Steps of research process

• Steps in Research Process:

• 1. Formulating the Research Problem
• 2. Extensive Literature Review
• 3. Developing the objectives
• 4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design
• 5. Collecting the Data
• 6. Analysis of Data
• 7. Generalisation and Interpretation
• 8. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-Formal write ups
of
• conclusions reached.
 Step1. Formulating the research problem:
• Sources of research problems
• Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps:
1) People- a group of individuals
2) Problems- examine the existence of certain issues or problems
relating to
their lives; to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an
issue
3) Programs- to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
4) Phenomena- to establish the existence of a regularity.
In practice most research studies are based upon at least a
combination of two Ps.
 In practice most research studies are based upon at least a
combination of two Ps.

• 1. Study population-
• • People: individuals, organizations, groups, communities
• ( they provide you with the information or you collect information about
them)
• 2. Subject area-
• Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles
• Program : content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions,
consumers,Service providers, etc.
• Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon
• itself
 Considerations in selecting a research problem:
• 1) Interest
• 2) Magnitude : manage in time span
• 3) Measurement of concepts: clear about the indicators and
measurement of concepts
• 4) Level of expertise: you have adequate level of expertise for
the task
• 5) Relevance : study adds to the existing body of
• knowledge, bridges current gaps and is useful in policy formulation
• 6) Availability of data
• 7) Ethical issues :ethical issues can affect the study population and how
• ethical problems can be overcome
 Steps in formulation of a research problem :
• Step 1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
• Step 2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas.
• Step 3 Select what is of most interest to you.
• Step 4 Raise research questions.
• Step 5 Formulate objectives.
• Step 6 Assess your objectives.
• Step 7 Double check.
 Step 2. Reviewing the literature:
Its functions are:
• a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem: relationship
between your research problem and the body of knowledge in the
area.
b. Improve your methodology : if others have used procedures and
methods similar to the ones that you are proposing, which
procedures and methods have worked well for them,
c. Broaden your knowledge: It also helps you to understand how the
findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge.
d. Contextualise your findings: It is important to place your findings in
the context of what is already known in your field of enquiry.
 Procedure for reviewing the literature

i) Search for existing literature in your area of study;

ii) Review the literature selected;
iii) Develop a theoretical framework
iv) Develop a conceptual framework.
 For Bibliography
• 1. Books
• Search for books in your area of interest, prepare a final list,
locate these books in the libraries or borrow from other sources.
Examine their content, if contents are not found to be relevant to
your topic, delete it from your reading list.
• 2. Journals
• This can be done as follows:
• -locate the hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study.
• - use the internet.
• - look at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify
and read the articles.
• first identify the journals you want to look at in more detail for your
review of literature. Select the latest issue, examine its content page to
see if there is an article of relevance to your research topic. If you feel a
particular article is of relevance to you, read its abstract. If you think you
are likely to use it,photocopy or prepare a summary and record it for
reference for later use.
 Review the literature selected
• After identifying books and articles as useful, the next step is to start
reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are
associated.
• Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is
confirmed beyond doubt.
• Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis,
the methodologies adopted and the criticisms of them.
• Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other
situations.
• In writing about such information you should start with the general
information,
gradually narrowing down to the specific.
• Find gaps
• Banga Rashmi (2003)10 states that FDI has not played a important function in export support. But
points out that export things be at variance between home countries of overseas investors and
between established and non-traditional sell abroad industries.

• Athreye, S and Kapur, S. (2001)14 in their research paper mentioned that weak logical assets rights
was mainly answerable for approximately half of the foreign investors not transferring latest up to
date knowledge to their Indian subsidiaries or combined venture associate and hence emphasized
more on relocate of technology to aid financial development in India.

• Kimberly S.Y(2004)

• .The paper”Internet Addiction” paper found that internet addiction qualities was same as drug and
alcohol addiction, it also like pathological gambling or like video game addiction. It is some new than
other addiction; it also found little habit forming nature of use of internet
1)To provide theoretical background to your study
2)List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature.
3)Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be
precise, descriptive of the theme in question, and follow a logical
progression.
4) Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect
to the theme in question, highlighting the reasons for and against
an argument if they exist, and identify gaps and issues.
5) contextualising the findings of your study- requires you to very
systematically compare your findings with those made by others.
 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

