2754

SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION

Honour School of Physics Part C: 4 Year Course

Honour School of Physics and Philosophy Part C

C4: PARTICLE PHYSICS

TRINITY TERM 2013

Thursday, 13 June, 2.30 pm – 5.45 pm

15 minutes reading time

Answer four questions.

Start the answer to each question in a fresh book.

A list of physical constants and conversion factors accompanies this paper.

The numbers in the margin indicate the weight that the Examiners anticipate
assigning to each part of the question.

Do NOT turn over until told that you may do so.

Pages 2 and 3 contain particle physics formulae and data for this paper.
The questions start on page 4.

1
C4 Particle Physics formulae and data
Unless otherwise indicated, the questions on this paper use natural units with
h̄ = c = 1. The energy unit is GeV.
Cross sections 1 GeV−2 = 0.3894 mb
Length 1 GeV−1 = 0.1973 fm
Time 1 GeV−1 = 6.582 × 10−25 s
Fermi constant GF = 1.166 × 10−5 GeV−2

Dirac (Dirac-Pauli representation) and Pauli matrices

( ) ( ) ( )
0 I 0 0 σ 5 0 I
γ = , γ= , γ =
0 −I −σ 0 I 0
( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ1 = , σ2 = , σ3 =
1 0 i 0 0 −1

Rotation matrices ⟨j, m′ |e−iJy θ |j, m⟩ = djm′ m (θ)

1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
d++ = d−− = cos(θ/2) ; d−+ = −d+− = sin(θ/2).
d111 = d1−1−1 = (1 + cos θ)/2 ; d11−1 = d1−11 = (1 − cos θ)/2 ;
√
d100 = cos θ ; d101 = −d110 = −d10−1 = d1−10 = sin θ/ 2 .

Spherical harmonics Ylm (θ, ϕ)

√ √ √
1 3 3
Y00 = ; Y10 = cos θ ; Y1±1 = ∓ sin θ e±iϕ .
4π 4π 8π
√ √ √
5 15 15
Y20 = (3 cos2 θ − 1) ; Y2±1 = ∓ sin θ cos θ e±iϕ ; Y2±2 = sin2 θ e±2iϕ .
16π 8π 32π

CKM quark mixing matrix

The mixing of the charge −e/3 quark mass eigenstates (d, s, b) is expressed in a
3 × 3 unitary matrix V :
    
d′ Vud Vus Vub d
 s′  =  Vcd Vcs Vcb   s  .
b′ Vtd Vts Vtb b
The magnitudes of the elements, derived from the Particle Data Group 2004 tables, are
given below. The number in brackets gives an estimate of the uncertainty in the last
digit. Note that these values may not give an exactly unitary matrix, but this has no
significance.  
0.975(0) 0.224(3) 0.004(1)
V =  0.224(3) 0.974(1) 0.042(2) 
0.009(5) 0.040(3) 0.999(0)

2754 2
Clebsch–Gordan coefficients

1 × 1
2

3 3 1 3 1 3
J 2 2 2 2 2 2
m1 m2 M + 23 + 21 + 12 − 12 − 12 − 32
+1 + 12 1
√ √
+1 − 12 1/3 2/3
√ √
0 + 21 2/3 − 1/3
√ √
0 − 12 2/3 1/3
√ √
−1 + 12 1/3 − 2/3
−1 − 12 1

1 × 1

J 2 2 1 2 1 0 2 1 2
m1 m2 M +2 +1 +1 0 0 0 −1 −1 −2
+1 +1 1
√ √
+1 0 1/2 1/2
√ √
0 +1 1/2 − 1/2
√ √ √
+1 −1 1/6 1/2 1/3
√ √
0 0 2/3 0 − 1/3
√ √ √
−1 +1 1/6 − 1/2 1/3
√ √
0 −1 1/2 1/2
√ √
−1 0 1/2 − 1/2
−1 −1 1

Breit-Wigner resonance formula

The formula represents the energy dependence of the total cross-section σ(i → f )
for unpolarised scattering between a two-body initial state i to a final state f , in the
vicinity of a resonance of rest-mass energy M , spin J and total width Γ.
Γi Γf
σ(i → f ) = πλ̄2 g ,
[(E − M )2 + Γ2 /4]

h̄c 2J + 1
where λ̄ = , g = , p is the magnitude of the centre-of-mass mo-
pc (2sa + 1)(2sb + 1)
mentum of the initial state particles, sa , sb are their spins and Γi , Γf the initial and
final state partial widths.

