Civil Engineering

Highway Engineering

Comprehensive Theory
with Solved Examples and Practice Questions

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 Publications

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Highway Engineering
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All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced
into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
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First Edition: 2015

Second Edition (Revised and Updated): 2016

© All rights reserved by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the
written permission from the publisher.
Preface
This book was motivated by the desire to further the evolution of a concise
book on Highway Engineering. Keeping in focus the importance of this
subject in GATE and ESE, we have done a proper study and thereafter
developed the content of the book accordingly. This edition has an
expanded discussion of all relevant topics in the subject.

Initially, we compiled the perceptions of our students on their problems

in GATE and ESE while dealing with the questions from this subject. We
identified their various problems like- lack of fundamentals of the subject,
difficulty in solving simple solutions, shortage of a complete study package,
etc. These strengthened our determination to present a complete edition of Highway Engineering textbook.

The book addresses all the requirements of the students, i.e. comprehensive coverage of theory, fundamental
concepts, objective type problems and conventional problems, articulated in a lucid language. The concise
presentation will help the readers grasp the concepts with clarity and apply them with ease to solve problems
quickly. The books not only covers the entire syllabus of GATE and ESE, but also addresses the need of many other
competitive examinations. Topics like ‘Highway Development and Planning, Geometric Design of Highway, Traffic
Engineering, Highway Materials, Pavement Designs, Highway Construction, Highway Maintenance’ are given full
coverage in line with our research on their importance in competitive examinations.

We have put in our sincere efforts to present elaborate solutions for various problems, different problem solving
methodology, some useful quick techniques to save time while attempting MCQs without compromising the accuracy
of answers. A summary of important points to remember is added at the end of each topic. For the convenience
of readers, points to remember are specifically highlighted in the form of a note- both in theory as well as solved
examples. At the end of each chapter, sets of practice question are given with their keys, that will allow the readers
to evaluate their understanding of the topics and sharpen their problem solving skills.

Our team has made their best efforts to remove all possible errors of any kind. Nonetheless, we would highly
appreciate and acknowledge if you find and share with us any printing, calculation and conceptual error.

It is impossible to thank all the individuals who helped us, but we would like to sincerely thank all the co-authors,
editors and reviewers for putting in their efforts to publish this book. We also express our thanks to MADE EASY
publications for completing and publishing the book on time.

With Best Wishes

B. Singh
CMD, MADE EASY
Contents
Highway Engineering

Chapter 1 2.2.6 Third 20 Year Road Plan (Lucknow Road ......

Plan) (1981 - 2001).............................................. 9
Introduction.............................................. 1
2.3 Road Patterns..................................................................10
1.1 Role of Transportation................................................... 1
2.4 Engineering Surveys for Highway Locations.......11
1.2 Different Modes of Transportation........................... 1
2.4.1 Map Study...........................................................11
1.3 Roadways or Highways.................................................. 1
2.4.2 Reconnaissance.................................................11
1.4 Characteristics of Road Transport.............................. 2
2.4.3 Preliminary Survey...........................................12
1.5 Importance of Roads in India...................................... 2
2.4.4 Final Location and Detailed Survey............12
1.6 Classification of Rural Roads........................................ 2
2.5 National Highway Development Program (NHDP).
1.7 Classification of Urban Roads...................................... 2
.................................................................................12
1.8 Scope of Highway Engineering.................................. 2
2.6 Concept of Saturation System or Maximum Utility
System...............................................................................13
Chapter 2 Objective Brain Teaser....................................................15
Highway Development and Planning........4 Conventional Practice Question.................................16
2.1 Development of Roads.................................................. 4
2.1.1 Roman Roads ...................................................... 4
Chapter 3
2.1.2 Tresaguet Construction.................................... 5
Geometric Design of Highway.........17
2.1.3 Telford Construction.......................................... 5
3.1 Factors Controlling Geometric Design...................17
2.1.4 Metcalf Construction......................................... 5
3.1.1 Topography or Terrain.....................................17
2.1.5 Macadam Construction.................................... 6
3.1.2 Design Speed.....................................................18
2.1.6 Water Bound Macadam (WBM)..................... 6
3.1.3 Road User Characteristics..............................19
2.2 Modern Road Development In India........................ 7
3.1.4 Vehicular Characteristic..................................20
2.2.1 Recommendations Made by Jayakar
3.1.5 Design Hourly Volume and Capacity.........20
Committee............................................................. 7
3.2 Basic Consideration for the Design of Highway...... 21
2.2.2 Accepted Recommendations of Jayakar
3.3 Cross Sectional Element..............................................22
Committee............................................................. 7
3.3.1 Right of Way........................................................22
2.2.3 Objectives of Indian Road Congress............. 7
3.3.2 Width of Formation..........................................23
2.2.4 First 20 year Road Plan (Nagpur Road Plan)
3.3.3 Road Margins......................................................24
(1943 - 63).............................................................. 7
3.3.4 Median..................................................................26
2.2.5 Second 20 year Road Plan (Bombay Road
3.3.5 Kerb........................................................................26
Plan) (1961 - 81)................................................... 8
3.3.6 Width of Pavement or Carriageway ..........27