• The bibliography should give a clear, complete description of the

sources that were used while preparing the report.
• It is an alphabetical list as per the author’s surname.
• For a Book
Surname of author, name or two initials, Title taken from
titlepage-underlined or in italics, Edition (if more than one), volume
if more than one, place of publication, publishers, date on title page
or copyright date.
• e.g. Kothari, C.R., Research Methods-Methods and
Techniques,1989,New Delhi :Wiley Eastern Limited,4835/24 Ansari
Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 006.
 Step 3 The formulation of objectives:
• -Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study.
• -They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.
• -It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.
Objectives should be listed under two headings:
a) main objectives ( aims);
b) sub-objectives.
The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study.
It is also a statement of the main associations and relationships that
you seek to discover or establish.
• The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you
want to investigate within the main framework of your study.
• -They should be numerically listed.
• -Wording should clearly, completely and specifically
• -Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.
• -Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives
• The objectives should start with words such as
• ‘to determine’,
• ‘to find out’,
• ‘to ascertain’,
• ‘to measure’,
• ‘to explore’ et
 The wording of objectives determines the type of
research
• Descriptive studies:
-To describe the types of incentives provides by Hotel XYZ to employees in Mumbai.
-To find out the opinion of the employees about the medical facilities provided by
five star hotels in Mumbai.
• Correlatinal studies:
-To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.
-To compare the effectivenesss of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele.
• Hypothesis –testing studies:
-To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of
drug/alchohol abuse.
-To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in
Mumbai hotels will reduce staff turnover.
Identifying Variables
In a research study it is important that the concepts used should be operationalised in
measurable terms so that the extent of variations in respondents’ understanding is
reduced if not eliminated.
• The definition of a variable:
An image, perception or concept that can be measured – hence capable of taking on
different values- is called a variable.
• The difference between a concept and a variable:
Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meaning varies markedly
from individual to individual.
A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can be subjected to measurement by
crude/refined or subjective/objective units of measurement. It is therefore important for the
concept to be converted into variables.
• Concept Variable
• -Subjective impression - Measurable though the
• -No uniformity as to its degree of precision varies
• Understanding among from scale to scale and
• Different people variable to variable.
• e.g. e.g.
• Excellent -gender (male/female)
• High achiever -age (x years y months)
• Rich -weight ( --kg)
• Satisfaction - height ( -- cms)
• Domestic violence - religion (Catholic, Hindu)
-Income ( Rs ---per year)
• Concepts, indicators and variables:
• If you are using a concept in your study, you need to consider
its operationalisation- that is, how it will be measured.
• For this, you need to identify indicators- a set of criteria
reflective of the concept which can then be converted into
variables.
• The choice of indicators for a concept might vary with
researchers, but those selected must have a logical link with
the concept.
• Concepts___>Indicators_____>Variables
• _______________________________________________________
Concepts Indicators Variables Working definition
_______________________________________________________
Rich 1. Income 1. Income 1.If>Rs100000
2. Assets 2.Total value 2.If>Rs250000
of home,car,
investments.
Effectiveness 1.No. of 1.No.of guests diff. in before
gues served in and after levels
Month/year
2.Changes 2.No. of excellent - do -
in Ratings per 100 feedback
a ) extent of
b) pattern of
________________________
 Constructing hypotheses:
• A hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an
idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality
or truth of which you do not know.

• Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity and focus to a research

problem, but are not essential for a study.
 • The functions of hypotheses:
✔ The formulation of hypothesis provides a study with focus. It
tells you what specific aspects of a research problem to
investigate.
✔ A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to
collect
✔ The construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a
study.
✔ A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of a
theory.
✔ To specifically conclude what is true or what is false.
 Measurement Scale
Types of measurement scales:
Measurement is central to any enquiry.
The greater the refinement in the unit of measurement of a variable, the greater the
confidence, other things being equal, one can place in the findings.
S.S.Stevens has classified the different types of into four categories:
• Nominal or classificatory scale
• Ordinal or ranking scale
• Interval scale
• Ratio scale
The nominal or classificatory scale:
A nominal scale enables the classification of individuals, objects
or responses into subgroups based on a common/shared
property or characteristic.
A variable measured on a nominal scale may have one, two or
more subcategories depending upon the extent of variation.
For example, ’water’ or ‘tree’ have only one subgroup, whereas
the variable “gender”can be classified into two sub-categories:
male and female. ‘Hotels’ can be classified into ----
sub-categories.
The sequence in which subgroups are listed makes no difference
as there is no relationship among subgroups.
The ordinal or ranking scale:
Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a property into
subgroups on the basis of common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups
in a certain order.
They are arranged either in ascending or descending order according to the
extent a
subcategory reflects the magnitude of variation in the variable.
For example, ‘income’ can be measured either quantitatively (in rupees and
paise) or qualitatively using subcategories ‘above average’, ‘average’ and
‘below average’. The ‘distance’ between these subcategories are not equal
as there is no quantitative unit of measurement.
‘Socioeconomic status’ and ‘attitude’ are other variables that can be
measured on ordinal scale.
The interval scale:
An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In
addition, it uses a unit of measurement with an arbitrary
starting and terminating points.
For example,
Celsius scale: 0*C to 100*C
Fahrenheit scale: 32*F to 212*F
Attitudinal scales: 10-20
21-30
31-40 etc
The ratio scale:
A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval
scales plus its own property:the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed,
which means it has a fixed starting point. Since the difference
between intervals is always measured from a zero point, this scale
can be used for mathematical operations.
The measurement of variables like income, age, height and weight are
examples of
this scale. A person who is 40 year old is twice as old as one who is 20
year old.
Sources of Error in Measurement
Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study. This
objective, however, is often not met with in entirety. As such the researcher must
be aware about the sources of error in measurement. The following are the possible
sources of error in measurement.

