The Challenge of Democracy (shortened notes)

Chapter 1 – Freedom, Order, or Equality?

 Modern governments are confronted by dilemmas: complete freedom or enforced strict law and order? 
they are tied to opposing philosophies that place different values on freedom, order, and equality 
dilemma of choice; globalization also presents new challenges
 Government : The legitimate use of force to control human behaviour within territorial boundaries.
 National Sovereignty: A political entity’s externally recognized right to exercise final authority over its
affairs. General Kofi Annan- the protection of human rights must take precedence over concerns of state
sovereignty
 Why have government? - three principal purposes:
1. Maintaining order
2. Providing public goods
3. Promoting equality
 How government chooses the right mix of order, freedom, and equality focuses on the process of choice.
Two concepts describe models of democratic government.
1. Majoritarian democracy
2. Pluralist democracy
 Freedom - two major senses:
1. the absence of constraints on behaviour synonymous with liberty
2. /immunity from discrimination/
 Order
1. Narrow: the protection of life and property
2. Broad: social order
 Equality – used in several senses
1. Political equality: one person, one vote; equal access to political office.
2. Social equality: equality in wealth, education, and status.
 Two major dilemmas of government:
1. The original dilemma: How much freedom should be sacrificed for order?
2. The modern dilemma: How much freedom should be sacrificed for equality?
 Political ideology: A consistent set of values and beliefs about the proper purpose and scope of government.
 Totalitarianism allows unlimited government control over all segments of society.
 Communism prescribes government ownership of the means of production and government control
of the economy.
 Socialism supports a broad role for government in the nation’s economic life, including government
ownership of basic industries. The difference between socialism and communism is in the latter
controlling not just economic life, but political and social life as well through a dominant party
organization
 Capitalism emphasizes free enterprise and private ownership, rejecting a broad economic role for
government.
 Libertarianism seeks to limit government, except to protect life and property.
 Anarchism, the opposite of totalitarianism, is opposed to government in any form.
U.S. assume a middle, but clearly capitalist, position. U.S. avoids the extremes and is confined to two broad
positions: liberal (supports a larger role for government in the distribution of public goods and the regulation
of private enterprise) and conservative (favours either the status quo or a reduction in the size and role of
government)
 Four categories:
 Libertarians - favour freedom over order and equality
 Conservatives - favour freedom over equality, but order over freedom
  Liberals - favour freedom over order, but equality over freedom
 Communitarians - favour order and equality over freedom

Chapter 2 - Majoritarian or Pluralist Democracy?

 Distinction among governments - the number of people who participate in decision-making.

 Rule by one: autocracy (or monarchy)
 Rule by a few: oligarchy (or aristocracy)
 Rule by the people: democracy
 Two schools of thought about what constitutes democracy:
 Procedural view - prescribes a set of normative principles for democratic decision-making: universal
participation, political equality, majority rule. Only to government in a direct or participatory
democracy (all members of the group meet to make decisions themselves)
/indirect democracy = representative democracy - citizens choose officials to make decisions for
them/
 Substantive view - evaluates democracy on the basis of the substance of government policies.
 Representative democratic government requires institutional mechanisms—established procedures and
organizations, for example: elections, political parties, legislatures, and interest groups.
 Majoritarian model of democracy looks like the classic textbook theory of democracy - attempts to
approximate the people’s role in direct democracy within the limitations of representative democracy
(referendum, initiative, recall)
 the mass public controls government actions
 the citizenry, therefore must have some knowledge of government and be willing to participate in
the electoral process
 conclusive elections and a centralized structure of government are mechanisms that aid majority
rule
 cohesive parties with well-defined programs contribute to majoritarian democracy
 Pluralist model of democracy was developed to explain how a democracy could still continue to function,
given the realities of limited mass political interest or participation - idea of pluralism - people in modern
society often form groupings along economic, religious, ethnic, or cultural lines.
It describes the Constitutional system well: the division of authority among the branches of government, and
the multiple power centres that federalism creates, provide an open and decentralized system.
 doesn’t demand knowledge from citizens in general. It requires specialized knowledge only from
groups of citizens, in particular their leaders
 limits majority action so that interest groups can be heard
 relies on strong interest groups and a decentralized government structure
 protects minority interests
 (Elite theory - important government decisions are made by an identifiable and stable minority who has
great wealth and extensive business connections.)
 Democratization is a difficult process (political and economic instability, ethnic and religious conflicts, strong
correlation between economic prosperity and democracy, emerging democracies are fragile ,U.S. has long
regarded helping countries to democratize)
 U. S. does not compare favourably to the majoritarian model, it does more closely approach the pluralist
model (drawbacks: many sectors of society not well-organized, trust in government has deteriorated)

