ST/ ESCAP/1103

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

DREDGING FOR NAVIGATION

A HANDBOOK FOR PORT AND WATERWAYS AUTHORITIES

UNITED NATIONS
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

DREDGING FOR NAVIGATION

A HANDBOOK FOR PORT AND WATERWAYS AUTHORITIES

UNITED NATIONS
NEW YORK, 1991
 ST/ESCAP/1103

This handbook is the output of UNDP funded project: technical

support in the field of dredging, related hydrographic surveying and
sedimentology.

It has been prepared by Mr. O.P. Narula, Consultant from India.

The views expressed in this publication are those of the author. They do not
necessarily reflect those of the United Nations or of the Governments of any
of the countries or areas mentioned in the handbook.

The designations employed and the presentation of the material do

not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the
secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, city of area, or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of
its frontiers or boundaries.

Mention of any firm or licensed process does not imply endorsement

by the United Nations.

The publication has been issued without formal editing.

 CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION ..................................................... (i)

1. IDENTIFICATION AND DIMENSIONING ................................. 1

Introduction ................................................. 1

1.1 Navigation and dredging .................................... 2

1.1.1 Navigational requirements ........................ 2
1.1.2 Depth of waterways ............................... 3
1.1.3 Width of waterways ............................... 5
1.1.4 Channel depth .................................... 7
1.1.5 Channel width .............................. 10
1.1.6 Practical channel dimensions and capital
dredging ......................................... 11
1.1.7 Summary ........................................... 12

1.2 Analysis of fairway economics ........................... 13

1.2.1 Costs ............................................. 15
1.2.2 Benefits ......................................... 15
1.2.3 Analysis .......................................... 17
1.2.4 Summary .......................................... 18

2. INVESTIGATIONS AND DATA COLLECTION........................... 19

2.1 Hydrography .............................................. 19

2.1.1 Positioning ...................................... 20
2.1.2 Depth measurement .......................... 23
2.1.3 Sonar sweeping and magnetometer profiling ....... 28
2.1.4 Data processing .................................. 29
2.1.5 Survey launch .................................... 30
2.1.6 Density measurement .............................. 34

2.2 Geotechniques ........................................... 42

2.2.1 Soil classification .............................. 42
2.2.2 Survey density ................................... 43
2.2.3 Survey methods ................................... 43
2.2.4 In situ tests .................................... 44
2.2.5 Laboratory tests ................................. 48
2.2.6 Physical properties in relation to dredging
operations ....................................... 48
2.2.7 Tests for rock ................................... 52

2.3 Hydraulics ............................................... 56

2.3.1 Waves ............................................ 56
2.3.2 Currents ......................................... 57
2.3.3 Tides............................................. 57
2.3.4 Sedimentology .................................... 58

2.4 Meteorology ............................................. 58

2.4.1 Wind .............................................. 58
2.4.2 Fog ............................................... 59
2.4.3 Temperature, humidity and rainfall .............. 60
 - ii -

CONTENTS (coned.)
Pagre

3. PLANNING OF DREDGING WORKS - PROJECT REPORT .................. 61

3.1 Terms of reference ....................................... 61
3.2 Executive summary ........................................ 62
3.3 Main report .............................................. 62
3.3.1 Site information and its interpretation ......... 62
3.3.2 Planning considerations and identification of
alternative strategies .................. 63
3.3.3 Technical and economic appraisal ................. 64
3.3.4 Design ............................................ 64
3.3.5 Quantities, outputs and estimates ................ 68
3.3.6 Execution plan .................................... 69
3.3.7 Conclusions and recommendations .................. 70

4. DREDGERS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS ........................... 72

4.1 Trailing suction hopper dredger ......................... 74
4.1.1 Dragheads ......................................... 75
4.1.2 Hopper ............................................ 82
4.1.3 The production cycle ............................. 82
4.1.4 Limiting factors ................................. 84
4.1.5 Side casting dredger ............................. 84

4.2 Cutter suction dredger .................................. 87

4.2.1 Design considerations ............................ 88
4.2.2 Cutter heads...................................... 89
4.2.3 The production cycle .................... 90
4.2.4 Limitations ....................................... 90
4.2.5 Ancillary equipment .............................. 90
4.2.6 Bucket wheel dredger ............................. 92

4.3 Dustpan dredger .......................................... 95

4.4 Mechanical dredgers ...................................... 98
4.4.1 Grab dredger ...................................... 98
4.4.2 Dipper dredger ................................... 101
4.4.3 Bucket chain dredger ............................. 103

4.5 Special purpose dredgers ................................ 107

4.5.1 Jet pump dredger ................................. 107
4.5.2 Air lift dredger ................................. 107
4.5.3 Pneumatic dredger ................................ 109

4.6 Low cost dredging technology ............................. 109

4.7 Future trends ............................................ 110
4.8 Selection of dredgers ................................... 110
4.9 Case study - Dredger selection.......................... 117

5. DREDGING PROCESS .............................................. 122

Introduction ................................................. 123
5.1 Capital dredging ......................................... 123
5.1.1 Technical factors ................................ 124
5.1.2 Management factors ................................ 124
 - iii -

CONTENTS (contd.)
Page

5.2 Maintenance dredging .................................... 125

5.2.1 Reductionin siltation ............................ 127
5.2.2 Improved dredging management ..................... 129
5.2.3 Output improving techniques ...................... 130
5.2.4 Nautical depth ................................... 131

5.3 Rock dredging ............................................ 131

5.3.1 Direct dredging.................................. 132
5.3.2 Dredging pre-treated rocks ....................... 133

5.4 Reclamation .............................................. 136

5.4.1 Preparation of the site for reclamation ......... 137
5.4.2 Placing and handling of pipelines ............... 137
5.4.3 Containment areas ................................. 137
5.4.4 Artificial consolidation ......................... 138

6. AUTOMATION IN DREDGING ........................................ 139

Introduction ................................................. 139

6.1 Instrumentation................ 140

6.2 Hydrographic surveying - automation ..................... 143
6.3 Automation of cutter suction dredgers ................... 144
6.3.1 Input and output control unit .................... 146
6.3.2 Automatic control unit ........................... 146
6.3.3 Operation supervisory unit ....................... 146

6.4 Automation of trailing suction hopper dredgers .......... 147

6.4.1 Mechanics of automation .......................... 147
6.4.2 Integrated dredge automation system of planning .. 149
6.4.3 Process implementation ........................... 149
6.4.4 Process interpretation ........................... 150
6.4.5 Process evaluation ............................... 150

6.5 Automation of monitoring ................................. 151

6.5.1 Cutter suction dredgers (CSDs) ................... 151
6.5.2 Trailing suction hopper dredgers (TSHDs) ........ 151
6.5.3 Time recording................................... 152
6.5.4 Load recording .................................... 153
6.5.5 Checking of instruments .......................... 153
6.5.6 Video display..................................... 153
6.5.7 Reporting ........................................ 153

6.6 Tonnes dry material (TDM) ............................... 153

6.7 Summary.................................................. 155

7. MANAGEMENT OF DREDGING CONTRACTS ............................. 156

7.1 Dredge related philosophy for developing countries ..... 158

7.2 Pre-tender actions of the employer ...................... 159
7.3 Selecting the form of a tender contract ................ 160
 - iv -

CONTENTS (contd.)
Page

7.4 Tender documents ......................................... 162

7.4.1 Invitation to tender ........................... 162
7.4.2 Form of acknowledgement ........................ 163
7.4.3 Instructions to tenderers ...................... 163
7.4.4 Form of tender ................................. 164
7.4.5 Form of agreement ............................... 165
7.4.6 Conditions of contract ......................... 167
7.4.7 Specifications and description of work......... 169
7.4.8 Bill of quantities ............................. 170
7.4.9 Schedules ....................................... 172
7.4.10 Annexures ....................................... 172

7.5 Prequalification ......................................... 172

7.6 Invitation to tender ..................................... 173
7.7 Pre-bid meeting .......................................... 174
7.8 Submission of tenders .................................... 175
7.9 Opening of tenders ....................................... 176
7.10 Evaluation of tenders ................................... 177
7.11 Letter of acceptance.................................... 178
7.12 Post tender activities .................................. 179
7.12.1 Employer ........................................ 179
7.12.2 Contractor ...................................... 179

7.13 Contract supervision .................................... 179

7.14 Progress report and monitoring statement ............... 180
7.15 Methods of measurement .................................. 180
7.15.1 In situ measurement ............................ 181
7.15.2 Measures using means of conveyance ............. 181
7.15.3 Hoppers ......................................... 181
7.15.4 Settled solids measurement ..................... 181
7.15.5 Ship displacement method ....................... 183
7.15.6 Measurement by instrumentation ................. 183
7.15.7 Measurement in deposit areas ................... 184

7.16 Post completion review of the contract ................. 184

7.17 Final evaluation ........................................ 185

8. QUALITY ASSURANCE OF DREDGING PROJECTS ....................... 186

Introduction ................................................. 187

8.1 Quality assurance ...................................... 187

8.1.1 Physical dimensions ............................ 188
8.1.2 Tolerances ...................................... 188
8.1.3 Side slopes ..................................... 188
8.1.4 Dumping areas (location & dimensions) .......... 189
8.1.5 Timeliness of operation ........................ 189
8.1.6 Dredging plant .................................. 189
8.1.7 Setting out and surveys ........................ 190
8.1.8 Material to be dredged ......................... 190
8.1.9 Measurements of dredged material ............... 190
 - V -

CONTENTS (contd.)
Page

8.2 Quality control programme ............................... 191

8.3 Conclusion............................................... 191

9. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT OF DREDGING AND DISPOSAL OF

DREDGED MATERIAL .......................................... 193
Introduction ................................................. 193
9.1 Potential effects of dredging onenvironment ............. 193
9.2 Beneficial effects ...................................... 194
9.3 Adverse effects......................................... 195
9.4 Environment impact assessment .......................... 196
9.5 Concept of environment protection ....................... 197
9.6 Solutions for dredging .................................. 197
9.7 Solutions for disposal.................................. 199
9.8 Summary .................................................. 201

ANNEX

1. Environmental impact assessment questionnaire ................ 203

LIST OF TABLES

1.1 Standard depths of basins (Japanese standard) ............. 3

1.2 General criteria for depths of dredged navigational
facilities .......................................... 4
1.3 Width of waterways (Japanese standard) ..................... 5
1.4 Comparison of port design guidelines for channel width
[referred to dimensions of design vessel(s)] ...... 6
1.5 Draughts of ports in some countries of the ESCAP region
(1987-88) ........................................... 14
1.6 Hourly costs - ships ........................................ 16
1.7 Estimation of time saving in hours due to deepening
channels ............................................ 16
2.1 Systems most commonlyavailable .............................. 24
2.2 Identification and classification of soils for dredging
purpose (PIANC) ..................................... 45
2.3 Sampling and investigationprocedures (PIANC) ............... 46
2.4 Relationship between N value, cone resistance, relative
density for non-cohesive soils ..................... 47
2.5 Relationship between N value, unconfined compression
strength and torvane cohesion for cohesive soils .. 47
2.6 Relationship between N value and cone resistance .......... 47
2.7 In sieu and laboratory testing procedures of soils
for dredging purposes (PIANC) ...................... 49
2.8 Properties of soil in relation to the phases of
dredging process ................................... 50
2.9 In situ densities, porosity and void ratio for
different soils .................................... 51
2.10 In sieu and laboratory testing procedures of rocks
for dredging purposes (PIANC) ...................... 54
2.11 Beaufort scale of winds .................................... 59
 - vi -

LIST OF TABLES (contd.)

Page

3.1 Typical side slopes (underwater) for various soil types .... 65
3.2 Normal working vertical +_ tolerances for a dredging plant
under various site conditions ...................... 66
3.3 Normal working horizontal +_ tolerances for dredging
plant under various site conditions ................ 67
3.4 Summary of soils to be dredged (illustrative example) ..... 69
4.1 Classification of dredgers .................................. 73
4.2 Types of dragheads .......................................... 76
4.3 Cutter HP guide ............................................. 88
4.4 Cutter heads ................................................ 89
4.5 Pipeline velocities for different soil types ............... 92
4.6 Limitations on the use of various dredging plants .......... 106
4.7 Type of soil and dredger suitability (Japan) ............... Ill
4.8 Suitability of dredgers in relation to soil
(maintenance work) [PIANC] ......................... 112
4.9 Soil disposal methods ....................................... 114
4.10 Available dredgers and their particulars (case study) ..... 118
5.1 Guidelines for dredger selection - capital dredging ....... 126
5.2 Guidelines for dredger selection - maintenance dredging .... 132
5.3 Relationship between size of explosive charge and
safe distance ....................................... 134
5.4 Guidelines for dredger selection - rockdredging ............ 136
5.5 Guidelines for dredger selection -reclamation .............. 138
6.1 Daily dredging report - automatic control CSD .............. 146
6.2 Status determination ........................................ 152

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Determining channel dimensions ............................. 5

1.2 Width of waterways (Indian standard) ....................... 7
1.3 Channel depth ............................................... 8
1.4 Squat estimate chart (B.S. 6349) ........................... 9
1.5 DWT - draught relationship .................................. 13
1.6 Cost vs depth increase ...................................... 18
2.1 Polar or range-bearing systems .............................. 24
2.2 Side scan sonar ............................................. 28
2.3 Survey launch ............................................... 32
2.4 Comparison of density profile and tanker cross-section
to illustrate the concept of nautical depth ....... 35
2.5 Nuclear probes .............................................. 37
2.6 Nuclear tow fish ............................................ 39
2.7 Parts of the Navitracker system............................ 40
2.8 Echo sounding and density lines ............................. 41
2.9 Torvane ...................................................... 44
2.10 Standard penetrometer ....................................... 46
2.11 Wave rose diagrams .......................................... 56
2.12 Tidal information ........................................... 57
2.13 Wind rose diagrams .......................................... 59
3.1 Work plan .................................................... 71
4.1 Trailing suction hopper dredger (TSHD) ..................... 74
4.2 Fruhling draghead ........................................... 76
4.3 Ambrose draghead ............................................ 77
4.4 California draghead ......................................... 78
 - vii -

LIST OF FIGURES (contd.)