(a) Respondent: At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative
feelings or it is just possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not
admit his ignorance. All this reluctance is likely to result in an interview of ‘guesses.’
Transient factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the ability of the
respondent to respond accurately and fully.
(b) Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement.
Any condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the
interviewer-respondent rapport. For instance, if someone else is present, he can
distort responses by joining in or merely by being present. If the respondent feels
that anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain feelings.
(c) Measurer: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering
questions. His behaviour, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain
replies from respondents. Careless mechanical processing may distort the
findings. Errors may also creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation
and/or statistical calculations, particularly in the data-analysis stage.
(d) Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The
use of complex words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous
meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for replies, response choice
omissions, etc. are a few things that make the measuring instrument defective
and may result in measurement errors. Another type of instrument deficiency is
the poor sampling of the universe of items of concern. Researcher must know
that correct measurement depends on successfully meeting all of the problems
listed above. He must, to the extent possible, try to eliminate, neutralize or
otherwise deal with all the possible sources of error so that the final results may
not be contaminated
 Attitude Measurement
• The term attitude refers to the predisposition/mental state of
individuals/users towards a product/idea/attributes of an object.
• It also implies the mental readiness to act in a particular manner and
influences the individuals's behaviour towards the
object/group/organization/person under consideration.
• The scales are usually highly structured.
• Mostly nominal and ordinal type of scale are used in attitude
measurement
• Trying to attempt them like interval scale.
• .The different type of single dimensional attitude measurement scales
which are available are graphical and numerical scales, summated scales,
paired comparisons, equal-appearing intervals, etc
 Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs

•Hypothetical Construct
a) Variables that are not directly observable but are measurable through
indirect indicators, such as verbal expression or overt behavior.
•Common constructs:
•Job satisfaction
•Organizational commitment
•Personal values
•Feelings
•Role stress
 Techniques for Measuring Attitudes
Ranking
•Requiring the respondent to rank order objects in overall performance on the basis of a
characteristic or stimulus.
Rating
•Asking the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that
an object possesses by indicating on a scale where he or she would rate an object.

Sorting
•Presenting the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and requiring the
respondent to arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the
concepts.
Choice
•Asking a respondent to choose one alternative from among several alternatives; it is
assumed that the chosen alternative is preferred over the others.
 Attitude Rating Scales
Simple Attitude Scale
•Requires that an individual agree/disagree with a statement or
respond to a single question.
◗This type of self-rating scale classifies respondents into one of
two categories (e.g., yes or no).
•Example:
THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION
_______ AGREE______ DISAGREE
 Attitude Rating Scales

Category Scale
•A more sensitive measure than a simple scale in that it can have more than two
response categories.
◗Question construction is an extremely important factor in increasing the usefulness
of these scales.
•Example:
How important were the following in your decision to visit San Diego?(check one for each item)
VERY SOME WHAT NOT TOO
IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT
CLIMATE_________________________________
COST OF TRAVEL_________________________________
FAMILY ORIENTED_________________________________
EDUCATIONAL/HISTORICAL ASPECTS_________________________________
FAMILIARITY WITH AREA_________________________________
 Attitude Rating Scales
Method of Summated Ratings: Likert Scale
•A popular means for measuring attitudes.
•Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly
they agree or disagree with statements.
◗Typical response alternatives: “strongly agree,” “agree,” “uncertain,”
“disagree,” and “strongly disagree.”
•Example:It is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis match
than to play an easy one.
___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly
Disagree
Semantic Differential
•A series of seven-point rating scales with bipolar adjectives, such as
“good” and “bad,” anchoring the ends (or poles) of the scale.
◗A weight is assigned to each position on the scale. Traditionally,
scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.
•Example:
Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Calm
Interesting___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Dull
Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex
Passive___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active
 Other Scale Types
Image Profile
•A graphic representation of semantic differential data for
competing brands, products, or stores to highlight
comparisons.
•Because the data are assumed to be interval, either the
arithmetic mean or the median will be used to compare the
profile of one product, brand, or store with that of a competing
product, brand, or store.
Image Profile of Private versus Public High Schools
 Attitude Rating Scales
Numerical Scales
•Scales that have numbers as response options, rather than “semantic
space” or verbal descriptions, to identify categories (response positions).
◗In practice, researchers have found that a scale with numerical labels for
intermediate points on the scale is as effective a measure as the true
semantic differential.
•Example:
◗Now that you’ve had your automobile for about one year, please tell us how
satisfied you are with your Ford Taurus.
Extremely Dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Extremely Satisfied
Other Scale Types
Stapel Scale
•Uses a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of
bipolar adjectives.
•Tends to be easier to conduct and administer than a semantic differential scale

Constant-Sum Scale
•Respondents are asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the relative importance of attributes.
◗Respondents often sort cards, but the task may also be a rating task (e.g., indicating brand preference).
•Example:
•Divide 100 points among each of the following brands according to your preference for the brand:
◗Brand A _________
◗Brand B _________
◗Brand C _________
Graphic Rating Scale
•A measure of attitude that allows respondents to rate an object
by choosing any point along a graphic continuum.
Advantage:
◗Allows the researcher to choose any interval desired for scoring
purposes.
Disadvantage:
◗There are no standard answers
Graphic Rating Scale with Picture Response Categories Stressing
Visual Communication
Graphic Rating Scale with Picture Response Categories Stressing
Visual Communication
 Measuring Behavioral Intention
Behavioral Component
•The behavioral expectations (expected future actions) of an individual
toward an attitudinal object.
•Example:
•How likely is it that you will purchase a Honda Fit?
I definitely will buy
I probably will buy
I might buy
I probably will not buy
I definitely will not buy
 Ranking