Chapter 3 – The Constitution

 Constitution: The document that defines the basic structure of government. It creates a national
government while recognizing the authority of state governments. It divides the power of the national
government into three parts. It describes the powers of each part, its relationship to the other parts, and the
relationships among the national government, the state governments, and the people.
REVOLUTION (History)

 The issue of taxation – strong and widespread opposition (Sons of Liberty destroyed taxed items and forced
official distributors to resign; Daughters of Liberty encouraged the boycotting of British goods; 1773 - Boston
Tea Party)
 Continental Congress (1774) - It sought the restoration of harmony between the colonies and Britain. -
Discussion ends; revolution begins.
 The Declaration of Independence - Thomas Jefferson drafted the declaration, he wrote a simple, clear, and
orderly argument in support of separation from Great Britain. The principles were rooted in the writings of
John Locke, who argued that people have natural rights and that those rights cannot be taken away by
government. (Social contract theory)
 The Revolution established a republic. The first try at government was designed by the Continental Congress.
They planned a written agreement of government; it was called the Articles of Confederation (1777) - a
confederation is a loose association of independent states that agree to cooperate on specified matters. Each
state retains sovereignty. They did not take effect until 1781, when they were ratified (approved) by all
thirteen states. - The national government under the Articles was weak and ineffective.
 Dissatisfaction with the Articles led to a convention to explore revisions to the Articles.
 1787 - Twelve of the thirteen states sent delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia.
(exception: Rhode Island) Task: The revision of the Articles of Confederation.
1. The delegates from Virginia submitted the Virginia Plan, a set of proposals that had the effect of
writing a new charter of government. The Virginia Plan had several parts and called for a national
government.
2. The smaller states came up with an alternative, known as the New Jersey Plan. It called for
amending the Articles, not replacing them.
Though the New Jersey Plan was defeated, the small states had enough support to force a
stalemate. A member of the Connecticut delegation proposed a compromise to break the stalemate.
Known as the Great Compromise, the plan proposed that representation in the House of
Representatives would be based on population (amenable to large states) and that states would be
represented equally in the Senate (amenable to small states).
3. The delegates agreed to a cumbersome presidential election system now known as the Electoral
College.
 Electors chosen for the sole purpose of selecting the president and vice-president.
 Each state would have as many electors as the sum of its representatives and senators.
 Each elector would vote for two people; the person with the most votes (at least a majority)
would become president, and the person with the next-highest number of votes would
become vice-president.
4. The delegates agreed that a president should be eligible for re-election and that the term of office
should be four years.
5. Removing a president from office was seen as a very serious political matter; the House of
Representatives, the Senate (which could convict and thus remove a president only by a two-thirds
vote – an extraordinary majority), and the chief justice of the United States would take part in the
proceedings.
6. The Constitution was the final product of political compromise. The twenty-three resolutions
debated and approved by the convention were re-organized into a Preamble, followed by seven
articles.
 The Constitution embraces four basic political principles:
1. Republicanism - power resides in the people and is exercised by their elected representatives.
2. Federalism is the division of sovereignty between two or more governments.
3. Separation of powers is the assignment of the law-making, law-enforcing, and law-interpreting
functions to separate the independent legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
 4. Checks and balances is a means of giving each branch some scrutiny and control over the other
branches.
 Structure of the Constitution:
1. Article I describes the legislative power.
2. Article II describes the qualifications for president, the procedures for electing, and the president’s
duties and powers.
3. Article III creates one Supreme Court and describes the powers of the judiciary.
4. Article IV requires that each state give full faith and credit to the judicial acts, criminal warrants, and
contracts of other states. It also allows the addition of new states.
5. Article V specifies the amendment process.
6. Article VI contains the supremacy clause, which asserts that the Constitution and national laws made
in accordance with it take precedence over state and local laws when they conflict.
7. Article VII provides that ratification by conventions in nine states shall be sufficient to establish the
Constitution.
 The Slavery Issue - slavery is not directly mentioned anywhere in the Constitution
 The proponents of the proposed Constitution called themselves Federalists. James Madison, Alexander
Hamilton, and John Jay wrote a series of newspaper articles, called the Federalist Papers, arguing in favour of
ratification.
 The opponents of the proposed Constitution called themselves Antifederalists. They attacked the
Constitution on the ground that it centralized power in a strong national government that would wipe out
the states and destroy liberty in the process.
 The Constitution can be changed in three ways:
1. Article V specifies the requirements for formally amending the Constitution. This has occurred only
twenty-seven times since 1787. There are two stages to the process; both are required.
 Proposal stage
 Ratification stage
2. Can be amended is by the process of judicial review.
3. Can be amended is by political practice.
 The Constitution defines a government framework well suited to the pluralist model of democracy.

