EMI and EMC

Earthing, grounding and equipotential bonding

Practical information for cabling systems

A publication of Tyco Electronics

 Introduction

Earthing, equipotential bonding and grounding are a major part of all new buildings and
facilities. These have a great influence on the EMC of the system and the mitigation of EMI
wherever applicable.
As the number of electronic devices increases, every building owner is required to abide by
all applicable EMC regulations and laws.
In regards to telecommunications equipment and cabling systems, there is often an
uncertainty what to do and to find the correct way for a proper installation.
This guide is intended to give some basic explanation of these issues as they relate to
cabling systems. In general EMC is a vast subject and there are various books and literature
available.
Since 1986 the EMC Directive has been published to underline the importance of this
subject. This directive shall help to give a background for:
Cabling components suppliers;
System integrators;
Cabling installers;
Building Architects and Communication Consultants
and in general for everybody who has responsibility for compliance to this standard. The
next edition of this EMC directive will be published in 2007.
This guide briefly highlights the parts covering earthing, equipotential bonding and electrical
power distribution. But all parts are important in regards to EMC and are valid for shielded
and unshielded cabling systems.
There is often a misunderstanding between the requirements for earthing and equipotential
bonding for both shielded and unshielded systems.
This misunderstanding is often the problem in practise. It is often assumed that this is the
responsibility of the electrical installer or the architect and not the responsibility of the data
cabling installer. But in fact it is a responsibility shared by all parties. In regards to EMC it is
the responsibility of the consultant and or architect to ensure the installed systems are
compliant.
EMC is more and more important and therefore its relevence is important to understand.
Therefore European standards continue to emphasis this importance.
With 10 Gigabit Ethernet most of the existing rules have to be reconsidered.

Thorsten Punke Dipl. Ing.

Program Manager EMEA
[email protected]

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Contents:

1. What is EMC? -------------------------------------------------------------------4

2. EMC Directive, Standards and EMC parameters --------------------5
2.1 Cabling relevant standards ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
2.2 Transfer impedance -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
2.3 Coupling attenuation----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
3. Basics of EMC mechanisms --------------------------------------------- 11
3.1 Galvanic coupling --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
3.2 Capacitive coupling ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12
3.3 Inductive coupling -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
3.4 Coupling via electromagnetic radiation --------------------------------------------------- 19
4. Earthing and equipotential bonding----------------------------------- 21
4.1 Earthing system ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
4.2 Safety-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
4.3 Equipotential bonding --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
4.4 Lightning protection------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 32
4.5 Power distribution -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
5. Installation of shielded systems ---------------------------------------- 43
5.1 Shielded Components --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44
5.2 Connecting the cabling system to earth--------------------------------------------------- 49
5.3 Why is a shield required? ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
6. How to improve existing networks------------------------------------- 56
7. Planning a new installation/building ---------------------------------- 59
8. FAQ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
Appendix ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 64

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 1. What is EMC?

EMC stands for Electromagnetic compatibility. Because of many electrical devices and
components it is fundamental to recognise the interchangeable physical impact of all those
devices. EMC shall help to make sure, that all those devices are working without any failure
and influence to each other.
The goal is an undisturbed operation of each device or between relevant system
components.
Electronic equipment can malfunction or become totally inoperable if not designed to
properly minimize the effects of interference from the internal and external electromagnetic
environments. Proper equipment and system designs are also necessary for minimizing
potential electromagnetic emissions into the operating environment.
It is important that electronic equipment designs ensure proper performance in the expected
electromagnetic environment, thus maintaining an acceptable degree of Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC).

In case of cabling systems it would mean, that there is no influence between the Transceiver
and Transmitter and all operations will not be disturbed by another source and will not
disturb another device. A present problem is ANEXT and background noises, which will be
the major problem of 10 Gigabit Ethernet Transmission on UTP copper cables.

All components and systems have to be certified to comply with to this directive. As with
other things in life, prevention is cheaper and better then solving the issues later.

Fig 1: EMC coupling mechanism

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EMC in a building
EMC has to be seen as a common problem between different systems. Often only some
aspects will be addressed, which is not sufficient to ensure compliance. This is important for
new buildings as well for existing ones, if they have to be refurbished.
The major subjects are:
• Power System
• Equipotential bonding
o All kind of functional earthing systems
• Background noises
• Environment
All of the above have to be measured and designed as accuratly as possible and to follow
relevant guidelines to ensure an excellent EMC performance. In particular the power system
and the earthing design are the most important area for consideration. Both systems are not
directly linked to IT cabling systems, but will influence them, if they are incorrectly installed.
A cabling system is not the only system that can be influenced. All sensitive electronic
equipment can be influenced.
The best example is a mobile phone in an aeroplane. The
use of mobile phones is strictly forbidden during the entire
flight. The reason is the radiation is approx. 2 Watt. This is
so strong that computers, navigation and avionic
instruments can be disturbed. In worst cases they can
expierence malfunction. It is the responsibility of the
consultant or architect to ensure that all sub systems of the
final installation will conform to the EMC directive. In
regards to cabling systems EN 50173 shows the
relationship between the cabling systems and other standards relevant to information
technology cabling systems.

2. EMC Directive, Standards and EMC parameters

This is one of the most unclear area in regards to EMC. This was deregulated some years
ago to allow for each country to have its own specific laws. The situation today is more clear.
The overall directive is the European EMC directive. The directive describes briefly, that all
electronic equipment sold and brought into service within the European Economic
Community must comply with essential EMC requirement.
The exsisting directive is 89/336/EWG.
Note: The directive has been reworked and will be replaced by 2004/108/EG. There is
no effect for cabling systems, as it is today except that the installed system shall
comply to the directive. The directive explains in Article 1, clause 9: “This Directive
need not regulate equipment which is inherently benign in terms of electromagnetic
compatibility.”

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 The directive itself does not provide any detailed specification or reference detailed technical
requirement.

Devices in terms of Article §1 of EWG can be used in Europe, if the supplier or distributor
(located in one of the EU members) is able to provide:

• Compliance to relevant laws

• CE sign on the device, packaging or instruction sheet
To make the conformity visible, it’s valid for all devices that are able to transmit or receive
EMI. A list of equipment that must be considered includes:

• Telecommunication terminal equipment

• Electrical household appliances, portable tools and similar equipment
• Radio equipment used be radio amateurs

• Radio and television receivers

• Educational equipment
• Information technology equipment

• Telecommunications apparatus
• Industrial equipment
• Lights and Fluorescent lamps
• Radio and television broadcast transmissions
• Aeronautical and marine radio apparatus
• Fluorescent lightning luminaries with starters

A CE mark is necessary for all electrical and electronic apparatus and systems. In addition to
the CE mark, the supplier has to provide all information such as an Instruction sheet to
enable the user to use the device correctly. This can be information such as:

• EMC environment
• Installation rules (correct termination)
If the system is built on a site with CE components, the compliance is assumed. Therefore it
is important that the instruction sheet or any other notice fulfils these requirements.
The directive makes a distinction between products that are:

• Freely available on the market

• Only available for specific experts/specialists

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The following table is a summary of the documents/clauses that have to be signed.
Freely available Experts/Specialists
Components No, as long as they have no self function
Kits, non-stand alone Yes, §6 clause 4 No
replacements and vendor parts
Systems, which will be mounted Not necessary as long as the system is based on
/terminated on the side components with a CE mark. But the system has to fulfil the
EMC directive

2.1 Cabling relevant standards

What does this directive mean for a cabling system?

First of all, no CE mark for passive components is required. The following standards are
important and relevant in regards to EMC:
EN 50173
EN 50310
EN 55022, EN 55024
EN 50174 (US= TIA-568B)

EN 50310 is important for

• Electrical power distribution

• Equipotential equipotential bonding
Note: Many countries have local standards in regards to power distribution system and
safety regulations. If the European directive or law does not apply, the local laws and
regulations have to be observed.
EN 50174-2 is important for:

• The installation part in regards to EMC compliance.

• EN 50174-2 refers to EN 50310 in regards to Equipotential Bonding and the power
distribution system.
EN 55022 (Information technology equipment - Radio disturbance characteristics - Limits
and methods of measurement) describes methods and characteristics for testing of passive
components. The standard is divided into part A and B. Here the levels are the same, except
that equipment for commercial use (Class A) is tested at 30 metres from the EMI source.
Class B applies to domestic or residential environments. Class B equipment is used in close
proximity to other Class A equipment and is tested at only 10 metres.
The intent of these classes is that Class A equipment is used in close proximity to other
Class A equipment belonging to the same user. In the USA, the FCC has the same structure
and divides the test requirements into Class A and B, though with slightly different limits.
All passive components like outlets, jacks, patch panels and cables do not need a CE mark.
They are not able to induce any EMI and cannot be disturbed by any EMI when they are not

7
 part of an end-to-end system. They belong to the
first group Components without any self function.
On the other hand, if the whole system is
terminated and connected to the switch and NIC it
has to comply with the EMC directive. The link is
active and able to send EMI and conversely the
system can receive EMI. Therefore the supplier
has to make sure with product design and
Fig. 2: Transfer Impedance AMP Twist 6S SL Jack
installation guidelines, that the user is always able
to meet the equirements of the directive. For
information technology, the most important standard is EN 55022. With services like 10
Gigabit and the use of Ethernet in the industrial environment, EN 55024 (Information
technology equipment - Immunity characteristics - Limits and methods of measurement) will
be more important in the very near future.
EN 50173 provides a good overview of the relationship to other relevant standards.