• An ordinal scale may be developed by asking respondents to rank order

(from most preferred to least preferred) a set of objects or attributes.
•Paired comparisons
•Sorting

Paired Comparison
•A measurement technique that involves presenting the respondent with
two objects and asking the respondent to pick the preferred object; more
than two objects may be presented, but comparisons are made in pairs.
•Number of comparisons = [(n)(n-1)/2]
Sorting
•Require that respondents indicate their attitudes or beliefs by arranging items on the basis
of perceived similarity or some other attribute.
•Example:

Here is a sheet that lists several airlines. Next to the name of each airline is a pocket. Here
are ten cards. I would like you to put these cards in the pockets next to the airlines you
would prefer to fly on your next trip. Assume that all of the airlines fly to wherever you
would choose to travel. You can put as many cards as you want next to an airline, or you
can put no cards next to an airline.
Cards
American Airlines_____
Delta Airlines_____
United Airlines _____
Southwest Airlines_____
Northwest Airlines_____
 Selecting a Measurement Scale
•Monadic Rating Scale
•Asks about a single concept in isolation.
•The respondent is not given a specific frame of reference.
•Example:
Now that you’ve had your automobile for about 1 year, please
tell us how satisfied you are with its engine power and
pickup.
Comparative Rating Scale
•Asks respondents to rate a concept in comparison with a benchmark explicitly used as
a frame of reference.
•Example: Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position
compares with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position.
TOO MUCH ABOUT RIGHT TOO LITTLE

Forced-choice Rating Scale

•A fixed-alternative rating scale that requires respondents to choose one of the fixed
alternatives.
Non-forced Choice Scale
•A fixed-alternative rating scale that provides a “no opinion” category or that allows
respondents to indicate that they cannot say which alternative is their choice.
Balanced Rating Scale
•A fixed-alternative rating scale with an equal number of positive and negative
categories; a neutral point or point of indifference is at the center of the scale.
•Example:
Very Neither Satisfied Very
Satisfied Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied

Unbalanced Rating Scale

•A fixed-alternative rating scale that has more response categories at one end than
the other resulting in an unequal number of positive and negative categories.
•Example:
Neither Satisfied Very
Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied
 RESEARCH DESIGN
Meaning
"A Research Design is the logical and systematic planning in directing the research. The
design
research from translating a general scientific model into varied research problem. But in
practices in
most of the basis it is just a plan of study. The research design can either be formal or
informal.
Definition
1. "It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data" -Philips
Bernard S
2. It "provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow" -Best John N
3. "The design research from controlling general scientific model into varied research
procedure"- P.V. Young
4. "A research design is "the programme that guides the investigator in the process of
collecting, analysis and interpreting observations". - David and Shava
Features of Research Design
a) It is a plan that specifies the objectives of study and the hypothesis to be tested.
b) It is an outline that specifies the sources and types of information relevent to the research
question.
c) It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering and analysis of data.
d) It is a scheme defining the procedure involved in a research process.
Features of a good Design
A good design has the following features.
1. Flexibility
2. Efficiency
3. Appropriate
4. Economical
5. Minimum error
6. Maximum reliability
7. Smallest experimental error
8. Maximum information
 Importance and advantage of research design
1.Research Design is needed because it helps in the smooth sailing of
Research operations.
2. A Research without a pre-drawn plan is like an ocean voyage
without mariners compus.
3. The Research Design helps in providing direction our study.
4. It prevents unnecessary thing in a study.
5. The use of Research Design prevents blind search.
6. A Research Design fixes clear cut boundaries to a research.
7. It makes the research systematic
8. It help us to meet unexpected events.
 PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN
• Research design is the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted.
• The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular
research problem, involves the consideration of the following :
• 1. Objectives of the research study.
• 2. Method of Data Collection to be adopted
• 3. Source of information—Sample Design
• 4. Tool for Data collection
• 5. Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative
 Methods of Data Collection:

There are two types of data

Primary Data— collected for the first time
Secondary Data—those which have already been collected
and analysed by someone else
 Methods of Primary Data Collection
OBSERVATION METHOD:
Commonly used in behavioural sciences It is the gathering of primary data by
investigator’s own direct observation of relevant people, actions and situations
without asking from the respondent. e.g.
• A hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its coffee shop to check on
cleanliness and customer service.
• A food service operator sends researchers into competing restaurants to learn menu
items prices, check portion sizes and consistency and observe point-ofpurchase
merchandising.
• A restaurant evaluates possible new locations by checking out locations of competing
restaurants, traffic patterns and neighborhood conditions.
Observation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or unable to
provide.e.g. Observing numerous plates containing uneaten portions the same menu
items indicates that food is not satisfactory.
• Types of Observation:
• 1. Structured – for descriptive research
• 2. Unstructured—for exploratory research
• 3. Participant Observation
• 4. Non- participant observation