Chapter 4 – Federalism

 Federalism: Two or more governments exercise power and authority over the same people and the same
territory. In the United States, government power is divided between the national government and the
states.
 Dual federalism implies the existence of distinct layers of government, each with powers in their own
spheres; these powers are not mixed or shared.
 Cooperative federalism emphasizes the intermingling of government activities at different levels and in
various spheres.
 Forces that prompt changes in relationships between the national government and states:
o National crises and demands, for example the problems of the Great Depression proved too
extensive for state governments or private businesses to manage. The New Deal revolutionized the
national government’s role in solving problems and was accomplished without Congress claiming
new powers.
o Judicial interpretation can shift the balance. Example: In 1990, a case successfully challenged
Congress’ authority to ban guns in schools, determining this issue was not related to commerce. A
Brady gun bill challenge by sheriffs held the bill unconstitutionally gave the national government
power over local sheriffs and violated separation of powers
o Incentives granted by the national government can also shift the balance between nation and state.
A grant-in-aid is money paid by one level of government to another level, to be spent for a specific
 purpose. Examples include the use of highway funds to cause state adoption of the federal drinking
age of 21 and then the .08 percent blood-alcohol level for drunk driving.
o Professionalism of state governments.
 The American federal system provides myriad opportunities for interested parties to push their ideas.
 Federalism is ever-evolving and changing.

Chapter 5 – Public opinion and Political socialization

 Public opinion: The collective attitude of the citizens on a given issue or question.
 Opinion polling – measure public opinion
 According to the majoritarian model, government should do what the majority wants. According to the
pluralist model, government must merely allow free expression of the often numerous “minority” opinions.
 Public opinion can be analysed according to the shape (the pattern or physical form of the responses when
counted and plotted, can be: skewed, bimodal, normal/modal) and stability (to the amount of change in the
modal category or in the shape of the distribution over time) of the distribution of opinions among citizens.
 Political socialization: The complex process by which people acquire their political values.
 Most important agents of early socialization are: family, primary and secondary schools, the community and
peers
 There is generally a relationship between people’s social background and their political values.

Chapter 6 – The Media

 Mass Media - major channels for the two-flow information, they have the dual capacity of reflecting and
shaping our political views
The mass media are privately owned in the United States.
 Newspapers, Magazines, Radio, Television, Internet
 The media make the news by deciding what to report as news.
o The major news media maintain journalists in major cities and government centres to report political
events first-hand.
o Media executives, news editors, and prominent reporters function as gatekeepers in presenting the
news and deciding which events to report and how to handle their elements.
 Virtually all citizens must rely on the mass media for their political news.
 The media have diverse impacts on democratic government.