Page

4.5 IHC standard draghead ....................................... 79

4.6 IHC silt draghead .......................................... 80
4.7 IHC active draghead ........................................ 81
4.8 Loading cycle of TSHD (sand) ............................... 83
4.9 Loading cycle of TSHD (silt) ............................... 83
4.10 Trailing suction hopper dredger ............................ 85
4.11 Side casting dredger ....................................... 86
4.12 Cutter suction dredger (CSD) ............................... 87
4.13 Different types of cutters ................................. 89
4.14 Cutter suction dredger and bucket wheel dredger ........... 91
4.15 Dredging wheel .............................................. 93
4.16 Dredging wheel with teeth .................................. 94
4.17 Bucket wheel dredger ....................................... 95
4.18 Dustpan dredger (side view) ................................ 95
4.19 Dustpan head ................................................ 96
4.20 Details of dustpan dredger ................................. 97
4.21 Grab dredger on pontoon .................................... 99
4.22 Grab hopper dredger ........................................ 99
4.23 Comparison of grab dredger and grab hopper dredger [SP] .... 100
4.24 Dipper dredger ............................................. 101
4.25 Details of dipper dredger [backhoe] ........................ 102
4.26 Bucket chain dredger ....................................... 104
4.27 Production cycle of bucket chain dredger ................... 104
4.28 Details of bucket chain dredger ............................ 105
4.29 Jet pump dredger ........................................... 107
4.30 Air lift dredger ........................................... 108
4.31 Pneumatic dredger .......................................... 108
4.32 Dredging channel ........................................... 117
5.1 Visakhapatnam outer harbour sand trap ..................... 129
5.2 Shaped charges (10 liter canister) ......................... 133
5.3 Overburden drilling (schematic) ............................ 135
6.1 Integrated concentration and flow rate indicator .......... 140
6.2 Cutter controller .......................................... 141
6.3 Automatic light mixture overboard (ALMO) installation ..... 142
6.4 Automatic draught and trim controller ...................... 142
6.5 Automated hydrographic survey system ....................... 143
6.6 Outline configuration CSD automation ....................... 145
6.7 Navigation and dredging monitoring system .................. 148
6.8 Integrated presentation and control system ................ 148
6.9 System for measuring TDM ................................... 152
6.10 Determination of TDM ....................................... 154
7.1 Hopper sampling method ..................................... 182
9.1 Suction wheel ............................................... 198
9.2 Oozer pump .................................................. 199
9.3 Underwater diffuser ........................................ 200
9.4 Underwater banks ........................................... 200
9.5 Capping polluted material .................................. 200

REFERENCES ....................................................... 207

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................ 210
BOOKS .................. . ......................................... 211
MAGAZINES/PERIODICALS ........................................... 212
ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS .......................................... viii
 ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS

AC - alternating current
ASTM - American Society for Testing Materials
BWD - bucket wheel dredger
BSS - British Standard Specification
C - keel clearance
cm - centimeter
3
cu.m - cubic metre (m )
D - draft of the stationary vessel in still water
DC - direct current
degree C - degrees centigrade
$ - United States dollar
DWT - Dead Weight Tonnage
e.g. - (exempli gratia) for example
ESCAP - Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
GPS - Global Positioning System
H.P. - horse power
I - amplitude
IAPH - International Association of Ports and Harbours
i .e. - (id est) that is to say
kev - kilo-electron-volt
km - kilometre
kHz - kilohertz
kc - kilocycle
kg - kilogram
KN/sq.m - Kilonewton/Square metre
LL - liquid limit
L - length of the ship
ltrs - litres
m - metres
# - inaccuracy of soundings
N Value - number of blows for a Standard Penetration Test
% - per cent
PL - plastic limit
PI - plasticity index
PIANC - Permanent International Association of Navigation Congress
SPT - Standard Penetration Test
TSHD - trailing suction hopper dredger
TOR - terms of reference
Z - Squat
 (i)

INTRODUCTION

International trading in primary commodities is vital for the

maritime developing countries. Ports are necessary to facilitate this
trade. Access to the ports by the optimal size ships, in most cases,
is made available through dredging except in some rare cases where
natural depths are available. A good grasp of the mechanics of
dredging is vital for managerial decision-making, for evolving related
policy for designing and more generally for appreciating how modern
dredging services can be availed of, developed and managed.

A lot has changed in dredging technology and dredging management.

New concepts have come up to have a central role in dredging
applications. A lot of this new technology has remained confined to
some geographical areas and specific countries. This book aims at
propagating this advanced knowledge and practice among the developing
countries to help enhance their appreciation of its relevance, cost
effectiveness and usefulness.

The coverage in Dredging for Navigation incorporates the dramatic

changes that have occurred in the technology and management of dredging
in recent years. The concepts of nautical depth, tonnes dry material,
instrumentation and automation are dealt with in detail. Enough
literature is available on topics such as investigation, the dredging
processes and types of dredgers. Only the important aspects of these
topics have been highlighted. A process of managerial decision making
has been elaborated on: from conceptualization, techno-economic
appraisals, detailed designing and planning to contracts management and
monitoring.

The coverage is comprehensive and up-to-date but not difficult.

Exposition is clear and accessible as well as lively and engaging.
Mathematical renderings and involved calculations have been omitted.

The text has been grouped into seven chapters. Identification of

dredging need for navigation and its quantification are covered in the
first chapter. Why, where, when and how much to dredge so that it
meets navigation requirements and also satisfies the viability criteria
are elaborated on. Even though highly sophisticated simulation
techniques are available and are sometimes used, there is more reliance
on experience and emperical methods. Some Governments have laid down
standards which form a good base to start. These need to be checked
and confirmed if the local conditions differ from the normal. Dredging
is expensive. It should be undertaken only when economically justified
to reduce or optimize the total transportation cost. Cost to be
incurred on capital dredging and on maintenance of the created depths
are to be compared with the benefits from deeper drafts such as
reduction/elimination of waiting time, reduced freight costs etc. An
introduction to this topic is included in the second part of the
chapter.

The data, information and investigation work necessary to obtain

it are given in detail in the second chapter. The most important
boundary conditions that effect dredging are the sea bottom
configuration, water depth, water movement (waves, current, tides), the
suspended and moving sediment, the characteristics of the soil such as
its compactness,strength, particle size, shape, porosity, the wind,
fog, rainfall temperature and the possible obstructions like shipping
 (ii)

traffic, wrecks, debris and outside interference. How data is

obtained, presented and interpreted in order to be able to draw useful
conclusions relevant to dredging is presented. There is a subtle
difference between study of soils for construction and study of soils
for dredging. The former study concentrates on stability while the
latter dwells on process of de-stabilizing the soil mass.

Armed with dimensions and boundary conditions, the next logical

step is to formulate a working plan. The mechanics are logically
sequenced and properly and systematically scrutinised through a project
report. A project report examines all relevant parameters pros and
cons of all possible alternatives, to arrive at an optimal technical
design, financial estimate and working method.

Dredgers are the central attraction of the fourth chapter. There

are many types and sizes with special features, characteristics and
limitations using varied ancillaries and fitments. A lot has been
written about these machines. Only important aspects have been
highlighted. There is more emphasis on how to choose the right dredger
for the right job. This has been illustrated through a case study of a
real time project completed in 1988. A lot of attempts have been made
to derive coefficients and formulae for output estimation.

The philosophy postulated here is that a more realistic assessment

is obtained by analysing the working cycle with realistic timings and
corrections can be applied based on actual operations.

The fifth chapter dwells on the special requirements of capital

dredging, maintenance dredging, rock dredging and reclamation
processes. Out of these the most important is maintenance dredging and
many of the latest techniques have been directed towards cost reduction
of maintenance dredging. The concept of nautical depth is one such
revolutionary idea and its principle and application have been
explained. Innovative techniques for silt reduction, silt
consolidation, silt traps are included.

Automation has found lot of favour in the dredging industry. Many

instruments have been developed and are in use. Pipeline dredgers (like
CSD) total operation has been automated. Surveying techniques have
also been either partially or fully automated. The trailing suction
hopper dredgers have been put on integrated automation systems under
the watchful eyes of the experienced dredge masters. Acceptable
monitoring systems have been introduced in Rotterdam and an automated
new system based on tonnes dry material (TDM) experimented upon and
found acceptable to both the employer and the contractor. But what is
generally accepted is that the man and the machine complement each
other for optimal productivity. Automation in isolation is not the
correct answer.

Management of dredging contracts begins with pre-tender activities

and extends right through preparatory work, tender acceptance,
execution and post tender appraisals. In the seventh chapter, a very
comprehensive coverage is included of all actions required for a
successful contract. Many illustrative examples and sample forms have
been included to provide in one chapter information scattered in
different publications and literature. Management of a successful
contract has in-built all the requirements of good site/project
management and no separate exposure has been considered necessary.
 (iii)

Quality assurance of dredging projects assumes considerable

importance due to its close linkage to safety and economics of
navigation. Planned and systematic actions necessary to ensure
"conformity to specifications," the essence of quality assurance, are
included in the eighth chapter.

An overly-cautious interpretation of the London Dumping Convention

has, in some cases, resulted in over-emphasis of the adverse effects
and under estimation of the potential benefits of dredging. A balanced
strategy under which dredging vital for safety and development of
navigation and which is environmentally safe is unhindered by
constraints while positive steps are taken to minimize the adverse
effects when contaminated materials have to be dredged has been
suggested in the ninth chapter.

The references are either chapter specific or general listing all

sources from where references are available including magazines,
journals, conference proceedings, standards and books.
 IDENTIFICATION
1 & DIMENSIONING

/ NAVIGATIONAL / ECONOMIC
/ REQUIREMENT / / ANALYSIS /
* CHANNEL COST OF
WIDTH DREDGING
* CHANNEL * CAPITAL
DEPTH COST
♦ WAVES/SWELL * MAINTENANCE
COST
* SQUAT

/ BENEFIT OF
IMPROVED DRAUGHT /
* REDUCED
WAITING TIME
* INCREASED
TRAFFIC
* REDUCED
FREIGHT COST
 - 1 -

1. IDENTIFICATION AND DIMENSIONING

Introduction

The Report of the Dredging Task Force of the International

Association of Ports and Harbours (IAPH) presented at the 13th biennial
conference at Vancouver, Canada in June 1983 states: "Virtually all
major ports in the world require frequent dredging on a regular basis
to accommodate ships engaged in domestic and international commerce."
It further adds: "Dredging is necessary to assure the movement of ships
on which depends the economic well being of most countries of the
world."

The basic objectives of dredging include:

- Navigation;
- Flood control;
- Construction and reclamation;
- Mining;
- Beach nourishment;
- General uses like underwater foundation for pipeline; and
- Drainage in swampy areas and to remove pollutants

Maximum use of dredging continues to support navigation by:

- Maintaining, increasing or otherwise improving waterways,
harbours and channels; and
- Creating harbours, basins, marinas and other facilities for
navigation.

Dredging for navigation is thus a consequential activity. Its

requirements arise out of the needs of navigation and its identification
and dimensioning are linked with navigation. Two studies precede
dredging. These are:
- Optimal location and dimensioning of the channel, basins and
other navigable areas to meet the requirements of navigation; and
- Analysis of fairway economics.

The first study concerns itself with the hydraulic aspects of the
layout and dimensions of dredged channels; ships behaviour and response
when traversing at slow speeds through shallow and confined waters; and
the interaction of these two towards safety. The second study
basically concerns financial/economic viability. The degree of details
to which this study is made depends on the fiscal policies of the
concerned Government. Some Government policies demand that all
investments must satisfy the criteria of financial viability. While
Home others consider port facilities and the access channels to them as
a part of the basic infrastructure for the promotion of trade which
need not satisfy rigidly the viability criteria.

Both these studies are outside the scope of this book. Only a
brief introduction to these topics is included in this chapter as a
backdrop.
 - 2 -

1.1 Navigation and dredging

Dredging for navigation may be defined as "excavating and removing

unwanted material from harbours and waterways through the physical
application of energy with the objective to change the natural
configuration of the waterways for improved utilization." In doing
this there are definite chances of disturbing natural equilibrium and,
with nature asserting itself, re-shoaling or re-siltation of the
dredged areas is very likely. The initial or virgin removal of
materials is called "capital dredging" or "development" dredging and
removal of recurring and cumulative deposits is called "maintenance
dredging." There are variations in techniques adopted for capital and
maintenance dredging but basically the process remains the same.

1.1.1 Navigational requirements

Navigational requirements define dredging demands. For smaller

vessels this requirement simply means compatibility between the
dimensions of the vessel and water space. For larger vessels the
requirements are more complex bringing in hydrodynamic effects
connected with factors like ship's speed, bottom and side drags,
stopping distances and the steering response of ships.

Ideal accessibility to a harbour means availability of a straight

wide approach coinciding with the direction of currents and the highest
waves. Such an ideal layout can seldom be achieved. Often extensive
dredging works have to be carried out to meet the navigational demands
of larger vessels and considerable maintenance dredging costs may be
incurred to remove siltation in the artificially deepened channels. It
is this high initial cost and continuous recurring costs coupled with
safety of navigation which forms the motivating force behind an optimal
design of the geometry of the channel depth and width.

Many approaches are used for designing the depth and width of
channels for navigational requirements. These vary from rule-of-thumb
methods for small ports/ships to sophisticated simulation techniques.
Input data for these methods is obtained from experience, small scale
models and field surveys. The choice of method will depend upon the
size and importance of the channel, the stage of the study and the sea
environment.

To start with, thumb rules can give a first approximation of the

channel dimensions. There are many empirical rules for different ship
types and classes and for varying environmental conditions. These
rules are based on generalization and the great disadvantage is that
the exact local physical conditions in the channel are not taken into
account. If these local conditions are known to be critical, detailed
studies are required to confirm the first approximations.

Examples of these methods are seen in the "standards" laid down by

some countries for dimensioning the channels. Examples from Japan and
India are given.
 - 3 -

1.1.2 Depth of waterways

Japanese standards

The depth of a waterway shall be an appropriate value of not less

than the full loaded draft of the ship while also considering the
extent of oscillatory motion of the ship due to natural conditions such
as waves, winds, tidal currents, and the trim. In this case, "a proper
depth" means a depth obtained by an allowance added to the depth
specified in Table 1.1 (3.3 Japanese standard) DEPTH OF BASIN. The
allowance varies with such conditions as rolling, pitching, trim and
squat of ships and the conditions of sea bed materials. However, this
provision may not apply to a special waterway where the draft of ships
using this waterway is always smaller than the full draft, such as an
approaching waterway to a dock of shipyard or a waterway exclusively
for partially loaded ships.

K ind Depth Size Kind Depth Size Kind Depth Size

of (m) of of (m) of of (m) of
ships ships ships ships ships ships

GT DWT DWT

Pass- 5.0 1,000 Oil 4.5 700 Ore 9.0 10,000

enger 6.0 3,000 tan- 5.0 1,000 carr - 10.0 15,000
Ship 7.5 5,000 ker 5.5 2,000 ier 11.0 20,000
9.0 10,000 6.5 3,000 12.0 30,000
10.0 20,000 7.5 5,000 13.0 50,000
11.0 30,000 9.0 10,000 15.0 70,000
10.0 15,000 16.0 90,000
DWT 11.0 20,000 18.0 100,000
12.0 30,000 20.0 150,000
General 4.5 700 13.0 40,000
cargo 5.0 1,000 14.0 50,000 GT
ship 5.5 2,000 15.0 70,000
6.5 3,000 16.0 100,000 Ferry 5.0 1,000
7.5 5,000 20.0 150,000 boat 5.5 2,000
9.0 10,000 21.0 200,000 6.0 3,000
10.0 15,000 22.0 250,000 6.5 4,000
11.0 20,000 7.5 6,000
12.0 30,000 8.0 13,000
13.0 40,000
14.0 50,000

GT - gross tons
DWT - dead weight tons

Table 1.1 Standard depths of basins

(Japanese standard)
 - 4 -

Indian standards

The following factors should be taken into account in designing

the depth of the channel:
- Size, draft, shape and speed of the design vessel;
- Trim of vessel when moving through water (drag);
- Current velocity in the channel;
- Squat assessed on the ratio between x-sectional area of the
immersed portion of the ship and cross sectional area of the
channel at low water;
- Whether the channel is fully restricted, semi-restricted or
unrestricted;
- Number of lanes in channel;
- Wind and wave action;
- Tidal variation;
- Dredging pattern and frequency;
- Salinity and bottom material;
- Degree of accuracies in hydrographic survey and other
accuracies; and
- Net under keel clearance.

Taking into consideration the above factors, it is recommended

that minimum under keel clearance should not be less than 10 per cent
in the turning circle and 20 per cent at entrance to the channel in the
unsheltered areas.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Ship's draft and sinkage + allowance for wind, waves, currents,
type of bottom, etc.

PIANIC
Gross under keel clearance 1.20 x ship's draft, exposed
1.15 x ship's draft, waiting
area, exposed
1.07 x ship's draft, calmest
area, least ship speed (berthing)

Net underkeel clearance at least 0.5 m (1.7 ft)

SHIPOWNERS
Statistical

TERMPOL (CANADA)
1.15 x ship's draft, exceptions require special under keel
clearance survey.