• Limitations:
• - feelings, beliefs and attitudes that motivate buying behaviour and
• infrequent behaviour cannot be observed.
• - expensive method
• Because of these limitations, researchers often supplement
observation with survey research.
SURVEY METHOD
Approach most suited for gathering descriptive information.
Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in
the same way.
Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer probe respondents and guide the
interview according to their answers.
Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.
Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviours and
thoughts.
e.g. Why don’t you eat at MacDonalds?
Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: “What kind of people eat at
MacDonald’s?”
From the response, the researcher may be able to discover why the
consumer avoids MacDonald’s. It may suggest factors of which the
consumer is not consciously aware.
ADVANTAGES:
-can be used to collect many different kinds of information
-Quick and low cost as compared to observation and experimental
method.
LIMITATIONS:
-Respondent’s reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown
interviewers about things they consider private.
-Busy people may not want to take the time
-may try to help by giving pleasant answers
-unable to answer because they cannot remember or never gave a
thought to what they do and why
-may answer in order to look smart or well informed.
CONTACT METHODS:
Information may be collected by
Mail
Telephone
Personal interview
Mail Questionnaires:
Advantages:
-can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per
respondent.
-respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on
a mail questionnaire
-no interviewer is involved to bias the respondent’s answers.
-convenient for respondent’s who can answer when they have time
good way to reach people who often travel
Limitations:
-not flexible
-take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview
-response rate is often very low
- researcher has no control over who answers.
Telephone Interviewing:
- quick method
- more flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the
respondent
- depending on respondent’s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more
on others
- allows greater sample control
- response rate tends to be higher than mail
Drawbacks:
-Cost per respondent higher
-Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
-Interviewer’s manner of speaking may affect the respondent’s answers
-Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of ways
-under time pressure ,data may be entered without actually interviewing
 Interview…

• Meaning- Interview is a two-way systematic conversation between an

investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant
to a specific study. Interviewing requires face to face contact or over
telephone.
• Interview schedule-is a tool in interviewing method. It contains a
complete list of question on which, information is elicited from the
respondents and it is filed out by the interviewer
• Interview Guide- this is used for non-directive and depth interviews. It
does not contain complete list of items on which information has to be
elicited from a respondent. It contains only the broad topics or areas to be
covered in the interview.
Types of interviews
1) Structured Interviews-involve the use of a set of pre-determined
questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording,
interviewer follows a rigid procedure laid down asking questions in
a form and order prescribed. ( used in descriptive studies)
2) Unstructured interviews- flexibility of approach to questioning-do
not follows a system of pre-determined questions and standardized
techniques of recording information the interviewer is allowed
much greater freedom to ask, he may even change the sequence of
questions. ( used in exploratory studies)
Intercept interviewing:
Widely used in tourism research.
-allows researcher to reach unknown people in a short period of time.
- only method of reaching people whose names and addresses are unknown
-involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or in shopping malls.
-interviewer must gain the interviewee’s cooperation
-time involved may range from a few minutes to several hours( for longer surveys
compensation may be offered)
--involves the use of judgmental sampling i.e. interviewer has guidelines as to whom
to “intercept”, such as 25% under age 20 and 75% over age 60
Drawbacks:
-Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may not be able to
correctly judge age, race etc.
-Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or age groups.
Focus Group Interviewing
1) understand people’s thoughts and feelings.
2) by inviting six to ten people to gather for a few hours with a trained moderator to
talk about a product, service or organization
3) pleasant place, and refreshments are served to create a relaxed environment.
4) starts with a broad question before moving to more specific issues
5) the interviewer focuses the discussion, hence the name focus group interviewing.
6)often held to help determine the subject areas on which questions should be asked
in a later, large-scale, structured-direct interview
7) Comments are recorded through note taking or videotaped and studied later to
understand consumer’ buying process.
8) especially suited for managers of hotels and restaurants, who have easy access to
their customers.
Drawbacks:
-Cost: may cost more than telephone survey
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method
1) It is a data-based research, conclusions which are capable of being
verified with observation or experiment.
2)Experimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way.
3) Such research is characterised by the experimenter’s control over
the variables under
3) study and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its
effects.
In such a research, it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their
source, and actively go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information
-Researcher must provide self with a working hypothesis or guess
as to the probable results.
- Then work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the
hypothesis.
-He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will
manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to
bring forth the desired information.
Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies
today is considered to be the most powerful support possible
for a given hypothesis.
• Types-
• –Laboratory experiments- is an investigation conducted in
situation created specifically for that purpose
• –Field experiments-This is an experiment conducted in real life
situation in which the experiments manipulate an independent
variable in order to test a hypothesis
 Simulation

• •Meaning- It is a realistic enactment of roles in an imagined

situation. There are three uses;
• –Assessment of a situation,
• –understanding a situation and
• –Decision making in a situation
• •Types of Simulation
• – Computer simulation –Man simulation
• – Man computer simulation
 Questionnaire

• Questionnaire is a document containing a list of questions presented to a

respondent for answers.

