3.5 million people were dislodged.
  Management and mitigation methods:

Earthquakes cannot be stopped or predicted accurately but certain management techniques could
be followed to minimize its effect:

1) Construction of buildings which can tolerate earthquakes. This can be done by:

a) By keeping weak spots in building to absorb vibrations.

b) To keep pads or floats beneath buildings.

c) Wooden house to be preferred in earthquake prone area

2) Soil testing should be done so that stability of building is assured.

3) Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them more resistant to
seismic activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes.

4) Preparedness and safe building construction can reduce extent of damage and loss.

5) Establishment of GPS station in the earthquake prone region to assess future crustal movements.
J&K falls in seismic zones IV (high) and V (very high). So, we need to be more aware about
precautionary measures against earthquake.
  Landslides

A landslide/landslip is primarily a combination of several geological processes that include earth

movements like extensive slope failure, rocks falling, and debris flow under the action of gravity.
Landslides occur when gravitational and other types of shear stresses within a slope exceed the
shear strength (resistance to shearing) of the materials that form the slope.

Causes

 Extensive Rainfall: Prolonged and heavy intensity rainfall triggers landslide. If rain
duration and pore pressure are high, moderate rainfall can also trigger landslide. A
universal landslide survey held in 2003 revealed that 90% of the landslides that occurred
were activated by a heavy rainfall.
 Melting of Snow: In several cold mountain places, during snowmelt the water produced
infiltrates into the earth .This increases pore water pressures, causing the initiation of the
landslide process.
 Rivers: Rivers can damage the slopes, particularly during the floods triggering a landslide.
 Seismic Shaking and volcanic eruption: They cause slope failure triggering landslide.
 Deforestation: Roots of plants hold soil particles firmly thereby avoiding soil erosion. But
removal of vegetation makes rocks prone to landslides.
 landslide Geology: Type of rock or soil such coarse particles have low cohesive strength
making it vulnerable to landside.
 Developmental activities: Excavation for minerals, tunnels etc. and road construction can
too trigger landslide.

Effects:
Landslides blocks streams with debris and stones, leading to overflowing. It disrupts vehicular
movement, damages vegetation, roads, communication networks and buildings. It also results in
accidents. Overall it acts as a risk to life. E.g. A massive landslide in 2017 in Himachal Pradesh
has killed at least 46 people and injured several others.

 Management and mitigation methods:

1) Afforestation: It consolidates the slope thus checking slope instability. Degraded areas should
be afforested and existing patches should be preserved.

2) Wired stone blocks: Stone ridge is strapped with wire mesh to protect against landslides.

3) Retaining wall: Construction of concrete retaining walls to prevent slippage from slope.

4) Landslide hazard zonation mapping: Zonation mapping will help in preventing settlements
in hazard prone area and also developing and continuously updating the inventory of landslide
incidences affecting a country.

5) Surface drainage: Draining of surface and subsurface rivers to allow smooth flow of water.

6) Landslide Warning Techniques: Sensors have been developed which are used for the
landslide warning and detection Early warning systems can disseminate information to masses on
time, hereby saving many lives.

7) Managing of catchment: Excess water in catchments areas should be stored to reduce the effect
of flash floods, this will also recharge the ground water level in areas prone to landslide in India.

8) Public awareness: An aware and vigilant community can reduce the impact of impending
landslides.

 Cyclones

Cyclone refers to any spinning storm that rotates around a low-pressure center. The low-pressure
center is also referred to as the 'eye' of the storm. It is accompanied by powerful winds blowing
anticlockwise in northern hemisphere and clockwise in southern hemisphere. They are known by
different names in different countries. Typhoons in northwest pacific ocean, hurricanes in north
Atlantic ocean and northeast and south pacific ocean, Tropical cyclones in southwest pacific ocean,
southeast and southwest Indian ocean. Willy Willy in Australia Baguio in China Sea, Taifu in
Japan and Tornado in South America

