The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 120:4791–4801

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-09043-0

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Impact of temperature and material variation on mechanical

properties of parts fabricated with fused deposition modeling (FDM)
additive manufacturing
M. Hossein Sehhat1 · Ali Mahdianikhotbesara2 · Farzad Yadegari3

Received: 25 January 2022 / Accepted: 9 March 2022 / Published online: 21 March 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) can be deployed for space exploration purposes, such as fabricating different components of
robots’ bodies. The produced AM parts should have desirable thermal and mechanical properties to withstand the extreme
environmental conditions, including the severe temperature variations on the moon or other planets, which cause changes
in parts’ strengths and may fail their operation. Therefore, the correlation between operational temperature and mechanical
properties of AM fabricated parts should be evaluated. In this study, three different types of polymers, including polylactic
acid (PLA), polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), were used in the fused
deposition modeling (FDM) process to fabricate several parts. The mechanical properties of produced parts were then inves-
tigated at various temperatures to generate knowledge on the correlation between temperature and type of material. When
varying the operational temperature during tensile tests, the material’s glass transition temperature was found influential
in determining the kind of material failure. ABS showed the best mechanical properties among the materials used at all
temperatures due to its highest glass transition temperatures. The statistical analysis results indicated the temperature as the
significant factor on tensile strength while the type of material was not a significant factor.

Keywords Fused deposition modeling · Design of experiments (DOE) · JMP · Mechanical properties · PLA · PETG ·
ABS · Additive manufacturing

1 Introduction the format of material feedstock, which can be powder, foil,

paste, etc., the material feeding method to the AM process
The advent of additive manufacturing (AM) has revolution- can be different [11, 12]. In powder-based AM methods,
ized the part production methods [1]. While in conventional powder spreadability dominates the material feeding process
manufacturing methods, the raw material should undergo to the AM system [13–16], while in the laser foil printing
several different manufacturing steps, such as forming, (LFP) and fused deposition modeling (FDM) processes, the
machining, welding, etc. [2–5]. AM can produce the com- ability to laminate a metal sheet or extrude a polymer mate-
ponents in a layer-based single-step fabrication process [6] rial to the AM system, respectively, is a role-player [17–19].
with desirable mechanical properties [7–10]. Depending on The AM and its related developments, defects, and down-
sides have been studied in the literature in recent past years.
* M. Hossein Sehhat A novel technique for analyzing the in situ 3D transient ther-
[email protected] mal variations in powder-bed AM processes was developed
1
by Kundakcioglu et al. [20, 21]. This advanced model could
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, track the material phases, porosity, and thermal properties,
Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla,
MO 65409, USA especially instantaneous transient temperature fields fol-
2 lowing time variations and laser path. This model can be
School of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering,
University of Tehran, P.O. Box 11155/4563, Tehran, Iran beneficial in the fabrication of conductive tracks, resistors,
3 electrodes, and heating elements using AM methods; such
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amirkabir
University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), P.O.B, parts were produced by printing selectively distributed con-
a15875‑4413 TehranTehran, Iran ductive and insulating locations per layer [22]; using the

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4792 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 120:4791–4801

