e he sl3he/

Core MODERN PHASTCS

* -Buegie typothekis
In 1934 Louis De Broglte A pla bold
kuggestion thad +he toadiation ha partde natre
as oetl ak oave nature St imp31tad b nste

Eralure ha e Hadialion Cannot ezh:bB he parltcle

pariele
Ho mature and he owe naltre tmul taneoubly
He obserued that a wave is always
aAkotiated with a moving article and +Ae
he
paxtrle
paxirle Conholled by h wole" The wove
wayk
osbodated it a moving porticle ik Known os
eto De- Broqle umve matte wave "

*presbion ja DeBrogltae lenth -

yalem
e Once
AcOTdi ng to planck'%hedly t qoueliaton,

E hy bc
Bagna
,cwdik.
to insttin mati
hdey ctoTding energy telaton
easue 5 mc -G
athem-
s om hC mC
emöle

e
meakur
31 A h
the MC
 where, mc p momentum. assocfakd w% h
mas m
Paxticte). n Case a
povtrele
moi nng
and mou? wNh a
velocty. 'v' 4hen
4hen +he
the
ehe
momentum i mv=p. be uoveleh
uave
assoialed wtth he mov?ng parrele is
h

Case E s +he kSnde energy he

pafle hen,
mv

O P VaE
*Matt
kerelile he de-Broqlie velength i ,

yomE
0bA
Cobe
(i) in cake oan electvon massmand

chae
chage e is acteletated by +he potental
The
oHerence "v'. Then,
m ev

81 N:
eV
m

The oe - Broqlie uaelength i

 mV

h
e

ameN

134
A 6 625 x

Qx9-1X io kl-6 x to"xV

133 A A
For N: lod Vots

226 A

Matte waves
The
The wave a&socialed usith a moving

poTieleiA Known a mater wave his Loa

obzeved b Lou'A de-Broalie n 144

Malter uwaves
* Po peteA i

The
The ollouoinq aethe propetek Motler waves

ty ghte is tfe pottele, qreater is the uvelengt

askoctaled ot
(9) Smalle 4he Velocley q the paitiele qeater
the warelenqth akkociated t
 3) ie elocity matlr uave depend on e
eloc h e pastiele Poxttele

t4) he Vetocit matler vare aseates a

+he
velocid L t
(5)Aatlev uoaves no
not electvonogndtc uava

Heisenbeg' Oncelainiy prineiple -

Accovding To Heaenberg unceilaiiboth
measure
principle t tAAimposs7ble to
he
the and memerum a porticle
position
Kimultaneusly esd acralely to o a b a h
genera thi3
degree accurac
states +hal impossible fo
pincple the Vaue
Vale
and Amultanebudlythe
measure accuraely
ha describe
po phyatcal Viables
1/

4He motion qa alomic Pat'ele ".

Schroinge Tme ndependenl ue equatiog

(oY)
worve
len motien motk
, a paficle
paticle
Accovding to de -Broglte46eony,
wave

mass m is always associaled a to46

ohote avelengi6 s ren by A6/mv

het,
he has ave propeyl'es, *6en
1 paticde descvibe |
hould be a wave ea, uation ohich
nds on be the molton pavlicle
dhe pavlicle Conidev a qoup
waves asssciated w a
particle el , ,z be
y, z be
poition 9 the pavlicle. Lel b e the wate
a3eate han
ditplatemeil a any intidenl lne w
Called he
he wave {undtion H is akkumed tha
nette unvei ne. ingle valued and peviodie tuncion
Thederelial tqualion a coave molion is&

aven by

bth
tiele
cohere + s an opeata,
d

Vis+he ware
&oluion
Velocity. The Xolution
and
Ble to
equottron
the Valu
escri be

where i t h e requeney +he wave associaled }

aualion qTice
w the mouing pa71icle Omeretialing
we

a particle
h a uvaVe

mv to) inyo
hen he
descvibe
 hom4he ea"z O&O

tom de- Broge hypothesi8 , A = b/my

rom
hevefole 4he eq becomes
b
he totl
E and V i enegy and p:E.
the pat cle,hen
he k. i

m'= E -V
m a m - v ) -6)

fhom and ea ©

Vy+nm (E -V) y o
-

But

(E-V)y
(E-V)y o-
nown ak Shrotodinger Time-

Sndependenl wave equaton f8t a

ree paatel
V/ o. Thus the schroedinger wate ezualion

o a
tee pattele i
 E Co

phCa oiante y
Ample inlevprdalroo given by was

Sehro edinge in terms d chavqe deny Ai

h e
4he ampltude he uave then the enexgy deos
. eerqu pe un Nolume s equal to A and.
+be phalon den equal to A[hv.
i y ishe ampltude the mctleY oave

o any potsl in Space en i e meaßure

particde density
Maz Beto Bugaeled C
ne ilea the
aboul the
Acrololing to Max Batn
obab: l tnoling he potele in the &tate
ie y' i a measure pobob:l densit
The probobtth tnding he poattcde is unity i,
y'd1 dy di : 1 .