 Formation of cyclone

When warm (above 26 °C), moist air over the ocean rises upward, it causes an area of low air
pressure below. Air from surrounding areas with higher air pressure pushes in to the low pressure
area. Then this new cool air becomes warm and moist and rises too and this cycle continues. As
the warm, moist air rises and cools the water in the air forming clouds. The Coriolis effect made
by the Earth's rotation causes the winds to rotate. As the storm system rotates faster and faster, an
eye forms in the center. It has little rain or wind. The eye wall maximum rain and the strongest
winds. When the winds in the rotating storm reach 39 mph, the storm is called a tropical storm.
And when the wind speeds reach 74 mph, the storm is officially a tropical cyclone, hurricane,
typhoon or cyclone based on the storm location Tropical cyclones usually weaken when they hit
land, because they are no longer being fed by the energy from the warm ocean waters. However,
they travel far inland, bringing heavy rain and wind before dying out completely. Cyclone may
last from days to week.

 Indian cyclones: The 7517 km long coastline of India is world most cyclone affected
stretch. Around 8% of the total land area in India is prone to cyclones. West Bengal,
Odisha, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa and Kerala are the most cyclone affected
states of India. E.g. Cyclone Phailin originated in Vietnam in October 2013. This cyclone
affected Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar and eastern parts of Uttar
Pradesh. A total of 1,34,426 people were eventually evacuated. Power and communication
 lines went down across many districts. Besides economic losses Odisha recorded casualties
of 44 people.
 Effects:

Cyclones bring destruction to life and property. It is characterized by heavy rains and strong winds.

 Storm surge: It is an abnormal rise of sea level near the coast caused by a severe tropical
cyclone resulting in inundation of low lying areas of coastal regions. It drowns human
beings and live-stock, erodes beaches and embankments, destroys vegetation and reduces
soil fertility.

 Floods: Heavy and continued rains due to cyclones may cause floods and submergence of
low lying areas resulting in loss of life and property. Floods and coastal inundation pollute
drinking water sources causing eruption of epidemics.

 Strong winds: Very strong winds may damage infrastructure, dwellings, communication
systems, trees etc. vandalizing life and property. It affects normal functioning of life.
 Crop: It damages crops, which could lead to inflation.

 Decline in tourist: Tourist will not come to a cyclone affected area, thereby affecting
livelihood of people.

 Storm churn: By churning up cold water, tropical cyclones tend to leave a cold wake
behind them that can depress ocean temperature and thus, stifling trailing storm.
  Psychological impact: Disaster of any kind has long lasting fear on minds of masses. They
have witness large number of deaths, collapse of infrastructure, cries, pains and many
sarows

Management and Mitigation of Cyclones

1) Coastal plantation: Forests act as buffer zone against cyclones. Cyclones travel unchecked
in absence of forest. The degraded forests land must be planted as plantation will act as green
wall/wind break for cyclones and water flow reduction in storm surges. Mangrove forests shall
be managed.
2) Effective weather Monitoring: Cyclones can be predicted several days’ before. So, effective
weather monitoring and forecast can help in minimizing the losses due to cyclones. Warning
messages should be simple and reach in time to the masses.

3) Land Use control: Land use should be such that minimum critical activities carried out in
vulnerable areas. Buildings should be water and wind resistant. Retrofitting of the older
buildings should be mandatory. There should be maintenance of river embankments.
Communication lines should be drawn underground. Construction of strong halls in vulnerable
areas.
4) Coastal Regulation Zone norms: They should be strictly enforced.
5) Insurance cover: Comprehensive state insurance cover needs to be provided for persons, their
properties and cattle.
6) Preparedness: Coastal areas should have adequate preparedness against cyclones. Wide roads
for quick evacuation, disaster resilient buildings, shelter houses etc.
7) Awareness: Focused awareness activities are required to increase public awareness of storm
surge, flooding and rainfall related to cyclone.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION may be defined as any undesirable change in the physical,

chemical or biological characteristics environment which can cause undesirable effects on
various forms of life or property.

 Types of pollutants

Biodegradable pollutants: That degrades or decomposes rapidly by natural processes.

