EN - Unit III

ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
EC 302
UNIT IV
Frequency Response, Two-Port Networks
Frequency Response
• The behavior of our circuit can change dramatically depending on the
frequency (or frequencies) of operation
• A frequency response describes the steady-state response of a
system to sinusoidal inputs of varying frequencies.
PARALLEL RESONANCE
• Suppose that a certain forcing function is found to contain sinusoidal
components having frequencies within the range of 10 to 100 Hz.
Now let us imagine that this forcing function is applied to a network
that has the property that all sinusoidal voltages with frequencies
from zero to 200 Hz applied at the input terminals appear doubled in
magnitude at the output terminals, with no change in phase angle.
Resonance
Resonance : loosely described as the condition existing in any physical
system when a fixed-amplitude sinusoidal forcing function produces a
response of maximum amplitude
• We first apply the definition of resonance to a parallel RLC network
driven by a sinusoidal current source as shown in Fig.
• The steady-state admittance offered to the ideal current source is
The parallel combination of a resistor, an inductor, and a
capacitor, often referred to as a parallel resonant circuit.
• Resonance occurs when the voltage and current at the input
terminals are in phase. This corresponds to a purely real admittance,
so that the necessary condition is given by
• The resonant condition may be achieved by adjusting L, C, or ω; we

will devote our attention to the case for which ω is the variable.
Hence, the resonant frequency ω0 is
• The pole-zero configuration of the admittance function can also be
used to considerable advantage here. Given Y(s),
• Where α is the exponential damping coefficient,

• and ωd is the natural resonant frequency (not the resonant frequency ω0)
(a) The pole-zero constellation of the input admittance of a parallel resonant circuit is
shown on the s-plane; (b) The pole-zero constellation of the input impedance
• In view of the relationship among α, ωd , and ω0, it is apparent that
the distance from the origin of the s plane to one of the admittance
zeros is numerically equal to ω0.
• Given the pole-zero configuration, the resonant frequency may
therefore be obtained by purely graphical methods. We merely swing
an arc, using the origin of the s plane as a center, through one of the
zeros.
• The intersection of this arc and the positive jω axis locates the point
s = jω0. It is evident that ω0 is slightly greater than the natural
resonant frequency ωd , but their ratio approaches unity as the ratio
of ωd to α increases.
Resonance and the Voltage Response
• If we assume a constant-amplitude sinusoidal current source, the
voltage response is proportional to the input impedance.
• This response can be obtained from the pole-zero plot of the
impedance
• The response of course starts at zero, reaches a maximum value in

the vicinity of the natural resonant frequency, and then drops again to
zero as ω becomes infinite
The magnitude of the voltage response of a parallel resonant circuit
is shown as a function of frequency.
• The maximum value of the response is indicated as R times the
amplitude of the source current, implying that the maximum magnitude
of the circuit impedance is R; moreover, the response maximum is
shown to occur exactly at the resonant frequency ω0. Two additional
frequencies, ω1 and ω2, which we will later use as a measure of the
width of the response curve, are also identified. Let us first show that
the maximum impedance magnitude is R and that this maximum occurs
at resonance.
• The admittance, as specified by Eq. [1], possesses a constant
conductance and a susceptance which has a minimum magnitude (zero)
at resonance.
• The minimum admittance magnitude therefore occurs at resonance,
and it is 1/R. Hence, the maximum impedance magnitude is R, and it
occurs at resonance.
• At the resonant frequency, therefore, the voltage across the parallel
resonant circuit of Fig. is simply IR, and the entire source current I flows
through the resistor. However, current is also present in L and C.
• For the inductor, IL,0 = VL,0/jω0L = IR/jω0L,
• and the capacitor current at resonance is
IC,0 = ( jω0C)VC,0 = jω0CRI.
Since 1/ω0C = ω0L at resonance,we find that
Thus, the net current flowing into the LC combination is zero