Building design phase Generic cabling design phase Planning phase Implementation phase Operation phase

EN 50310 EN 50173-1 EN 50174-1 EN 50174-1 EN 50174-1

Common bonding network

(CBN within a building Topology Specification considerations Documentation Quality assurance

AC distribution and bonding

of the protective conductor
(TN-S) Channel performance Quality assurance Cabling administration Cabling administration
Cable requirements
Connecting hardware requirements Cabling administration and Repair and maintenance
Requirements for cords
Link performance limits EN 50174-2 EN 50174-2

Safety requirements Safety requirements

General installation practises for General installation practises for
metallic and optical cabling metallic and optical fibre cabling
and and
Additional installation practise Additional installation practise for
for metallic cabling metallic cabling
Additional installation practise Additional installation practise for
for optical fibre cabling optical fibre cabling

EN 50174-3 EN 50174-3
and and
(for equipotential bonding) (for equipotential bonding)

EN 50310 EN 50310

Common bonding network Common bonding network (CBN)

(CBN) within a building within a building

AC distribution system and

bonding of the protective AC distribution system and bonding of
conductor (TN-S) the protective conductor (TN-S)
and
EN 50346
General requirements

Test parameters for balanced cabling

Test parameters for optical fibre

cabling

EMC parameters for cabling systems recognised by standards

2.2 Transfer impedance

Transfer impedance is a quality factor describing the effectiveness of a shield and its EMC
performance. Originally based on a coaxial cable, it is as well valid for shielded balanced

8
 pair cables and
components. The
requirements for Transfer
impedance are described
in EN 50173-1:2002. The
test method is EN 60603-
7-1 (IEC 60096-1).
A voltage is applied across
the screen. This will cause
a current to flow in the
internal conductor(s) as a
result of the transfer
Fig. 3: Principle Transfer impedance
impedance of the cable.

Note: AMP Netconnect is testing all shielded products up to 100 MHz!

Frequency Maximum transfer impedance Component

MHz Ω

Category 5 Category 6 Category 7 EN 60512-25-5

1 0,10 0,10 0,05

16 0,32 0,32 0,16

30 0,60 0,60 0,30

100 N/A N/A N/A N/A

250 N/A N/A N/A N/A

600 N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fig 5: Real test equipment at Tyco labs

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 2.3 Coupling attenuation

A more important parameter is Coupling Attenuation. This gives an indication of the EMC
performance of components and cables. The advantage of this method is the fact that all
relevant EMC parameters will be recognised.

• Screening attenuation
• Unbalance of the transmission line
This is the most commonly used parameter when defining the EMC quality of a cabling
system and is in discussion to be part of the next edition of the cabling standard.
Note: Coupling attenuation is applicable for both shielded and unshielded systems.
This is very important for 10 Gigabit Ethernet, as Background noise and AlienNext still have
to be determined.
There are three methods to test these parameters

Fig 4: Principle triaxial test set-up

• Triaxial tube

• Injection line
• Absorbing clamps
The triaxial tube is the most common one and recognised by IS 11801 for connecting
hardware.
The table below shows some typical values for different cables.
Cable Coupling attenuation
UTP cable 50 dB
STP cable 80 dB
PiMF cable 90 dB
That means the PiMF cable is able to mitigate disturbing signals with 40 dB more margin!
This can be recognised in ANEXT and background noises, where UTP systems still have
problems with services like 10 Gigabit Ethernet.

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3. Basics of EMC mechanisms

Fig 7: Coupling mechanism

There are several ways that one system can be influenced by another. Generally more then
one mechanism of EMC is disturbing the other system, as well as in different combinations
and strength. In fact it isn’t easy in practise to identify which mechanism in particular is the
disturbing mechanism. Generally all of them behave differently and vary in strength.

Within a building all EMC mechanisms can have an influence on systems and components.

3.1 Galvanic coupling

Galvanic coupling means that one or more circuits are coupled by a shared resistance. In
practice this could be a part of a PCB1.

For cabling systems, two reasons could be the source of this mechanism:

• Galvanic coupling because of faulty isolation

• Galvanic coupling because of bad earthing

Faulty isolation is rare and mostly negligible. The second mechanism is more common and
can be an issue. Normally the existing current on a data cable is too small to create
interference voltage.

1
PCB= Printed Circuit Board

11
 Fig 8: Galvanic coupling

This happens if the devices have protective earthing on the power side and they are
additionally connected with a data line. The most important part is the power distribution
system, especially if the potential of earthing is different. EN 50130 strongly recommends a
TN-S installation (see section 4.5) for an undisturbed operation.

3.2 Capacitive coupling

This effect can only be caused by an alternating electrical field. It is the transfer of electrical
energy from one circuit to another by means of the mutual capacitance between the circuits.
The capacittance C mostly occurs if wires and conductors are installed parallel to each

Fig 9: Capacitive coupling

other. The capacitance of each cable defines the interactive disturbance. The capacitive
coupling is proportional to the length of the parallel cables. The value is given as pF/m.

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Therefore the installation of cables is a major consideration to overcome this parameter. The
distance between the cables has a direct effect on the level of capacitive coupling.

It’s not recommended to install cables with different levels of power close together or in the
same cable duct.

Fig 10: Different kind of cables in one cable duct

EN 50174-2 is giving a clear statement:

The minimum distance between information technology cables and fluorescent, neon, and
mercury vapour (or other high-intensity discharge) lamps shall be 130 mm. Electrical wiring
terminations and data wiring terminations should ideally be in separate cabinets. Data wiring
racks and electrical equipment should always be separated.
Cable crossing shall be at right angles. Cables for different purposes (e.g. mains power and
information technology cables) should not be in the same bundle. Different bundles should
be separated electromagnetically from each other.

Fig 11: Seperation of different cables

This is only possible to achieve with metallic separation and containment systems. These
metallic separators and containment systems have to be connected to the equipotential
system.
Note: This is valid for shielded and unshielded systems. If the PE is able to carry current it
can influence the data cables by conducting this current on the metallic parts (dividers).
The ideal setup is shown in figure 12. All different parts of cabling systems especially with
different levels of power should be separated from each other.

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 This means the following for the installation of
cables:
• If possible avoid parallel cables
• Use dividers to separate the cables
• Use cable managements systems to apply
minimum distances

EN 50174-2 provides in section 6.5.2 provides

design guidelines. In regards to cabling systems
the following information is provided:

• If the horizontal cabling length is less then

35 m, no separation is required for
shielded systems only
• For length greater than 35 m, the
separation distances apply to the full
length, excluding the final 15 m attached to
the outlet.
Fig 12: Optimum separation of cables
The most effective aspect is separation. For
cabling systems, EN 50174-2 gives the following
information.

Type of installation Distance A

Without divider or Aluminium divider Steel divider
non-metallic
divider
Unscreened power cable and 200mm 100 mm 50 mm
unscreened IT cable
Unscreened power cable and 50 mm 20 mm 5 mm
screened IT cable
screened power cable and 30 mm 10 mm 2 mm
unscreened IT cable
screened power cable and 0 mm 0 mm 0 mm
screened IT cable

The screened IT cables shall comply with EN 50288 series. It’s easy to recognise, that
screening with separation is the most effective way to suppress capacitive coupling. Some
other reasons will be explained in Section 5.3. The industry currently supplies many pathway
and raceway systems that must comply at at any time.

Fig 13: Distance A between cables, EN 50174-2

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3.3 Inductive coupling

Inductive coupling can be caused by a conductor carrying, a magnetic alternating field. The
situation is the same as in a transformer.

Fig 14: Inductive coupling

The two circuits are coupled by the magnetic flux. Changes in circuit 1 cause a change in the
magnetic flux, which causes an interference voltage U2 and the interference current I2.
Magnetic fields are bounded in a loop where current is flowing. Therefore an enclosed circuit
is necessary for this condition to occur.

The next two formulae show the correlation between the coupling inductance CL the number
of coils N, the inductance L and the loop area A.

N 2 ∗ µ r ∗ µ0 ∗ A
L= C L = K ∗ L1 ∗ L2
l
K is the coupling factor and describes how strongly both inductances are coupled together. K
can be a maximum value of 1. Loops in cabling have mostly 1 coil, therefore the inductance
of each loop is proportional to the bounded area. The other parameters can’t be changed or
there is no possible influence. The parameter A (the loop area) is the only parameter which
can be changed.

15
 Fig 15: Current loop caused by potential difference

It is important that the enclosed loop between the devices and the earth be as small as
possible. For cabling systems this is the important issue. EN 50174-2 recommends to keep
this loop as small as possible.

Fig 16: Area because of potential difference

Note: This is applicable to both unscreened and screened cabling systems!

16
 Fig 17: Loop reduction by equipotential conductor

EN 50174-2 (Clause 6.7 Earthing and equipotential bonding) strictly recommends to keep
the loop small. One of the solutions is to connect the two devices. They have then nearly the
same potential. The loop is much smaller then before.
The additional equipotential bonding conductor improves the EMI situation between the two
devices.
To avoid magnetic induction the most effective way is to provide separation between the
disturber and the disturbed system. Therefore
• Short connections if possible
• Enough separation between each device (source)
Avoid parallel installed cables, especially with different levels of power.

Fig 18: Reduction of the surface area with Equipotential bonding conductor

Note: This is applicable to both unscreened and screened cabling systems!