JAPAN
Depth of maneuvering basin (1.10 x ship's draft) + allowance for
wind, waves, currents, type of bottom, etc.

Table 1.2 General criteria for depths of dredged

navigational facilities
1.1.3 Width of waterways

Japanese standard

The width of a waterway shall be determined according to the

following :

- Standard waterway: A two-way waterway shall be in accordance

with Table 1.3, depending on the length of the waterway and the
navigational condition.
- Special waterway: A special waterway such as one with a
remarkably large volume of traffic, a waterway crossed by
sailing ships, or a waterway for ULCC, shall have a width to the
value in the Table 1.3.
- Waterway for fishing boats or ships of less than 500 gross ton:
A width shall be decided according to actual situation.
(L is the overall length of the ship)

Length of waterway Condition of navigation Width

Relatively long Ships pass each other 2 L

waterways frequently

Conditions other than the 1.5 L

above

Waterways other Ships pass each other 1.5 L

than the above f requently

Conditions other than the 1.0 L

above

Table 1.3 Width of waterways (Japanese standard)

■tf-

Channel width two wav traffic

CHANNNEL BAND

CHANNEL
BOUNDARIES

CHANNEL CENTERl'NE

Radius Of Curvature

DIRECTION OF

Ship S EnTR,
SPEED Oim'S

Figure 1.1 Determining Channel Dimensions

 One-Way Traffic Two-way traffic
*
COE 1 TERMPOL2 PIANC3 COE
* 1 TERMPOL2 PIANC3 Definitions and Comments

Maneuvering Lane
Straight channel 2.0 beam 2.0 beam 2.0 beam 2.0 beam Maneuvering lane (ML):
Bends of Additional - Lane in which a single vessel maneuvers
26° 4.2 beam Width 2 4.2 beam - Accounts for uncertainty in vessel position
4.0 beam 4.0 beam
40° 4.9 beam âW - L /BR+ 4.9 beam and time lag to correct position
■ length2/(beam - Applies to straight and turning, not additive
x radius) + - Required for each ship (i.e., MLX2 for 2-way
traffic)
- Can reduce if operational limits applied
(e.g., 2 design ships don't pass each other
and no passing in turns)
Bank Clearance
Each side .6 beam + 1.0 beam Safety .6 beam + 1.0 beam Bank Clearance (BC):
margin .5 - Clearance to avoid bank suction
- Required on both sides, BC x 2 for all
channels
Passing Ship Clearance
Between Lanes .8 beam 1.0 beam Passing Ship Clearance (PSC):
- Between MLs to avoid interference
Total Width w/o
Weather, Current
Straight Channels 3.2 beam 4.0 beam 6.0 beam + 7.0 beam Total straight Channel Width Without
Bends of Current, Clearance (W w/o WCC)
26° 5.4 beam 10.4 beam - Artificial since cannot usually be used
40° 6.0 beam 11.0 beam
6.1 beam + 11.8 beam without WCC, even for mild conditions

Weather and Current .9 beam 1.0 beam .2+.9x2) beam 1.0 beam Weather and Current Clearance (WCC):
Clearance Each Total both Total Total per - For beam wind, current, and waves which
side sides both ship lane cause a yaw angle (10-15° max.)
sides - Additional clearance should be made for
varying conditions (gusts) and other factors
- For design, must correspond to limiting
environmental operating condition

Total Width
Straight Channels 5.0 beam 5.0 beam 5 beam 8.0 Beam + 9.0 beam 8 beam Total Width of Channel (W) at Design Depth:
Bends, of (2) - In general, minimums are shown for design,
26° 7.2 beam 5 beam + 12.4 beam + however, local conditions must bo considered
7.0 beam 13.08 beam
40° 7.9 beam + length2/ 13.8 beam
(beam x
radius)
Parallel Bends w/o tugs
Radius for Bends, of SAME AS ONE WAY Radius of Turn (R) :
3 length - Padius of the channel centerline for bande
<25°
>5 length 5 length 5-10 length - TERMPOL gives max rudder angla (S) of 15°
26°-35°
>36° 8 length (ralatad to th. daaign ships turning
Width transition 1:10 1:10 diameters at 0 - 15°)
(total) Transition: The ratio of wldening (sum of
both sides) to length along channe1

Approximate Ship Size ** Small/medium Not Very ultra Small/medium Not Very/ Ship Sizes :
size tanker specified large crude size tanker specified ultra large - The approximate ship siza for which the
carrier crude carrier specific guide is intended (in terms of
tankers)
Width = maneuvering lane + Width = 2 maneuvering lane + 2 bank General equation relating the individual
General Equation clearance + passing ship clearance components to the total width
2 bank clearance+weather&cur ent
+ weather and current clearance
clearance

•Using values for "poor vessel controllability"

1U.S. Anny Corps of Engineers (1983). ••Small-site Tanker: 16,000 - 60,000 DWT
2Canadian Coast Guard (1977). Medium-size Tanker: 60,000 -120,000
3Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses (IV^d. Very large crude carrier: 120,000 -320,000
Ultra large crude carrier: more than 320,000 DWT
 - 7 -

Indian standards

The width of the navigational channels for one lane and two lane
traffic shall be as shown in Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2 Width of waterways (Indian standard)

Design methods

The design method for larger harbours and for higher accuracy is
based on the nautical studies of the hydro-mechanical characteristics
of the ships. The vertical and horizontal dimensions of channels/basins
are derived from ship dimensions and response characteristics to waves,
wind and currents.

1.1.4 Channel depth

The channel depth is largely governed by the under keel clearance

to be allowed for the "design vessels" using the port.

(The design vessel is the maximum size of the vessel with the specified
draught to be allowed to enter the port. This size is determined on
basis of economic considerations — type and size of traffic, origin —
destination pattern, cost of dredging e.g., capital and maintenance).
(Section 1.2).

The channel depth is made up of the following variables:

- The ship's initial draught and trim;
- Fluctuation of the water level due to tides and wind effects;
- Squat, sinkage and trim of the sailing ship; and
- The motion of the ship due to waves.
 - 8 -

Mathematically, channel depth (Figure 1.3) may be represented by

the equation:
h = D+Z+I+R+C+#
in which
h = Channel depth
D = Draft of the stationary vessel in still water
Z = Squat and trim
I = Amplitude of vertical ship movement (due to waves)
R = Bottom roughness (dredging effect)
C = Keel clearance
# = Inaccuracy of soundings

Figure 1.3 Channel depth

 - 9 -

Squat is the sinkage and trim of a sailing ship. As a vessel

proceeds along the channel, the displacement of water causes an
increase in return currents along the sides of the vessel and between
the channel bed and the underside of the vessel. This is offset by
lowering of the adjacent water level causing the vessel to experience
sinkage and change of trim. The squat increases with the length of the
vessel, with the square of the forward speed and with reduction in
under keel clearance. Formulae have been developed on the basis of
theory, model test data and full scale measurements which allow the
squat to be estimated for ships sailing in shallow open water. The
squat increases when a ship is sailing in restricted water.

Formulae have been used to produce the squat estimation chart

shown in figure 1.4 for vessels with a block coefficient between 0.8 to
0.9 (bulk carriers).

Waves have a great impact on the channel depth, depending on the

local wave climate, the orientation of the channel towards the dominant
wave direction and on the ratio of the wave length to dimensions of the
ship.

EXAMPLE
(a) ENTER SHIP SPEFOt POINT A ).
(b) DRAW VERTICAL AO to INTERSECT
APPROPRIATE WATER DEPTH
CONTOUR AT B
(cl DRAW HORIZONTAL BC TO
INTERSECT BOWOR STERN
CONTOUR APPROPRIATE TO
AT REST TRIM OF SHIP (POMT C).
(d) DROP VERTICAL CD TO
INTERSECT APPROPRIATE SHIP
LENGTH CONTOUR AT D

(eI RE AD OFF APPROPRIATE

BOW OR STERN SINKAGE
AT E.

APPLICABLE TO SHIPS WITH BLOCK COEFFICIENT C( FROM 0-t 1001

LENGTH TO 0EAM RATIO l/lTy.E.O, BEAM TO DRAUGHT RATIO
q/ 1« ANO WATER DEPTH TO DRAUGHT RATIO

FROM 1.1 tO M

Figure 1.4 Squat estimate chart (B.S. 6349)

 - 10 -

Ship motions in waves can be computed using the ship’s response

functions. These response functions are dependent on water depth, ship
speed and angle of wave incidence. Response functions can either be
measured in small-scale models or computed.

For the mathematical determination of ship response functions,

computer programmes are available. With the aid of these response
functions, the vertical response of the point on the ship's keel where
most severe motion occurs can be computed. The computations can be
extended to cover ship motion in irregular waves for three or four wave
spectra with different peak periods to identify the worst case.

Note: A word of caution is needed. Usually these investigations

of the vertical movements of ships in waves have been concerned with
their sea-keeping qualities in deep water. Unfortunately, there are
practically no full scale measurements of vertical ship movements in
channels where the underkeel clearance is small. In view of the lack
of information on this subject, it is recommended not to rely on these
theoretical calculations. Instead, model studies should be carried out
to determine the limiting wave conditions and dredged depths of
channels for the design vessels.

In areas with little or no wave action, a minimum net keel

clearance is applied. This is the minimum distance between the ship's
keel and the channel bottom of the sailing ship and is necessary to
guarantee the manoeuvrability of the ship. This distance varies from
10-15 per cent of the draught for smaller ships to a minimum of one
metre for mammoth ships.

1.1.5 Channel width

The width of a channel is governed by the steering characteristics

of the ships when subjected to external disturbances such as bank
suction, cross currents, wind and waves. Large vessels are more
sluggish in shallow waters.

The idea of channel width is based on empirical rules. In addition

to standards mentioned earlier, there are rules for different ship
types and classes. All have the same limitation — the local
conditions are not properly represented. The first assumed dimensions
should be checked for manoeuvring behaviour of the ships, specially for
channels having heavy traffic and critical environmental conditions.

In a small scale model of the port, the passage of a model of the

ship through the channel is studied. The ship's model is steered by an
offshore computer. The speed of the model ship, its rudder settings,
the bow and stern thrusters are radio controlled. Wind and tug
influence can be simulated using air propellers mounted on the ship's
model. This method has limited value. First, the cost of a small
scale model of the channel is relatively high and second, the operator
having an overall view of the situation reacts immediately and learns
to manoeuvre the ship safely without much effort. The advantage of this
method is that the hydrodynamic behaviour of the ship and the influence
of the environment (such as bank suction) on the ship manoeuvres are
taken into account correctly.
 - 11 -

The second method uses larger manned ship models. The situation
presented is more realistic but the problems of contracted time scale
are not overcome. Investigations are sometimes made with an auto-pilot
steered ship and these can be very useful for the comparision of
different channel layouts in an early stage of a design. The response
of the auto-pilot is a constant factor in the passages under different
conditions. The ship’s tracks are comparable for passages under
different conditions and through different channel layouts.

The most comprehensive method of evaluating ship handling in a

channel is through the use of a ship simulator. Here the ship is
steered on a real-timç basis by a pilot. The manoeuvring task is
performed on the mock up of a ship’s bridge, provided with all relevant
navigational instruments. The simulator is computer controlled and
programmed for the sea-bed profile and different ship types. This
simulator has the great advantage that the ship can be manoeuvred in
real time using a local pilot if required. This gives a more correct
representation of the navigator’s performance and a realistic
assessment of the safety of the channel from the point of view of
navigation.

These manoeuvres have to be repeated many times under the same

environmental conditions in order to obtain statistical information.

1.1.6 Practical channel dimensions and capital dredging

The minimum dimensions of shipping channels, being minimum width

at keel level and minimum depth, follow from the nautical requirements
as described above. In order to arrive at practical design dimensions,
tolerances and side slopes have to be determined and added.

The side slopes of a channel depend much on the characteristics of

the soil in combination with the hydraulic conditions, and they may
vary between 1:2 to 1:15. Gentle side slopes are mostly found in areas
with non-cohesive to weak cohesive soils (sand to soft sand and silt),
while steep side slopes are found in hard cohesive and other hard soil
formations (stiff to firm clay and rock). (Refer to Table 3.1).

The selection of the side slope for design purposes can be based
on (a) observed side slopes along existing channels in similar areas,
(b) on the results of geotechnical investigations in the area
concerned, (c) on the observed slope formation during trial dredging,
all depending on the required accuracy and the complexity of the
problem area. Considerable savings in capital dredging (up to 20 per
cent) are obtained when steeper slopes can be specified.

Various tolerances are taken into account to determine the

practical design depth of the channel, such as:
- Silting buffer space;
- Space for ripple and sand wave formation after dredging;
- Allowance for sounding inaccuracies; and
- Technical overdredge

Buffer space helps to spread out silting peaks so that the

required maintenance capacity,can be as close as possible to the annual
average. It allows some time to discover silting without affecting
safe navigation.
 - 12 -

Ripple and sand wave formations at the channel bottom may occur
after dredging. Such formations may decrease the available depth by
about one to two metres even without net sedimentation.

Inaccuracies in soundings, which depend on the surveying

conditions, must not affect the available nautical depth, and therefore
they should be accounted for in the design.

Technical overdredging accounts for irregularities of the dredging

channel floor due to gully and ridge formations.

Just after construction, the entire channel floor must be at the

specified design level. Therefore the contractor applies some
overdredging, resulting in an as-built construction level, which is
below the specified design level. The rate of overdredging varies with
equipment type, soil type and working conditions.

In order to determine the finally required tolerance, the space

for sounding errors, ripple formation and silting has to be added. The
resulting total tolerance is now determined by the sum of these three
items or by the technical overdredging, depending on which of the two
is the largest. (Figure 1.3)

The practical design dimensions lead to an estimation of the

capital dredging quantities, and in combination with the nature of the
soil, observed from borings, the dredging effort can be determined,
including the costs involved.

As earlier mentioned the disturbance of the natural equilibrium

conditions in the dredged channel leads to redeposition of material
effecting the created depths and imposing restrictions on the ships
draughts. This is a continuous process and the deposited material has
to be removed by maintenance dredging. The consequences of a badly
designed channel in high re-siltation area on the finances of the port
and on operating efficiency can be drastic. The designer should make
maximum efforts towards optimum channel orientation and design to
minimize the recurring maintenance requirements. Because of its
importance, actions necessary to improve the cost effectiveness of
maintenance dredging through reduction in rates of sedimentation,
improved dredging technology and management of such operations have
been comprehensively covered in Chapter 5.

1.1.7 Summary

Access to many ports around the world is provided by dredged

channels. Alignment, depth and width of these channels is usually a
compromise between the navigational requirements physical environment
— sea conditions, meteorological climate and sea bed characteristics.
Safety is the prime consideration. General criteria and standards
evolved empirically, provide a useful first approximation. Their main
drawback is that the local conditions are not taken into account.
Wherever circumstances so demand these should be confirmed through
detailed studies, model tests and simulation under the ambient
conditions.
 - 13 -

Dimensions thus evolved should be suitably modified to allow for

side slopes, tolerances, siltation, buffer, sounding inaccuracies and
technical overdredging. More intensive surveys can help to arrive at
more rational keel clearance.

The concept of nautical depth (see Chapters 2 and 5) has helped in

cost reduction of maintenance dredging in some of the largest ports
around the world and there is good scope for its application at ports
with the familiar problem of high siltation with low density material
(mud).
1.2 Analysis of fairway economics

Figure 1.5 shows the draught and tonnage (DWT) of seven types of
ships in use today.