2754 3 [Turn over]

 1. Outline one method that can be used to determine the parton distribution
functions for gluons using data from deep inelastic scattering. Briefly explain the
consequences for LHC physics. [5]
Draw a Feynman diagram for the production of a direct photon in pp collisions
and explain how measurements of this process can be used to constrain the gluon parton
distribution function. [4]
Explain with the aid of a Feynman diagram how gluon-gluon annihilation can
produce a Higgs boson, despite the fact that the gluon is massless and the Higgs
couplings depend on the mass of the particle. Draw two Feynman diagrams for Higgs
decays into two photons. Give one example of a reducible background to the process
H → γγ at the LHC and outline a selection strategy that could decrease this to a level
below that of the irreducible background. Draw a Feynman diagram for an irreducible
background to this process at the LHC and explain how the H → γγ signal could be
separated from this background on a statistical basis. What variables would need to be
determined for the photons? Explain how they could be measured experimentally. [12]
Give two examples of measurements which will be required to confirm that the
resonance at a mass of 126 GeV/c2 discovered at the LHC is really a Higgs boson. [4]

2. Give a brief account of how the coupling strengths of each of the gauge bosons (γ,
W ± and Z) to leptons and quarks depend on the type of lepton or quark in terms of the
quantities in the following expressions e = g sin θW , cV = I3 − 2Q sin2 θW and cA = I3 ,
and indicate where Cabbibo rotation is relevant to the coupling strengths. Also give
the approximate relative coupling strengths of the Higgs particle to the leptons, quarks
and gauge bosons. [8]
Give an example of how one of the couplings you have discussed can be experi-
mentally measured. [4]
The decay K 0 → µ+ µ− is forbidden with first order Feynman diagrams. Show
that this can be explained by the absence of flavour-changing neutral currents (FCNC)
and describe how the absence of FCNC is related to Cabbibo rotation (this is the GIM
mechanism). Using the GIM mechanism (with only two families of quarks to simplify)
derive an expression for ⟨s|Z|d⟩ in terms of the Cabbibo rotated states |s′ ⟩ and |d′ ⟩ and
show that it is zero. [4]
K 0 → µ+ µ− can occur if the Feynman diagram contains an internal loop coupling
to the µ+ µ− pair with a photon. Draw an example of such a diagram and indicate which
types of particles are possible on the three sides of the loop. [4]
The Higgs boson can decay into two photons. This decay occurs via Feynman
diagrams with an internal loop, but this time with the same particle running around
all three sides of the loop. Consider the different possibilities for the type of particle in
the loop, and indicate which ones will have large contributions to the overall H → γγ
rate. [5]

2754 4
 3. Write down the Dirac equation for free electrons. Derive an expression for the
probability current 4-vector. Show for a pure vector interaction that chirality is con-
served. Show that in the extreme relativistic limit, chirality conservation implies helicity
conservation. Use helicity conservation to derive the centre of mass angular distribution
for the process e+ e− → µ+ µ− in this limit. [10]
The W − boson was discovered at the CERN 540 GeV pp collider. Draw an
appropriate Feynman diagram for the production of a W − and its subsequent decay
to e− ν e . Explain your choice for the incident particles. Give one source of potential
background and explain how the signal could be separated from this background. The
angle between the outgoing e− and the p in the W − centre of mass frame is θ∗ . Derive
the form of the distribution in θ∗ for this interaction and explain how a parity-violating
distribution arises from unpolarised beams. [8]
Explain how a W− could be produced at large transverse momentum (pW
with T )
W
respect to the beam direction. How could pT be measured in principle? What are the
requirements for a detector to be able to make reliable measurements of pW
T ? [7]

4. With reference to the angular momentum and parity, state the difference between
vector, scalar and pseudoscalar mesons. [3]
Assuming three flavours of quarks (u, d, s) and their antiquarks, derive 3 ⊗ 3̄ = 9
orthonormal meson flavour states and identify which are symmetric wavefunctions.
Place these states on a plot of strangeness versus the third component of isospin.
¯ = −|ū⟩. ]
[The Condon-Shortley convention for antiquark isospin is I− |u⟩ = |d⟩, I− |d⟩ [8]
How does the pattern of observed pseudoscalars support the conjecture of SU(3)
flavour symmetry in the quark model? Explain how the flavour wavefunctions of the
vector mesons are modified given that one of them, the ϕ, decays mainly to kaons. [3]
The di-electron partial width of a vector meson, V , may be defined in terms of the
charged constituents, qi , that couple via a photon propagator to the e+ e− final state,
16π ∑
ΓV →e+ e− = | i αem qi |2 |ψ(0)|2 .
MV2

Assuming the magnitude of the q q̄ overlap wavefunction, |ψ(0)|, is proportional to

the invariant mass, MV , show how the following measurements support a quark model.