Chapter 7 – Participation and voting

 Political participation: Those actions of private citizens by which they seek to influence or to support
government and politics. Classified as unconventional and conventional.
o Unconventional participation is a relatively uncommon behaviour that challenges or defies
government channels or the dominant culture. It is usually personally stressful.
o Conventional participation is a relatively routine, added behaviour that uses the channels of
representative government.
 Supportive behaviours are mainly ceremonial acts expressing allegiance to government and
country.
 Influencing behaviours seek to modify or reverse government policy.
 Electoral procedures specify three rules for making collective decisions:
o Who is allowed to vote?
o How much each person’s vote will count?
o How many votes are needed to win the election?
 Progressivism - Left an important legacy of mechanisms for direct participation, particularly in the
policymaking process.
 o The state-run direct primary allows ordinary citizens to choose their candidates.
o Through the recall, a special election initiated by petition, citizens can remove an unpopular official
from office (available in 20 states).
o Through the referendum, citizens vote directly on issues written as propositions (available in 24
states).
o By means of the initiative, voters propose issues to be decided by the legislatures or directly
determined by the voters (available in 24 states).
 Apart from allowing citizens to choose candidates or issues, elections serve other purposes.
o Elections socialize political activity.
o Elections institutionalize access to political power.
o Elections bolster states’ power and authority.
 The majoritarian model of democracy favours collective decisions, formalized through elections, over private
influence on government. The pluralist model of democracy favours a decentralized and organizationally
complex form of government, and it encourages forms of conventional participation other than voting.

Chapter 8 – Political Parties

 A political party is an organization that sponsors candidates for public office under the organization’s name.
Four important functions for the political system:
1. Nominate candidates for election to public office
2. Structure the voting choice in elections
3. Propose alternative government programs
4. Coordinate the actions of government officials
 History (long and complex)
1. Parties were not mentioned in the Constitution and did not exist in any recognizable form in the pre-
party period, which lasted through Washington’s first term of office.
2. The first party system pitted the Federalists, led by Hamilton, against the Democratic Republicans,
led by Jefferson.
3. The second party system involved what became the Democratic party and the Whig party.
4. The present party system, featuring the Democratic and Republican parties, developed in the late
1850s.
 For several reasons, only two parties have alternated in power in the United States for more than 125 years.
The electoral system—which involves the twin principles of single winners chosen by simple plurality vote—
tends to encourage competition between only two parties for political office within each electoral district.
 Democrats and Republicans differ considerably in political ideology. Democrats are more disposed to
government spending to advance social welfare. Republicans decry massive social spending, but support
spending billions of dollars on national defence. Despite their ideological differences on issues of freedom,
order, and equality, the parties are similar in that they are both capitalist parties that reject government
ownership of the means of production.
 Each major party has four main organizational components:
1. A national convention convenes every four years to nominate a presidential candidate and set party
policy and rules.
2. A national committee, composed of leaders from state parties, has a steering role.
3. Congressional party conferences try to guide each party’s legislative activities within each chamber.
4. Congressional campaign committees are separate bodies in each house for each party.
 The ideal role of parties in four principles:
1. Parties should present clear and coherent programs to voters.
2. Voters should choose candidates according to the party programs.
3. The winning party should carry out its program once it is in office.
4. Voters should hold the governing party responsible at the next election for executing its program.
Chapter 9 – Nominations, Elections, and Campaigns

 Election campaign is an organized effort to persuade voters to choose one candidate over others competing
for the same office.
 In the U.S., candidates campaign for nomination as well as election.
 Parties choose their candidates through elections.
 All seats in the House of Representatives, one-third of the seats in the Senate, and numerous state and local
offices are filled in a general election held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even-
numbered years. The election when the president is chosen (every fourth year) is identified as presidential.
The intervening elections are known as congressional, midterm, or off year elections.
 Voters choose a president indirectly through the Electoral College.
 First-past-the-post elections, conducted in single-member districts, award victory to the candidate with the
most votes. In congressional elections, this means that the party that wins the most votes tends to win even
more seats than projected by its percentage of the vote.
 Parties in the United States typify the pluralist more than the majoritarian model of democracy.