Figure 1.5 DWT - draught relationship

Heavy cargo — HC
Bulk carrier — BC
Bulk carrier (Arctic) — A
Oil-bulk-ore tanker — OB
Lo Lo container — LO
Crude oil tanker — T
LNG tanker — G
 - 14 -

The ships vary in size from 5,000 DWT to 460,000 DWT and the
draught varies from 6 metres to 28 metres. The requirement of depth in
the channel for the 28 metre draught ship may be as high as 35 metres.

The available depths in ports in the world in general, and in the

ESCAP region in particular, is much smaller. Some typical examples are
given below.

Country Deepest port Draught

China Shanghai 10.5 metres

Dalian 17.5 metres

India Bombay 14.3 metres

Indonesia Belawen 11.0 metres

Malaysia Port Kelang 13.5 metres

Mayanmar Yangon 9.0 metres

Pakistan Port Qasim 10.0 metres

Philippines Manila 12.0 metres

Sri Lanka Colombo 12.1 metres

Thailand Bangkok 8.5 metres

(Ports Authority database, 1987)

Table 1.5 Draughts of ports in some countries of the ESCAP region

The ever growing size of the ship is always creating a demand for
deeper and wider channels, basins and berths. One of the ways to meet
this demand is through dredging. There are other alternatives: extend
port facilities seawards; shift the port to a location with better
depth; set up single buoy moorings; or even build new islands in deep
water. None of these solutions is cheap. For the dredging solution,
high costs are involved in the initial deepening and recurring
expenditure will be perhaps necessary forever in order to maintain the
deepened fairway. Before such investments which have long time effects
on the finance of te ports are made, besides a thorough assessment of
the technical feasibility, financial and economic appraisal of costs
and benefits are usually called for.

Costs are investments on capital dredging plus recurring

maintenance work. The benefits as a result of deeper draft are:
- Reduced waiting time of ships due to availability of a larger
tidal window for bigger vessels;
- Reduced cargo delay as a consequence of higher cargo handling
speeds for larger vessels and higher level of shipping services.
 - 15 -

- Traffic increase through reallocation or by generation of new

traffic; and
- Freight benefits from the use of larger vessels and or higher
load factors.

Both these aspects, costs and benefits, are to be quantified to

check the viability.

1.2.1 Costs

Capital costs

These are easy to estimate. Once a project has been formulated

the quantity and quality of the soil to be dredged, the environmental
conditions under which dredging is to take place and the type of plant
to be used are all known. The unit cost of dredging can also be
established with a good degree of accuracy either based on budgetary
prices or derived from similar works done recently or by abinitio
analysis of the cost components.

Maintenance costs

There are lot of uncertainties attached to maintenance cost. The

quantum of siltation has to be estimated. For an existing channel that
is being enlarged, the first approximation is in the geometric ratio.
For a new channel, the source of sedimentation, the characteristics of
the deposits, the seasonal pattern, the composition, density, grain
size have to be determined. As all this is in the future cost
estimates have also to be established based upon trends, escalation
indices and other unpredictable variables. With all this only an
approximate assessment is possible.

1.2.2 Benefits

Reduced waiting time

Many ports use tidal entry to admit larger vessels. A vessel

arriving at the port has to wait for the tide to be at an appropriate
level before the depth available in the fairway (dredged depth + tidal
rise above chart datum) is sufficient for safe transit of the loaded
vessel to the berth/terminal. The larger the draght of the vessel, the
shorter is the tidal window in which it can sail safely in and out.
The vessels time their arrival in such a way that they arrive at the
port to make use of the next high tide but if many administrative and
navigational problems en-route cause these large ships to miss the
tide, they may have to wait for nearly 10-12 hours for the next tide.

By increasing the dredged depth, the tidal window for these large
vessels improves and their waiting time in relation to tidal constraint
is reduced or eliminated altogether. Cost savings are affected as a
result of the time savings for ships and cargo.

An idea of hourly costs of different types of ships is given in

Table 1.6
 - 16 -

Type of ship Draught Cost/hour in US dollars

Bulk carrier Between 34' and 38' $400

Between 48' and 50' $715

Over 50' $825

Container vessel Between 34' and 38' $680

Between 38' and 40' $750

Over 40' $900

Table 1.6 - Hourly costs - ships

As an illustration, estimates made by Prof. Dr . W. Winkelmans of

time saving in hours as a consequence of deepening the fairway of the
river Scheldt by four feet is shown in Table 1.7 below:

Type of vessel Size Ingoing Outgoing

Bulk carrier 34' - 38' 0.667 3.375

38' - 43' 2.708 8.920

48' - 50' 0.0 0.0

over 50' 0.0 0.0

Container vessel 34'- 38' 0.51 3.375

38' - 40' 2.445 8.92

Over 40' 5.740 0.0

Table 1.7 Estimation of time saving in hours

due to deepening channels

By knowing the number of benefitting vessels and time saving per

vessel and the cost price of one hour, the total benefit can be
calculated.

The benefit for the cargo involved is based upon real interest
rates and modal split situations. How much more are importers of goods
ready to pay for more rapid deliveries? This is difficult to quantify
and its effect is also not substantial so it has not been considered
further.

Additional traffic

Dredging benefits apply both to the ship and cargoes. Therefore,

the forecast must cover the type of vessel and category of cargo. As a
result of improved draughts, the boundaries of the port hinterland
sometimes change. Traffic established over an inland route moving
 - 17 -

through another port may get diverted as a result of higher draughts

available in the new facility. Sometimes this is not liked by the
overall planning authorities and economies of the total system cost
have to be calculated to make a convincing case. Availability of a
deeper port may be instrumental in generation of additional traffic.
Generation of large scale export of beneficiated iron ore. Development
of the low grade ore deposits at Kudremukh in the hinterland of the
Mangalore Port on the west coast of India, it generated the large scale
expert of iron ore. This development involved investments of nearly
$US 650 million and became possible because of the development of the
new Mangalore Port in place of the old port of Mangalore which was only
a lighterage port.

Additional traffic means additional revenues but only part of

these revenues can be taken as benefit of the deeper channel.
Considerable developments in the port handling capability and
infrastructure involving heavy investments will be required before the
port can handle the additional traffic. The allocation of benefits to
different services is a complicated financial exercise.

Freight savings

With the increased draught availability the optimal ship size, the
size distribution of ships and the load factor go up. Both capital and
daily running costs decrease with the size of the vessel and the
economies of scale automatically get reflected in freight savings —
another benefit of deepening the channel.

Freight also comes down with the improved load factor. Because of
the draught restrictions in the Hoogly, the channel leading to the Port
of Haldia, India, the 80,000 DWT crude oil tankers are short loaded to
45,000/49,000 tons. The load factor is less than 0.6. If the draught
is improved, the Load factor can be improved to 0.8 or even 1.0,
improving the freight benefit by nearly 30 to 40 per cent.

This benefit has to be re-confirmed as the possibility of longer

waiting time for the larger vessels can erode this benefit. Longer
voyage distances also help in lowering the unit transport cost. Of
course, size increase does not always follow draught increase. Some
ships, such as container vessels, may not follow the increase in
draught. In their case, only reduced waiting time is he main advantage.

1.2.3 Analysis

Once the costs and benefits have been quantified, the viability of
the proposed deepening can be checked or the optimal depth of the
fairway determined. Using these costs and benefits, financial and
economic analysis can be made in the conventional manner. If the
Internal Rate of Return (IRR) turns out to be reasonable (above 10 per
cent) the project can be considered viable.

Optimal depth of fairways

By adopting different fairway deaths a series of comparable

calculations can be made. Figure 1.6 below shows net benefit and net
cost. Benefits increase with increasing access channel depth but the
rate of increase in benefits decreases with increasing access channel
depth.
 - 18 -

The cost, on the other hand, increases with increasing access

channel depth and rate of increase keeps on increasing. The optimal
depth of the fairway is at the point where the additional cost of
further dredging equals the additional benefits.

Figure 1.6 Cost vs depth increase

1.2.4 Summary

Steps necessary for an economic analysis of a dredging project may

be summed up as follows:
- Prepare a comprehensive review of all present and future
dredging works — volumes, depths and costs;
- Analyse the present shipping practices — freights, handling
arrangements, waiting times and costs due to tidal/navigational
constraint and seasonal variations;
- Analyse the projected navigational features of the channel —
sailing times, tidal windows, and keel clearances;
- Quantify the benefits of reduced waiting time, increased traffic
and reduced freight; and
- Make a cost benefit analysis to confirm viability or to choose
optimal channel dimensions.
 2 INVESTIGATIONS &
DATA COLLECTION

/HYDROGRAPHY/

/POSITIONING
SYSTEMS
/ DEPTH
MEASUREMENT
WATER LEVEL
BED LEVEL GEOTECHNICS,
ECHO SOUNDING
SIDE SCAN SONAR
BOTTOM SAMPLING,
MAGNETOMETER / FIELD TESTS
SWEEPING
LABORATORY TESTS
DENSITY
MEASUREMENT

HYDRAULICS
/METEOROLOGY
/ WATER MOVEMENT /
WIND / WATER CHEMISTRY
FOG
SEDIMENTOLOGY
TEMPERATURE
HUMIDITY
RAINFALL
 - 19 -

2. INVESTIGATIONS AND DATA COLLECTION

Dredging operations are highly sensitive to site conditions.

Inadequate or inaccurate information concerning these matters has
frequently been a serious source of disruption and disputes. It is
therefore important that accuracy in data collection receives proper
attention from the beginning of any works involving dredging.
Obtaining of basic information and data is essential to:
- Determine the viability of the project from the technical and
financial points of view;
- Estimate the costs; and
- Plan and programme.

For dredging projects, the scope of data acquisition/investigations

extends into the following areas:
- Hydrography;
- Geotechnics;
- Hydraulics; and
- Meteorology.

Topics to be considered are listed below:

Hydrography Geotechnics Hydraulics Meteorology

* Positioning * Bottom sampling * Water Wind

systems * Field tests movement Fog
* Depths Penetrometer River dis- Temperature
measurement SPT charge Humidity
* Water level Cone resistance Currents Rainfall
* Bed levels Vane test Waves
Echo sounding * Laboratory test Tides
• Side scan sonar Specific gravity * Water
• Magnetometer Grading Chemistry
* Sweeping Atterberg limits Salinity
*
Density Temperature
measurement Void ratio Chemical
Shear strength Composition
Compression Bacteriological
strength composition
Permeability * Sedimenteology
Consolidation Bed Load
Abrasiveness Suspended Load
Turbidity

2.1 Hydrography

Hydrography may be defined as "the study, description and mapping

Of oceans, lakes and rivers." It has a very special significance in
dredging where it is applied for dimensioning in time and space. It is
used to quantify the requirements of dredging and to monitor the
results of the application of dredging. Hydrographic surveys are
 - 20 -

required before, during and after dredging. A dredging survey is

required to assess the quantity of material to be dredged. An area
survey before and during dredging helps to determine the effects of
dredging on the morphological environment. Dumping area surveys are
made before starting dumping and at regular intervals. Post dredging
surveys are made to check that the designed dimensions have been
achieved and repeated to monitor and quantify re-shoaling.

Repeated and frequent surveys assist in establishing siltation

patterns and economic use of dredgers. Accuracy and speed are
important requirements. Using modern electronic and mini-computer
technology, new techniques for collecting and processing data have been
developed. Accurate positions of the points where the depths are
measured and the level of the water at that precise moment are
automatically recorded in rapid sequence with the help of high
precision instruments fixed in a specially-designed survey launch
transversing in a predetermined pattern over the target area. These
can be later transferred into a chart for use in dredging operations
(planning, checking, monitoring) using high speed printers. The
practical applications of these methods are described hereafter.

Aspects covered are:

Positioning;
Depth measurement; and
Data processing.

2.1.1 Positioning

Hydrographic surveying is conducted from a moving vessel on a

moving surface. Position fixing systems are therefore of a dynamic
nature. Errors creep in due to imperfect coordination in time of
various components of the position measurement system and difficulties
in exact measurement of distances. To maintain a uniform standard of
accuracy, it will be advantageous if the method of position fixing
employed during investigation stage is the same or similar to that to
be employed during the work.

Classical systems

Leading lines

A very simple method is the leading (ranging) lines. It is used

in harbour surveys, river banks or new construction sites. A series
of leading marks, usually parallel to each other, are painted along
quays or other landing places; the sounding boat, keeping in line with
each pair of leading marks. The position of the boat can be determined
by an angle from a sextant on board or a theodolite station ashore.
Accuracy is poor (less than + or - 5 m).

Wire method

When sounding near piers, wharves or mooring areas inside a

harbour, a more practical method, in which the hydrographer has the
entire operation under his control, is by unwinding from a counter drum
a fine textile or cotton thread. The end of it is attached to the pier
and the counter line is put back to zero just before the hydrographer
takes his bearing. Accuracy is better than one metre in distance.
 - 21 -

Horizontal sextant

This is a very well known positioning system and still widely used
in small ports in developing countries where sophisticated equipment is
not always available. It is a simple and economical system where
distances are small, visibility is good and shore marks exist.
Position fixing requires simultaneous measurement of two angles or the
measurement of the angle intersecting a transit. The sounding is
recorded at the same time. Minimum interval between two readings may
be one minute or 50m.

The average accuracy of a horizontal sextant is about plus or

minus 5 to 10 metres for distances between 2 to 15 kilometres.
Sextants are obsolete in almost all developed countries where optical
or electronic systems are in use.

Theodolite

Theodolite is a high accuracy optical positioning system for short

or long distance but it needs a lot of radio communication equipment
and a large staff. The hydrographer makes use of theodolite only when
great accuracy is required. Its use is limited to good weather
conditions.

Optical positioning systems

These positioning systems require only one ground station and a

target on board the hydrographic launch; the target is made of a ring
of prism reflectors. The distance is determined by laser or infra-red
beam measurements and the bearing by a high accuracy angular coder.
These systems which are microprocessor controlled, are entirely
automated. Some systems provide an automated tracking option. When
associated with a radio link to the sounding launch, for the
transmission of digital depth values, and to a micro computer for data
collection, these systems provide a complete device for short range (up
to five kilometres) hydrographic operations; positioning accuracy is a
few centimetres.

These systems have the disadvantage of being inoperational in low

visibility (fog, rain).

Radio positioning (electronics) systems

For distances which are greater than several miles and in regions
with less visibility radio positioning systems are more suitable than
optical systems.

The latest radio positioning systems ensure a high degree of

accuracy, even in poor visibility. Range accuracy is now better than
five metres for distances between 1 and 60 kilometres. Just three
on-shore beacons cover an area of 150 square-kilometres.

The use of radio positioning systems in harbour, estuary or

coastal areas requires the installation of ground beacons, the number
and location of which depend on the range of frequencies to be used.
Position is given by the intersection of two or more range arcs
simultaneously measured from the survey vessel.
 - 22 -

Before choosing any type of radio positioning system, a complete

study has to be undertaken, emphasizing the following parameters:
- Topography of the site;
- Surface of areas to be covered;
- Site parameters;
- Energy supply;
- Accuracy expected from the positioning system;
- Number of craft to be simultaneously located;
- Number and location of obstruction.

The two existing types of radiolocation are either phase

measurement systems or active ranging ones.

Phase measurement system (electronic range)

These systems are based on the principle of on board phase

measurements between waves of the same frequency emitted by two ground
stations; the phase measurement allows for the computation of the
distance between the launch and the two stations. The advantages of
such systems are:
- Simple hardware, implying low cost of the device; and
- Long range (several times the optical horizon distance).