ORplicaon Schroeoinger Time independest wal e

euaon ; -

Poticle Box
Lel a paslfele d mass m

moving along *ais

wals
beeen6e
taftex A B x -axis
tusd gid A and B
oc o and a a
h e potcle is ree o move befoeenhe allk. Value
is Conalasl ? , geHo
P e the patee
he

the walls and s ntny atthe oPp

belo een Can oe
be
wall. Thus he potentfal gundion bounde
h e ollouwng
Teprekented in. Con d
Xo and > a
V- 81
and *s a
nd o 81 O
waue equalion 41
a pàsltele from
the
h e sho edingey
ven by

abo e
6elw een he uvalls+he

equalien 6icomes,

Siy 8AD. ( E-9)y o

betomes
Let 8nmE K*, hen ea

om
he &oltien e . given b well
The
i) AStnk+ BcoA k
where A and Bare +he Constantz , t*he
en eunllk 1 Value 4he onslant Can be obtained bp
bondavg Condions. tere z0 a
the oppyigand t o a : a h eke are the
On Can kbe
boundavy Cencliion. Applng these toundary
Con drtion b we gel

-
t a paslrde
from eq K and we ubed
a

he abo ue
87m

E nh
8ma

9n aeneral
8ma

Bul
nes

ama

om ea cea1hd iside the paleol.

wet e paele haue ACYete ualues ene3
eoeg-
Ihe dis crele energy. laluek are e n
t2, the
 E, ma

na

2ma
66 ' 6E,
na

Elcoo heyMotl
8letvons hare Aimlav bhaviou in Cordzl

SeConductor, nulato pe,

(onduclats, and
na gnela Th alAo have the amebehav o u
kuel
in uch a Compuler ,
0Pplicatn! themal.
ard
teleuten eled.:ical Condu lion
he huclure,
Coodudi Thu,to plain

eleral Conduchii4
hema Cond cHyity,
Aemt
behaio
mlals ha Ce ndudov,
Conduclov s and Snulato
eleetvoo 4hees harebeen opohed
pohed

3 a macroAcopie-hed,
oposed by loemz and Orude in 00

Aaovdinq thAheory,he e elet

moe eely he boundarie h meTal
 Cke moleeuls io a qas and
obe
obes
law classical mechaniCs Hence hi
he also Knousn a classtcal ee
4hed
eleton
uarlum ee eletaon bed
G4 1 a
micocopic theåy,
poposed by Sommelel8 in 1938
Acclding
4hely, +he e eleithoos moves in a
Conla polendial and it obey a the laws
Quanlurn mechantts ence h 4heony
noun a uarlum e dedven hety.

Bloch theoy o) }pne hemy

Bloch io
T co is popoAed b
tHn1A electoon
Atodin hepvy the ee
A
move in a peodic polential. hiA thedy
alto no un al Eand hesly

KotoniPea Model
imple Considered a
Kotoni
nonig and peny
he dimeÅonapotential well lo a Ctounl.sn
hA model A aslumed 4hal the polestia

neng an electoo has the 8m da peaiodic

wetl
ana d squae
 Vx)

V:o

nn the above we have wo

Two Hegions
belween the. imils O <a
an qon I ,

18 Zeto and -he electron

he poleotal eneqeneagy
Pailicle-
Hence the
assumed o be atree
6 pastieleis,
waue equalion {81 a e e
Bchroedinger

E. o

wheree

mts - b< 2 4 o .
Hegfon +, baiween h e
the schroedinqev wave equalien
he p-efs v

a (Eu,)y 0

o'
20
where an.(ENo)
fa both he tegion the opproprtate soldroo

kuggested by Bloch s

p() e* ( )
lereiattng eanTsicSolved,
e and1E &ubstitutino
io 4 a n d hen kdsing
PPna
bounda Condslion we e t

P Sioda + Co a -Co^ ka O
ota

where p is Called icatei na power +he

polesiial step, which is e meakure the snenzti
uoib shich he. decroos are attracled by the

PoAve toos Ln ca thexe are tuo Vootobles

and K we koouo thal Co Ka Can take

Vaues rom -to + Theredte the de

hand ide .
e mut olso okehe
Val aeg o m I to + Aqaph is drauon by
by
King aon -ati8,nd LHoean S i n d 4 COAda on y-axts
P

NN -
 from he above graph he ollouoing Conclusioo

Can be drawn.
t) h e above ene98pecdvun has a no d
atlowed Enegy bonds dendted by hck koltd
enea
Line eperated by 816tdden band gaps

(11) A h e Value increaBeK tHe wioth

he alloed enerq band iocreases

(1) A he Value dincrea ses t e utdth

he b:dden bound decreases,

AA the value P.increases the witth d
he alloued energ4 bond decveasek,.
(u) A the alue d p 'iocresseN h e otdth

e- e h1bfdderi band tocrease3.