Chapter 10 – Interest Groups

 An interest group (lobby) is “an organized body of individuals who share some political goals and try to
influence public policy.”
Roles they play:
o Representation: Interest groups represent their constituents before government.
o Participation: They facilitate people’s participation in politics.
o Education: Efforts made by interest groups help to educate their members, the public at large, and
government officials.
o Agenda building: News issues are brought into the political limelight through interest group
advocacy.
o Program monitoring: Lobbying organizations keep track of how programs are working in the field
and try to persuade government to take action when problems become evident.

Chapter 11 – Congress

 The Congress has two separate chambers.

 Representation in the House is based on population. Representatives are elected for two-year terms. After
the census every ten years, there is a reapportionment of House seats.
 Each state has two senators. Senators serve six-year terms.
 After being introduced, bills go to committee and then usually to a subcommittee. After a bill has been
passed by a committee, it goes to the full membership for debate, possible amendment, and a vote. Bills
passed by the House and Senate must go to a conference committee, where differences between the two
versions are resolved. If both the House and the Senate pass the conference committee’s compromise
version, the bill then goes to the president. The President may sign or veto any bill that Congress has passed.
If a president vetoes a bill, Congress can override that veto by a two-thirds majority in each house. A pocket
veto takes place when Congress adjourns within ten days of the time it sent the bill to the White House and
the president does not sign it.
 Congress has committees
o Standing committees are permanent committees that specialize in an area of public policy.
o Joint committees are made up of members of the House and the Senate.
o Select committees are temporary and are created for a specific purpose (such as the committee that
investigated the Watergate scandal).
o Conference committees are temporary and are created to work out differences between House and
Senate versions of legislation on the same subject.
  Much public policy decision-making takes place in committees and subcommittees.
 Oversight is the process of reviewing agency operations to determine whether an agency is carrying out
policies as Congress intended.
 Leaders: In the House, the leader selected by the majority party is the Speaker of the House. The Speaker’s
counterpart in the opposing party is the minority leader. Constitutionally, the Vice President is the leader of
the Senate, though in practice he is rarely there. The president pro tempore presides in the absence of the
Vice President, but this position is merely honorary. The real leader of the majority party is the majority
leader. The minority leader holds a parallel position in the minority party.
 The operation of the House and the Senate is structured by both formal rules and informal norms.

Chapter 12 – The Presidency

 The President has the power to:

o Act as administrative head of the nation.
o Serve as commander in chief of the military.
o Convene Congress.
o Veto legislation (but Congress can override a veto).
o Appoint top officials, though some are subject to the advice and consent of the Senate.
o Make treaties (again, subject to Senate approval).
o Grant pardons.
 The power of the modern presidency comes not only from the explicit powers listed in the Constitution, but
also from the expansion of authority under claims of inherent powers.
 Congress has also delegated power to the executive branch.
 One of the most important of the president’s resources in office is his White House staff.
 The cabinet is composed of the heads of the major departments in the executive branch and a small number
of other key officials such as the director of the Office of Management and Budget and the ambassador to
the United Nations.
 President’s character is important

Chapter 13 - The Bureaucracy

 Bureaucracies are large, complex organizations in which employees have very specific job responsibilities
and work within a hierarchy of authority. The government bureaucracy consists of the departments,
agencies, bureaus, offices and other units that administer the nation’s laws and policies.
 Basic types of government organizations:
o Departments are the largest units of the executive branch.
o Independent agencies are not part of a cabinet department.
o Government corporations perform services that theoretically could be handled by the private
sector, but Congress believes the public will be better served if these corporations have some link to
the federal government.
 Most of the bureaucrats who work for the federal government are hired under the requirements of the civil
service. The civil service was created to reduce patronage in the awarding of federal jobs. Jobs are filled on
the basis of merit, and workers cannot be fired for political reasons. The quality of civil servants has not
declined over time though criticism of federal bureaucracy has led to certain difficulties for agencies in
finding superior candidates for job openings.