• Mail- questionnaire sent by post to respondents with covering letter or

note introduce you; explain the purpose of doing research and requesting
to send filled questionnaire within in reasonable time to the researchers.
The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then
write down the answers themselves.
• Advantage
– It can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost
– respondents may give more honest answers to questions
– Convenient for respondent’s who can answer when they have tim
Characteristics of a good questionnaire/ guidelines

• There are no hard and fast rules, only guidelines can be provided in
developing a questionnaire
– Questions should be a simple and there should be no abbreviation
– Maximum clarity should be maintained
– Sequences of questions should be maintained
– Questions should be an elegant appearance
– It should attract the attention and generate interest of the informant.
– The reliability and validity of the questions asked to be maintained
– Question should contain polite, scope and coverage
– Questions should be pre-testing
 Precautions/ Question Wording- Do’s /Criteria/ Construct
questionnaires

• Question should be Define the Issue-Who, What, When, Where, Why, and Way (The Six Ws).
E. g. which brand of shampoo do you use? (Incorrect) Which brand or brands of shampoo have you
personally used at home during the last month? (Correct)
– Use Simple Ordinary Words
– Use Unambiguous Words
– Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions
– Avoid Double-barreled Questions-includes two or more questions in one
– Avoid Implicit Alternatives
– Avoid Implicit Assumptions
– Avoid Questions that are Based on Presumptions
– Avoid Generalizations and Estimates
– Avoid long questions.
– Avoid very general questions
– Avoid questions that include negatives
– Avoiding Leading Question/ or Biasing Questions
 Determining the Order of Questions

•Start with easy and interesting questions.

• General to specific questions (funnel sequence).
•Use filter questions (and prompters).
•Ask sensitive or potentially embarrassing questions at the end
of the questionnaire
•Use alternative phrasings of the same question to yield more
accurate total response.
 Type of Questionnaire

… 1) Closed –ended Questionnaire: Closed ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten
response categories, and respondents are asked to choose among them. E.g. multiple choice questions,
scale questions e. g. how many people use a service?
2) Open-ended Questionnaire: Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words.
Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but leaves a blank section for the response to write in an
answer e.g. what people think about a service
3) Combination of both: Begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales to
rank, and then finish with a section of open-ended questions or more detailed response.
4) Dichotomous Questions- It has only two response alternatives: E.g Yes or no, agree or disagree, and so
on
5) Contingency Question: A survey question is intended for only some respondents determined by their
responses to some other questions E.g. do you smoke cigarette?– Yes/ No If yes, how many cigarettes
you smoke per day?
 Type of Questionnaire
6) Multiple-Choice Questions: The researcher provides a choice of
answers and respondents are asked to select one or more of the alternatives
given. E.g Do you intend to go on an outstation holiday within the next six
months?
-Definitely will not go,
-Probably will not go
-Undecided,
-Probably will go,
- Definitely will go
-Other (please specify)
7) Scales: Do you intend to go on an outstation holiday within the
next six months? E.g
Definitely Probably Undecided Probably Definitely
Will not go, will not go will go will go
 Pilot Study & pre-test
• A PILOT STUDY: is the process of carrying out a preliminary study, going through the
entire research
procedure with a small sample before a large scale filed study is termed as pilot survey
• A PRE-TEST : usually refers to a small-scale trial of
particular research components. i.e. where a questionnaire is tested on a (statistically)
small sample of respondents, in order to identify any problems such as unclear
wording or the questionnaire taking too long to administer
• Uses of Pilot Study
– To pre-test the suitability of questions
– To generate fixed choice answers
– To avoid unforeseen problems during the large survey
– To provide experience and confidence to the interviewer
 Collection of Secondary Data

• Secondary data are those which have already been collected and used by some other
persons. They are usually in the shape of finished products. They are called secondary
information
• Advantages of Secondary data
– Less cost: The information can be collected by incurring least cost.
– Less time consuming: The time requires for obtaining the information
is very less
– Large quantity of information: Most of the secondary data are those published by big
institutions. So they contain large quantity of information
• Disadvantages of Secondary data-
– Since the secondary data is a result of some other person’s attempt, it need not be suitable
for a researcher, who makes use of it
– It may be inaccurate and unreliable.
– It may contain certain errors.
 Precautions to be taken before Using
Secondary Data & Sources of Secondary Data
• Precautions
• – Suitability: - The investigator should satisfy him that the data
available are suitable for the enquiry on hand.
• – Adequacy: - the adequacy of the data should be tested by
studying the items covered by the original enquiry and the items to
be covered by the enquiry.
• – Reliability:- The reliability of secondary data should be tested
 Sources of Secondary Data-There are varieties of published sources

from which one can get information for his research work. The important such sources are;
– Official report of the central, state and local government.
– Official publications of the foreign governments and international bodies like UNO and its
subordinate bodies.
– Reports and publications of Trade Associations, Banks, Cooperative Societies and Similar
Semi Government and Autonomous Organizations.
– Technical journals, News papers, Books, Periodicals, etc
– Publications of research Organizations, Centers, Institutes, and reports
submitted by Economists, Research scholars etc.
• Through the Internet/website sources.
. Also, besides the above mentioned data there are a number of other important sources,
such as records of governments in various departments, unpublished manuscripts of
eminent scholars, research workers, statisticians, economists, private organisations,
labour bureaus and records of business firms.
 Choice between Primary and
Secondary Method
• The following factors are to be considered while choosing
between primary and secondary methods.
– Nature and scope of enquiry
– Availability of time and money
– Degree of accuracy desired.
– Status of the investigator
 Case Study

• Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of

a social unit. The social unit may be a person or a family or
an institution or an organization or even a community. It is
a method of collecting information and its analysis. It is a
way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary
character of the social object, being studied.
 Sources of Case Study
The sources from which information are collected in a case study are;
1) Personal documents-They contain the description of the
remarkable events of the life of the narrator as well as his reactions
towards them. Therefore from these personal documents, one can
study the writer’s personality, social relationship and philosophy of
life.
2) Life history-Through interviews with a respondent, his life history
can be known. This is an objective study in which various events of
respondent’s life are studied with an attempt to find their significance
for the society
 Phases of Case Study