Non-biodegradable pollutants: Do not decompose or decompose very slowly in the

environment.
 AIR POLLUTION Air pollution - Air pollution may be defined as an atmospheric
condition in which certain substances are present in concentrations which can cause
undesirable effects on man and his environment
.
Sources of Air pollution
Sources of air pollution are of two types.
Natural sources Natural sources of pollution are those that are caused due to natural
phenomena. Ex: Volcanic eruptions, Forest fires, Biological decay, Pollen grains,
Marshes, Radioactive materials.
Artificial sources Artificial sources are those which are created by man. Ex: Thermal
power plants, Vehicular emissions, Fossil fuel burning, agricultural activities etc.
Classification of Air Pollutants
Depending on the form of pollutants present in the environment, they are classified as:
1. Primary pollutants and
2. Secondary pollutants
Primary pollutants are those that are directly emitted in the atmosphere in the harmful
form Ex: CO, NO, CO2, SO2 etc.
Secondary pollutants are those that are formed by reacting with other components or
some basic component of the atmosphere to form new pollutants. Ex: Oxides of Nitrogen
(NO2 or NO3) react with moisture in the atmosphere to give Nitric acid
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

The air pollution inside buildings, offices, and houses is called indoor air pollution. Indoor air
pollutants are primary air pollutants. The most important indoor air pollutant is Radon gas.

Sources of indoor air pollutants are:

Radon gas is emitted from building materials like bricks, concrete, tiles, etc that are derived from
soil containing radium

Radon is also found in natural gas and ground water and is emitted while being used. Burning fuel
in the kitchen and cigarette smoke release pollutants like CO, SO2, HCHO (Formaldehyde) and
BAP (Benzo-(A) pyrene).

SOURCES AND COMMON EFFECTS OF COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS

Carbonmonoxide: It is a colourless, odourless gas that is poisonous animals. It is formed by

incomplete combustion of carbon containing fuels.

Source of carbonmonoxide is cigarette smoking and incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (more
than 77% comes from motor vehicle exhaust)

 Health effects include reduced ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen to body cells and
tissues. This leads to headache and anemia. At high levels it causes coma, irreversible brain
damage and death.
 Nitrogen Dioxide: It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that causes photochemical smog. In
the atmosphere, it gets converted into nitric acid (HNO3). It is caused by burning fossil
fuels in industries and power plants.
 Health effects include lung irritation and damage. Environmental effects involve acid
deposition leading to damage of trees, lakes, soil and ancient monuments. NO2 can damage
fabrics.
 Sulphur Dioxide: It is a colourless and irritating gas that is formed by combustion of
sulphur containing fossil fuels such as coal and oil. In the atmosphere it is converted into
Sulphuric acid which is a major component of acid deposition.
 Health effects involve breathing problems for healthy people.
  Environmental effects involve reduced visibility and acid deposition on trees, lakes, soils
and monuments leading to their deterioration and adverse effect on aquatic life.
 Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): Includes a variety of particles and droplets
(aerosols) that can be suspended in atmosphere for short to long periods. Human sources
for SPM include burning coal in power and industrial units, burning diesel and other fuels
in vehicles, agriculture, unpaved roads, construction, etc.
 Health effects include nose and throat irritation, ling damage, bronchitis, asthama,
reproductive problems and cancer.
 Environmental Effects include reduced visibility and acid deposition. Acid deposition
may lead to damaged trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.
 Ozone is a highly reactive gas with an unpleasant odour occurring in the stratosphere where
it protects mankind from the harmful ultra-violet rays from the Sun. However on earth, it
is a pollutant. It occurs on earth due to reaction between Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs) and Nitrogen Oxides. It moderates the climate

CONTROL MEASURES

The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational
settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However, control
of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and effective method through preventive or
control technologies.

Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are:

 Using unleaded petrol

 Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content
 Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to private
vehicles
 Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located on busy streets
 Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb noise
 Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city preferably on the
downwind of the city.
  Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons

CONTROL MEASURES

The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational
settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However, control
of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and effective method through preventive or
control technologies. Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are:

 Using unleaded petrol

 Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content
 Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to private
vehicles
 Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located on busy streets
 Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb noise
 Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city preferably on the
downwind of the city.
 Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbon
EQUIPMENT USED TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

 Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approache

 Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate
temperature so that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the smoke
consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.
 To use mechanical devices such as wet scrubbers, cyclones, bag house filters and
electrostatic precipitators in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove
particulates from the exhaust gases of electric power and industrial plants are shown
below. All methods retain hazardous materials that must be disposed safely. Wet scrubber
can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.
 The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt with
chemical treatment.