Chapter 14 – The Courts

 The Constitution established “one Supreme Court”, but left it to Congress to structure the federal judiciary.
  The state courts: Each state has its own court system, and no two are alike. State courts co-exist with the
federal court system, and individuals fall under the jurisdiction of both. The state courts handle and resolve
the vast majority of legal disputes.
 As crime is a violation of public order, the government maintains order by prosecuting criminal cases.
 Civil cases stem from disputed claims to something of value. They involve private disputes arising from such
matters as accidents, contractual obligations, and divorce.
 Few cases ever go to trial. Most cases are settled out of court; some are abandoned.
 The federal courts: The federal courts are like a pyramid: the Supreme Court is at the apex, the U.S. courts of
appeals occupy the middle, and the U.S. District Courts serve as the base. The courts of appeals and the
Supreme Court are appellate courts. Most federal courts hear and decide civil and criminal cases.
 The U.S. District Courts: There are 94 district courts; each state has at least one, and no district crosses
state boundaries. More than one judge may sit in each district court, but each case is heard by a single judge,
sitting alone
 Cases litigated beyond the federal district courts usually go to one of the 13 U.S. Courts of Appeals: Each
appeal court hears cases from a geographical area known as a circuit. The United States is divided into 12
circuits. The 13th court, the US Court of Appeals for Federal Circuit, is not a regional court. It specializes in
appeals involving patents, contract claims against the national government, and federal employment cases.
Judges on the regional courts sit in panels of three.
 The work of the Court is determined by access.
 The Court’s jurisdiction falls into two categories: original and appellate.
o The Constitution specifies the Court’s original jurisdiction. The Court is the first and only forum for
the resolution of the very few original jurisdiction cases.
o Appellate jurisdiction is subject to congressional control; it is also the primary source of cases
entering the Court from the U.S. court of appeals or the state courts of last resort.
 How does a person become a judge? - The president makes nominations when vacancies or new positions
occur in the federal judiciary. The Senate must confirm the president’s nomination.
 The American Bar Association (ABA) is the largest association of lawyers in the United States.
 The majoritarian view of democracy confines judging to the letter of the law.
 The pluralist view of democracy regards judging as simply another form of policymaking; individual values
and interests of judges should advance the different values and interests of the population at large.

Chapter 15 – Order and Civil Liberties

 Civil Liberties are freedoms guaranteed to the individual. They declare what the government cannot do.
They may also be thought of as “negative rights.”
 Civil Rights are powers and privileges guaranteed to the individual and protected against arbitrary removal.
They declare what the government must do or provide. They may also be thought of as “positive rights.”
 The Bill of Rights lists both civil liberties and civil rights that are protected by the Constitution.
 The First Amendment prevents government from interfering with freedom of religion in two different ways:
the establishment clause and the free-exercise clause.
o Establishment clause: Both prohibits laws establishing religion and prevents the government from
interfering with the exercise of religion.
o Free-exercise clause: Distinguishes between religious beliefs and actions based on those beliefs.
Beliefs are protected; antisocial actions based on them are not.
 The First Amendment guarantees that government will not interfere with the freedom of the press.
 The Second Amendment - “the right of the people to keep and bear arms”
 The Ninth Amendment has been used by the Supreme Court to define the limits of government
encroachment on personal autonomy.

Chapter 16 – Equality and Civil Rights

  Equality of opportunity, equality of outcome, no invidious discrimination
 The Civil War amendments were adopted to provide black Americans with freedom and equality, civil and
political rights.
 The Supreme Court seemed intent on weakening federal attempts to ensure the civil rights of black
Americans.
 With the nullification of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, state laws that formally protected racial segregation
proliferated.
 The advancement of racial equality has required the political mobilization of the people through the civil
rights movement. (Martin Luther King)
 The lack of progress toward equality for northern blacks was an important factor in the rise of the black
nationalist movement in the 1960s.
 Civil rights have been extended more slowly to other minorities.
o Government policy toward Native Americans has been characterized by appropriation of their lands,
neglect, and social and political isolation.
o Spanish-speaking Americans have also experienced substantial poverty and discrimination in cities
and rural areas.
 In 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act extended the protections embodied in the Civil Rights Act of
1964 to people with physical or mental disabilities.
 An often-overlooked aspect of the civil rights struggle is the gay liberation movement.
 The movement toward equal rights for women has had to confront the traditional view of the relationship
between men and women.
 Affirmative action programs were designed to eliminate the effects of past discrimination against women
and members of other minority groups. Such programs include recruitment, preferential treatment, and
quotas for women, minorities, and people with disabilities in education, employment, and the awarding of
government contracts.