direct ink writing AM process, complex-geometry parts influence their mechanical properties [10, 38]. The tensile
were printed with a feedstock mixture of carboxymethyl cel- properties, for instance, can be significantly affected by the
lulose and graphite particles. Some solutions to avoid the variation in temperature [39]. At high temperatures, the
defect of staircase effects on the shell and solid components material may behave like a ductile material, while at low
were proposed in [23]; they printed the material in a varied temperatures, the same material may show brittle perfor-
intra-layer thicknesses by utilizing an advanced multi-axis mance [40, 41]. Thus, for designing the components that
path planning model; the implemented efficient toolpaths operate in extreme thermal conditions, the relation between
aided in adjusting the form of the top surface and keeping a type of material, environmental conditions, and mechanical
high-quality part. In another work by the same group [24], properties should be evaluated. Even the surface coating can
a non-planar helical slicing method was developed to cre- have significant effects, as found in the work by Abdulwahab
ate a single continuous 3D tool path (compared with 2.5D et al. [42], where the impact of spray coating on the PLA
planar methods) to eliminate seam defects. The developed parts fabricated by FDM was studied; although the coat-
system benefited from a simplified extruder control with- ing did not improve the tensile strengths, it considerably
out extra movements. In addition, a novel slicing method of increased the samples’ elongation. In this study, the rela-
the CAD model was used to fabricate spherical parts [25]; tion between thermal operational conditions and mechanical
conventionally, the CAD model is sliced into planes, and properties has been investigated. The parts were fabricated
the proposed method innovatively cuts the CAD model into with three types of polymer, including polyethylene tere-
spherical shells, where the tool paths are guided to deposit phthalate glycol (PETG), polylactic acid (PLA), and acry-
the spherical layers. In addition to these defects, a disadvan- lonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). The parts were produced
tage of AM is the high waste of material for the production using the FDM method. The statistical analysis was con-
of complex-geometry parts composed of large overhangs, ducted on the results to determine the significant factors and
where filling the space between the overhang and the build their influence on mechanical properties [43–48].
plate is required. While conventional in situ printing of sup-
port structures was useful in fabricating the parts with desir-
able dimensional accuracy, their removal post-processing 2 Materials and methods
was a waste of time and material. A solution to this down-
side was proposed in [26–28], where an already produced Filaments of three thermoplastic materials, PETG, PLA, and
reusable modular support considerably decreased the need ABS with filament diameter 1.75 mm were provided, and
for printing the in situ support structures, reduced the mate- their properties are shown in Table 1. The tensile coupons
rial usage, and shortened the fabrication time. The modular were loaded into the tensile testing machine, where they were
support can be fabricated using the AM methods to meet the pulled to breaking. Upon completing these tests, the results
required complexity in their geometries [29]. were analyzed, and material properties such as ultimate ten-
In the FDM process, following the part geometry data, sile strength (UTS) and modulus of elasticity (E) were deter-
the nozzle extrudes the polymer filament onto the build plate mined. Tests were conducted according to ASTM D638 [49,
for the first part’s layer [30, 31]. Then, either the extruder or 50], except when modified in a few key areas. The tensile
build plate moves to create the gap for the next layer. After coupons were modified to promote consistent fracturing in
that, the extruder prints the next layer on the previous layer. the neck of the sample. Coupon neck widths were decreased
The final part is fabricated by repetition of this process [32]. from the ASTM standard, and the fillet from the grip to the
The FDM process parameters are build orientation, layer neck was increased in both length and diameter. The modi-
thickness, raster angle, extrusion temperature, and infill den- fication stemmed from other research, showing this type of
sity [33]. These process parameters should be adjusted in a modification to improve the behavior of 3D-printed tensile
way that each printed track could be bounded adequately to coupons under test [51]. The tensile testing machine used was
the side tracks and previous printed layer [34, 35]. an Instron 5969 outfitted with a 10 kN load cell [52, 53]. The
One of the important applications of AM is in space strain rate used was 5 1/min, which is the minimum speed
exploration since it provides the benefit of part fabrication
in just a single step [36]. Also, the rapid production of spare
parts for exploration robots on the moon or other planets is Table 1  The properties of polymers used in this study
another advantage of AM deployment for space explora- Material Glass transition temperature (°F) Ultimate tensile
tion purposes [37]. Several components of the robot’s bodies strength (psi)
should be fabricated lightweight but high strength to both
PETG 176 7079
use low amount of energy and properly perform the tasks.
PLA 140 7964
Polymers can be used to fabricate parts with lightweights,
ABS 221 5872
although the environmental conditions can considerably

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Fig. 3  FLIR images of a hot (170 °F), and b cold (40 °F) tensile sam-
ples

samples were immersed in hot water at 170 °F until they

reached a steady-state temperature of 170 °F. These samples
were then rapidly removed out of hot water with warm pliers
and inserted into the tensile testing machine. A heat gun was
used to create a warm environment around the sample and
keep it at steady-state temperature to limit heat transfer. For
providing the 40 °F (cold) operational temperature, the cold
samples were brought down to 40 °F while soaking in an
ice-bath. To prevent moisture absorption into the material,
Fig. 1  An instance of tensile testing setup used for characterization of samples were placed into a plastic bag before being soaked
mechanical properties in the ice-bath. These samples were then removed from the
cooler with cold pliers and inserted into the tensile testing
recommended in ASTM D638. The jaws utilized for this machine. The temperature was verified with a FLIR thermal
experiment were flat jaws with a maximum capacity of 50 imaging camera during each test, an instance of which is
kN. The jaws were tightened until snug; then, an additional ¼ shown in Fig. 3. For the room temperature samples, the room
turn was added to make sure the samples did not slip during temperature was gathered before and during the testing to
the test. The machine set-up can be seen in Fig. 1. verify that it was kept constant; the lab’s temperature was
The tensile test samples were fabricated using a Prusa i3 constant at 65 °F throughout the test
printer. The used process parameters were 100% infill den-
sity (to eliminate interactions with infill patterns), 0.2 mm
layer thickness, 30 mm/s printing speed, and 0.5 mm nozzle 3 Results and discussion
diameter. The samples were printed at a 45° angle on the
print bed to ensure a majority of the layers were printed 3.1 PETG
along the length of the part instead of at 45°. Finally, to
prevent the crack propagation from the start or stop of the In order to determine the stress and strain of the various
printer at the layer transition, it was made sure that the start samples, the width, thickness, and gauge length of the ten-
and stop of each layer did not lie within the neck of the cou- sile coupons were recorded. The gauge length of the tensile
pon. All of these specifications were kept constant for all of testing machine was set to 3.9 inches to keep it consistent
the samples. Figure 2 shows an instance of a printed tensile among all materials and temperatures tested. The thickness,
coupon of PLA. width, and the obtained UTS of the hot PETG samples are
The temperature was varied at three different levels of 40, shown in Table 2.
65, and 170 °F to assess its impact on mechanical properties.
For providing the 170 °F (hot) operational temperature, the Table 2  Dimensions and tensile strengths of hot PETG test coupons
Sample no Width (in) Thickness (in) UTS (psi)