• The researcher has to select the problem had to study the

problem.
• The researcher has to describe the course of events.
• Materials about each of the units or aspects are collected.
• There are certain factors which are responsible for every event.
They must be identified and studied.
• The role of the factors responsible for the events is analyzed
and conclusions are drawn about the effect of the factors.
 TECHNIQUE FOR COLLECTION OF DATA
•
•
Census: Data collected from each and every unit of population is called census
method
• Sampling- A few units in the universe or a segment of the population selected to
represent the population as a whole. i.e. instead of studying each and every unit
of population only a few (part) unit of population (universe) are studied and
conclusion is drawn for entire population is called sampling. Two advantages of
sampling are that the cost is lower and data collection is faster.
• A Sample design -is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population
• Sample Unit- Unit in relation to which data are collected. E.g. (a)
Geographical-state, district, village etc. (b) Construction unit- House, flat etc (c)
Social unit- family, club, school or individual.
• Sample size- the number of items to be selected from the universe
to constitute a sample. It is denoted by (n)
Methods of sampling/Type of Sampling..

Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Multi-Stage sampling
Area Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Accidental sampling

Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Snowball sampling
 Probability Sampling…
• A probability sampling is one in which every unit in the population has a
chance of being selected in the sample.
• Types of probability sampling
1) Simple random sample- Every member of the population has a known
and equal chance of being selected. This sample technique gives each
element an equal and independent chance or probability of selection.
For example in a population of 25 students in a college under master of
commerce studies each student has 1/25th chance of being selected.
This method can be used for populations of any size with homogenous
character. Three methods can be used to draw sample in this approach
a)lottery method,
b) use of random table number and
c) Computers.
Systematic Sampling/Fixed interval sampling-The entire list of
items of the population are given serial numbers. Thereafter the
sample items are selected with equal intervals, then the first
unit of a sample is selected randomly and the remaining units
at the fixed interval (Kth element) in a given series. In this case,
k = (population size/sample size). For example in a population
of 25 students in a college under master of commerce studies.
The management is going to select 5 students out of 25 then
the process is
• Starting number: Select the starting number randomly for this purpose
researcher can use lottery method taking 1-3 number (k = population
size/sample size 25/5=5 is the k th number)
• Interval: The researcher picks second number taking interval of k th (k=5)
which will serve as the constant difference between any two consecutive
numbers in the progression till the sample size.
• Selection of Sample- first sample number selected randomly by using
lottery
method is 3 the second sample is (3+kth i.e. 3+5=8) then and so on. E.g.
sample is 3, 8, 13, 18 and so on till sample size of 5 students
• Cluster Sampling-is a sampling technique where the entire population is
divided into groups, or clusters, and a random sample of these clusters
are selected. All observations in the selected clusters are included in the
sample.The most common cluster used in research is a geographical
cluster. (E.g. household, income levels, etc) .For example, a researcher
wants to survey academic performance of high school students in
Ramanagaram district. The process is
– Divide in to groups/cluster-First the Research can divide the entire
population (high schools of Ramanagaram) into different clusters (taluk).
– Select cluster-Then the researcher selects a number of clusters (taluk)
through simple or systematic random sampling.
– Selected cluster include all the element-Then, from the selected
clusters (randomly selected Taluk) the researcher can either include all the
high school students as subjects or he can select a number of subjects
from each cluster through simple or systematic random sampling
Stratified Random Sampling- The researcher divides the
entire heterogeneous population into different nonoverlapping homogeneous
subgroups or strata, and sample items are selected from each stratum (group)
randomly, all the units drawn from each stratum is called sample size. The most
common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender,
socioeconomic status, religion, nationality and educational attainment. The
process is
– divide members of the population into homogeneous subgroups
(stratum)
– The strata should be mutually exclusive (i.e. every element in
the population must be assigned to only one stratum)
– Then simple or systematic sampling is applied within each
stratum
– The units drawn from each stratum is called sample size
 Types of stratified sampling
Proportionate stratified sampling-the sample are drawn from each stratum in the same proportion as they occur in the universe.
Example; 50 pupils in a school of a 1000 pupils were asked to select
Sample size for each Strata = size of whole sample/size of population × size of Strata

Solution: The proportion of pupils from each of the other

year Number of pupils

groups would be as follows
17 18 0 50/1000 × 180 = 9

18 200 50/1000 × 200 = 10

19 240 50/1000 × 240 = 12

20 220 50/1000 × 220 = 11

21 160 50/1000 × 160 = 8

N=1000 50
b) Disproportionate Stratified Sampling- the number of elements drawn from the
various strata is independent of the size of strata, is called disproportionate stratified sampling
 5) Multi-Stage sampling
Multi-Stage sampling-Using all the sample elements in all the
selected clusters may be expensive or unnecessary. Under these
circumstances, multistage cluster/stage sampling becomes useful.
Instead of using all the elements contained in the selected clusters,
the researcher randomly selects elements from each cluster.
The process is
– Constructing the clusters is the first stage.
– Deciding what elements within the cluster to use is the second
stage.
The technique is used frequently when a complete list of all
members of the population does not exist and is inappropriate
 6) Area Sampling/ geographical cluster
sampling
• Area Sampling/ geographical cluster sampling-A method in
which the area to be sampled is subdivided into smaller blocks
which are selected at random and then subsampled or fully
surveyed; method is used when a complete frame of reference
is not available
 2. Non-probability sampling