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 As shown on the previous page the loop between earthing potential and the cable(s) shall be
as short as possible. The goal is to reduce the surface area enclosed by the loop.

N 2 ∗ µ r ∗ µ0 ∗ A
L=
l
This also occurs if cables will be installed along a metallic surface that is terminated to earth.

Fig 19: Installation along metallic surfaces

Note: This is applicable to both unscreened and screened cabling systems!

The most common method to

reduce magnetic coupling in
data cables is to twist the
pairs. The induced voltage of
conductor part A are opposite
to the induced voltage in
conductor part B. Because of
the different polarity, the sum
is 0.

The twist influences the

effectiveness. The higher the
twist ratio is, the higher the
mitigation is. Twisted pairs
help to reduce the effect of
this mechanism but are unable
to completely mitigate it.

Fig 20: Effect of twisted pairs

Note: No cable has a perfect Twist. This is Theory! All data cables have
unsummetrical pairs. The evidence is coupling attenuation with values of 40 dB for
UTP cables and 70 dB for shielded cables. If the Twist is perfect, coupling attenuation
would be 100 dB and more.

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3.4 Coupling via electromagnetic radiation

The fourth effect is based on all equipment which is able to send electromagnetic waves.

In Practice the source can be any of the following:

• Radio stations
• Cosmic radiation
• Radar stations
• LEMP (lightning strike)

Fig 21: Magnetic screening

The most effective way to mitigate this effect is a magnetic screen. A magnetic screen is
able to divert magnetic lines around the device, which can be disturbed. The thickness of the
material and the kind of material will determine the amount of interference that can be
mitigated.

This mitigation also depends on whether the screen is solid material (foils, solid material) or
perforated materials (e.g. braid).

Braid and similar structures are able to suppress frequencies in the lower range. Above a
certain frequency, the suppression will not improve.

Only solid materials or foils are able to suppress higher frequencies. The best are magnetic
materials.

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 Fig: PiMF cable with 1400 MHz

For this reason for shielded cabling systems a PiMF cable is strongly recommended. These
cables have both types of shields and are therefore able to suppress the whole range of
frequencies, which typically exist in our environment.

FTP cables will leek at lower frequencies (like a transformer at 50 Hz)

UTP systems have basically only one protection, the twist of the pairs. This is able to
suppress only some coupling mechanism, but definitely not electromagnetic radiation. The
suppression of UTP systems is much lower compared with a shielded system.
This explains the issues with background noises and ANEXT in regards to 10 Gigabit
Ethernet. The only ways to solve these issues are:

• Separation between cables and EMI sources

• Metal housing around the cables

The metal housing has to be handled in the same way, as a screen.

Summary

All mechanisms described can have an effect on installed systems and components. It is
important to understand the frequency range where the system will operate and the
frequency range at which the system will be disturbed.

With 10 Gigabit Ethernet the transmission bandwidth has been extended to 500 MHz. For
Example Fast Ethernet hass a bandwidth of about 40 MHz.
Service Speed Bandwidth
Ethernet 10 Mbit/s 10 MHz
Fast Ethernet 100 Mbit/s 31,25 MHz
Gigabit Ethernet 1000 Mbit/s 83 MHz
10 Gigabit Ethernet 10.000 Mbit/s 417 MHz

Only a shield is able to suppress significantly all kind of interferences. It doesn’t matter if the
shield is delivered with the system or built around the system. (eg. metallic conduit).

20
4. Earthing and equipotential bonding
Both parameters have one major task:

Save the life of humans and animals in case of any electrical fault.

This can be achieved by installing a low impedance connection to the protective conductor.
At the other end of this conductor there is a connection to an electrode in the ground.
The main connection to ground is called the protective earth (PE) and is recognised by the
typical green/yellow insulation colour.
A second aspect is to have a defined path for surges in the power system, lightning and
emmissions from outside sources like radar station, broadcast stations etc. It is fundamental
to understand, that only a proper grounding system can prevent harm from the issues
referred to above. The intention of European standard EN 50310 is to provide the optimum
earthing and equipotential bonding conditions for buildings. Even though the focus of this
discussion is for buildings with communication technology installation, the standard shall be
applied for at least all new buildings and if possible for existing buildings.

All office and company buildings today have a communication technology installation, and
even more so residential buildings. ManyMany problems can result from an improper
grounding system. In practice screening, earthing and equipotential bonding will be mixed.
To make it clear:

Note: Earthing and equipotential bonding are applicable to both

unscreened and screened cabling systems!
An earthing and equipotential bonding implementation is
necessary for EMC and security reasons!

Earthing is divided in two parts; Safety and Functional

Safety: This is valid for all components if they are able to carry dangerous voltage in case of
an electrical fault. As a rule, all metal enclosures are connected as part of an equipotential
bonding network to all other parts like metallic conduits, metal beams, steel girders etc. The
aim of an equipotential bonding network is to improve the EMC performance.

Functional earthing: A functional earth connection serves a purpose other than providing
protection against electrical shock. In contrast to a protective earth connection, a functional
earth connection may carry a current during the normal operation of a device. Functional
earth connections may be required by devices such as surge supression and
electromagnetic-compatibility filters, some types of antennas and various measurement
instruments. Generally the protective earth is also used as a functional earth though this
requires care in some situations.

21
 Local regulations:
Safety regulations in regards to electricity are mostly defined locally.
Germany: VDE 0100
France: NFC 15100
UK BS 7671
Netherlands NEN 1010
North America NEC 800.30 (A) NFPA 70
Australia/New Zeeland AS/NZS 3000:2000 (Electrical Wiring Rules)
Thailand NEC Article 250

China GB／T50311－2000

Singapore CP5
Note: In most parts of the world the connection to earth is called earthing. In North America
it’s called grounding, but:
Earthing= Grounding
In Europe earthing and bonding refers to all metallic and conductable parts. There is no
separation between the functional parts. This makes sense because all bonded parts will be
connected to the equipotential terminal.
North America and some other English speaking countries have a separation into functional
parts:
• Electrical Bonding and Grounding
• Telecommunications Bonding and Grounding
• Lightning protection system
• Grounding electrode system
In the end they will all be terminated at the equipotential terminal. From an electrical point of
you there is no difference between the two ways, just a question of definition.

Fig 23: Bonding of grounding systems

Note: We have just one Earth! Separation in Power Earth (Dirty Earth) and Clean Earth
is misleading.

22
4.1 Earthing system

The earthing system is essential for each building and “the heart” of all EMC and safety
aspects.The main principle of an earthing system is to provide a low resistance connection
to earth. Therefore a building is surrounded by an earthing electrode system. The system
includes one or more rod electrodes.

Fig 24: Earthing of a building by earthing electrode system

Note: In case of a star system only one Fig 25: Earthing system with lightning protection
Obo Bettermann
connection shall be installed to the main
earthing terminal!
New buildings are built with an earthing electrode system, which is placed in the foundations.
For older buildings it is the possibile to add earth electrodes or ring systems.
The ring shall be at least 0.5 m deep in the ground. The distance to the building shall be 1m.
These values can differ in some countries and regions. Please check the local standard. The
figure below shows a wrong installation. The steel strap is not deep enough and therefore
the connection to earth may not be sufficient.If the specific earth resistance is too high near
the surface, the installed deep into the ground.

Fig 26: Steel rod which is not deep enough (Obo Bettermann) Fig 27: Earth rod (Obo Bettermann)

23
 Fig 28: Reinforcement terminated with steel strap

Fig 29: Termination of earthing electrode system

with reinforcement
earth rods have to be
To improve the earthing situation, additional reinforcement can be used. In general the
earthing situation has to be checked at the initial construction stage. Each part of the earth
Kind of earth Humidity Spec. earth resistance in Ώ
Sea water 0,2… 1,0
Water of a river or pool 10…100
Moor or peat Very humid 5,0… 40
Loam, farmland humid 150
Fine sand, deeper layer humid 60
Abrasive sand, deeper layer humid 200
Sand upper layers humid 400
Sand upper layers dry 1000
Cement overground dry 105
has a specific resistance.

The table shows the effect of “dry” connections and if the depth is not correct.

Corrosion of earthing electrodes

This can be a problem and shall be checked before and after installation. Corrosion is able
to cause a high resistance and therefore a “bad” connection to earth. It’s mostly a galvanic
action either in the earth or between two dissimilar metals as part of a connection.

Fig 30: Corossion because of material mismatch

24
Entrance of service pipes in a building

Generally there will be a number of conduits that will enter a building today. From an EMC
perspective they shall enter at the same place.

Fig 31: Entrance of service conduits

The reason is to provide nearly the same potential, in case of electrical fault or lightning
strike. Especially were a lightning strike to occur in one of the incoming lines, a much higher
potential may exist relative to the other ones. If they are close together and all terminated to
the Equipotential bonding system the difference is low.

Note: A good functional earthing system is necessary for safety reasons! A cabling
system is participating from a well designed earthing (grounding) system.
This is applicable for both unshielded and shielded systems! Even when a fibre optic
cabling system is installed a fully functional earthing system is mandatory!

25
 4.2 Safety

Fig 32: Principle of Earthing

The main reason for earthing devices is to save life in case of a faulty power line. Therefore
devices have a power cord with 3 conductors.
If the enclosure is connected to earth, the result is a short circuit and the circuit breaker will
be released.

Fig 33: Effect without earthing

If the enclosure is not connected to earth, the full voltage is now on the enclosure. If a
person touches the enclosure, he/she will get an electric shock which could be lethal. The
actual voltage level depends on the resistance of the specific person and the resistance of
the ground.