Chapter 17 – Policymaking

 Public policy: A general plan of action adopted by government to solve a social problem, counter a threat, or
pursue an objective. All public policies are the means by which government pursues certain goals within
specific situations. Three types:
1. Distributive policies allocate resources to a segment of society so that a service or benefit is gained.
2. Re-distributional policies take resources from one sector of society and transfer it to another.
3. Regulations guide the operation of government programs.
 Policymaking process – four stages:
1. Agenda setting – the problems get defined as political issues
2. Policy formulation - formal policy proposals are developed and a decision is made whether or not to
adopt one of those proposals
3. Implementation - policies are carried out
4. Policy evaluation - analysis of public policy to see how well it is working
 Fragmentation of policymaking is fundamental because of the nature of government in America. It is the
phenomenon of attacking a single problem in different and sometimes competing ways.
 Issue networks consist of groups of individuals of various interests involved in some particular aspect of
public policy. Issue networks promote pluralist democracy.

Chapter 18 – Economic Policy

 Taxes and spending are the major tools with which government implements policy.
 Policymakers rely on economic theories to explain how the market economy works.
  Laissez-faire economists believe that government interference with the laws of the market prevents
the development of a strong economic system.
 Keynesian theory holds that government policy can alleviate the negative consequences of the
expansion and contraction of business cycles.
 Monetarists question the political utility of Keynesian fiscal policies and favour reliance on monetary
politics.
 Supply-side economics resembles laissez-faire economics, because it prefers fewer government
regulations and less taxation.
 The budget states how much money government agencies will be allowed to spend on their programs. The
budget applies to the fiscal year (October 1 to September 30). The difference between receipts and outlays
is the budget deficit.
 The preparation of the budget is supervised by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB).
 The budget must then be passed by Congress.
 Tax policies are designed to provide a continuous flow of revenue without requiring new annual legislation.
Tax policy is often adjusted to meet budgetary outlays, to make the tax burden more equitable, or to control
the economy.
 The tax burden has increased over time in the United States but is still low compared with the tax rate of
major industrialized democratic nations.
 Taxing and spending policy in the United States are tipped in the direction of freedom rather than equality.

Chapter 19 – Domestic Policy

 Welfare state: The state is the provider and protector of individual well-being through economic and social
programs.
 Social welfare programs are designed to provide the minimum living conditions necessary for all citizens.
 Social insurance is a government-backed guarantee against loss by individuals without regard to need.
 Social security: social insurance that provides economic assistance to persons faced with unemployment,
disability, or old age. It is financed by taxes on employers and employees. How does it work?:
1. The federal government collects taxes from employers and employees to pay benefits to persons
who are retiring.
 Public assistance (welfare) is government aid to individuals who can demonstrate a need for that aid. It is
directed toward those who lack the ability or resources to provide for themselves or their family.
 The U.S. is the only major industrialized nation without a universal health care system. Government
programs to provide health care include:
1. Medicare - health care system for all people sixty-five years old or older
2. Medicaid - a need based comprehensive medical and hospitalization program, financed by the
federal government and the states, participants: children under 21, adults, those who are blind and
disabled, and those aged 65 and over
3. State Children’s Health Insurance - a health insurance program designed to provide children in
families with low incomes access to medical care
 The national government provides two types of benefits.
1. Means-tested benefits impose an income test to qualify.
2. Non–means-tested benefits impose no such income tests. An example is Medicare, which provides
equal benefits to wealthy and poor Americans.