The disadvantages of the systems are:

- Ambiguity of measurements (the phase being measured over 360
degrees) which makes special tuning of the receiving unit
necessary;
- The propagating speed of the radioelectric waves is affected by
the site characteristics (different speeds above ground and
above the sea), this lowers the accuracy; and
- The accuracy of such systems is within about ten metres.

The following checks should be made before the survey:

- Proper geometry of range arc intersection (not less than
60 degrees) ;
- Shore stations positions properly recorded;
- Calibration of the equipment;
- Correction for:
. Positions of receiver aerial and echo sounder transducer: and
. Difference in elevation of the master and shore station
aerials.
- Range reading stability at normal survey sailing speeds.
 - 23 -

Active ranging systems

The systems consist of a single co-ordinated shore station and a

ship board master station. A pulse emitted by a radiolocation unit on
board the launch is received by a ground station which sends it back
to the launch. The on board unit measures the time-space between the
emission and the return of the pulse. The knowledge of the
propagating speed enables the distance to be computed. Position is
determined by means of the simultaneous measurement of range and
bearing.

The advantages of these systems are:

- No ambiguity in the positioning; and
- Better accuracy than with phase measurement systems. Some
active ranging systems can also operate in a hyperbolic mode,
measuring differences of distances between reference stations.
In this case the accuracy can be slightly less than in the
circular mode.

The system should be calibrated over known ranges and checked

before and on completion of each period of survey. Checks similar to
those given under a range-range system should be made before
commencement of survey. Some systems will measure vertical as well as
horizontal angles which allows the determination of elevation of the
survey vessel relative to shore station. This facility eliminates the
need to record water level.

Global positioning systems (GPS)

A world-wide satellite positioning fixing system is called GPS.

GPS will soon become, with an earth reference station, a very accurate
positioning system. It is too early to assess its usefulness and
accuracy, but it is not too early to consider examining such a solution
within the context of new equipment on a large port site.

2.1.2 Depth measurement

Sea bed level is normally determined by measuring the depth of

water at a point above the sea bed and simultaneously recording the
sea level close by relative to appropriate datum. The water level is
recorded by the tide gauge and the water depth is measured with a
sounding pole or echo sounder.

Tide gauge (graduated staff)

The tide gauge, which consists of a graduated staff, is the most

reliable method which exists for measuring the level of water. The
tide gauge reading can be transmitted over a walkie-talkie to the
survey launch or a shore station.

In an estuary or river channel near a bank on which a tide gauge

or pilot gauge support can be fixed, it is possible to read the water
height on the gauge to within a decimetre with a pair of binoculars
from the bridge of the survey vessel, dredger or a ship.
 - 24 -

FIX \\ \
\ Heading = 180
* - Relative Bearing + Azimuth

I • or any other reference direction

Figure 2.1 Polar or range-bearing systems

Range Types Accuracy Supplier

Long Loran 30-50 metres Loran (U.S.)

Pulse/8 20-30 metres Racal (G.B.)

Medium Hyper-Fix 5-15 metres Racal

Argo 5-15 metres Cubit (U.S.)

Medium/Short Syledis 3-10 metres Sercel (F)

Trident 3-10 metres Sercel (F)
Maxiran 3-10 metres Maxiran (U.S.)
Trispondcr 3-10 metres Del Norte (U.S.)

Short Micro-Fix 1.5-3.0 metres Racal (G.B.)

(Circular) Trispondcr 1.5-3.0 metres Del Norte (U.S.)
Falcon Miniranger 1.5-3.0 metres Motorola (U.S.)

Short Artemis Range dependant CHL/NeSA (NL)

(Polar) Polar fix Range dependant Atlas (D)

Table 2.1 Systems most commonly available

 - 25 -

The graduated staff is also used for calibrating and checking an

automated tide recording station. Its installation therefore requires
great care and attention. Its alignment with the geographic contours
of the country and its calibration to chart datum must be carried out
to an accuracy of one centimeter for hydrographic sounding purposes.

Automatic tide gauge (marigraph and tide gauge network)

In busy ports, an analytical study of the tides is desirable so

that accurate tidal predications can be made. Also observations are
required over long periods. A graduated staff type tide gauge is not
sufficient for these observations and has to be supplemented by an
automatic tide gauge recorder.

The float type gauge or marigraph is the most economical and the
most reliable method for obtaining good records. The pressure
marigraph which does not require any form of support below the water
surface is suitable for non-developed zones and for shallow water
sites. Also available are ultrasonic marigraphs, the latest of which
have non-submerged transducers. Tide observatories are increasingly
being fitted with ultra high frequency (UHF) or very high frequency
(VHF), retransmitting systems for passing data to receivers in the
harbour master's office, the hydrographic office and on board the
sounding craft. They thus get the tide data in real time. Working
order of these tide gauge stations can also be checked from a distance.

In navigable estuaries or large rivers such as the Scheldt (the

Netherlands), the Thames (U.K.), the Gironde (France), or in the ports
of Bombay and Calcutta (India), Bangkok (Thailand) where tidal rise is
made use of for shipping, an automated transmitting tide gauge network
provides numerous advantages. These are:
- Safety of navigation and efficient use of channel depths; pilots
and sailors have access to tidal information from different
stations at frequent intervals through the VHF network. At the
harbour master's office, the port officers responsible for ship
movements have the same data screen displayed and updated;
- Fast and accurate production of sounding charts and dredging
requirements; and
- Research studies into the propagation of the tide in the
estuary, as well as the accuracy of tide predictions.

Reliability and accuracy

The reliability of the automatic tide gauge is very important and

is ensured by:
- A carefully studied choice of the site. The quality of
recordings gets effected by water surface agitation and local
anomalies in the propagation of the tide.
- A firm support frame equipped with a tide gauge which is
correctly aligned to chart datum and to the geographical
surroundings.
- A well tested automatic tide gauge recorder.
 - 26 -

- Regular and frequent maintenance, especially of the float guide

tube in the case of classic float gauges so as to eliminate any
risks of obstruction or coating of the orifice which could have
prejudicial effects on the dephasing and amplitude recordings
and falsify studies and predications.

The absolute error in port hydrographic sounding should remain

less than 10cm in order to meet the requirements of shipping and
dredging. This implies an absolute error less than 2cm for tidal
measurements, given that other sources or errors intervene in the
definition of the sounding.

Water depth

Lead line

The lead line consists of a flexible non-elastic line, usually of

wire or chain, attached to a weight of cylindrical form. The line is
marked into divisions of length, normally at 0.5m intervals. It is
used to "plumb" the bottom and is slow and labourious. Its use is
restricted in currents and for depths more than 20 metres.

Although the use of the lead line in port hydrographic sounding

has almost disappeared, it is still used for measuring depths in zones
which are inaccessible to craft and also for checking the verticality
of structure. Experienced hydrographic surveyors can, in situations of
heavy silting and presence of fluid mud where the echo sounder is
totally inadequate, define the navigable depth by using the lead line.
Verification checks have proved it to be very reliable.

Echo sounders

The ultrasonic echo sounder is now widely used for depth

measurements.

The principle consists in emitting a short ultrasonic pulse

through a transducer attached to the sounding launch.

The propagating time of the pulse, between the transducer, the

channel bottom where it is reflected, and back to the transducer, is
measured. Knowing the speed of sound propagation in the water (after
calibration), it is possible to compute the depth.

Calibration

Inaccuracies due to wrong use of echo-sounders are uncommon, due

to the great reliability of these devices. However, there are other
points which cause significant inaccuracies. The depth of the
oscillator (transducer) below the water surface varies, due to squat,
roll, pitch, heave and boat displacement.

Before sounding, the depth of transducers, generally located on

the hull of the vessel, should be checked as it can differ according to
the loading of the vessel and the water density which can vary widely
in an estuary. This calibration should be done as frequently as the
site conditions demand.
 - 27 -

In an estuary, calibration should be systematically done before

each sounding. Since water salinity and temperature may vary
considerably between low water and high water, calibration should be
carried out at least once during the course of sounding.

The bar check is the most accurate system for calibrating. It is,
however, difficult to apply it in estuaries or coastal areas where
strong currents prevail. In such situations it is possible to use a
bar calibration which consists of a transducer connected to the sounder
and a reflecting plate lying at different depths.

Speed of the vessel is an important factor. Whatever the size of

the vessel, when in motion it creates a squat with a consequent change
in the draft of the ship (which may be over 0.20m when the speed is
higher than 10 knots); therefore it is recommended that the squat for
sounding vessels should be calculated. (Figure 1.4).

The results of rolling and pitching may, in certain cases,

considerably affect sounding accuracy. For example, soundings carried
out on a slope or in its vicinity require considerable accuracy and
therefore call for the use of narrow-beam echo-sounders. Correctors
can be used to eliminate all soundings taken beyond a certain angle of
roll or pitch. Fixed transducers with swivelling electronic beams, or
a mobile on a gyroscope platform are also used aboard large
hydrographic vessels.

The heave may also have significant effect on the accuracy of

surveys in areas exposed to swell, which is frequently the case in the
outer approach channels to large ports. Four methods for eliminating
the effects of heave exist:
- Manual smoothing;
- Simple computerized smoothing;
- Mathematical correction based on Fourier frequency analysis
(DALI programme, developed in France); and
- Heave compensator.

Other important checks include the transducer position relative to

the position fixing system; the water level in the survey area related
to tile gauge station.

Pulse frequency and beam width

Modern echo sounders can work at ultrasonic frequencies from 5 to

700kHz; and often at two frequencies simultaneously. Signals from high
frequency, low energy sounders reflect from sea bed materials of quite
low density whereas signals from low frequency and high energy sounders
penetrate low density layers and get reflected from bottom layers of
higher density.

The choice of frequency according to nature of the bottom is very

important for sounding accuracy, e.g., in port channel access where
muddy areas are often found, frequencies of 200kHz or more give echoes
on the surface of the fluid mud, while 30kHz gives several echoes from
within the fluid mud layer.
 - 28 -

The beam width affects accuracy in the case of steep slopes, sand
ripples and dredged slopes as well as discrimination between objects
that come within the beam width. The echo sounder only measures the
distance from the transducer to the nearest object within its beam
width.

Accuracy and density of soundings

Accuracy is a function of the objectives of the survey and the

prevailing conditions during measuring. The permissible error in
accuracy of depth for enclosed waters must be less than 1 per cent of
the depth measurement. This error will include errors caused by the
echo-sounder calibrations, sea conditions and tide corrections.

The density of soundings, (i.e., the distance separating lines of

soundings and the space between the soundings recorded along those
lines, is a parameter that is determined by the objectives. Directions
of sounding lines must be specified, generally at right angles to
contours of the channel axis.

Echo sounders record the measured depths as a continuous trace on

a chart in analogue form or in digitalized form on a magnetic tape or
disc.

2.1.3 Sonar sweeping and magnetometer profiling

A side scan sonar may be described as a sideways looking echo

sounder. Transducers are mounted either in a towed fish or in the keel
of the vessel. Transducer signals are directed at shallow angles on
either side of the path of the vessel. Area of coverage is between 75m
to 150m depending on depth of water on either side of the centre line.
As a rule lines should be sailed giving 100 per cent overlap. Tow fish
should be at a height above the sea bed equal to approximately 10 per
cent of the range. Three frequencies are in general use 50kHz for
reconnaisance work, 100kHz for more general survey work and 500kHz for
detailed inspection (see figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2 Side scan sonar

 - 29 -

A side scan sonar sweeping is recommended to examine in detail

dredging areas before work begins or before new waterways are opened to
navigation. Obstruction which could be a danger to dredging, shipping
or to engineering works have to be found and identified.

Sonar data can be stored on magnetic tapes. Computer processing

can correct changes in vessel speed and distortions and individual
records can be assembled to form a mosaic picture of the sea bed.

Because side scan sonar offers a simple and inexpensive method of

covering large areas its wider use in the design and control of
dredging works is recommended. It can be deployed along with echo­
sounding.

Some new hydrographic scanning systems which can be of more

convenient use than side scan sonars are now being developed. They use
a multi-beam echo sounder, sending short, precise, spaced beams on both
sides of the survey ship. Their vertical accuracy is within about
25cm. Their use, however, for general channel operation is limited due
to cost and the fact that they are more fitted for coastal surveys.

Magnetometer profiling

Magnetometer detects and records the total magnetic fields near

the sea bed. Ferro metal objects on or just below the sea bed can be
detected by the magnetometer. Like the sonar sweep, a magnetometer is
mounted in a tow fish and connected by a long cable to a recorder.
Magnetic anomalies caused by pipelines, ship wrecks, cables, well
heads, munitions and other magnetic debris are recorded. These are
measurable if the object weighs more than 100 kg and is closer than 10m
to the tow fish. The search may be regarded as qualitative and
quantified with the help of divers. For high fidelity work, alternate
lines should be run in opposite directions with tow fish as close to
the sea bed as possible.

2.1.4 Data processing

The classical method for drawing up hydrographic charts include

the following:
- The hydrographer uses the echo sounder recordings where the
instants of position measurements have been plotted. This gives
pairs of (depth, position) data; and
- After reduction to chart datum, the depth values are plotted on
a chart and the isobath curves are hand drawn.

These methods need many experienced hands and are time consuming.
For instance, the hand processing of data and drawing of a chart of a
two kilometre long channel can take as long as a few days.

Today, electronics and computers are extensively used to process

the data in the case of medium to large harbours, and even in the case
of small harbours with heavy siltation. These methods are described
below.
 - 30 -

Computerised systems

Computerised data collected from the field will consist of four

measurements taken simultaneously, including:
- Sounding,
- Position,
- Time, and
- Height of the tide.

The frequency of this data can be 0.5 seconds to several seconds,

depending on the speed of the sounding launch, and it will be stored on
magnetic tape.

The recorded information is loaded into the computer and

interfaced with the plotter for the production of charts. The
programming can cover contouring interpolation of levels between grid
points, changes in land between successive surveys, quantity
calculations, changes in quantities and highlighting of areas above
specified level. Fully automated systems integrate data collection,
data logging and processing into a single continuous operation.
("Automation in the Dredging Industry" - Chapter 6).

Data can be processed on board or ashore. The processing

programme, written in "Basic," operates with equipment which calls for
a minimum investment. In its simplest form, this equipment includes a
desk top computer, equipped with a graphic screen, a keyboard for
man-machine dialogue, a printer, a data storage unit and finally an
automatic plotting table.

2.1.5 Survey launch

Survey launch is a special purpose craft used for conduct of field

surveys. Survey launch should be selected to satisfy the weather and
sea conditions prevailing in the area where it operates and the size of
the survey field.

The main characteristics involved are:

- The length, beam and draft;
- Maneuverability and speed;
- Large and well lit wheel-house;
- Position of the well for hull transducers, in relation to the
radiolocation antenna, trim and squat;
- Independent electric power supply for the hydrographic
equipment; and
- Endurance and accommodation (depending on site conditions).

Some ports use a survey hovercraft which surveys the sea bed
faster than traditional vessels. Amphibious vehicles for measurements
in restricted and shallow water areas have also been used.

Guideline specifications and list of standard equipment for a

survey launch for use in a medium size port located in a zone of
moderate sea environment follow.
 - 31 -

Specifications (guidelines)

The survey launch should be designed and constructed to suit the

area of its operation. It should be built under the class Lloyd's
Certificate LRBC survey launch for extended protected waters.

The survey launch should have a steel hull to avoid damage while
running aground. Sufficient protection should be provided for the:
- Echo sounder transducer;
- Rudder and propellers; and
- Cooling system.

The length of the survey launch should be designed for the wave
pattern which exists in the area.

The trim of the survey launch under full load conditions will not
be in the head.