Quality Factor
• The height of the response curve of depends only upon the value of R
for constant-amplitude excitation, the width of the curve or the
steepness of the sides depends upon the other two element values
also.
• Which relate the “width of the response curve” to a more carefully
defined quantity, the bandwidth, but it is helpful to express this
relationship in terms of a very important parameter, the quality
factor Q.
• We will find that the sharpness of the response curve of any resonant
circuit is determined by the maximum amount of energy that can be
stored in the circuit, compared with the energy that is lost during one
complete period of the response.
• energy can be stored only in the inductor and the capacitor, and can
be lost only in the resistor, we may express Q in terms of the
instantaneous energy associated with each of the reactive elements
and the average power PR dissipated in the resistor:
where T is the period of the sinusoidal frequency at which Q is

evaluated
By applying this definition to the parallel RLC circuit
In order to find the energy lost in the resistor in one period, we take the
average power absorbed by the resistor
• Equivalent expressions for Q0 which are often quite useful may be
obtained by simple substitution:
• So we see that for this specific circuit, decreasing the resistance

decreases Q0; the lower the resistance, the greater the amount of
energy lost in the element. Intriguingly, increasing the capacitance
increases Q0, but increasing the inductance leads to a reduction in Q0.
• These statements, of course, apply to operation of the circuit at the
resonant frequency.
Other Interpretations of Q
• Another useful interpretation of Q is obtained when we inspect the
inductor and capacitor currents at resonance
• Each is Q0 times the source current in amplitude and that each is 180◦
out of phase with the other. Thus, if we apply 2 mA at the resonant
frequency to a parallel resonant circuit with a Q0 of 50, we find 2 mA
in the resistor, and 100 mA in both the inductor and the capacitor.
• A parallel resonant circuit can therefore act as a current amplifier, but
not, of course, as a power amplifier, since it is a passive network.
• Both the exponential damping coefficient and the natural resonant
frequency may be expressed in terms of ω0 and Q0:
Damping Factor
• The quadratic factor appearing in the numerator of Eq.
• may be written in terms of α and ω0:
• In the field of system theory or automatic control theory, it is

traditional to write this factor in a slightly different form that utilizes
the dimensionless parameter ζ (zeta), called the damping factor:
• Comparison of these expressions allows us to relate ζ to other

parameters:
Example
• Consider a parallel RLC circuit such that L = 2 mH, Q0 = 5, and C = 10 nF.
Determine the value of R and the magnitude of the steady-state
admittance at 0.1ω0, ω0, and 1.1ω0.
the pole-zero locations of the admittance Y(s) of the parallel RLC
circuit.
BANDWIDTH AND HIGH-Q CIRCUITS
• The two half-power frequencies ω1 and ω2 as those frequencies at
which the magnitude of the input admittance of a parallel resonant
circuit is greater than the magnitude at resonance by a factor of √2.
• Since the response curve displays the voltage produced across the
parallel circuit by a sinusoidal current source as a function of
frequency, the half-power frequencies also locate those points at
which the voltage response is 1/√2, or 0.707, times its maximum
value. A similar relationship holds for the impedance magnitude. We
will designate ω1 as the lower half-power frequency and ω2 as the
upper half-power frequency.
The bandwidth of the circuit response is highlighted in
green; it corresponds to the portion of the response curve greater than or
equal to 70.7% of the maximum value
• Bandwidth
• The (half-power) bandwidth of a resonant circuit is defined as the
difference of these two half-power frequencies.
B ≡ ω2 − ω1
• We tend to think of bandwidth as the “width” of the response curve,
even though the curve actually extends from ω = 0 to ω =∞. More
exactly, the half-power bandwidth is measured by that portion of the
response curve which is equal to or greater than 70.7 percent of the
maximum value, as illustrated in Fig.
• We can express the bandwidth in terms of Q0 and the resonant
frequency. In order to do so, we first express the admittance of the
parallel RLC circuit,
• the magnitude of the admittance at resonance is 1/R, and then realize
that an admittance magnitude of √2/R can occur only when a
frequency is selected such that the imaginary part of the bracketed
quantity has a magnitude of unity. Thus
• formula for the bandwidth
• ω1 and ω2 be multiplied by each other to show that ω0 is exactly

equal to the geometric mean of the half-power frequencies:
• Circuits possessing a higher Q0 have a narrower bandwidth, or a

sharper response curve; they have greater frequency selectivity, or
higher quality (factor).

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ELECTRICAL NETWORKS

• The resonant condition may be achieved by adjusting L, C, or ω; we

• Where α is the exponential damping coefficient,

• The response of course starts at zero, reaches a maximum value in

Thus, the net current flowing into the LC combination is zero

where T is the period of the sinusoidal frequency at which Q is

• So we see that for this specific circuit, decreasing the resistance

• may be written in terms of α and ω0:

• In the field of system theory or automatic control theory, it is

• Comparison of these expressions allows us to relate ζ to other

• ω1 and ω2 be multiplied by each other to show that ω0 is exactly

• Circuits possessing a higher Q0 have a narrower bandwidth, or a

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