In general earthing isn’t necessary if:

• The device belongs to protection class II
• The maximum voltage is within SELV2 (AC 25 V ~ and DC 60V)

2
SELV= safety extra-low voltage

26
Devices with protection class II are popular for
domestic and home devices. Therefore most of the
power cords are supplied with two pins only.

The reason is the isolating transformers isolate the

conductors to eliminate the danger in case of a fault.
These devices definitely have no effect on the
protective earth system.

Fig 34: Power connector with 2 and 3 pins

4.3 Equipotential bonding

This means that all metalwork or conducting parts within an electrical panel or on a machine
must also be connected to the protective earth. Equipotential bonding has a safety and an
EMC aspect. In a house/building this is also the case:

•All metal conduits within the building, e.g. water and gas conduits
•All metal parts of the building or the construction
o steel girder
o Metal Facade
o Steel in cement
• Metal cabinets for data or power distribution
• Raised floors with metal uprights
All connections will terminate at the main equipotential bonding terminal.

Fig 35: Main earthing terminal (Source Obo Bettermann)

27
 Fig 36a: Meshed Equipotential bonding network

Why is equipotential bonding necessary?

This ensures equal potential for all equipment connected to earth. Therefore, in the event of
an earth fault personnel are protected from any electrical shock hazard that could occur from
touching two different items, like a water conduit and another metallic part.

Another reason for equipotential bonding is to

provide good EMC performance. No potential
difference between conductive parts means
automatically no current and therefore no
interference due to any coupling mechanism. If
there is a potential difference, current will flow and
disturb the receiving equipment. The importance of
a well designed equipotental system is shown in
Fig 36b: Corroded water pipe (GHMT AG) figure 36b. Because of a potential difference and
the resulting current, the water pipe is corroded.

28
A faraday cage is another reason for equipotential bonding. This is important for radiated
interference and lightning strikes close to the building. All connections shall be done with low

Fig 37: Termination earthing system to steel armour for Mesehd bonding concept (Obo Bettermann)

impedance and on a large surface. To achieve this it is important to provide a meshed

earthing system at the early stage of the building phase. The steel armour is an excellent
material to support this method. Therefore the termination to the earthing system is
important. Figure 38 shows an equipotenatial bonding connector during the building phase.
The orange plastic is just a protection. After the structural works have been finished, the
plastic will be removed and the whole surface is a metal surface which provides later a low
impedance path for an equipotential bonding connection.

Fig 38: Equipotential bonding connector during building phase (Obo Bettermann)

29
 Fig 39: Safety aspect of bonding

Because of the equal equipotential bonding conductor, both conduits have the same
potential. Therefore the voltage between these two conduits is zero.

Fig 40: Safety aspect without Equipotential bonding conductor

In the same situation without the equipotential bonding conductor, the potential difference is
nearly the potential of the power cable (e.g. 230V), which is dangerous.

30
 Design Guidelines:

EN 50174-2 gives the following recommendation:

For best results the earthing system should be bonded in three dimensions, in particular for
multi-storey buildings having a networked data system. It should be remembered that one of
the greatest dangers is the induction of the surge magnetic field in the ground loops. The
surge field is essentially horizontal and induces the worst stray voltages in vertical loops.
Two consecutive floors should be bonded by all the conducting links which go through the
flooring. These interconnections are made either by conductors which already exist (cable
ducts, piping, etc.) or by adding large cross-sectional area conductors. The preferred mesh
size for a vertical bond is about 3 m to 4 m, particularly in areas with a high concentration of
electronic equipment. In practice, any conductor can contribute to the equipotential

Fig 41: Star topology for bonding network Fig 42: Imrproved meshed bonding network

characteristics of the earthing system:

earthing conductors, metal conduits, cable ducts, metal framework, deck plates, lintels,
gratings, beams, metal structures, door frames, etc. This type of equipotential bonding often
improves the electromagnetic properties of systems considerably and contributes to the
safety of personnel.

In general the equipotential bonding networks can have two topologies:

• Star topology
• Meshed topology
The necessary PE conductor is as well the conductor for the equipotential bonding system.
Systems like these are efficient for small buildings when the length of the PE conductor is
within a certain range. The best EMC performance is obtained by using a meshed earthing
topology. EN 50174-2 suggests a mesh of 3m x 3m square. In a Meshed system, additional
conductors will connect all metallic parts. This is especially important if the lightning hits the
building directly. Another situation is the indirect interference. This is much more an issue
and has a higher potential to cause damage then a direct lightning strike.

31
 Fig 43: Meshed bonding network EN 50174-2

4.4 Lightning protection

Another important part is lightning protection. Every year many buildings and devices will be
destroyed or damaged because of a direct or indirect lightning strike.

Fig 44: Ligthtning strike (Obo Bettermann)

A characteristic of lightning is:

• Extreme high slew rate
• Maximum current (up to 200kA)
• High voltage

The aim of the lightning protection system is to divert the lightning energy from the specific
conductors to earth.

Hence it is divided in:

• External lightning protection
• Internal lightning protection

32
External protection

Fig 55: External lighning protection

The external protection has to provide a defined path to earth, if a building is hit directly by a
lightning strike.
For safety reason it is mandatory that:

• All connections are as short as possible

• There is enough separation from the building
• All connections shall have as large a surface area as possible to reduce the possible
voltage

Note: A lightning protection shall be part of the equipotential system. If there is no lightning
protection, the strike can damage a large amount of electronic equipment. Because of the
high current, a huge magnetic field will be coupled in each conductive material.

Minimum area requirement in accordance to DIN VDE V 0185-3

Material Area
Copper 16 mm2
Aluminium 25 mm2
Steel 50 mm2
Note: Values can be different in some countries

33
 There are several ways to provide external protection for a building. The external protection
is done by thick conductors at certain points. All conductors will terminate on the earthing
system.External protection systems are in typically air terminals.
The intention is to “attract” the lightning strike and to provide a defined and safer way to
earth.

Fig 56: Air terminals on a flat roof (Obo Bettermann)

Fig 57: Air terminals (Obo Bettermann)

Fig 58: Path of the lightning current (Obo Bettermann)

Typically, a surge diverter device is installed to separate the lightning protection system from
the equipotential system during normal operation. In case of a strike, the diverter connects
the equipotential system with the lightning protection system. Both synstems then have the
same potential.

34
Internal lightning protection

The external protection avoids damages from a

direct strike. Most of the damage will be generated
by an indirect impact. Therefore internal protection
is required as well. The most important point is the
connection of the external lightning protection to the
equipotential system. The other method is surge
protection of sensitive devices. This can be done
with protection after the building entrance point, in
power distribution systems on the floor or on the
outlet side. The data and communication ports can
be protected. This may be necessary for sensitive
servers or critical devices.

Most of the damage caused by a lightning strike will

be distributed by the power cabling system. This
can be caused by directly striking a nearby power Fig 59: Internal lightning protection
line or even by a far away lightning strike
conducted by power or communication cables. If the direct
connection between the equipotential bonding and lightning
protection system is not possible or permitted, a protection spark
gap or an isolating spark gap (gas surge arrestor) shall be used.

Standardization for lightning protection is in full progress. The

degree of influence of the cabling system on the impact of strike
protection is shown by the formula and table from IEC 62305-
2/FDIS. Fig 60: spark gab (Obo Bettermann)

PM= KS1+KS2+KS3

PM is the probability that a flash near a structure will cause a failure of internal systems. KS3
is a factor relating to internal wiring.

Type of wiring KS3

Unshielded cable-no routing precaution in order to avoid loops 1
Unshielded cable-routing precaution in order to avoid large loops 0,2
Unshielded cable-routing precaution in order to avoid loops 0,02
Shielded cable with shield resistance5<RS≤20Ώ /km 0,001
Shielded cable with shield resistance 1<RS≤5Ώ /km 0,0002
Shielded cable with shield resistance RS≤1Ώ /km 0,0001
Table B5 Value of Factor KS3 IEC 62305-2/FDIS

The shielded system provides a potential Probability factor Pm that is 10.000 lower than that
of an unshielded system.
Note: Where a meshed bonding concept is provided values KS1 and KS2 may be
reduced by a half.

35
 Each strike generates a strong
LEMP3 (Lightning Electro Magnetic
Pulse). This field will be induced in
the power line and occurs for a
short moment at high peak. Also all
communication cables will be
Leiterschleife
affected. The only way to offer
protection is to provide a shield.
UTP cables have no protection. The
Blitzstromableiter twist is unable to suppress this
Parallel geführte
Leitungen induction effectively. Each
conducting wire is subject to
induction.

Fig 61: LEMP generated by strike (Obo Bettermann) Another danger is a lightning strike
close to a building which hits a
power line in the ground. Therefore
surge protection at the building
entrance is strongly recommended.

This generates a strong magnetic

field and induces a current by
galvanic coupling.

Note: Surge protection is only

guaranteed if the power and data
side is protected

There are several components on

the market. Figure 64 shows a
solution for single Fast Ethernet
ports
Fig 62: Lightning strike in the ground (Obo Bettermann

Fig 64: Surge protection for RJ 45 ports (Obo Bettermann)

Fig 63: Surge protection (Obo Bettermann)

3
LEMP=Lightning electromagnetic pulse

36
4.5 Power distribution

This part is one of the key issues affecting the electrical and EMC requirements.
There are several power distribution systems possible. In general there are 3 basic
distribution systems:

TN
TT
IT
The letters have the following definition:

1. The relationship of the power source to earth (first letter T,T,I)

2. The relationship of the electrical device to earth (second letter N,T,T)

IT and TT will used in special application (operations room). In public and residential
buildings the TN system is used. The TN system can be one of three different types:

• TN-S
• TN-C
• TN-C-S

Note: In North America the L conductor is called Hot conductor.