1 0.245 0.195 2619

2 0.247 0.199 2373
3 0.246 0.199 1776
4 0.245 0.194 2175
5 0.243 0.193 2127
Fig. 2  An instance of a printed tensile coupon of PLA

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Fig. 4  Hot temperature (170 °F) PETG samples after tensile testing

The hot PETG samples after the tensile testing are Fig. 5  Cold temperature (40 °F) PETG samples after tensile testing
shown in Fig. 4. The hot PETG samples were tested until
the UTS was reached, except sample no. 5 that went out
of control and was fully separated. The PETG material was still below the glass transition temperature in the
behaved as a ductile material at the raised temperature glassy state.
(170 °F). The samples show the necking phenomenon The stress–strain graphs were developed with the results
same as ductile materials. Since 170 °F is roughly 5% obtained from the tensile testing machine. The 5 samples
less than the glass transition temperature of PETG, which of each temperature were averaged and plotted on the
is 176 °F, the inaccuracies of heating the samples with graph seen in Fig. 7. The stiffness can also be qualitatively
the heat gun could have led to the material passing the observed, where a steeper stress–strain curve slope indicates
glass transition temperature. This resulted in the samples a stiffer material. The summary of the mean UTS and E of
elongating more than the rest of the samples tested in this PETG at different temperatures is shown in Table 5.
experiment. This finding suggests that the material behav-
ior is in the glass transition state as it is neither brittle nor
rubbery. 3.2 PLA
The thickness, width, and the obtained UTS of the cold
PETG samples are shown in Table 3. The cold PETG sam- The hot PLA test did not conclude with any useful data
ples as seen in Fig. 5 were tested until fracture. The samples within the scope of this experiment. The PLA’s glass tran-
acted as a brittle material because the samples’ temperature sition temperature is 140 °F, which is roughly 20% lower
(40 °F) was 88% less than the glass transition temperature than the 170 °F temperature used in this experiment. This
(176 °F). This indicated that the material behaved in the made the PLA samples within the rubbery state of the
glassy state. material. The first test of hot PLA samples took less than
The thickness, width, and the obtained UTS of the the preload force to make it yield. The stress–strain curve
room temperature PETG samples are shown in Table 4. of these samples would have been a graph with a constant
The room temperature PETG samples, as shown in Fig. 6, zero result.
resulted in a brittle fracture. This is because the material
Table 4  Dimensions and tensile strengths of room temperature PETG
Table 3  Dimensions and tensile strengths of cold PETG test coupons test coupons

Sample no Width (in) Thickness (in) UTS (psi) Sample no Width (in) Thickness (in) UTS (psi)

1 0.250 0.190 6408 1 0.251 0.200 6741

2 0.249 0.195 6222 2 0.251 0.200 6567
3 0.249 0.197 6628 3 0.249 0.198 6066
4 0.250 0.197 6486 4 0.251 0.198 6363
5 0.249 0.192 6706 5 0.251 0.200 6626

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Table 6  Dimensions and tensile strengths of cold PLA test coupons

Sample no Width (in) Thickness (in) UTS (psi)

1 0.243 0.207 7664

2 0.242 0.206 7751
3 0.249 0.210 7734
4 0.243 0.207 7888
5 0.243 0.210 7832

Fig. 6  Room temperature (65 °F) PETG samples after tensile testing

Fig. 8  Cold (40 °F) PLA samples after tensile testing

Table 7  Dimensions and tensile strengths of room temperature PLA

test coupons
Sample no Width (in) Thickness (in) UTS (psi)