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 3.3.7 Camber or Cross Slope....................................28 4.2.1 Road User Characteristics..............................79
3.3.8 Pavement Characteristics...............................29 4.2.2 Vehicular Characteristics................................80
3.4 Sight Distance.................................................................30 4.3 Traffic studies and Analysis........................................82
3.4.1 Stopping Sight Distance.................................31 4.3.1 Traffic Volume Study . ....................................83
3.4.2 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)................34 4.3.2 Traffic Speed Studies.......................................85
3.4.3 Sight Distance at Intersection......................38 4.3.3 Origin and Destination Studies....................93
3.4.4 Intermediate Sight Distance.........................38 4.3.4 Traffic Flow Characteristics and Studies...95
3.5 Curve .................................................................................39 4.3.5 Traffic Capacity Studies...................................96
3.5.1 Advantages of Curves.....................................39 4.3.6 Parking Studies............................................... 100
3.5.2 Factor Affecting the Design of Curves......39 4.3.7 Accident Studies............................................ 102
3.5.3 Type of Curves....................................................39 4.4 Traffic Control Device................................................ 105
3.6 Design of Horizontal Alignment...............................40 4.4.1 Traffic Signs...................................................... 106
3.6.1 Stability Analysis on Horizontal Curv 4.4.2 Traffic Signals................................................... 109
without Superelevation..................................40 4.4.3 Methods of Signal Designing.................... 114
3.6.2 Impact Factor.....................................................42 4.5 Intersection................................................................... 117
3.6.3 Superelevation...................................................42 4.5.1 Types of Intersection.................................... 118
3.6.4 Design of Superelevation...............................48 4.6 Traffic Rotaries............................................................. 121
3.6.5 Radii of Horizontal Curve...............................49 4.6.1 Shape of Rotary Island................................. 122
3.6.6 Extrawidening....................................................50 4.6.2 Design Speed of Rotary............................... 122
3.6.7 Curve Resistance for Turning Vehicle.........51 4.6.3 Radius of Curve at Entry.............................. 122
3.6.8 Grade Compensation at Curves on Hill ........ 4.6.4 Radius of Curve at Exit................................. 122
Roads.....................................................................51 4.6.5 Radius of Central Traffic Island.................. 122
3.7 Transition Curves...........................................................52 4.6.6 Width of Weaving Section.......................... 123
2.2.3 Objectives of Indian Road Congress............. 7 4.6.7 Weaving Length............................................. 123
3.7.1 Different Types of Transition Curves..........52 4.6.8 Entry and Exit Angles.................................... 123
3.7.2 Length of Transition Curve ...........................53 4.6.9 Capacity of the Rotary.................................. 123
3.7.3 Design Steps of Horizontal Transition Curve Objective Brain Teaser................................................ 133
Length...................................................................54 Conventional Practice Questions............................. 136
3.7.4 Setting out of Transition Curve....................54
3.8 Set Back Distance...........................................................57 Chapter 5
3.9 Vertical Alignment.........................................................61 Highway Materials................................137
3.9.1 Summit Curve....................................................62 5.1 Soil .............................................................................. 137
3.9.2 Valley Curve or Sag Curve..............................65 5.2 Subgrade Soil............................................................... 137
Objective Brain Teaser...................................................75 5.2.1 Subgrade Soil Strength................................ 137
Conventional Practice Questions................................78 5.2.2 Evaluation of Soil Strength......................... 138

5.3 Plate Bearing Test........................................................ 138

Chapter 4 5.3.1 Procedure of Plate Bearing Test................ 138
Traffic Engineering...........................79 5.3.2 Correction for Worst Sub-grade Moisture.138
4.1 Function of Traffic Engineering.................................79
5.3.3 Correction for Size of Plates....................... 139
4.2 Traffic Characteristics...................................................79
5.4 California Bearing Ratio Test................................... 140