Fig 65: Explanation of symbols for power distribution

37
 TN-S

Fig 66: TN-S system

In a TN-S network, N and PE are always separated from each other. From an EMC
perspective, this is the best solution.

TN-C

Fig 67: TN-C system

This is often used for pure three-phase-current systems, but has a bad EMC performance.

38
TN-C-S

Fig 68: TN-C-S system

There is a PEN conductor in the first and second sections and separation in N and PE in the
last one. This has similarly poor EMC performance.

Coexistence between power distribution and EMC requirements

This is the part where much misunderstanding occurs. The power system on one hand, EMC
requirements on the other. All parts have to be seen as a whole! Especially buildings with all
kind of IT equipment and the power distribution system.

Note: EMC requirements are not only related to communication infrastructures. Strange
effects, defective power supplies or a high damage after a lightning can occur from a bad
power distribution.

39
 EN 50310 clause 6.2 Table 2 states the following:
External Indoor installation Remarks
distribution
TN-S TN-S Best electricity distribution system in relation to
EMC
TN-C TN-S Not recommended
TN-C TN-C-S Not recommended
TT TT EMC covered for indoor installations of
information technology
EMC not covered for interconnections of
buildings with information technology; by-pass
equipotential bonding conductor required
TT An isolating transformer shall Positive for EMC
be installed to realize TN-S
IT TT Normally not used in public electricity
distribution (except France, Norway) Remarks
valid as for TT-TT
IT An isolating transformer shall Positive for EMC
be installed to realize TN-S

As a result, EN 50174-2 clause 6.4.3 makes the following recommendations

“The different electricity distribution systems (TN-S, TN-C-S, TN-C, TT and IT system) are
described in HD 384.3 S2. However, a PEN conductor through which unbalanced currents
as well as the accumulation of harmonic currents and other disturbances are transmitted
shall not be considered as appropriate earthing. In addition TT and IT distribution
systems shall have more corrective measures, particularly against overvoltage. Therefore:
a) there should be no PEN within the building, i.e. the respective option in 546.2.1 of HD
384.5.54 S1:1988 should not be used;
b) wherever possible, the TN-S system should be used (see EN 50310). Exceptions exist
due to existing high-voltage electricity distribution systems, which are TT or IT, or where a
high continuity of supply is required by the application (hospitals) or by national regulations.”
Even though TN-S systems should be installed, it is only a strong recommendation. It can be
expected, that the today’s “should be” would be a “shall be” in the nearest future.
For a new building this is not aproblem anyway. There are only advantages in general.
The following effects can be caused by a poor power distribution system.

• Damage of compensation systems

• Flickering monitors
• Damaged or destroyed power supplies
• Corrosion on all metallic parts
• Destroyed devices after lightning strike

Note: These effects occur in general and they are applicable for both shielded and
unshielded systems

40
What is the problem of a TN-C or TN-C-S system?

If one of these systems is installed the following phenomenon can happen.

The N and PE conductor will be normally connected in the electrical sub distribution.

Fig 69: Problem of a PEN installation

Figure 69 shows two devices connected by a data line between different floors and electrical
sub units. Because of this the current will be separated and is flowing on both conductors.
Therefore a part of the current will flow on the PE. If a problem arises, an equipotential
bonding conductor connecting the devices (see page 47) or separation of the floors (fibre
cable) is the recommended solution. A much better solution is to change to a TN-S system.

This effect is often called “earth loop” or “ground loop”. This effect appears only in this case
and within old installations. New buildings and installations have mostly TN-S installations
and therefore there will be no loops.
TN-S system = No loop=No current on PE

41
 Harmonics

More critical is the fact, that more and more electrical devices have switching power
supplies. They generate a phase shift and harmonics. The current of those harmonics for
each device will be added with an unwanted effect: The current in the N conductor is much
higher then expected. This “high” current is now using the PEN conductor as the return path.
Result: The N (PEN) conductor is overheated and can be burned or damaged. There are
even worse situations which have no direct connection to the cause.

• Transformers (Overheating)
• Engine generator( Disrupte Operation)
• Over current protection ( Breaker and fuse nuisance tripping)

Facts:
• Earthing and equipotential bonding is a must for safety and EMC reasons
• If a TN-S system is installed there is no effect on the cabling system!
• If a TN-S system is installed there is no effect on any PE connected part (e.g.
water pipes, steel armour, power supply’s)
• The power distribution system has to be checked in regards to EMC requirements
• TN-S is strongly recommended
• The Equal potential system (equipotential bonding) has to be part of the EMC
• All metal parts have to be included
• A meshed equipotential bonding system is better then a star equipotential bonding
system

A UTP solution is unable to solve issues in the power system. The consultant and the
installer have to provide a “clean” power system and a meshed equipotential bonding
concept.

Damages and problems occur even without any telecommunication system if the earthing
and bonding system or design is bad or missing.

42
5. Installation of shielded systems

Installation of shielded systems is surrounded by misunderstanding.

With 10 Gigabit Ethernet for copper cabling systems, many things have been changed
and need to be reconsidered.

The values are based on 10 Gigabit Systems.

Shielded Unshielded
Installation time 1 min 1 min
Cable diameter 7,4 8,2
Patch cable diameter 5,9 mm 8,2 mm
Performance MHz 1400 MHz 500 MHz
EMC performance High Low
Background noise Excellent Low
Relative Pricing 0,8 1

Even the pricing is changing. Depending on each case it can be more or less as shown, but
in fact the value for money for shielded systems is much better.

General: Pulling cables is in both cases sensitive. If cables are deformed during installation,
the geometry will be changed. This can damage or reduce the EMC immunity.
The parameters most affected include balance, return loss and the impedance. A good
example in practice is a factory tested cable which passes all quality tests. After installation
values for return loss and insertion loss will be close to or below the limits.

As mentioned in section 3.3, twisted pairs will be one option to improve the EMC
performance. Consecutive loops in the twisted pair need to have the same geometry. If the
cable is stretched, the loops will not be symmetrical.

The sum of +ve and –ve will not be zero anymore. UTP cables are very sensitive, because
this is the only protection against EMI.

Shielded cables are additionally sensitive in regards to deforming or damaging the shield.
It is necessary that the shield is not damaged.

Some general comments relating to earthing of shielded components:

• The cable screen should totally surround the cable along its entire length.
• Any screen connection shall have a low impedance to ground
• Screen connection shall have as large a surface area as possible
• The shield of a terminated channel shall not be discontinued
• The whole channel shall contain shielded products only!

43
 5.1 Shielded Components

Shielded components have been on the market for

many years.
Today, shielded connecting hardware is made
completely out of metal.

In central Europe many suppliers offer double outlets

in full diecast housing. Within the last two years it has
been changed to jacks, as known in the UTP
markets. The termination of the latest generation of
shielded jacks is as easy as UTP jacks.

Fig 70: AMP Twist 6S SL Jack

The figure shows the AMP Twist 6-S SL jack. The jack is based only on two pieces and is a
full diecast product. Installation is easy and most of the EMC requirements will be done
automatically. In fact a shielded termination is as easy as a UTP one. Most of the EMC
requirements discussed earlier are provided by a clever product design.

44
1. First of all the cable has to be prepared.
During preparation ensure that the shield is not damaged. If a
cable with braid like a PiMF cable has to be installed, the
braid istwisted around the cable as shown in the figure.

2. In the second step the cable clamp has to be pressed and

the cable inserted through the hole. Now it’s easy to see, how
a 360° shield can be provided. Just by design the installer Fig 71: Prepared cable
automatically does an accurate 360° shielding.

Note: in general, ensurethat any

interconnection is fully covered. The
connected surface area should be as large as
possible.
Fig 72: Entrance of cable

As shown in figure on the right, the screen shall be terminated

over 360° on a low impedance path to earth. In practice this is
easy to handle with metallic cable clamps. An example can be
seen in the section covering the patch panel installation

3. In the next step, the pairs have to be laced.

Fig 73: Wires prepared for termination
4. The two parts are pushed together

5. The revolutionary AMP Netconnect AWC SL tool will

provide repeatable, reliable quality terminations. During the
compression process the wires will be cut automatically.

Finished!
From an EMC perspective, all requirements have been Fig 74: Termination process
fulfilled.
• 360° shield contact

• big contact surface

• Closed product
• Excellent Jack/Plug connection

Fig 75: Terminated Shielded Jack

This process makes sure, that the complete link is shielded
and there is no gap. The termination is as easy as with UTP products and fulfils all EMC
requirements.

45
 Screen transfer Jack-RJ 45 Plug
The continuity of the screen between
the Jack and the Plug is important.
Another important point is a closed
“housing” As shown in the figure, this is
automatically achieved. AMP
Netconnect products provide as much
as possible contact springs for an
excellent screen connection.

Figure 77 shows the AMP Twist 6S SL

jack and the EMT Plug. EMT stands for
Fig 76: Transfer Plug/Jack
Electromagnetic technology. The plug
provides:

• Short signal paths

• Fully 360 degree screen
• Anti tangle function

The plug is fully surrounded by the jack

housing and provides the maximum
EMC performance.