Γ B(V → e+ e− )
ρ0 149.1 MeV 4.7 × 10−5
ω 8.5 MeV 7.3 × 10−5
ϕ 4.3 MeV 3.0 × 10−4
J/ψ 90 keV 5.9 × 10−2
[7]
Approximately how much smaller are the V → γγ branching fractions and why?
Why can the ϕ decay to a pair of neutral kaons but never to a pair of neutral pions? [4]

2754 5 [Turn over]

 5. Fermi’s golden rule for the n-body decay of an initial state i with mass M is:
   
∫ ∏
n ∑n ∑n
(2π)4 d3 pj P  δ E −
Γf = | Mf i |2 3 (2E )
δ ⃗− p
⃗j Ej  .
2M j=1
(2π) j j=1 j=1

Explain the parts of this equation that describe the decay kinematics (the phase space).
Demonstrate that the phase space infinitesimal in three-body decays, dρ, satisfies

dρ ∝ dM12
2 2
dM13 ,

where the M12 and M13 are the invariant mass of the combination of particles 1 and 2
and particles 1 and 3 respectively. Why is this result important for “Dalitz” plots? [10]
[For the integration over two solid angles, the following redefinition is useful:

sin θ1 dθ1 sin θ2 dθ2 dϕ1 dϕ2 = dΩ1 dΩ2 = sin θ1 dθ1 sin θ12 dθ12 dϕ1 dϕ2 ,

where θ12 is the angle between particles 1 and 2 as they recoil against particle 3.]

Sketch the Dalitz plot of D+ → π − K + π + decays. Annotate the axes and ensure
all features are labelled. [8]
Draw quark flow diagrams for the decays D+ → π − K + π + and Ds+ → π − K + π + .
Hence estimate the ratio, and its error, of relevant CKM elements from the D+ and Ds+
branching fraction measurements.

Quasi-stable particles
Mass [MeV] Lifetime Flavour B(D(s)
+
→ π−K +π+)
Ds+ 1968 504 fs |cs̄⟩ (6.9 ± 0.5) × 10−3
D+ 1869 1.04 ps ¯
|cd⟩ (5.3 ± 0.2) × 10−4
K+ 494 12.4 ns |us̄⟩
π+ 140 26.0 ns ¯
|ud⟩

Strongly decaying resonances

Mass [MeV] Width [MeV] J P Decay
ρ0 775 149 1− → π+π−
K∗ 892 74 1− → K +π−
f0 990 50 0+ → π+π−
K0 1430 250 0+ → K +π−

[7]

2754 6
 6. Show that in a two-flavour (να , νβ ) model of neutrino mixing the probability of a
να of energy E being observed as a νβ after travelling a distance L in a vacuum is
( )
∆m2 L
P (α → β) = sin (2θ) sin
2 2
,
4E

where θ is the mixing angle and ∆m2 is the difference of the squared masses of the mass
eigenstates, ν1 and ν2 .
Discuss briefly how the observability of flavour oscillations depends on the source –
detector distance, the sizes of the neutrino source and detector, and the energy resolution
of the detector. [10]

The figure shows the energies and relative times of events attributed to interactions
of ν̄e from supernova SN1987A observed in the Kamiokande-II and IMB light water
Čerenkov detectors in February 1987. The supernova explosion occurred at a distance
of 163,000 light years from the Earth. The times of the events are relative to the time
photons from the supernova travelling in vacuum would have arrived at the detectors.
At the time the supernova was observed, one proposed interpretation of the
apparent grouping of events, as indicated on the figure, was that the mass eigenstates
had become resolved in time. Assuming that the ν̄e were emitted in a very short burst
and two-flavour ν̄e –ν̄x mixing, estimate the masses of ν̄1 and ν̄2 , the mixing angle, and
the total number of ν̄e that would have been observed without mixing. [12]
Comment on your results in the light of the current understanding of neutrino
masses and mixings. [3]

2754 7 [Turn over]

 7. Justify the energy dependence of the Breit-Wigner formula by considering the
survival probability, exp (−Γt), of an unstable particle of rest mass M and lifetime 1/Γ.
[The Breit-Wigner formula and associated symbols are given in the data sheet at the
beginning of the paper.] [5]
Show that for an isolated Breit-Wigner resonance in an interval ∆E ≫ Γ
∫ M +∆E Γi Γf
σ (E) dE = 2π 2λ̄2 g .
M −∆E Γ
[7]
At an electron-positron collider, when studying the process e+ e− → µ+ µ− , a
resonance is discovered at a centre-of-mass energy of 10.335 GeV with a width of
1.0 MeV and a Gaussian shape. The integral of the resonant cross section is 1.83 MeV nb.
Further measurements show that in the region of the resonance, the relative rate of
muon-pair events is 1.8% of all events. Making clear all assumptions you make, calcu-
late the lifetime of this resonant state. [8]
A broader resonance with a Breit-Wigner line shape and width 20 MeV is found
at a centre-of-mass energy of 10.580 GeV. At this energy, the relative production rate
of lepton pairs is two orders of magnitude smaller compared to that at 10.335 GeV.
Explain these observations in the context of the constituent quark model for hadrons. [5]

8. Write short essays on three of the following topics:

(a) Quark mixing, the CKM matrix, and experimental determination of its elements.
(b) The discovery of the W and Z bosons and their role in electro-weak theory.
(c) Atmospheric neutrinos oscillations.
(d) The typical components of a high-energy detector and their roles in detecting
particles from colliding beams.
(e) The neutron electric dipole moment.
[25]

2754 8 [LAST PAGE]