The freeboard of the survey launch should be 0.90m from the main
deck under full load.

The location of the fixed transducers should be chosen at such a

point where the effect of rolling and pitching is minimal.

The exhaust pipe should be above the main deck preferable above
the top of the wheel-house. This is in accordance with the specifica­
tions of Lloyd's.

Enough deck space aft should be provided for bar-check, subbottom

profiler, soil sampling and additional lifting gear (minimal two
davits).

Surveyors in the survey launch should have:

- A panoramic view of the area;
- Direct visual contact and direct verbal communication between
the surveyors and the helmsman; and
- Sufficient space for all survey and computer equipment.

Air conditioning facilities should be provided in the wheel-house

and the survey work space for continued functioning of the survey
computer equipment.

The mast of the survey launch should be retractable or tiltable in

order to be able to mount and place the positioning units. The mast
should be located above the fixed transducer of the echo sounder in
order to avoid off-set errors.

The vessel should be capable of sailing continuously at low speed

(2-4 knots), therefore accurate speed control and good direction
stability are essential. The propulsion engines should be the naturally
aspirated marine type connected to reverse/reduction gearbox with
trolling valve for realizing slow speed.
 - 32 -

List of standard equipment

Echo sounder with the following specifications:

- Modular design/construction;
- Depth measuring ranges from 0-5m and from 0-70m in 10 steps;
- A sounding rate of not more than 20 per second;
- A duel frequency/channel;
- High efficiency transducers with beam widths of 8 degrees and 20
degrees;
- A built in echo contrast amplifier with separate digitizers for
each channel/frequency and dynamic bottom tracking;
- A recorder with about 200mm wide chart paper, variable speeds up
to 12cm per minute and remotely controlled paper feed for
true-to-scale recording;
- Automatic annotation to echogram recording, with all important
parameters like digitizer tick marks, water sound velocity,
basic measuring range and phasing, depth threshold line, time,
distance and event markers, etc;
- An automatic heave compensator;
- Manual adjustment for tide, draught, sound velocity and paper
distortion correction;
 - 33 -

- Interfaces for computerized survey system;

- A power supply of 24 volts D.C.;
- Automatic self test;
- Accuracy within 10cm;
o o
- Operating temperature 0 C to 5 C.

Short-range positioning equipment with:

- Electronic distance measuring;
- One master with three or more remote stations;
- Elimination of reflection and cancellation of microwaves;
- Accuracy within 1m;
- All weather operational;
- A power supply of 24 volts D.C. maximum; and
- Operating temperature of 0° C to 50° C for the master and -10° C
to 50° C for the remotes.
* Data logging and processing:
- Computerized data processor with operator terminal, screen
display and printing as well as plotting facilities;
- Data logging by means of a printer and magnetic tapes, etc.;
- Automated track navigation with left/right indicator, distance
to go indicator, etc.;
- "On line" processing with display as well as plotting with depth
numbers, etc.;
- Easy but efficient dialogue operation technique with highest
standard of operational comfort and flexibility;
- Software programs for preplotting of track lines and survey
grids, real time navigation plotting and correcting of
hydrographic data, transformation of ranges into rectangular
coordinate system, cross profiles, calculation of volumes etc.;
and
- The power supply for the above equipment shall be built into the
survey launch.

* Optional items:
- Side scan sonar with tow fish and recorder;
- Densimeter with tow fish and recorder;
- Theodolite measuring system and accessories; and
- Current meter to record the velocity and direction of the tidal
current to operate up to depths of 25m with necessary anchor
buoys, sinker and ropes. The current meter shall have
self-recording facilities. The ranges for the current shall be
specified.
 - 34 -

2.1.6 Density measurement

Introduction

In many ports, the bottom of the access channel is covered with

fluid mud suspensions of a density between 1.05 and 1.3. This causes
serious problems for hydrographic surveying, for maintenance dredging
and for navigating deep draughted vessels.

In an estuary, "high energy" phenomena (tidal currents, storms)

causes the erosion of cohesive sediments and transports the suspended
particles into the navigation channels. In still waters, those
suspensions settle into stratified layers with a thickness of up to 4m,
moving along the channel bottom. When the energy level is sufficiently
low, those layers consolidate to form dense, static settlements which
considerably reduce the available channel depth.

These phenomena confront the port authorities responsible for

establishing and maintaining their channel depth, with the problem of a
quick and reliable determination of the lower "navigability" limit
(i.e., the depth where, within the transitional zone between water and
stiff mud, the navigable fluid ends and the non-navigable seabed
begins)

Traditional survey techniques, such as lead lines and echo

sounders are not adequate for determining the navigable depth: they do
not measure properties related to navigability or have limitations when
applied to dredging.

Until recently, the only way to measure channel depth was double
frequency echo sounding; generally 210kHz reflected by the "top mud"
level, and 33kHz, passing through the "fluid mud" layer and reflected
by the "hard" bottom consisting of sand or stiff, consolidated mud.

One of the big problems with these measurements is that they give
erroneous values after a storm when the fluid mud layer is enlarged by
the resuspension of already consolidated layers, and an "apparent" loss
of navigable depth is registered, whereas the real depth had probably
increased, due to the resuspension of the mud particles on the bottom.

This serious problem of uncertainty in defining the hard bottom

and possibility of disturbance by storms have led to a search for a
more positive parameter for defining the navigable depths in muddy
areas.

The term "nautical bottom" is defined as a density value within

the stationary suspension above which level it is safe for vessels to
navigate. To define the "safe navigability" limit, two criteria have
to be met:
- The ship's hull must suffer no damage even if its draught would
reach the full nautical depth; and
- The navigational response of the vessel must not be adversely
affected.
 - 35 -

Figure 2.4 Comparison of density profile and tanker cross-section

to illustrate the concept of nautical depth
 - 36 -

The first criterion is met when the material covering the channel
bottom is fluid and its shear resistance is not excessive. The second
criterion depends on a whole range of mud properties: density,
resistance to viscous drag exerted by the mud on the ship's hull
(rheological behaviour) and the generation of "internal waves" by the
vessel's movements on the mud-water interface.

Although all these elements have an influence on navigation, it is

necessary for practical and operational hydrographic surveys to choose
one specific physical parameter, easily measurable in situ for the day
to day registration of the navigable depth.

Field and laboratory tests and analysis on mud samples have

established that interpretation of rheological properties in the
present stage of knowledge is not practical. The answer seems to lie
with in situ density measurements, backed up by full-scale trials.

Full scale trials were undertaken in Rotterdam and Zeebrugge. The

main conclusions of these trials can be summarised as follows:

- The upper part of the fluid mud layer is "navigable" even with
"negative keel clearance" (i.e., with the hull of the ship in
the mud).
- In all test runs, the ships remained fully maneuverable even
when sailing with the negative keel clearance.
- The keel clearance has no influence on the machine maneuvering
behaviour of the test vessel.
- Acceleration capacity remained constant when trying out a whole
range of keel clearances with respect to the "top mud" level.
- The amount of "used steering capacity" with reduced keel
clearance was about the same as with the other ships sailing
with normal keel clearance.
- The criterion of an internal wave at the water-mud interface was
recorded but no effect could be measured during the acceleration
phase of the ship.

Laboratory tests and full scale trials conclusively established

that "density" could be a reliable parameter for establishing navigable
depths.

For measuring "density," the acoustic and nuclear measuring

principles have been used.

Acoustic methods

The principles of the acoustic techniques are based on the

propagation of sound (sound speed or attenuation of sound) in water.

The system is likely to face the following problems:

- The same sound speed can occur at different densities. This can
cause problems when interpreting the collected data.
- There is only a small change in sound speed (+ or - 4%) within a
rather wide density range (1-1.8), which can easily lead to
errors during the measurements.
 - 37 -

- Another practical problem when measuring the density by means of

sound speed is the presence of small gas bubbles in the sediment.
Very small amounts of gas (< 0.01 per cent) can reduce the sound
speed by a factor of two.
- A general disadvantage of the acoustic density measuring methods
is that the sound speed and the attenuation of the sound in a
suspension depend largely upon the physico-chemical properties
of the system; temperature and salinity of the water, minerology,
size, shape and structure of the suspended solid particles and
the quality and quantity of the organic content. This means that
the measured value of a given acoustic parameter at a given
density will differ according to the sand, silt and clay content
of the suspension. That is why acoustic in situ density
measurement have to be accompanied by intensive sampling
campaigns and extensive suspension analyses for a correct
interpretation of the collected data.

Nuclear techniques

Nuclear methods are based on the behaviour of nuclear radiation in

the suspension. This behaviour can be described by two processes:
"Compton scattering" and "Photo-electric absorption."

Taking into account both phenomena, it has been theoretically and

experimentally proved that the ratio of the detected intensity (I) to
the emitted intensity (Io) of the radiation sent through a sediment
column of fixed limited thickness, depends only on density (and not on
the atomic number or the nature of the sediment), if the radiation
energy is greater than 60 KeV. Nuclear techniques therefore offered a
better alternative.

To start with, stationary or fixed point density probes were

developed as early as 1974. The two systems were the transmission
gauge and the back-scatter probe. The transmission gauge is an
H-shaped instrument with the radioactive source in one leg and the
detector in the other.

The H form is a disadvantage because it is difficult to sink it

under its own weight. (Figure 2.5(a))

Figure 2.5 Nuclear probes

 - 38 -

Unlike the transmission method, the back scatter method does not
used direct radiation. This is suppressed by a fan-steel screen and
the detector which is shielded from the source and receives only a part
of the primary radiation scattered in all directions through the
medium. This enables the source and the detector to be housed together
in a pencil shaped tube which enters the mud more easily than the
H-shaped probe. (Figure 2.5(b))

Stationery probes, though completely operational, present severe

intrinsic limitations:
- Spot measurements like the lead line;
- They are very time consuming resulting from the need to stop the
vessel at each measuring point (Production is limited to 60-70
readings in a day);
- Spot measurements mean there is no evidence regarding the
navigability between the measured points; and
- Limits on the angle of penetration make measurements difficult.

A continuous measurement of density is essential for the

establishment of reliable "nautical depth" charts. Preferably, this
measurement should be undertaken along with normal echo sounding
surveys.

Towed probes enabling continuous measurements have been developed.

Radio active towed probes

These probes measure the attenuation of high-energy (greater than

600 keV) radioactive radiation emitted through a towed "fish."
Different radioactive probes exist in the market while some others are
under development.

The Navitracker is a towed submarine vehicle equipped with a high,

speed gamma-ray gauge and is used in Zeebrugge, Belgium.

The French Atomic Energy Commission has developed a radioactive

probe which can be towed at speeds of 2 to 4 knots. This probem, the
JTD4, is used in Louve estuary.

For understanding the working of the towed probes some details of

the Navitracker are given below.

The overall system consists of a tow fish containing a high-speed

nuclear transmission gauge, an "intelligent" winch controlling the
vertical movement of the fish, and a main computer which controls and
runs, via the necessary interfaces, both the echo sounding and density
surveys which are conducted simultaneously. Individual elements of the
system are as follows:
- A streamlined tow fish housing the depth sensor and he density
measurement system for which a nuclear transmission density
gauge is used for its absolute measurement accuracy (+ or - 2.5
per cent), fast response time (0.5 sec) and high spatial
resolution (1.5cm);
 - 39 -

- The winch controlling wire raising ad lowering via an integral

industrial process computer;
- The armoured, multi-core tow-cable linking the tow fish to the
winch and computer combines the double function of "towing and
undulating" the fish and "transmitting" signals between
transducers, winch and computer;
- The main computer operates through a controller or interface
unit in which echo sounder, precision positioning system,
density and depth data are put in and processed. The position
of the recorded density data is determined through combining the
ship's position information (via a high precision radio­
positioning system) with the tow fish position information
registered by wire-out and pressure (depth sensor) . The tow
fish has a trail ratio under tow of better than 1.2:1, thus
avoiding the need for independent monitoring of tow fish
layback. (Fingure 2.6)

Figure 2.6 Nuclear tow fish

 - 40 -

The heart of the Navitracker is the computer-controlled

"intelligent" winch (Figure 2.7). The main computer is interfaced into
a second computer which controls the winch functions. It is arranged
that signals from the density and depth sensor are passed from the tow
fish to the main computer, which automatically directs the fish to
increase or decrease its depth in relation to nominated density values.

In this way the towed vehicle is caused to automatically undulate

across the nominated range of density values. As a result, the system
measures a succession of density points as it traverses obliquely
across the density structure of the stationary suspension. The
altitude of a specific density can be determined at approximately every
10m.

Although highly sophisticated, the system is operated by a small

team as a routine survey tool.

legend
1 COMPUTER CONTROLLED WINCH
2 MAIN COMPUTER
3 DENSITY METER
4 DATALOGGER
5 TOW FISH
6 POSITIONING SYSTEM
7 210KHx ECHO SOUNDER
8 33KHz ECHO SOUNDER
9 "INTELLIGENT" WINCH
10 TOW CABLE

Figure 2.7 Parts of the Navitracker system

Another major advantage of the system is that simultaneous echo

sounding and density surveys are possible, facilitating direct
comparisons between the results of the two surveys in the absence of
imponderable differences such as inadequacies in track-keeping and time
delay between the surveys. Undertaking the two types of suveys
simultaneously is obviously cost-effective in ship time and provides a
greater amount of data, thus improving reliability and safety for
navigation.
 - 41 -

Presentation of the navitracker data

The Navitracker can be operated in three modes:

- The undulation mode in which the tow fish undulates between two
given density levels, (e.g., 1.05 and 1.20);
- The TT (target tracking) mode in which the tow fish follows
automatically a predetermined density level (e.g., 1.15 or 1.20);
and
- The vertical mode in which the gauge is used to measure
stationary density profiles.

The towed system is an important improvement compared with

stationary measurements.

In Zeebrugge, the fluid mud covers a surface of 500,000m2 to

1,000,000m2, depending on seasonal variations. When using stationary
gauges it would take more than 30 hours to survey the whole area to
collect a set of data every 100m. The Navitracker gives, depending on
the survey mode, 4 to 20 crossings or more of a given density level
every 100m, while the survey is done in 5 hours. After that it takes
only five hours more to produce the depth charts indicating the level
of the 210khz reflector, the 1.2 horizon, and the differences between
the two levels (Figure 2.8).

Figure 2.8 Echo sounding and density lines

 - 42 -

2.2 Geotechniques

Properties of the soil to be dredged effect fundamentally the

performance of all dredging plant and the dredging processes. Careful
investigations and the correct interpretations of the test results are
important for the success of all dredging activities. Soil testing
over water is expensive and there is always a tendency on the part of
the owners/clients to economize on these. But it has been proved many
times that the small Savings possible on this account have often led to
heavier expenditures during execution and have often been the causes
for disputes and delays.

Properties of the soil in almost all its states — in situ, after

breaking up, in suspension, during and after sedimentation and
settlement etc. — have profound influence on some part of the dredging
process and the investigation procedure and tests are to be so designed
so as to bring these out.

The report of the International Commission for the classification

of soil to be dredged, revised edition published by PIANC in 1984, has
drawn up in a comprehensive manner, standard classification of soils
and rocks and identification tests and procedures to be adopted.
Readers are advised to refer to that publication which is
internationally accepted by the dredging community. Only some
important considerations and guidelines are included in this section.
The following are covred:
- Soil classifications in outline;
- Survey density;
- Survey methods;
- In situ tests;
- Laboratory tests
- Physical properties of soil in relation to dredging operations;
and
- Rocks.