Fig 77: Transfer Plug-Jack-Cable

Fig 77 shows the continuity of the screen from the cable to the connector. All shielded
interfaces have excellent connections and 360 degree terminations.

46
Patch panel
If the jack is used in the patch
panel, there is no additional
shielding necessary.
Alternatively a PCB4 panel can be
installed. In this case the shield
will be terminated with metallic
cable clamps.

Note: Both types of patch panels

have to be earthed and
connected to the equipotential
bonding system, as well the rack.
Fig 78: Earthing clamp

Installation is easy and it’s good to

implement the suggestion in EN
50174-2 in a real installation. The
cable clamp and the metallic
surface provide a 360° screen.

Fig 79: Recommendation EN 50174-2

Fig 80: Shield termination with cable clamps on a PCB panel

Note: All metal panels have to be bonded! That includes panels for unshielded jacks!
See page 49

Pic 81: Terminated single jacks in a panel

4
PCB= Printed Circuit Board

47
 Shielded Termination on one or both sides
Sometimes the question regarding the number of connections to earth arises. Should it be
on one side or on both sides?
To provide the best EMC performance a termination shall be done at both sides. A
connection on one side avoids any current flow on the conductor. On the other hand this is
an antenna which is able to receive (and transmit) signals.
The connection in the telecommunication room is provided by the patch panel which has to
be bonded to the PE conductor. In the work area, the connection is provided by the shield
NIC port which is connected to the PE conductor of the Power outlet.

Fig 82: Shield termination on both sides

Note: RJ 45 ports in NIC’s and all active equipment are always shielded!
The connection of the shield to the PE will be done automatically!

48
5.2 Connecting the cabling system to earth

As mentioned in section 3.4 the only way to suppress electromagnetic radiation is a shield.
In case of a disturbance the current needs a defined path to earth. Therefore the shield has
to be terminated on both sides.
New products provide automatically excellent earth connection to the panel. The “closed”
principle is done by design. Once the cable is terminated the jack has just to be clicked into
the panel, and that is all that is required to earth the jack.
In the cabinet all patch
panels will be connected to
the cabinet. This cabinet
shall be connected to the
equipotential bonding
system.
All bonded panels have to
be terminated to the terminal
bar (Fig 85). The insulation
colour of the earthing
conductor shall be
green/yellow as used for the
PE.

Fig 83: Screen transfer panel and mounted shielded jack

Fig 84: Bonded panels in a cabinet

Note: Bonding of panels is applicable for both shielded and unshielded systems!

49
 All parts in the rack have to be connected to the
earth bar. That includes cabinet doors and metallic
parts which are maybe electrically isolated
The outlet side is terminated with the shielded
patch cord on the NIC. The metal housing of the
RJ-45 jacks on the NIC provides the connection to
earth in the device. Some connecting hardware
components include an additional grounding
screw. This can be used to reduce the potential
Fig 85: Bonded panels to the terminal bar
difference on both sides if this were to occur.
The conductor will be connected between the
outlet and the next available point to the
equiotential system. (Note: This amy not be
permitted in some countries).

All NIC’s and ports of active components have

shielded RJ 45 jacks. They have connection to PE
of the power side.

Fig 86 : Screen transfer Plug/Jack

Fig 87: Bonded rack

Fig 88: Screen transfer Jack/RJ45 jack active

components

50
5.3 Why is a shield required?

The shield has two major characteristics. These are:

• Suppress Emissions to provide immunity

• Improve the electrical characteristics/ performance of the cable and the system

As discussed in section 3,
only a shield is able to
suppress the inductive,
capacitive and radiated
coupling mechanisms.
Galvanic coupling is the other
mechanism that is not
mitigated by the electrical
shield.
Another reason is electrical
performance. Figure 89 Fig 89: PiMF 1200 MHz cable

shows a PiMF (Pairs in metal

foil) cable.

Immunity
A PiMF cable construction Cable Crosstalk Emmisions
LF HF Mag
improves in general the
crosstalk between pairs and UTP

cables. This is demonstrated FTP

by very low NEXT and in the
S-FTP
case of 10 Gigabit Ethernet,
complete suppression of PiMF

ANEXT (crosstalk between

cables).
Because of this construction, shielded products and systems using this cable fulfil today the
requirements for 10 Gigabit Ethernet up to 100 m. ANEXT and background noise severely
limit UTP systems up to 55 m because of the missing shield. This is one of the reasons, why
UTP systems have problems with these two parameters.

New class/Category 6a Shielded Unshielded

250 MHz 500 MHz 250 MHz 500 MHz
PSANEXT -60 dB -55 dB -40 dB -35 dB

51
 ANEXT:

10 Gigabit Ethernet requires a higher

bandwidth then 100 Mbit/s or 1 Gigabit
Ethernet. Present requirement is about 500
MHz. Because of that, cabling systems are
faced with crosstalk between cables and
connecting hardware components.
Each cable or connector is disturbing the
adjacent ones, as shown in the diagram. The
pink arrows show the worst case scenario for
the cable in the middle. One cable, which is
surrounded by 6 cables, will be affected by the
surrounding 6 cables. This is a typical scenario
in a cable duct system. A screen is able to
Fig 90: ANEXT effect
suppress this effectively. This explains the
results on page 51. The only way for UTP
systems to overcome the ANEXT problem is
the separation of cables and connecting hardware components.

In general shielded connections are mostly used in the IT world. The main reason is the
improvement in the immunity. The signals are small and therefore are sensitive to
interference. The figure below shows some typical devices. Other areas are the TV and
military applications.

Fig 91: Shielded peripheral devices and cables

52
Background noise
In the last couple of years there have been several tests of effectiveness and comparisons
between the different application systems. With the forthcoming definition of 10 Gigabit
Ethernet and the proliferation of more electrical sources of EMI, especially the increasing
number of mobile phones, radio stations and the “new” old terrestrial distribution of TV
channels, the requirements for cabling system performance have been changed.
Why is this so?

Fig 92: Various services and their frequency band

As discussed on page 20 the frequency range depends on bandwidth and coding. With 10
Gigabit Ethernet the required bandwidth is about 500 MHz. This is completely different to
earlier transmissions, where the range was under 100 MHz.
This is now the new key issue: Background noise results from the overlapping between the
frequency bands of these applications and the bandwidth of the transmitted signals
operating in the respective frequency range. This results in a higher BER5. The factor to
identify the EMC performance is coupling attenuation. Each cabling system is faced with
noise in the environment. Best evidence is ANEXT. Coupling attenuation is the factor that
shows how well or how poorly the system is able to suppress this noise. Conversely, this
coupling attenutaion shows, how much headroom the system provides to protect against the
noise in the environment. Coupling attenuation is recognised by IS 11801 and is in
discussion to be implemented in the next edition.
System Coupling attenuation
UTP System 45 dB
STP System 70 dB
25 dB more headroom against noise in the environment!

5
BER=Bit Error Rate

53
 Effectiveness of suppression mechanism
In issue 5/2000 LANline6 published some EMC test results comparing the performance of
UTP and STP cabling systems. The tests were conducted under practical conditions
comprising a complete cabling channel and active components. Tests have been conducted
by a 3rd party lab, GHMT, a, accredited test labatory.
The results:
Measurement unscreened screened

10BaseT 100 BaseTX 10BaseT 100 BaseTX

electrostatic discharge (EN 6100-4-2)

Contact ok ok ok ok

Air - Destroyed ports ok ok

Copple plate Influence Crash ok ok

Radiated, radio-frequency, Crash Crash ok ok

electromagnetic field immunity test
(EN 61000-4-3)

Electrical fast transient/burst immunity

test (EN 6100-4-4)

Data cable Influence Influence ok ok

Power cable ok ok ok ok

Surge immunity test (EN 61000-4-6) ok ok ok ok

Immunity to conducted disturbances,

induced by radio-frequency fields
(EN 610004-6)

Data cable Influence Crash ok ok

Power cable ok ok ok ok

Power frequency magnetic field - - ok ok

immunity test
( in accordance to EN 6100-4-8)

Impulse based on magnetic field (Flash) ok ok ok ok

• The UTP transmission has been disturbed significantly by the simulation of

broadcasting signals (e.g. Radio stations, TV stations and mobile phones)

• High Bit error rate if low electromagnetic field affects the data line. This can be all
radio stations or other devices within this range.

• The UTP system failed for EN 55022 Class B which is for Office and residential
environment

6
LANLine= Networking magazine for German speaking countries

54
For 1 GBE or 10 Gigabit Ethernet, these results will be far worse because of the higher
frequency range used by both applications. Tests have been made with Gigabit Ethernet and
show the same results. The test result below is an indicator for radiated electric field like TV
and radio stations. The UTP systems even failed for office and residential requirements.

Test with radiated radio frequencys/ electromagnetic field immunity

Conclusion:

• A shielded system which is correctly installed and terminated at both ends is the only
way to comply in all instances with the EMC requirements
• Cables with a foil and braid are the best solution to suppress the typical EMI
frequency range
• All relevant EMC parameters will be automatically complied with when using the
proper hardware
• The whole link shall contain shielded products
• Together with a “clean” power system the shielded system is the only way to support
all EMC requirements

The installation of shielded systems today is similar to UTP systems. With 10 Gigabit
Ethernet the EMC requirements are much more stringent then before. ANEXT and
background noise are parameters that still need to be taken into consideration. Both
parameters will part of the next edition of IS 11801 and EN 50173/TIA-EIA 568.

