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Temperature
Content
12.1 Thermal equilibrium
12.2 Temperature scales
12.3 Practical thermometers

Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) Show an appreciation that thermal energy is transferred from a
region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature
(b) Show an understanding that regions of equal temperature are in
thermal equilibrium
(c) Show an understanding that a physical property that varies with
temperature may be used for the measurement of temperature and
state examples of such properties
(d) Compare the relative advantages and disadvantages of resistance
and thermocouple thermometers as previously calibrated
instruments
(e) Show an understanding that there is an absolute scale of
temperature that does not depend on the property of any particular
substance (i.e. the thermodynamic scale and the concept of absolute
zero)
(f) Convert temperatures measured in kelvin to degrees Celsius and
recall that T / K = T / °C + 273.15.

Reference
Understanding Physics Jim Breithaupt
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Thermal energy transfer

Second law of thermodynamics

No external work is done for transferring thermal energy from higher
temperature to low temperature objects. Thermal energy transfer happens only
when there is a temperature difference between objects.

Thermal Equilibrium
If two systems said to be thermal equilibrium when there is no net energy
transfer between them.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

If two bodies A and B are, separately, in thermal equilibrium with another body
c, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium when they are in thermal contact.
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Thermometer
Defining a temperature scale refers to the process of setting up a system in order
to measure temperature.

To set up a temperature scale:

1. Choose a suitable body of substance

2. Thermometric property ( a property of a substance changes continuously
with the degree of hotness , example- length of a liquid or metal,
resistance of metal, pressure of a gas at constant temperature etc)
3. Select two fixed points. Measure the thermometric property at the upper
and lower points
4. Assume that the thermometric property varies linearly with temperature

Thermometric
property
x

x2

x1
Temperature

1 2
Lower Higher
Fixed point Fixed point

By definition,

Lower fixed point, 1 = ice point = 0 0

Upper fixed point, 2 = steam point = 100 0

Write x1 = x0 and x2 = x100, then the equation of the straight line is

( )
x θ − x0
θ= × 100
x 100 − x 0

Centigrade scale

 x x 
    0  100 0C
 x100  x0 
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When one junction X of a thermocouple is placed in melting ice and the other
junction Y in steam at 100 0C, the e.m.f. is 6.0 mV. Junction Y is removed from
the steam and is placed in a liquid bath at a constant temperature, junction X
remaining in the ice. The e.m.f. is now - 1.5 mV. What is the temperature of the
bath on the centigrade scale of this thermocouple? [-250C]
The readings of a resistance thermometer are 20.0 ohm at ice point,28.2 Ohms at
steam point, and 23.1 at an unknown temperature. Calculate the unknown
temperature on the centigrade scale of the thermometer. (37.8°)

Disagreement between Temperatures Measured by Different

Thermometers

One would obtain the same temperature from all different thermometers only if
all thermometric properties vary with degree of hotness in the same way. In
practice, however, most thermometric properties do not vary with temperature
in the same way. Hence there are discrepancies in temperature measured by
different types of thermometer.

Therefore we need a standard thermometer to compare thermometers.

Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

A thermodynamic or absolute scale of temperature is a scale that does not

depend on the way (how) a physical property of any particular substance
changes with temperature.

The thermodynamic scale is theoretical and cannot be put directly to use. In

practice, the thermodynamic or absolute temperature can be obtained from the
ideal gas scale. For this scale, the working substance is a fixed mass of ideal gas
whose volume is to be kept at a fixed value. The thermometric property is the
pressure of the gas.
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Lower fixed point: Absolute Zero (0 K)

Upper fixed point: Triple point of water (273.16 K)

Since triple point can be reproducible accurately it is chosen as upper fixed point.

Ideal gas equation of state : pV = nRT

if n , V are constant, then

p  T

Because R is a constant.

pressure

ptr

Temperature
0 Ttr T
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p  T
ptr  Ttr
T p
 
Ttr ptr
p
T   Ttr
ptr

 p 
T  273.16    K
 ptr 

Celsius temperature is defined in terms of the thermodynamic temperature.

Hence for the Celsius scale, the fixed points are
absolute zero (-273.15 0C) ,and
Triple point of water (0.01 0C).

Comparison between Celsius scale and Kelvin scale

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Comparison of different types of thermometer

Temperature
Thermometer Thermometry Property
Range/K
Length of Hg column in capillary
Mercury 234 - 630
tube
Platinum
Resistance of platinum wire 83 - 1400
resistance
Thermocouple e.m.f. 25 - 1750

Thermometer Advantages Disadvantages

a) portable
Mercury Not very accurate
b) direct reading

wide range
best for small steady differences of Not suitable for varying
Platinum
temperature temperature because of
resistance
most accurate in the range 138K- slow response
904K
wide range
very small, useful for measuring
Not as accurate as
local and rapidly varying
Thermocouple resistance thermometer
temperature (small quantity)
in the range 138K-904K
most accurate in the range 904K-
1338K

Thermo couple

A kind of thermometer consisting of two wires of

different metals that are joined at both ends; one
junction is at the temperature to be measured and the
other is held at a fixed lower temperature; the current
generated in the circuit increases as the temperature
difference increases.

Eg AL- Ni Aluminum - Nickel pair

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Explanation

When two different metals are brought into contact, free electrons pass between
them at the contact points. But, because the electrons leave one metal more
easily than the other a potential difference develops across the junction.
Potential difference varies smoothly with the temperature difference between
the junctions.