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 5.4.1 Test Procedure................................................ 140 6.4.1 Group Index Method.................................... 174
5.4.2 Correction in Load Penetration Curve.... 141 6.4.2 California Bearing Ratio Method.............. 175
5.5 Aggregates.................................................................... 141 6.4.3 Modified CBR Method.................................. 177
5.5.1 Desirable Properties of Road Aggregates.. 141 6.4.4 California Resistance Value Method........ 179
5.5.2 Test for Road Aggregates............................ 143 6.4.5 Triaxial Test Method...................................... 181
5.6 Bitumen . ....................................................................... 148 6.4.6 Mcleod Method.............................................. 182
5.6.1 Cutback Bitumen........................................... 148 6.4.7 Burmister Method.......................................... 183
5.6.2 Bitumen Emulsion......................................... 148 6.5 Design of Rigid Pavement....................................... 186
5.6.3 Manufacturing of Bitumen......................... 148 6.5.1 Factors Affecting Design............................. 186
5.6.4 Tests of Bitumen............................................. 149 6.5.2 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction................ 187
5.7 TAR .............................................................................. 152 6.5.3 Relative Stiffness of slab to subgrade..... 187
5.8 Mix Design..................................................................... 152 6.5.4 Critical Load Positions.................................. 188
5.8.1 Objective of Mix Design.............................. 152 6.5.5 Equivalent Radius of Resisting Section.. 188
5.8.2 Constituent of a Mix...................................... 152 6.5.6 Wheel Load Stresses - Westergaard’s Stress
5.8.3 Types of Mix..................................................... 152 Equations.......................................................... 189
5.8.4 Different Layers in a Pavement................. 153 6.5.7 Temperature Stresses................................... 190
5.8.5 Steps in Mix Design....................................... 153 6.5.8 Nature of Stresses.......................................... 191
5.9 Marshall Mix Design................................................... 153 6.5.9 Combination of stresses.............................. 191
5.9.1 Step Involved in the Preparation of ............... 6.5.10 Critical Cases of Stress Combination....... 192
Specimen.......................................................... 153 6.6 Design of Joint............................................................. 192
5.9.2 Different Properties of Mix......................... 154 6.6.1 Requirements of Joint.................................. 192
5.9.3 Marshall Stability and Flow........................ 155 6.6.2 Types of Joints................................................. 193
5.9.4 Stability Correction....................................... 156 6.6.3 Tie Bar................................................................. 195
5.9.5 Graphical Plots................................................ 156 6.6.4 Dowel Bar.......................................................... 196
5.9.6 Optimum Bitumen Content....................... 156 Objective Brain Teaser................................................ 206
5.10 Modified Hubbard-Field Method of Bituminous Conventional Practice Questions............................. 210
Mix Design..................................................................... 159
5.11 Hveem Method of Bituminous Mix Design....... 160 Chapter 7
Objective Brain Teaser................................................ 163 Highway Construction....................211
Conventional Practice Question.............................. 166 7.1 Pavement Types.......................................................... 211
7.2 Earthwork...................................................................... 211
Chapter 6 7.3 Excavation..................................................................... 212

Pavement Design............................167 7.3.1 Classification of Excavation........................ 212

7.3.2 Excavation Equipment................................. 212
6.1 Types of Pavement Structure ................................ 167
7.4 Embankment................................................................ 213
6.1.1 Flexible Pavement......................................... 167
7.4.1 Selection and Placement of Materials in ......
6.1.2 Rigid Pavement............................................... 167 Embankment and Subgrades.................... 213
6.1.3 Semi Rigid Pavement.................................... 168 7.4.2 Design Elements in Highway . ..........................
6.2 Functions of Pavement Components.................. 168 Embankments................................................. 214
6.3 Design Factors............................................................. 168 7.4.3 Construction of Embankment................... 214

6.4 Design of Flexible Pavement.................................. 172 7.4.4 Preparation of Subgrade............................. 214

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 7.4.5 Compacting Equipment.............................. 215 8.5.2 Structural Inadequacy of the Pavement . .....
7.5 Types of Highway Construction............................ 215 System................................................................ 233
7.5.1 Construction of Earth Roads...................... 215 8.5.3 Typical Rigid Pavement Failure................. 233
7.5.2 Construction of Gravel Roads . ................. 216 8.5.4 Special Repair of Rigid Pavement............ 234
7.5.3 Construction of Water Bound Macadam . .... 8.6 Pavement Evaluation................................................. 234
Roads.................................................................. 217 8.6.1 Structural Evaluation of Pavement.......... 234
7.5.4 Construction of Bituminous Pavements.218 8.6.2 Evaluation of Pavement Surface Condition.........234
7.5.5 Construction of cement concrete . .................
8.7 Strengthening of Existing Pavement................... 235
pavements........................................................ 221
8.7.1 Types of Overlay............................................. 235
Objective Brain Teaser................................................. 224
8.7.2 Design of Overlay........................................... 235

8.8 Benkelman Beam Deflection Method................. 235

Chapter 8
8.8.1 Principle of Overlay Design........................ 235
Highway Maintenance.........................225
8.8.2 Procedure of Benkelman Beam Deflection .
8.1 General Causes of Pavement Failures.................. 225
Method.............................................................. 236
8.2 Maintenance of Highway......................................... 225
8.3 Basic Maintenance Objective................................. 225 8.9 Flexible Overlay over Flexible Pavement........... 237

8.4 Failure in Flexible Pavement................................... 226 8.9.1 Analysis of Data for Overlay Design........ 237
8.4.1 Failures in Base Course................................. 226 8.9.2 Overlay Thickness Design........................... 237
8.4.2 Types of Defect in Flexible Pavement..... 226 8.10 Flexible Overlay over Rigid Pavement................. 239
8.4.3 Methods for Repairing the Defects......... 230 8.11 Rigid Overlay over Rigid Pavement...................... 239
8.4.4 Special Repairs in Flexible Pavement..... 231 8.12 Rigid Overlay Over Existing Flexible Pavement.240
8.5 Failure in Rigid Pavement........................................ 232 Objective Brain Teaser................................................ 241
8.5.1 Deficiency of Pavement Materials........... 232 Conventional Practice Question.............................. 242

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