Tests at 3rd party laboratories have shown that:

• UTP systems will not meet EN 55022 B requirements

• UTP systems are disturbed by GSM phones
• UTP systems have a higher BER if disturbed
• A shielded system has 20 dB more reserve against background noise

55
 6. How to improve existing networks
If a shielded cabling system has to be installed in an existing environment, some points have
to be considered.

• First of all check and measure the power distribution system

o Measure the current on the PE conductor at certain points

• Make sure that the equipotential bonding network is in a proper situation

• Make sure that all terminations have at least good contact (lowest resistance to
earth)
In general, if the potential difference between two devices or for example two buildings is too
high a solution is equipotential equipotential bonding conductor. This is described in EN
50310.
If two buildings are connected by a shielded communication line, the equipotential conductor
is an easy solution. This is normally not necessary if a TN-S is installed. In all other cases

Fig 93: Principle of Equipotential bonding conductor

wher the potential difference is more then 1V, the recommendation is to install a fibre optic
cable. Fibres are immune against EMC and EMI. This is a common method for a connection
between buildings.
Selection of the equipotential equipotential bonding conductor
• The EBC should be as short as possible and have as large a cross-sectional area as
possible (low resistance)
• The EBC shall be a flat conductor not a round one (lower inductivity)
Note: As mentioned in section 4.5 there are several reasons to change the power
distribution system. State of the art is a TN-S system, which is recognised and strictly
recommended by EN 50310.

56
Fibre Optic
Optical fibres are immune to EMI. Therefore they are excellent to solve EMC problems.
As far as EMC, cost and performance are concerned, a DNA network is generally installed.

Fig 94: DNA (Decentralized Network Administration) Distributed Network Architecture

All data racks are isolated from each other and therefore no influence is possible. Most of
the switches offer fibre optic uplinks, even basic models.

57
 Power distribution system
Power distribution system issues may occur in the whole electrical network. If a TN-S
installation is possible, most of these issues are easily resolved. In any case, a current on
the PE has to be avoided at any time. Another problem in existing buildings is multiple power
distribution points, especially if they have different earthing potentials. To avoid different

Fig 95: TN-S system

Fig 96: Multiple power distribution points

potentials it is necessary that all distribution points have the same potential. In this case a
sufficiently sized equipotential conductor shall be installed to connect to all power distribution
points.

58
7. Planning a new installation/building
If a new building has to be planned, the following points have to be taken into consideration:

• Same entrance for external conduits

• Meshed equipotential bonding concept in accordance with EN 50310/EN 50174-1/2
• TN-S power distribution system only
• Equipotential bonding system which includes
o steel girder
o Façade in metal
o Steel in cement
o Any metal conduit
o Lightning protection
• Metallic cable ducts
• Lightning protection as part of the equipotential bonding system
• Fully shielded systems with automatic EMC features
• 3rd party tested with ANEXT and AFEXT measurement
• The system shall exceed a coupling attenuation of 70 dB
• Components shall be compliant to EN 55022 B
Shielded cabling components should be compliant to transfer impedance in accordance to
EN 50173-1:2002. Using standards EN 50310 and 50174-2, the consultant is able to plan a
structure with a good EMC performance at any time. It’s recommended to follow the
guidelines and instructions in these documents. EN 50174-2 provides a good checklist.
Note: The consultant/ end user is responsible for compliance to the EMC directive. If a part
or parts in the building will disturb other systems or will not comply with relevant EMC
standards, the relevant systems or parts can be switched off by the local responsible
department!!!
Again this is in general valid and there is no link to cabling systems. Even companies like
Cisco and others have a clear statement about earthing and equipotential bonding. As well
all active components have guidelines for earthing and equipotential bonding. A bad power
distribution system will influence these kind of products as well as UPS systems and
computers.

Again, the major point is the power distribution system. Only a TN-S is able to support
safety aspects and best EMC performance for IT equipment.

59
 Checklist for an EMC concept (Source: EN 50174-2, page 42)
Aspects to be considered Answer Comment
Yes No
1 Building
1a) Existing building? ▲1) 01)
1b) New building projected? ▲ 0
1c) New building existing? ▲ 0
1d) New and existing building mixed? ▲ 0
1e) Hospital? ▲ 0
2 Power distribution system
2a) TN-S? 0 0 Best
2b) TN-C-S? ▲ 0
2c) TN-C? ▲ 0
2d) TT? ▲ 0
2e) IT? ▲ 0
3 Disturbing sources
3a) Transformer station? ▲ 0
3b) Proximity to electrical traction? ▲ 0
3c) Proximity to high voltage power lines? ▲ 0
3d) Arc welders? ▲ 0
3e) Frequency induction heaters? ▲ 0
3f) Transmitting equipment (radio, television, wireless telephone ▲ 0
3g) Does the installed equipment^ comply with relevant O A
European EMC-Standards?
3h) Power cables screened? ▲ 0
3i) Proximity to coaxial or unbalanced cabling? ▲ 0
4 Customer requirements concerning security
4a) Very sensitive application(s)? ▲ 0
4b) Hospital environment? ▲ 0
5 Structure of the existing and/or future earthing and bonding network
5a) Mesh topology, CBN or MESH-BN? 0
5b) Star topology, IBN or MESH-IBN? ▲
5c) Trunk structure? ▲
5d) More than one answer a),b),c) ▲
6 Cable management systems, raised floors
6a) 1. generic cabling parallel to power ▲ 0
lines 2. premises cabling parallel to ▲ 0
6b) Plastic lior metallic (aluminium or steel) cable management ▲ 0 Plastic
systems ▲ 0 Steel
▲ Aluminium
0
6c) Plastic or metallic separation between information technology ▲ A Plastic
cabling and power lines? 0 A Steel
O A Aluminiu
6d) Are the metallic or composite cable management systems 0 A
specially designed for EMC purposes earthed repeatedly or
6e) Is the cabling between buildings carried out with metallic ▲ 0
cables?
NOTE 1 0 = No action required ▲ = See A.6.2. NOTE 2 This refers not only to the
connected equipment but also to other equipment in the environment (e.g. copiers,
fluorescent lighting).
I

The paper provides some comments and notes as to what to to in each case.

60
Conclusion
The installation of a shielded system is becoming more popular and not more dangerous or
difficult then a UTP system.
Many outdated pre-conceptions have to be corrected. The installation of a shielded cabling
system itself, using the technology available today is the same as that using UTP systems.
The AWC (Automatic Wire Cutting) tool and other clever technologies help to consistently
comply to performance and EMC requirements. Cable diameters and bend radius are even
better then with new, forthcoming UTP cabling systems.
The power distribution system is the most critical part. Therefore the strong recommendation
is to install TN-S systems only. If this is done, there is no issue for any shielded cabling
system and as well for all IT equipment.
Strange effects and damaged components occur mostly from a bad or non-existing earthing
and equipotential design.
In EMI sensitive areas like research, development, testing laboratories the best EMC design
shall be installed.
A shielded system is then able to improve the EMC performance significantly. An alternative
can be a fibre optic installation.
The shielded systems have been working successfully for many decades in Europe and they
continue to develop with the introduction of 1 GBE and 10 Gigabit Ethernet. Category 7 that
has for years been known as a niche system seems to be the new definition for Class E and
F of IS 11801
The bandwidth has grown over the last 10 years from 10 MHz to 500 MHz.
As in the automotive industry where the rule is:“There is no substitute for cylinder capacity”,
this is still valid for transmission technology: There is no substitute for bandwidth capacity.
Shielded technology supports this easily. With a theoretical shielded cabling system
bandwidth of 1500 MHz, there is enough headroom for further developments. The worldwide
trend is towards shielded systems. More and more customers have seen the advantage of
this technology.

An alternative is a fibre optic installation. A compromise of both is the most economical

solution.
AMP Netconnect has more then 20 years knowledge and a huge world wide installation of
shielded products. AMP has a suitable solution available for all situations.

Join them
.

61
 8. FAQ
Question: Do passive components need a CE mark?
Answer: No. As passive components have no function, they don’t need a CE mark.
Question: Do I have a higher risk, if I use a shielded system?
Answer: No. If a TN-S system is installed, the system behaves like a UTP system. A bad
earthing or power distribution system influences all kinds of copper cabling systems. If a TN-
C or TN-C-S system is installed, in both cases a current will flow on the PE(N) conductor. In
case of a shieldeded system on the shield and on the reference potential. If a UTP system is
installed the current will flow on the refrence potential.
In case of a lightning strike, the risk of damage is with a shielded system much lower then
with a UTP system.
Question: I have a TN-C or TN-C-S system. How can I use a cabling system?
Answer: Measure first the current on PE in the power distribution system. If the potential
difference is more then 1V, install equipotential conductors between the distribution points.
More effective is to change the electrical distribution system. The PEN conductor creates in
both cases many problems.
Question: Do I have to terminate the shield on one or on both sides?
Answer: Always on both sides (i.e. patch panel and network device, not outlet) to suppress
all EMC mechanism effectively and to avoid an antenna effect.
Question: Do I have to use metal dividers in the cable duct for shielded system?
Answer: Only for length greater then 35m. UTP systems need a metal divider all the time.
Question: Is it enough to use an FTP cable or is it better to use a PiMF cable?
Answer: From an EMC and performance point of view, a PiMF cable is the best solution.
Question: Can a lightning strike influence a UTP system as well?
Answer: Yes. Without any lightning protection system the magnetic flux is so strong that the
twist in a UTP cable is unable to suppress the signal. The probability that a flash near the
structure will cause a failure of internal systems is 10.000 times higher as with sieldeded
systems. This is described in IEC 62305-2/FDIS.
Question: Is a UTP system able to fulfil EMC requirements?
Answer: Can do. There is no standard for cabling systems today. Therefore from a system
point of view there are no limits which have to be fulfilled. The EMC directive says only that
the owner is responsible that the systems will not disturb other systems and are immune to
others. Some test have shown, that UTP systems fail to fulfil requirements for EN 55022 B.
This standard is for residential and office environments.