1 0.242 0.207 7209

2 0.243 0.207 7241
3 0.243 0.207 7218
4 0.242 0.207 7166
5 0.244 0.208 7335

Fig. 7  The stress–strain curve for PETG samples at different tempera-

tures

Table 5  Summary of mechanical properties for PETG samples

Test temperature (°F) Average UTS (psi) Average E (psi)

40 6429 270,225
65 6140 292,027
170 1998 169,894
Fig. 9  Room temperature (65 °F) PLA samples after tensile testing

The thickness, width, and UTS of the cold PLA samples

can be seen in Table 6. The cold PLA samples as shown i.e., these samples were still in the glassy state at roughly
in Fig. 8 were tested until fracture. The samples acted as a 46% of the glass transition temperature.
brittle material since the samples’ temperature was 72% less The stress–strain graphs were developed with the results
than the glass transition temperature, indicating that they obtained from the tensile testing machine. The 5 samples of
perform in the glassy state. each temperature were averaged and plotted on the graph
The thickness, width, and UTS of the room temperature shown in Fig. 10.
PLA samples can be seen in Table 7. The room temperature The summary of the mean UTS and E of PLA at different
PLA samples as shown in Fig. 9 resulted in brittle fracture, temperatures is shown in Table 8.

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Fig. 11  Hot (170 °F) ABS samples after tensile testing

Fig. 10  The stress–strain curve for PLA samples at different tempera- The stress–strain graphs were developed with the
tures results obtained from the tensile testing machine. The 5
samples of each temperature were averaged and plotted on
the graph shown in Fig. 14.
Table 8  Summary of mechanical properties for PLA samples The summary of the mean UTS and E of ABS at differ-
Test temperature (°F) Average UTS (psi) Average E (psi) ent temperatures is shown in Table 12.

40 7761 431,666
65 7225 463,336 3.4 Statistical analysis

The powerful statistical commercial software of JMP

3.3 ABS was used to conduct statistical analysis to evaluate the
results. The data collected was analyzed using factorial
All ABS samples were successfully tested until fracture. statistical design. The 2-variable factors are type of mate-
The ABS tensile coupons exhibited signs of brittle failure rial and temperature. The type of material has 3 levels of
at all temperatures. Out of all the materials tested, the PETG, PLA, and ABS, and the temperature has 3 levels
failure mode of ABS was the most consistent across the of 170, 65, and 40 °F. The response variable was consid-
tested temperature range. Due to its high glass transi- ered as UTS. The design of experiment can be denoted
tion temperature (221 °F), the ABS samples remained as a 32 factorial, with 9 different test combinations. Each
closer to the glassy state while being tested at high tem- test condition was replicated 5 times, i.e., total of 45 ten-
peratures. The thickness, width, and UTS of the hot ABS sile tests were performed. The data used for analysis is
samples can be seen in Table 9. Hot temperature sam- provided in Table 13, which shows the UTS for various
ples showed some signs of necking, shown in Fig. 11, materials and temperatures. By performing analysis of
as lighter-colored regions of stretched material near the variance (ANOVA) on this data, the combination of best
fracture, but mostly exhibited signs of brittle fracture. material and temperature will be statistically determined,
The thickness, width, and UTS of the cold ABS samples by considering that the higher strength and modulus is
can be seen in Table 10. The cold ABS samples as shown desired.
in Fig. 12 were tested until fracture. The samples acted as a
brittle material because the deployed temperature was 82% Table 9  Dimensions and tensile strengths of hot ABS test coupons
less than the glass transition temperature, indicating that the
Sample no Width (in) Thickness (in) UTS (psi)
material was in the glassy state.
The thickness, width, and UTS of the room temperature 1 0.236 0.202 2473
ABS samples can be seen in Table 11. The room temperature 2 0.234 0.202 2271
ABS samples as seen in Fig. 13 resulted in brittle fractures 3 0.235 0.202 2508
as these samples were still in the glassy state at roughly 29% 4 0.236 0.203 2445
of the glass transition temperature. 5 0.235 0.202 2508

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Fig. 13  Room temperature (65°F) ABS samples after tensile testing