2.2.1 Soil classification

Soil classification is the arrangement of soils into groups having

similar properties. Various sytems have been enunciated by different
authorities at different times. Casagrande classification, Unified
soil classification system, British soil classification for engineering
purposes and PIANC classification for soils and rocks to be dredged are
the most well known. In this book the PIANC classification is used.
Under this system the soils are divided into boulders/cobbles, gravels,
sands, silts, clays, peats and organic soils. The most important
properties used in this system are the grain size, Atterberg limits,
plastic limit, liquid limit and plasticity index, and strength and
structural characteristics (Reference table 2.1).

Table 2.1 sums up the general basis for the classification of

soils for dredging purposes. (PIANC)
 - 43 -

2.2.2 Survey density

Survey density is defined as the number of points within an area

over which the bore holes are made or samples taken or tests performed.
The density varies from site to site. The minimum number of sampling
locations in general circumstances is given by the formula:

A
A x d 1/3
N = 3 + -------------
50
where :
N = No. of boreholes or sample locations
A = Plan area of the site in square metres
d = Average depth to be removed in metres

Site characteristics will indicate adequacy or otherwise of the

number.

2.2.3 Survey methods

All the methods used are clearly described in text books/standards

(B.S.S No. 1377 and 5930). Only a list is included here;
- Shell and auger boring;
- Rotary drilling;
- Gravity sampling
- Vibro coring;
- Jet probing;
- Wash boring;
- Grab sampling;
- Seismic reflection profiling;
- Magnetometer profiling; and
- Side scan sonar.

Table 2.2, based on PIANC, summarizes the highlights of the

different methods.
 - 44 -

2.2.4 In situ tests

Soil characteristics are very likely to change during sampling,

recovery, transport and testing. This is specially true of structural
strength, which is the most important criterian for dredging. For
determining these important properties or the dredgability of the soil,
many in situ tests are invaluable. These are tabulated below.

Figure 2.9 Torvane

 - 45 -

Particle size Identification Particle nature Strength and structural

Main soil
Identification and plasticity characteristics
type
range of size (mm)

Visual examination and Particle shape:

Boulders Larger than 200mm N.A.
Cobbles Between 200 • 60mm measurement (3)
Rounded
Irregular Possible to find cemented beds of
Coarse 60-20 Easily identifiable by Angular gravel which resemble weak conglom
Gravels Medium 20-6 visual examination Flaky erate rock. Hard-packed gravels may
Fine 6 - 2mm Elongated exist intermixed with sand

elongated Deposits will vary in strength

(packing) between loose, dense and
Coarse 2-0.6 All particles visible to cemented. Structure may be homo
Texture:
Sands (4) Medium 0.6- 0.2 the naked eye. geneous or stratified. Intermixture
Fine 0.2-0.06mm Very little cohesion when with silt or clay may produce hard
Rough
dry packed sands
L__________ Smooth
Polished

Generally particles are invis­ Non-plastic or

ible and only grains of a low plasticity Essentially non-plastic but character­
coarse silt may just be seen istics may be si milar to sands if
with the naked eye. Best predominantly coarse or sandy in
Coarse 0.06 -0.02 determination is to test for nature. If fine will approximate to
Slits (4) Medium 0.02 -0.006 dilatancy (1). Material may clay with plastic character. Very
Fine 0.006 - 0.002mm have some plasticity, but silt often intermixed or interleaved
can easily be dusted off fin­ with fine sands or clays. May be
gers after drying and dry homogeneous or stratified. The con
lumps powdered by finger sistency may vary from fluid silt
pressure through stiff silt into "siltstone"

Strength Shear
Strength (2)
V. soft May be
squeezed
easily
between
fingers. Less 20 kN/m2
Soft Easily
Below 0.002mm moulded by
Distinction between Clay exhibits strong co-
fingers.
silt and clay should hesion and plasticity, Firm Requires 20-40kN/m2
Intermediate
not be based on par- without dilatancy. Moist
plasticity strong
ticle size alone sample sticks to fingers,
(Lean Clay) pressure to
since the more im- and has a smooth, greasy
Clay
* mould by
portant physical touch. Dry lumps do not
High fingers. 40-75 kN/m2
properties of silt powder, shrinking and
plasticity Stiff Cannot be
and clay are only re- cracking during drying
(Fat Clay) moulded by
lated indirectly to process with high dry
fingers,
particle size strength
indented
by thumb. 75-150 kN/m2
Hard Tough, in­
dented with
difficulty
by thumb Above
nail 150 kN/m2
Structure may be fissured, intact,
homogeneous, stratified or weath-
ered
Generally identified by May be firm or spongy in nature.
Peats and black or brown colour, Strength and structure may vary
Organic Varies often with strong organic considerably in horizontal and
*
toll smell, presence of fi- vertical directions. Presence of
brous or woody material gas should be noted

Table 2.2: Identification and classification of soils for dredging purposes (PIANC)
NOTES ON TABLE 2.2

N.A.—Not applicable

(1) Dilatancy is the property exhibited by sill as a reaction to shaking. If a moistened sample is placed in an open hand and shaken, water
will appear on the surface of the sample giving a glossy appearance. A plastic clay gives no reaction.

(2) Defined as the undrained (or immediate) shear strength ascertained by the applicable, in situ or laboratory test procedure.

(3) Though only visual examination and measurement are possible, an indication should be given with respect to the particles as well as to
the percentages of different sizes.

(4) “Sands" and “silts" are terms denoting a particle size. Sands are not necessarily restricted to quartz sands but may include lime sands,
iron ores, etc. Also silts denote a grain size, noi a consistency. Therefore consistency terms such as "fresh harbour silts, muds", etc.
should not be used.
 - 46 -

Test Important properties General remarks

to be studied

Standard penetration In situ density for Test peformed on

test (SPT) granular material materials through which
.... passes

Dutch cone penetrometer Provides information For probing from the

test on driving resistance surface
friction and cone
resistance

Vane test Shear strength of Mainly used with soft

cohesive soils clays

Permeability Granular material Not very reliable under

sea conditions. Rely
on laboratory testing
of samples (BS 5930)

Pressuremeter test In situ shear Not widely used for

strength of soil dredging investigations

Table 2.3 Sampling and investigation procedures (PIANC)

Approximate relationship for non-cohesive and cohesive soils between

soil compactness, N value, cone resistance and relative density is
given in Tables 2.4, 2.5, 2.6 below:

THREAD FOR CONNECTION

TO DRIUiNO ROD | CENTRAL SECTION
1 rA RR

FLAT FOR WRENCH

‘ 4 WATER FARTS
/-*/*

Figure 2.10 Standard penetrometer

 - 47 -

Soil situation N value Cone resistance Relative density

(SPT according (Dutch cone (Dr)
to Terzaghi penetration
and Peck) test) in bars

Very loose <4 <25 <0.15

Loose 4-10 25-50 0.15-0.35
Medium dense 10-30 50-100 0.35-0.65
Dense 30-50 100-200 0.65-0.85
Very dense >50 >200 >0.85

Table 2.4 Relationship between N value, cone resistance,

relative density for non-cohesive soils

Soil situation N value Unconfined Torvane cohesion

(SPT according compression in bars
to Terzaghi strength
and Peck) in bars

Very soft <2 <0.2 5 <0.13

Soft 2-4 0.25-0.5 0.13-0.25
Plastic 4-8 0.5-1 0.25-0.5
Stiff 8-15 1-2 0.5-1
Very stiff 15-30 2-4 1-2
Hard >30 >4 >2

Table 2.5 Relationship between N value, unconfined compression

strength and torvane cohesion for cohesive soils

Soil situation Cone resistance/n30

Grave 1 5.5-8
Coarse sand 4-5.5
Fine sand 2.5-4
Clayey sand 6
Sandy loam 5-6
Sandy clay 3-4
Clay 2

Table 2.6 Relationship between N value and cone resistance

 - 48 -

2.2.5 Laboratory tests

The main tests performed in the laboratory are fully described in

the PIANC publication and British Standard specifications. They
include:
Particle size distribution;
Particle shape;
Bulk density;
Specific gravity;
Compactness;
Moisture content;
Liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index; and
Shear strength, including unconfined and triaxial compression
tests.

Table 2. 7 from PIANC Publication - Classification of Soils is

reproduced below which sums up the in situ and laboratory testing
procedures.

2.2.6 Physical properties in relation to dredging operations

As mentioned before properties of the soil effect almost all

elements of the dredging process. The dredging process may be broken
down into the following components:
- Loosening or breaking up (mechanically with cutting tools,
hydraulically with jets or suction and chemically with
explosion) ;
Entering into the means of transport (mechanically by grab or
bucket or hydraulically by suction);
Transporting of the soil (mechanically by barges or hoppers and
hydraulically by pipe line) ;
Deposition at a dumping site or in a reclamation area; and
- Processing of the dumped material (dewatering compaction, etc.).
 - 49 -

Soil properties In situ test Laboratory tost Reference

or character­ (site or central laboratory) (British Standard or equivalent) (1)
istics
Sieving on granular soils. B.S. 1377 (1976). p. 30 et seq
Particle size N.A.
Sedimentation on cohesive soils.
analysis
Combination on composite soils
such ac sandy clays.
A rough evaluation by compari­
son with standard soil samples,
by microscope ot with grid
counter
Comparison with standard B.S.812 Part 1(1976)
Particle shape N.A.
samples and photographs
The unit weight of soil as found
Buk density N.A. except for measure­ in situ and expressed as the
or in situ ment of boulders and B.S. 1377 (1976). p. 69 et seq
ratio between total weight and
density cobbles total volume of soil
Specific N.A. S.G. determined as the ratio be­
gravity of tween unit weight of solid par­
B.S. 1377 (1976). p. 26 et seq
the solid ticles and unit weight of water
particles
Compactness May employ several in N.A.
(insitu) situ tests, e.g.
(i) Standard pen­ (1) B.S. 1377 (1976). p. 103 et seq.
etration test
(ii) Dutch penetrom­ (I) The penetrometer and soil ex-
eter (sounding) ploration (Sanglerat).
(iii) Other penetrometers (III) Elsevier Publishing Co.,
based on standardized Amsterdam (1979)
test procedures

Moisture (ii) Radioactive meter (i) Moisture content determi­ (i) B.S. 1377 (1976). p. 13 et seq.
content method nation
(ii) Melgh, A.C. and Skipp, B.O. -
"Gamma ray and neutron methods
of measuring soil density and
moisture." Geotechnique,
X(1960) 3 June, pp 110-126

Plasticity N.A. Determination of liquid and

B.S. 1377(1976). p. 17 et seq
plastic limits
Shear strength May employ several in
situ tests, e.g.,
(1) Hand penetrom­ (i) Torvane (i) Item manufactured by "Soiltest"
eter Inc., Evanson, III., U.S.A.
(ii) Vane tests (ii) B.S. 1377. p. 99 st seq
(iii) Dutch penetrometer (iii)
(iv) Other penetrom­ See reference given above for
eters based on
(iv) "compactness"
standardized test
procedures (v) Hand penetrometer (v) See reference given above
(vi) Unconfined compression (vi) B.S. 1377 (1976). p. 106 et seq.
apparatus
(vii) Triaxial compression (vii) B.S. 1377 (1975). p. 106 et seq.
or for more advanced study:
The measurement of soil proper­
ties in the triaial test
(Bishop, A.W. & Henkel, D.J.).
Arnold, London (1962).
(viii) Cell apparatus (viii) Gauze, E.C.W.A. and Tan Tjong
Kio "The sheering properties of
soils" - Part 1: the cell-test
procedure; Part II: comparison
of triaxial and cell-test re­
sults. Geotechnique II (1950),
2 December, pp 141 - 261.
(ix) Fall cone (ix) A new approach to the determi­
nation Shear Strength of Clay
by the Fall Cone Test (Hansbo)
Royal Swedish Geotech. Inst.
Stockholm (1967), proceedings
No. 14
Lima content N.A. (i) Measurement of carbonate (i) A.S.T.M. 03166 or "Soil me-
content
chanics for road engineers",
(ii) Visual tost by applying hy-
HMSO London (1952)
drochloric acid (HC1) to
specimen to indicate effer-
vescence
Organic content N.A. Determination of organic content B.S. 1377 (1976). p. 46 et seq

Table 2.7: In situ and laboratory testing procedures of soils for dredging purposes (PIANC)
 - 50 -

In each of these processes some properties of the soil play an

important role. These are tabulated in Table 2.8.

Phases of Coherent ductile Area ol transition Incoherent material: Coherent, consolidated material:
dredging materiel, incl. between ductile sand, gravel slate, granite > 64 mm
process clay and loam and incoherent soils 63 pm — 64 mm
< 18 um 16 pm — 63 pm

Breaking the penetration pénétration specific gravity

penetration tensile strength
cohesion of resistance resistance resistance
compressive strength
the soil specific gravity specific gravity specific gravity number and nature of strata
shearing stress shearing stress grain distribution bonding strength
cohesion cohesion pore volume in situ shearing strength
internal angle of triction internal angle of triction lime content toughness
pore volume in situ pore volume in situ humus content dynsmlc modulus of elasticity
grain distribution grain distribution water content porosity
lime content lime content
humus content humus content
water content water content

Removing the toil permeability to water permeability to water permeability to water specific gravity, else, shape and
e.g. of particles e.g. of particles e.g. of particles distribution of the lumps
water content water content grain distribution
viscosity (mixture) shearing stress shearing stress
plasticity limits internal angle of friction internal angle of friction
cohesion viscosity (mixture) natural slope beneath
penetrertion particle shape the waler
resistance natural slope beneath particle shape
organic constituents the water
grain distribution

Transporting viscosity (mixture) viscosity (mixture) gram distribution specific gravity, size. snape and
the soil e.g. of particles e.g. of particles e.g. of particles distribution of the tumps
lime content lime content particle shape
humus content humus content lime content
grain distribution grain distribution humus content
particle shape particle shape
mineralogical
composition
plasticity limits
shearing stress

Deposition and e.g. of paricles e.g. of particles e.g. of particles specific gravity, size, shape and
further processing adhesion limit humus content humus content distribution of the lumps
of Iha toil humus content particle shape panicle shape
particle shape grain distribution gram distribution
grain distribution mineralogical mineralogical
mineralogical composition composition
composition

Wear not of paramount particle structure particle structure specific gravity, size, shape and
significance particle shape particle snape distribution of the lumps
grain distribution grain distribution herdness end specific
s.g. or particles e.g. of particles gravity of the particles
hardness of particles hardness of particles
mineralogical and mineralogical and
organic origin organic origin

Table 2.8 Properties of soil in relation to the phases of dredging process

 - 51 -

Loosening or breaking up

To loosen coherent material like clay, in most cases it will be

necessary to use cutting tools. These cutting tools may be assisted by
water jets or by pressure differential across the suction inlet
provided by the suction power of the dredge pump. For the cohesive
material the most important properties are cohesion, the internal angle
of friction, shearing stress and penetration resistance (cone test).
The principle properties from the point of view of breaking down the
cohesion are:
- Number and nature of the strata;
- Porosity and specific gravity;
- Dynamic modulus of elasticity;
- Tensile, compressive and shear strength; and
- Toughness.

With incoherent material like sand and gravels, the penetration

resistance (cone value) is the important parameter.

For both cohesive and noncohesive material, the following in situ

tests need to be performed to determine their loosening or breaking up
characteristics:
- Grain distribution
- Specific gravity
- Permeability
- Porosity
- Lime and humus content

Some typical values of in situ densities of different types of

soils related to porosity and void ratio are shown in the Table 2.9.