Chapter 20 – Global Policy

 Foreign policy is a nation’s general plan to defend and advance national interests, especially its security
against foreign threats.
 Protagonist 1 – The President, Protagonist2 – Congress (detailed power description in parallel_20)
 Supporting Players:
 o The State Department helps formulate American policy and then executes and monitors it
throughout the world.
o The Department of Defence is charged with promoting unity and coordination among the armed
forces and providing the bureaucratic structure needed to manage the peacetime military.
o The National Security Council (NSC) is a group of advisors created to help the President mold a
coherent approach to foreign policymaking by integrating and coordinating details of domestic,
foreign and military affairs.
o The CIA and the Intelligence Community
 For most of the 19th century, the limits of American interests were defined by the Monroe Doctrine, in
which the U.S. rejected European interference and agreed not to involve itself in European politics. This was
the politics of isolationism.
 World War I was the first challenge to isolationism.
 World War II changed America’s orientation.
 Cold War (detailed description in parallel_20)
 Global policy is a general plan to defend and advance national interests, but it embraces a broader view of
national interests than foreign policy. It confronts the silent, cumulative effects of billions of individual
choices made by people everywhere on the globe. Global policy requires global action; the players are
international organizations that cooperate on a worldwide scale. U.S. leadership is less evident, and less
accepted when such global issues as world trade, world poverty, the environment, human rights, and the
challenges of emerging democracies are in play.

Extra – Things You DEFINITELY need to know

 US CONSTITUTION
 Was signed on July 4, 1776, by the congressional representatives of the 13 Colonies of Colonial
America.
 The document was signed by 56 delegates to the Continental Congress.
 Founding Fathers – most civilized revolutionists, 55 men, elite of business and government in their
states, average age:42. The key Founding Fathers (7): John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander
Hamilton, John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Washington.
 The Committee of Five appointed by the Second Continental Congress drafted what became known
as America's Declaration of Independence. The members of the Committee of Five were:
o Thomas Jefferson (Virginia)
o John Adams (Massachusetts lawyer, second president )
o Roger Sherman (Sherman Tank, lawyer)
o Robert Livingston (New York)
o Benjamin Franklin
 John Hancock was the first man to sign the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. (Big letters,
so the king can read it ) He was the President of the Continental Congress at the time of the
signing. The other signatures were added on various dates, the last being Matthew Thornton, from
New Hampshire, who signed on November 4, 1776.
 Two future presidents signed the Declaration: John Adams (second President) and Thomas Jefferson
(third President).
 Robert R. Livingston was a member of the Committee of Five, but did not sign the final copy.
 The Declaration is divided into three basic parts:
o An introduction with a statement of the philosophy
o A list of grievances (Complaints)
o A final and formal "Declaration of Independence”
 THE LAST 6 PRESIDENTS OF THE USA
 Jimmy Carter (1977-1981)
o 39th President
o Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Centre
 Ronald Reagan (1981-1989)
o Politician and actor
o Before his presidency, he was the 33rd governor of California
o New political and economic initiatives, “Reaganomics”
 George H. W. Bush (1989-1993)
o 43rd vice president
o US Republican Party
o Veteran of World War II
 Bill Clinton (1993-2001)
o Governor of Arkansas (1979-1981)
o Democratic Party, many of his policies reflected a centrist “Third Way” political philosophy
 George W. Bush (2001-2009)
o 46th governor of Texas
o Worked in oil businesses
o Close and controversial election with Al Gore
o September 11 – terrorist attack
o Bush Doctrine: launching “War on Terror” an international military campaign, which
included the war in Afghanistan. He became a war president.
o Promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, social security form, and
amending the Constitution to prohibit same-sex marriage.
 Barack Obama (2009-2017)

 COURT CASES
 United States v Criukshank (1876)
 District of Columbia v Heller (2008)
 Dred Scott v Sandford (1857)
 Plessy v Ferguson (1896)
 Morgan v Virginia (1946)
 Brown v Board of Education (1954)
 Browder v Gayle (1956) - associated with Rosa Parks and the Alabama bus boycott
 Gomillion v Lightfoot (1960)
 Stromberg v California (1931)
 New York Times Co. v Sullivan (1964)
 Griswold v Connecticut (1965)
 Roe v Wade (1973)