∆θ = k (θ1 – θ2) where k is constant.

Thermometry
1. An advantage of the platinum resistance thermometer is that

A. It may be used to measure rapidly changing temperatures.

B. It has a linear scale, because the resistance of a piece of platinum varies
directly as thermodynamic temperature.
C. It may be used to measure steady temperatures with very high accuracy.
D. It is the only type of thermometer that can measure accurately
temperatures over 3000 K.

2. The triple point of water has been chosen as the fixed point for the
establishment of the Kelvin scale, rather than the melting point of ice,
because

A. it is more precisely reproducible.

B. it is closer to the defining temperature of 273.16 K.
C. it gives a more convenient scale between 0 0
C and
100 0C.
D. it ensures a more linear scale for gas thermometers.

3. A solid X is in thermal equilibrium with a solid Y, which is at the same

temperature as a third solid Z. The three bodies are of different materials
and masses. Which one of the following statements is certainly correct?

A. Y and Z have the same internal energy.

B. There is no net transfer of energy if X is placed in thermal contact with Z.
C. It is not necessary that Y should be in thermal equilibrium with Z.
D. It is not necessary that X should be at the same temperature as Y.

4. When one junction X of a thermocouple is placed in melting ice and the

junction Y in steam at 100 0C, the e.m.f. is 6.0 mV. Junction X is removed from
the melting ice and is placed in a liquid bath at a constant temperature,
junction Y remaining in steam. The e.m.f. is now -1.5 mV. The temperature of
the bath on the centigrade scale of this thermocouple is

A -25 0C B 25 0C C 75 0C D 125 0C
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5. For the construction of a thermometer, one of the essential requirements is a

thermometric substance which

A. Remains liquid over the entire range of temperatures to

be measured.
B. has a property that varies linearly with temperature.
C. has a property that varies with temperature.
D. has a constant expansivity.

6. A sample of an ideal gas gives the isotherms shown below, where T1 =

273.15 K, the ice-point, and T2 is the boiling point of water at standard
pressure.
pV / J

x T3
y T2
z T1

p / Pa
0
The magnitude of the thermodynamic temperature T3 in kelvin is

x y x
273.15 273.15
A yx B z

x y x
273.15  273.15  100
C yz D y
7. Two thermometers X and Y are placed inside an enclosure whose walls are
maintained at a steady temperature T. When equilibrium is established, X
and Y will give the same reading T

A. under all circumstances.

B. only if they absorb radiation at equal rates.
C. only if both are perfect absorbers.
D. only if they have equal thermal capacities.

8. Which one of the following thermometers would be most suitable for

monitoring the temperature of gases in a factory chimney if the temperature
can vary over a range of 200 K in a minute?

A. mercury in glass.
B. constant-volume gas.
C. thermoelectric.
D. platinum resistance.

9. Which thermodynamic temperature is equivalent to 501.85 0C ?

A 775.00 K B 774.85 K C 228.85 K D 228.70 K

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10. Which combination of thermometers would be most appropriate for

measuring the following three temperatures?

1 2 3
Temperature at boiling point of boiling point of
Various positions sulphur (717K) liquid nitrogen
in a flame (80K)

A resistance liquid-in-glass thermocouple

B resistance thermocouple liquid-in-glass
C thermocouple liquid-in-glass resistance
D thermocouple resistance resistance

11. The table lists the approximate range, accuracy and response time of
different types of thermometer.
Which set of properties belongs to a thermocouple?

thermometer range / K accuracy response time

A 3 - 1750 very good long
B 30 - 1750 average short
C 75 - 1550 good long
D 230 - 630 poor medium

12. The temperature of a body at 100 0C is increased by  as measured on the

Celsius scale. What is this temperature change expressed on the Kelvin scale?

A  + 373 B  + 273 C  + 100 D 

13.
Centigrade Celsius Kelvin
Absolute zero - 273.15 - 273.15 0.00
Freezing point of
0.00 0.00 273.15
water
Triple point of water 0.01 0.01 273.16
Boiling point of water 100.00 100.00 373.15

The above table gives the numerical values of the temperature, to 2 decimal
places, of four reference points on three different temperature scales. In each
column, two of the values are exact by definition and two are found by
experiment. Which, for each scale, are the exact temperatures?
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14. (a) State why the thermodynamic scale of temperature is called an absolute
scale of temperature?
(b) Name types of thermometer that would be suitable for measuring each of
the following:
(i) The boiling point of oxygen (about 90 K),
(ii) A rapidly changing temperature,
(iii) The temperature of a very small quantity of a liquid.

Give a reason for your choice of thermometer in (ii).

15. A resistance thermometer is placed in a bath of liquid at 0 0C and its

resistance is found to be 3740 . At 100 0C, its resistance is 210 . The bath
is now cooled until the resistance of the thermometer is 940 .

(a) What is the temperature of the bath, as measured using the resistance
thermometer?
(b) The reading taken at the same time on a mercury-in-glass thermometer
placed in the bath is 40 0C. Suggest a reason for the difference between
these readings and the value calculated in (a).

16. By reference to thermal energy transfer, explain what is meant by

(a) two bodies having the same temperature,

(b) body H having a higher temperature than body C.

Answers

1 C 2 A 3 B 4 D 5 C 6 B
7 A 8 C 9 A 10 D 11 B 12 D

15 (a) 79.3 0C
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