(vi) Ih p en he allowec energ eand

becomes. a Kingle energy level tshich is

atom.
To level io .an ikolated
Simila ene
enevgy

(v1) Thu Vag P o

he Apedva a
eneq
energ1 janges
*Oigio EnevgY band fdlnalion in Sotids :
We Know hal whentuso alom ¢

equa
equal ene
enesay lev els aebroug closen toqeh,
he
ene
dine enexg levels uch a E, as t

spts
splts each ido Tuo enenqy eves , E, ,liv.
ints Eand E mavly nb
E, Aphtk E, and E
he ee alom. are broughl loser oqethe
e sgnal aneg lavets E, and E, Aplt into
three
e energ Leueli uch as E,EE and E
EEThA fypt tranaamaion Omhe
enerqy levels ints two e more
enexs
d1g nal
Levela iKriown ak Eneyqylevel splting"
Thus, N no
aoms equa eng levels
brought cloßen o olma solfdtmen t
oTma closely spated Continuous enerqy level4,
Colled as Ene2y bands. Hence the ererg enes
bond
band Coun be delined as,the tange enerqfos
Polsessed by an eledron i a solid

t
 Dntm he jalmalioo energy bands, e
level 18lm tnergyahand
band
nnestlled ene
eneaqy
Ctlod inne lled band Sinilavly, the
electvon in he OutemolBlb he alom
band,Co led Valenc band
olms eneqy
a

be 6
he aleocy band wll ompletely{led
wth the eletron,, based dn
pavltally tted
,Corre
he tpe he madexial. 4be elecroo then
Condudion
Ou TOmhbe alency band
an neqy hand led Conduclion
he
hey olm
ondLIbile oTnfnthe enexqy bandshe
ae Aepatafed byo mall ap. aalled; ab:dden

enexgy ep tdh onbiokden band

Cooduliqn band

Nalance band

2 led band

clastcaitoo naletials ido Condudors

Sem-Conductas ond Snlatos
Baged on band4heoy ond 0n

6e
e baA o 4he presence o orblden gap
inp hee
the malials a e classdted
21 ypes tis Meals (31) Condad ) Serm tendutori

:7)&nkulators
tt Metals 6 Condutork *
In Condudtovh, here i no den
ond qap ie, the
Ualancy band nd he
Conduction band ovelap t h oth e n meia
the auailabilty d e derons ube ver
Ver
htab. Hence, hen a malddd : appled+e
eledrons rom Valency band enle n t e (erdu
eledvons
eton band CoPper ,Alumini um iron

B
VB'

iE B

() SemCondudoys
Semi-Conduclort, the tbdden bond
p
9p i
is ery &mall e, he 3lde d o5 ev i
5 ev and hencehee uwill be a Amall 2p b
the Condudion band Sn
he
he Valety band and
Serni Con duelors +he alailabil te elech
wll be less Compartdk tomalals 31 Conduds
Thu he eld applied i aqua a greal th
he
h e eleitons 3om valen
biddea gaphe
band enlok into +Re Con ductfo o band. S:ltcen

ermanium
 C Th
B a
vity

G7) nbulator ohich

Tsulatoib 'he ibddeni ban Cond

ehb
9 Veryside t h e he otden..
to 5.44 evbence *here
and
au c l b.be
e Tern
3 ev
and e
h e Valeny band
wiole 9ap belwee heree
Ptope
band.7he. avai labilH
Conduetten
be eryless Compoted ls
eleetron ol
metak
& emi-Condudo
and
Thuk, large
-

o
to moyethehe
equired
Omous tdd%
band t hthe
iio e
elerons.. rom
oleney
Diamond, Rubbr ,Abonte.
Condudspo band g
ery
.t3
CB
Cond

VB
elem

FB
bele
i(5)
Con
 NANO TecHrNoLOSY
The
The Technology uled lo devdop nano nalenialz.
81
lanob
ano
nano povti des
meons o
Known
nanonelre i
oh
techoolq
ono technolog
1oDo nlion
a melre . The As henano matea
81 nono
nono Povticlea wit 31d
be inthe dd
The malesals hat ae
to 10o
10o nanometre

hanosLale n 1- O ae Called+ho{m.
thal ave nanokale i 9-D ave
Malals Mati a
os nano wire, nano tubes
Knoon
-D ae Kno o n a
are nano& cale n
hat
Puanlum dol, a nano poele.