Fig. 12  Cold (40 °F) ABS samples after tensile testing

The results of a two-way ANOVA with significance

level 5% are shown in Table 14. The P-value for this exper-
iment was found 0.002. Thus, it is concluded that the UTS
results of combinations of material and temperature are
statistically significant different.
The results of main effect tests and their interaction
are shown in Table 15. Considering the significance level
of 5%, the interaction term was not statistically signifi-
cant (P-value 0.1903). Considering the main effects, the
type of material was not a significant factor (P-value
0.5556) while the temperature was a significant factor
(P-value 0.0001). The temperature variable contributed Fig. 14  The stress–strain curve for ABS samples at different tempera-
significantly to the change in ultimate strength. The tures
material of the sample had less effect on the change in
strength, particularly at room temperature. This can also
Table 11  Dimensions and tensile strengths of room temperature ABS
be noted by the behavior of the confidence curves; the test coupons
confidence curve crosses the horizontal residual line in
Fig. 15, so the effect of temperature is significant. The Sample no Width (in) Thickness (in) UTS (psi)
confidence curves do not display this behavior in Figs. 16 1 0.242 0.203 4497
and 17, so the effects of material and interaction term 2 0.244 0.202 5010
(temperature-material) are not significant. 3 0.236 0.202 4988
4 0.243 0.202 5031
5 0.245 0.200 5258
Table 10  Dimensions and tensile strengths of cold ABS test coupons
Sample no Width (in) Thickness (in) UTS (psi)

1 0.246 0.201 5473

4 Conclusion
2 0.248 0.203 5760
In this study, the impact of temperature on mechanical
3 0.245 0.199 5624
properties of polymers fabricated with fused deposition
4 0.238 0.199 5183
modeling (FDM) was investigated. Three types of ther-
5 0.247 0.200 5422
moplastic polymers, including polylactic acid (PLA),

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Table 12  Summary of mechanical properties for ABS samples Table 14  Results of ANOVA generated by JMP software
Test temperature (°F) Average UTS (psi) Average E (psi) Analysis of variance

40 5473 357,714 Source DF Sum of squares Mean square F ratio

65 4902 369,968 Model 5 105,616,419 21,123,284 4.6579
170 2415 261,100 Error 39 176,862,039 4,534,924.1 Prob > F
C. total 44 282,478,458 0.0020*

Table 13  Test combinations for Temperature Material UTS

statistical analysis (°F) (psi) Table 15  The results of main effect tests and their interaction
170 PETG 2619 Effect tests
170 PETG 2373
Source Nparm DF Sum of squares F ratio Prob > F
170 PETG 1776
170 PETG 2175 Temperature 1 1 84,497,989 18.6327 0.0001*
170 PETG 2127 Material 2 2 5,410,872 0.5966 0.5556
40 PETG 6408 Tempera- 2 2 15,707,559 1.7318 0.1903
40 PETG 6222 ture × material
40 PETG 6628
40 PETG 6486
40 PETG 6706
65 PETG 6741
65 PETG 6567
65 PETG 6066
65 PETG 6363
65 PETG 6626
170 PLA 0
170 PLA 0
170 PLA 0
170 PLA 0
170 PLA 0
40 PLA 7664
40 PLA 7751
40 PLA 7734
40 PLA 7888
40 PLA 7832
65 PLA 7209
Fig. 15  The confidence curve for effect of temperature on UTS
65 PLA 7241
65 PLA 7218
65 PLA 7166
65 PLA 7335
170 ABS 2473
170 ABS 2271
170 ABS 2508
170 ABS 2445
170 ABS 2508
40 ABS 5473
40 ABS 5760
40 ABS 5624
40 ABS 5183
40 ABS 5422
65 ABS 4497
65 ABS 5010
65 ABS 4988
65 ABS 5031
65 ABS 5258
Fig. 16  The confidence curve for effect of material on UTS

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 120:4791–4801 4799

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Availability of data and material The raw/processed data required to stock powder and final part properties. Ceram Int 46:16966–
reproduce these findings will be made available on request. 16972. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ceram​int.​2020.​03.​280
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laser welding modes on mechanical properties and microstructure
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never been published before in other journals. 13. Sehhat MH (2021) Ali Mahdianikhotbesara. Powder spreading in
laser-powder bed fusion process 23:89. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
Consent to participate This study is not a human transplantation study. s10035-​021-​01162-x
No consent needed for this paper. 14. Liu T, Lough CS, Sehhat H, Huang J, Kinzel EC, Leu MC (2021)
In-situ thermographic inspection for laser powder bed fusion, in:
Consent for publication The authors declare their consent for publica- 2021 Int Solid Free Fabr Symp. University of Texas at Austin
tion. 15. Sehhat MH, Chandler J, Yates Z (2021) A review on ICP powder
plasma spheroidization process parameters. Int J Refract Met Hard
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Mater 105764. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/J.​IJRMHM.​2021.​105764
16. Sehhat MH, Sutton AT, Hung CH, Brown B, O’Malley RJ, Park
J, Leu MC (2022) Plasma spheroidization of gas-atomized 304L
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