1) Accidental sampling-It is known as grab or

convenience sampling or opportunity sampling. the sample being
drawn from that part of the population that is close to hand.
That is, sample populations selected because it is readily
available and convenient, as researchers are drawing on
relationships or networks to which they have easy access.
 Quota Sampling

• Quota Sampling –Quota sampling is a non-probability

sampling technique wherein the assembled sample has the same
proportions of individuals as the entire population with respect to known
characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon. The process is
– Population is first segmented into mutually exclusive subgroups,
– Then judgment is used to select the subjects or units from each segment
based on a specified proportion.
• For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300
males between the age of 25 and 40.
• The sample is representative of the entire population. It also allows the
researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each
subgroup.
 Purposive Sampling/Judgmental sampling

The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think

would be appropriate for the study. This is used primarily
when there is a limited number of people that have expertise
in the area being researched.
 Snowball sampling

• Snowball sampling- it is also known as chain sampling,

chain-referral sampling, referral sampling. It is used by researchers
to identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to
locate. After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for
assistance from the subject to help identify people with a similar
trait of interest. The sample group appears to grow like a rolling
snowball. For example a researcher is studying environmental
engineers but can only find five. The researcher asks these
engineers if they know any more. They give several further referrals,
which in turn provide additional contacts. In this way, researcher
manages to contact sufficient engineers.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Research proposal used for
• It is used to establish whether there is expertise to support your proposed
area of research
• It forms part of the assessment of your application
• The research proposal you submit as part of your application is just the
starting point, as your ideas evolve your proposed research is likely to
change

Length of research proposal

It should be 2,000–3,500 words (4-7 pages) long
The main contents of the proposal may be presented under the
following headings:
(a) Title (b) introduction (c) review of literature (d) aims and
objectives, (e) research question (f)research design and
methods, (g) Plan of work & time schedule(h) appendices
and(i) Bibliography
 • 1. Title
Your title should give a clear indication of your proposed research approach or key
question.
2 Introduction
It is also sometimes termed as ‘need for study’ or ‘abstract’.
The introduction should be designed to create interest in the reader about the topic
and proposal.
It should convey to the reader, what you want to do, what necessitates the study
and your passion for the topic.
Some questions that can be used to Who has an interest in the domain of inquiry?
(ii) What do we already know about the topic? (ii) What has not been answered
adequately in previous research and practice? (iii) How will this research add to
knowledge, practice and policy in this area? ‘background and significance’.
Introduction should also contain the hypothesis behind the research design. If
hypothesis cannot be constructed, the line of inquiry to be used in the research
must be indicated.
• Review of literature
• there is an enormous amount of relevant data available, making it a
challenge for the researcher to include all of it in his/her review.
• It is crucial to structure this section intelligently so that the reader
can grasp the argument related to your study in relation to that of
other researchers, while still demonstrating to your readers that
your work is original and innovative.
• It is preferable to summarise each article in a paragraph,
highlighting the details pertinent to the topic of interest.
• The progression of review can move from the more general to the
more focused studies, or a historical progression can be used to
develop the story, without making it exhaustive.
• Literature should include supporting data, disagreements and
controversies.
Aims and objectives

The research purpose (or goal or aim) gives a broad indication of

what the researcher wishes to achieve in the research.
The hypothesis to be tested can be the aim of the study.
The objectives related to parameters or tools used to achieve the
aim are generally categorised as primary and secondary
objectives.
• RESEARCH QUESTION(S)
• You should formulate these clearly, giving an explanation as to
what problems and issues are to be explored and why they are
worth exploring
• Research design and method
• The objective here is to convince the reader that the overall
research design and methods of analysis will correctly address the
research problem and to impress upon the reader that the
methodology/sources chosen are appropriate for the specific topic.
• Population and sample
Population refers to all the elements (individuals, objects or
substances) that meet certain criteria for inclusion in a given
universe,and sample refers to subset of population which meets the
inclusion criteria for enrolment into the study.
Data collection
primary and secondary data collection methods
• Data analysis
• This section deals with the reduction and reconstruction of
data and its analysis including sample size calculation.
• The researcher is expected to explain the steps adopted for
coding and sorting the data obtained.
• Various tests to be used to analyse the data for its robustness,
significance should be clearly stated.
• mention the names of statistician and suitable software which
will be used in due course of data analysis and their
contribution to data analysis and sample calculation.
• Plan of work & time schedule

• You should include an outline of the various stages and

corresponding time lines for developing and implementing the
research, including writing up your thesis.
• For full-time study your research should be completed within three
years, with writing up completed in the fourth year of registration.
• For part-time study your research should be completed within six
years, with writing up completed by the eighth year.
• Appendices
Appendices are documents that support the proposal and application.
The appendices will be specific for each proposal but documents
that are usually required include informed consent form, supporting
documents, questionnaires, measurement tools and patient
information of the study in layman's language.

• . Bibliography
• You should include:
a list of references to key articles and texts discussed within your
research proposal
a selection of sources appropriate to the proposed research