* APPlrcationt laneTeehnoloqy
The olousiaq a he engineertm
meica appltca trons ano trchnol oq1
and
ustd o make hard meta
u They aTe

They
are uked o a ceum cal&.
(a)
are also used o pio Valve
(They uked "lo ma Ke Cormpact
(4) Nanamalatale ave

ave uked to make em

5) Nanomaletials
- Conducler alet
ufed in moblo^
6) 1hes ave

used in
ave
(I)They
 ae úked'in he odud Arrcatior
8) tono mateials
tA chp ond Bohen kovh anc
aHe
()
( ) Nano malestals ae ued fo olar au
and fuel Cells
Rece
(10) Nano mali als a uedin nleg nled
ciCu Nan

Nano pavleles cev) Adano Maledalz

4he matestiak i u Nan
Nano ma
le ial ave

in h e
9aint tre i DMA cht
hteh the atom
1 o 0 nancmefves and4hese

d *SothesiA
gafos u onet move auu y tem
o
1
atom
eath ehen Aano ma

epolt anoaicles :- heAe

is lesA in and
The inter failtele Apacing vey
(
n a n o mafenials method
+he
maleiala d
alerial o
and in we u
( The
h e
ene7
tnevgy
( cherm
nayotw
Uey
onikalien potertal i ound . b :,
(3 e
inthete mateial
(1 cher
u Iheke mal ials eihbH onta neouk
magnliAattn
depotte
a olio
 Arlatens lanomalesttalk :-
Nano MEMS Micvo ¬lecto Mechanic al Syste
ae uhed ianlegr aled Cicut prektave
en1 and mass e n o
()
Reently lano tobot designnd dh
uses 1o temoue Canc t CetlA
(3)ono Cvystals and Quanlum electvonte deufcee
playh o al tole in 4he deuelopmenl Complon
(u ano otiel 07
uedin h
produdion
DMA thtpk and Benovh
*
Syothe dabicalion d Jano malenal
heoc maki ano pasl: le a
lane maluialt i noun af nthe:A fab»ial
TheAe at tue ype Top doon app'Oach

and low heve ma n

method t vodute tonomatewfa o.i -ho

e u d y the lleusn9 tuo methods

chem'CalVapour depok:liormethod
() melhad

(t) chemicalVapeu dyoLilton mthod:

i ihAmethod onoposliele ae

3aleual 12 healed
depoxtted Om o shahe
and then allowes to depo4 on

Voccu m
a lid Auiate und hiah
 poi
h e aclank
cotleon 1 Fornali
Crrer/.al'eo

table ol
The

Vap
-hadon

he U'Lco
Co
(3)
Heaction Co
raina
Bolid ma 83

Hiovolves Pyrolysis apous metal 83ant metal aar (u)

PHecurkdts in a teduced pressure atmo aphore
and+he
ino h e hal áone
The precursot istvodured
he a
4he Steactet using
maas loo Convolley
he
precusd1
Svapourised y hen
heailinghe ts) Dehydre
he Ateon Ccte
`uch aA Agon t8) oup ae
CarieH. gas he
he oteadioo chambey.
o
bol atom 6 Densi4ic
+he
h e
cotlde wt cold alorn? and
undeg
'undeng
to mpe
het alom clusters
Cluse hen
and tom mal
Small
Condenalfoo lo Condense dn a
alloed
+h eAe clusteva LYe
l Coatir
to Colle the ano paslcles
SubsTate

Ci1) Sol- Ge! 1Mettbod:

A Colloid Aukpeded in a Uquid 18
?k
Auspen&ion .keepi
Catled a2 Sol
ate
is. Colled Get. ihus Sol-gels
hape 4hal Ye
upentoo
Colloidz Liqiods
Cayies o
th shape S6l-qed pno ce&6
he
The
hefollo wt ag leph
4 fomalion P precuAor ( t e Sol) p h l e e

Atable &oldions
Tbe ovmallon he e b
e
polyConder
salion Heaction. This otesulla in the increate

he Sce he &olution.
the durtng ohich pelyondentite
(3) goa ,
Heaction Cotinue u H * h e gel tyansomh inlo a

8oid ma8%
Tng tbe gel , duing hich the wale

andhe othe Volalile iquids are emoved om

om
he qu

5)Dehydralioo, durin2 ohich kaace - bound M-oH

g oup are emoved. Th°8 achieved at 8ooc
(6 Densi4fcation and decompobtion d he gel a
Hiqh to mperalunes

Byhia preces One Can gel ether alano.

.

4lm Coaling 1 Nano pousd en Can be p*pced

Ppaed