62
Question: I have a UTP system. Do I need an earthing system?
Answer: Yes. Earthing is for safety reasons and mandatory for all electrical installations with
a voltage higher than 25 V AC, 60 V DC or voltage within SELV. Even with a fibre optic
installation, a well designed and fully functional earthing system is mandatory.
Question: I have a UTP system. Do I need an equipotential bonding system?
Answer: Yes. Equipotential equipotential bonding is for safety reason and mandatory for all
electrical installation. In addition it improves the EMC performance. This is a s well valid for
all kind of cabling systems.
Question: My system supplier provides me an EMC warranty/ compliance for my cabling
system. Do I fulfil my responsibility with this?
Answer: No. There are no limits defined today, if the system is active.
Question: My UTP system has twisted pairs as a protection. Is this enough for efficient
suppression of interference?
Answer: No. A twist is able to reduce interference but not to cancel or eliminate them
effectively. A twist is not able to suppress electromagnetic radiation. This is more critical, if
the cable has been pulled or crushed during installation. The geometry is not consistent
anymore.
Question: I have a UTP system and would like to improve my EMC performance. What can I
do?
Answer: The most effective way is to put cables and components in shielded environment.
This can be shielded cable ducts and pathways. The shielded rack and panel provides some
basic protection. Note: All items have to bonded to the Equipotential bonding system
Question: I have a shielded system and would like to use unshielded patch cords. Is this
possible?
Answer: The system will work as with shielded patch cords, but there is no complete
connection to earth (only connected at the patch panel), hence there is no EMI suppression.
Therefore always shielded patch cords shall be used.
Question: What’s the difference between earthing and grounding?
Answer: There is no difference, just two words for the same subject.

63
 Appendix

The following definitions based on EN 50310/EN 50174-2:

The conductive mass of the earth, whose electric potential at any

Earth point is conventionally taken as equal to zero. In some countries
the word "ground" is used instead of "earth."

A conductive part or a group of conductive parts in intimate contact

Earth electrode
with and providing an electrical connection to earth.

The part of an earthing installation that is restricted to the earth

Earthing network
electrodes and their interconnections.

A terminal or bar that is provided for the connection of protective

conductors, including equipotential equipotential bonding
Main earthing terminal
conductors and conductors for functional earthing, if any, to the
means of earthing.

A protective conductor that connects the main earthing terminal or

Earthing conductor
bar to the earth electrode.

Electrical connection putting various exposed conductive parts and

Equipotential bonding
extraneous conductive parts at a substantially equal potential.

Equipotential equipotential A protective conductor for ensuring equipotential equipotential

bonding conductor bonding.

A conductor that is connected to the neutral point of a system and

Neutral conductor (N)
capable of contributing to the transmission of electrical energy.

A conductor that is required by some measures for protection

against electric shock by electrically connecting any of the following
parts:

Exposed conductive parts

Protective conductor (PE) Extraneous conductive parts

Main earthing terminal

Earth electrode

Earthed point of the source or artificial neutral

A set of interconnected conductive structures that provide an

electromagnetic shield for electronic systems and personnel at
frequencies from DC to low RF. The term "electromagnetic shield"
Equipotential bonding
denotes any structure used to divert, block, or impede
network (BN)
electromagnetic energy. In general, a BN need not be connected to
earth, but all BNs in this recommendation have an earth
connection.

64
Common equipotential The CBN is the primary way to create effective equipotential
bonding network (CBN) bonding and earthing inside a telecommunication building. It is the
set of metallic components that are intentionally or unintentionally
interconnected to form the principal BN in a building. These
components include:

• Structural steel or reinforcing rods

• Metallic plumbing

• AC power conduit

• PE conductors

• Cable racks

• Equipotential bonding conductors

The CBN always has a mesh topology and is connected to the

earthing network.

A equipotential bonding network in which all associated equipment

frames, racks, cabinets, and the DC power return conductor are
Mesh-BN (MBN)
bonded together and also bonded at multiple points to the CBN.
Consequently, the mesh-BN augments the CBN.

A equipotential bonding network that has a single point of

Isolated equipotential connection (SPC) to either the common equipotential bonding
bonding network (IBN) network or another isolated equipotential bonding network. All IBNs
in this document have a connection to earth via the SPC.

The unique location in an IBN where a connection is made to the

CBN. In reality, the SPC is not a mere "point" but has sufficient size
Single point connection to accommodate the connection of multiple conductors. Usually,
(SPC) the SPC is a copper bus-bar. If cable shields or coaxial outer
conductors are to be connected to the SPC, the SPC could be a
frame with a grid or sheet metal structure.
A type of IBN in which the components of the IBN (equipment
frames) are interconnected to form a mesh-like structure. This may,
for example, be achieved by multiple interconnections between
cabinet rows or by connecting all equipment frames to a metallic
grid (equipotential bonding mat) that extends away from beneath
Mesh-IBN the equipment. The equipotential bonding mat is, of course,
insulated from the adjacent CBN. If necessary the equipotential
bonding mat could include vertical extensions that result in an
approximation to a Faraday-cage. The spacing of the grid depends
upon the frequency range of the electromagnetic environment.
A type of IBN comprising clustered or nested IBNs sharing a
Star IBN common SPC.
All the equipment whose frames and associated conductive parts
System block form a defined BN.
A DC power system in which the return conductor has a single
Isolated DC return (DC-I) point connection to a BN. More complex configurations are possible
A DC power system in which the return conductor is connected to
the surrounding BN at many locations. This BN could be either a
Common DC return (DC-
mesh-BN (resulting in a DC-C-MBN system) or an IBN (resulting in
C)
a DC-C-IBN system). More complex configurations are possible.

65
 Literature:
H. Schmolke, D. Vogt Potentialausgleich,
Fundamenterder,Korrisionsgefärdung,
VDE
Doris Behrendt LANLINE Issue 5/2000, Die EMV gibt
den Ausschlag
Wilhelm Rudolph, Otmar Winter EMV nach VDE 0100
Karl-Heinz Krefter DIN VDE 0100
British standard institution A guide to Electromagnetic Compatibility
and structured cabling
Alfred Weber EMV in der Praxis
Joseph J. Carr The technician’s EMI handbook
Föste/Öing EMV Design Richtlinien
EN 50310 Application of equipotential bonding and
earthing in buildings with information
technology equipment
EN 50174-2 Information technology – cabling
installation Part 2: Installation planning
and practise inside buildings
ANSI/TIA-568-B.1-2 Addendum 2 Grounding and Bonding.
Specifications for Screened Balanced
Twisted Pair Horizontal cabling systems
T. Hähner, B. Mund Test methods for screening and balance
of communication cables
Dirk Wilhelm, Andreas Obst, GHMT AG Coupling attenuation, A new measuring
technique to qualify the EMC Behavior of
various data cables
G Vijayaraghaven, M. Brown, M. Barnes Grounding, Bonding, Shielding and
surge protection
T. Williams, K. Armstrong EMC for systems and installations
Ralph Morrison Grounding and Shielding Techniques
Dirk Wilhelm, Dr. Peter Schulz GHMT AG EMC within systems and installations
Peter Gabler Your Computer does not run on every
socket
Wilhelm Rudolph EMV Fibel für Elektroinstallateure und
Planer

66
Index:

1 G

10 Gigabit Ethernet · 43, 52 Galvanic coupling · 11

Ground loop · See earth loop
Grounding · See earthing
A

ANEXT I
crosstalk · 52
Inductive coupling · 15
Internal ligthning protection · 35
B

Background noises · 53 J
Bandwidth · 20, 53
Bonding and Earthing · 21 Jack installation · 45
Bonding of components · 49
L
C
Lightning protection · 32
Cable installation · 43 Loop reduction · 16
Cable separation · 13
Capacitive coupling · 12
CE Sign · 7 M
Corrosion · 24
Coupling attenuation · 10 Meshed bonding · 31
Coupling suppression · 10 Multiple power distribution · 58

E P

Earth loop · 41 Panel installation · 47

Earth resistance · 24 PiMF cable · 51
Earthing · 21 Power distribution · 37
Earthing rod · 23
Earthing system · 23
S
Electromagnetic radiation · 19
EMC · 4
Safety regulations · 22
EMC directive · 5
Screen transfer · 46
EMC Directive · 2
Screening attenuation · 10
EMC mechanism · 11
SELV · 27
EMC performance · 10
Shield · 51
EMI · 8
Shielded cables · 52
EN 50174 · 7
Shielded jack · 44
EN 50310 · 7, 39
Shielded termination · 45, 48
EN 55022 · 7
EN 55022 B · 59
EN 60603-7-1 · 8 T
Equipotential bonding · 27
TN-C system · 37, 38
TN-C-S system · 37, 39
F
TN-S system · 37, 38
Transfer impedance · 9
Fibre optic · 57
Twisted pairs · 18
Functional earthing · 22

67
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