Type of soil Wet density Dry density Porosity Void ratio

kg/cu.m kg/cu.m %

Peat 1 000 200 60-85 1.5-5.6

Silt 1 200 300 80-90 4-9
Soft clay 1 400 700 60-80 1.5-4
Strong clay 1 800 1 300 35-50 0.5-1
Clayey sand 1 900 1 400 40-50 0.7-1
Loose sand 1 700 1 300 45-55 0.8-1.2
Dense sand 2 000 1 600 35-45 0.5-0.8

Table 2.9 In situ densities, porosity and void ratio for

different soils

Entering into the means of transport

In mechanical dredgers, the breaking up of the cohesion and

entering into buckets or grabs happens simultaneously as the breaking
and the lifting devices are the same. The size and shape of the bucket
will be chosen in accordance with the size, shape and distribution of
 - 52 -

the parcels which are formed after breaking up. If the material has to
be removed hydraulically prior to the entering of the material into the
means of transport, the phenomena of breaking up the soil is very
important. When the material is cohesionless or with weak cohesion
suction alone will be sufficient to ensure its entry into the means of
transport. But in case of cohesive material and densely packed sands,
breaking up the soil into small particles is important. The most
important physical properties are:
- Permeability;
- Natural angle of repose under water;
- Specific gravity of the particles;
- Shearing strength;
- Viscosity of the mixture.

Sometimes satisfactory analysis of the transportability can be

made based on particle shape and distribution, water content, specific
gravity and porosity.

Transporting the material

Mechanical transport offers no other problems except spillage and

the subsequent effect on the environment of smell and noise. With
cohesive material for hydraulic transport, the viscosity of the mixture
is of importance. The size, shape, distribution and specific gravity
of the broken pieces play an important role with hydraulic transport.
In certain cases, formation of clay balls during transport have an
effect on the critical velocity and resistance in the pipeline.
Atterberg limits, especially plasticity limit, have significance in
this respect.

Deposition and processing of the dumped soil

For dumping under water from barges and hoppers, particle size
distribution, their shape and specific gravity have an important effect
on the settling rate and re-erosion of the dumped material. Adhesion
to the means of transport (i.e., hoppers and barges) of clays also
needs to be carefully considered. For dumping on land and for further
processing of the soil particle size, distribution, specific gravity,
shape of the particles, numerological composition and the lime and
humus content have marked effect on settling and consolidation
characteristics.

Trial dredging

When the soil conditions in an area are known to be complex, trial

dredging is advisable. It also assists in assessing the post dredging
performance of the excavated area — stability of slopes, resiltation
characteristics. The cost of trial dredging may be prohibitively high
if the plant suitable for trial dredging has to be procured or
transferred from another location. The performance of the dredger and
the dredged formation should be carefully monitored throughout the
trial period and for a considerable time thereafter.

2.2.7 Tests for rock (in situ and laboratory)

Identification of rocks is a specialized job and the services of a

geologist will be very useful. Testing procedures are laid down in
 - 53 -

texts/standards and only a passing reference is made to these. Field

tests which have special significance from dredgeability point of view
are given in more detail.

Rocks may be broadly divided into three main types; igneous,

metamorphic and sedimentary. Within these types, classification may
require examination of a thin slice or section under a microscope to
identify crystalline and mineralogical form. Rocks should be
classified both by their mineral and crystalline omposition and by
their formation in a rock mass. A full classification consists of an
identification of the rock type followed by a description of its
characteristics in a massive state, and the degree of weathering.

A classification of the rock mass should include the:

- Extent of the mass (e.g., massive, outcrops, layers, etc.);
- Surface characteristics (e.g., smooth, saw-toothed, etc.);
- Weathering (see below);
- Dip and strike of the formation;
- Thickness of bedding;
- Joint or fracture spacing; and
- Extent of fissuring.

Generally, the portion of the rock mass to be dredged is that part

exposed to the weathering. Weathered zones may vary in thickness from
a few centimetres to hundreds of metres, depending on the type of rock
and its fracture state. A statement of the degree of weathering must
be included in the classification. Weathering may be classed by grade.

The grain size of a rock and its mineral composition are of

importance in determining its resistance to breakage. In general,
rocks with a large grain size are easier to drill and break than those
composed of fine grains.

The mineral composition also influences the brittleness of the

rocks. Brittle rocks fracture more easily than rocks containing
plastic minerals which are capable of absorbing energy rather than
transmitting it. Quartz content has a major influence on abrasiveness.

Bonding of the rock grains detemines the toughness of the rock.

Igneous and metamorphic rocks have usually been welded together by
great temperatures and pressure and are thus more difficult to separate
than sedimentary rocks, which have been cemented or compacted under
gravity.

Coarse grained, weakly cemented rocks are particularly difficult

to blast evenly since the structure collapses into pockets or chambers
instead of fragmenting over a larger area.

Field tests and description

A number of in situ tests may be carried out, particularly in

sedimentary rocks, to assess hardness or resistance to cutting heads.
These include the standard penetration test, pressuremeter,
permeability and borehole logging tests. Outline details are provided
in Table 2.10.
 - 54 -

Name of test Purpose of test Remarks Lab (L) References

or
in situ
(S)

Visual inspec- Assessment of rock mass Indicates in situ state of rock S or L B.S. 5930(1981)
tion mass (1)

Thin section Identification Aid to mineral composition Geotechnical textbooks

L
Volume/weight relation-
Bulk density Wet and dry test L Int. Journal for Rock Mech.
ship
Min. Sci. (1979) 16, 141-156
Measure of pores ex-
Porosity pressed as percentage Ditto
To be calculated directly from L
ratio voids/total vol-
wet and dry bulk density
ume
Carbonate Measurement of lime Useful for identification of
content L A.S.T.MD3156
content limestone, chalks, etc.

Surface Determination of hard- Graded according to Moh's scale Reference set commercially
hardness
L
ness from 0 (talc) to 10 (diamond) obtainable

Ultimate strength under Test to be done on fully satu-

Uniaxial L Int. Soc. for Rock Mech.
uniaxial stress rated samples. Dimensions of Commission Committee on
compression
testpiece and direction of
Lab. tests, publication 135
stratification relevant to
(Sept. 1978)
stress direction are to be
stated. Recommend 1:2 length/
diameter ratio for cylindrical
specimens
Tensile strength (de-
Brazilian Ditto. Doc. No. 8 (March
rived from uniaxial Ditto, except lengttVdiameter
split L 1977)
testing) ratio recommendation

Point load Strength indication Easy and fast test but should
be matched with uniaxial com- L Int. Journal for Rock Mech.
tost Min. Sci. (1972) 9.669-697
pressive strength test
Protodiakonov Indication of crushing Test has been devised for the
resistance under dy- harder type of rocks. Care L See note (2)
namic load should be taken with the ex-
ecution and interpretation of
test results on soft rocks,
especially coarse-grained con-
glomerates
Standard pen- Applies to corals and highly
Strength indication
etration test weathered rocks S B.S. 1377(1975) 103 etseq

Seismic Indication of stra- Useful in extrapolating lab- A.S.T.M. Annual Book (1975)
velocity tigraphy and fracturing oratory and field tests to S 340-347
of rock mass rock mass behaviour
Ultrasonic Tests on saturated core
Longitudinal velocity A.S.T.M. Spec. Techn. Publi­
velocity L
samples
cation No. 402(1966) 133-172
Static modulus Stress/strain rate. Gives an indication of brittle-
L Ditto
of elasticity ness
Drillability Assessment of the rock Measurement of drilling pa-
mass rameters Including penetration
rate, torque, feed force fluid
S
pressure, etc., and statement of
drill specification and tech-
nique
Angularity Determination of par­ May be by visual examination
ticle shape compared to standard specimens L B.S. 812 (Part 1) 1975

Table 2.10 In situ and laboratory testing procedures of rocks for dredging purposes

NOTES ON TABLES

(1) Colour photography for record purposescan be very useful.

(2) Concise references are not available for this test. A reference which gives a slight modification of the test procedure ( in order to
overcome some of the disadvantages of the original method such as rebonding of pulverized material) is: the strength, fracture and
workability of coal, Evans, I. and Pomeroy, C.D., Pergamon Press (1966).
(a) "Professor M.M. Protodiakonov’s Strength Coefficient of Rock.’ Translation by the Foreign Technology Division of the Air
Force Systems Command, Ohio, USA. (translation 1981).
(b) "Methods for the Evaluation of the Fissurization and Strength of a Rock Mass." by M.M. Protodiakonov. Translation by the
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria. (1965).
(c) "Methods of Evaluating the Cracked Stage and Strength of Rocks in situ,' by M.M. Protodiakonov. Department of Mines and
Technical Surveys. Ottawa, Canada, (1965).
(d) "A critical appraisal of the Protodiakonov index," Misra, G.B. and Paithankar, A.G. Technical note, International Journal of
Rock Mechanics, Min. Sciences and Geomech. Abstracts, Vol. II, pp 249-251, (1976)
 - 55 -

Fracture state

The fracture of a rock mass is an important criterion in rock mass

classification. In rock dredging, the structural pattern of the rock
has a major influence on its overall strength.

Fracturing of a rock mass makes blasting easier and normally

reduces the amount of explosive required to fragment a given volume.
However, in some cases, where clay infills the joints, the blasting may
be less effective due to the energy being absorbed in the clay.
Surface or shaped charges may also be less effective when applied to
rock with horizontal bedding planes or joints, due to lack of
penetration.

The fracture state of the rock has a profound influence on the

dredgeability. Even hard rocks may be dredged without the use of
explosives if sufficiently fractured or fissured, while homogeneous
rocks of lower strengths may be undredgeable without pretreatment.

Solid core recovery

Core recovery is the percentage of rock material actually

recovered. Poor recovery may be due to an incompetent rock which
crumbles under the core barrel or a competent rock badly cored and
recovered.

For dredging purposes it is particularly important that cracks

from the drilling process are not confused with in situ cracks.
Iron-staining is a useful tell-tale to in situ cracking.

Bedding and jointing are important so that the direction and angle
of dredging can take advantage of the natural planes of weakness in the
rock mass.

The distance between cracks, joints and bedding planes is also

critical in determining the power required to break off the lift
fragments of the rock material.

Drillability

Bit wear is directly comparable to dredger teeth wear and gives a

qualitative indication of abrasion.

Drillability can be quantified in terms of hole collapse and

blocking off of the core barrel with displaced wedges of rock material.

Abrasion is a major source of uncertainty at the tender stage of

dredging. No laboratory testing can satisfactorily reproduce abrasion,
so it is essential to recognize exceptional drill bit wear and
drillability and identify the form and quantity of quartz giving the
condition.

Velocity of sound

The ratio of the velocity of propagation of sound as measured in

the rock mass, with that of a fresh hand sample is a measure of the
fracture and weathering state of the rock in situ. This can effect the
choice of dredging plant and a decision on pretreatment of the rock
before dredging.
 - 56 -

It can also be calculated by borehole logging techniques, seismic

refraction between boreholes and uphole/downhole shooting in a single
borehole. In uphole shooting, the hydrophones are on the sea bed or in
a surface towed streamer with a pattern of shots in the borehole.
Conversely, the hydrophones or geophones can be in the borehole with
shots on the seabed.

Occasionally, contracts have specified in situ velocity of sound

as the criterion for payment for direct dredging or pre-treating the
rock. Where this criterion is adopted, it is important that a proper
correlation be made between in situ velocity of sound and rock strength
by means of a thorough site investigation.

2.3 Hydraulics

Sea conditions which include waves, ides, currents, water chemistry

and sedimentology, have a profound effect on the operation and
productivity of different types of dredgers. Information has to be
gathered about all these so that their influence on the working of the
dredgers can be taken note of in determining the outputs, loss of time
and productivity.

2.3.1 Waves

Before the collection of wave information can be started, the

location where the wave measurements will be taken should be carefully
considered as sea bottom configuration has an effect on the wave
spectrum. If the exact site and layout of the dredged channel are not
known, an open sea location for measurement will be preferable.

The usual procedure to collect the wave information is to deduce

from analog or digital records at three to six hour intervals. The
wave heights are tabled according to the height and cumulative
frequency. The other important aspect is the wave period. The
connection between the wave height and wave period can be shown in a
wave scattered diagram. Special attention must be given to the
direction of waves as this can influence the maneuverability of ships
in the channel. As the direction of waves are not easily available,
wind directions may be recorded and this can be uses for establishing
the wave direction. It is important that the period of observation
must be long enough and should extend for at least for one year. In
areas of strong variable climate, the observation period may be
extended for many years. Based upon these obervations, records should
be made giving wave height, wave period, wave direction and their
duration particularly during extreme conditions in the form of a wave
rose diagram (Figure 2.11).

Figure 2.11 Wave rose diagrams

 - 57 -

2.3.2 Currents

When navigating an approach channel and entering a port, the

currents, in particular the cross currents which can change in speed
and direction, will affect the maneuvering of the vessel. The impact
of the cross currents may reach values which make navigating the
approach channel very risky. To compensate cross currents so that the
ship will retain a straight course, the ship has to sail at an angle.
For safe navigation, this course correction should not exceed 13
degrees. The course correction also requires that the width of the
channel be increased by a distance equal to the length of the ship
multipled by the sine with the cross correction.

The speed and direction of the flow of water at different depths

and times should be measured with the help of a current meter. The
samples taken by the current meter is a rotor which revolves when a
flow of water passes over it. Revolutions of the rotor are directly
related to water speed. The shape of the instrument and its fins
ensure that it remains aligned into the current flow. The current
meter may be hand held or fixed by means of a small anchor and left to
record automatically. It is desirable that records should be maintained
over a period of at least one tidal cycle (i.e., two weeks).

Current measurement can also b made by using floats or dye

tracing. Float tracking involves releasing a number of floats at
various points and directing them by survey to determine their pattern
and speed of distribution.

2.3.3 Tides

Tidal fluctuations have an important bearing on dredging

operations. Normally tidal records are available for many locations
along the coast and tide predictions are available on a national level
in the form of tide tables. Where no records or predictions are
available, tidal levels must be observed over a number of tidal cycles
and a minimum of 24 hours observation over a spring cycle and neap
cycle are required. Ideally, continuous tidal observation over two
weeks should be made. (for tide gauge description see section 2.1.2).
Based on these observations/records etc., tidal information may be
presented in the form shown below (Figure 2.12).

hIGHest HIGH water (HHW)--------------

MEAN HIGH WATER 5PRINGS (MHWS)

MEAN HIGH WATER (MHW)

MEAN HIGH WATER NEAPS (MHWN)

MEAN SEA LEVEL (MSL)

MEAN LOW WATER NEARS (MLWN)

MEAN LOW WATER (MEW)

MEAN L0W WATER SPRINGS (MLWS)

CHART DATUM (CO)

LOWEST LOW WATER (LLW)_________

Figure 2.12 Tidal information

 - 58 -

Water temperature and salinity

In tropical regions, high water temperature and salinity could

effect dredging because of the changed density of the water, their
effect on the efficiency of the cooling system for the engines and the
performance of the survey instruments. These two parameters are,
therefore, measured regularly.

2.3.4 Sedimentology

Suspended and near-bed solids have a variety of effects on

dredging works. They can effect the cooling system of the dredging
plant; cause reshoaling in dredging areas and create difficulties in
bathymetric surveys. Transported sediments can create problems of
littoral drift causing siltation in the updrift region and erosion in
the down drift areas.

The rate and direction of sediment transport is governed by

currents, waves, sea bottom configuration and the properties of the
sediment. Currents and waves above the threshold value cause erosion
and the displaced particles move by sliding or rolling as bed load or
get lifted into the body of the water as suspended load. The suspended
silt or clay particles cause turbidity which is considerably increased
during dredging operaions.

Suspended sediment concentration should be measured by sampling

throughout the water column. Usual methods are to take samples at
different levels by pumping water from the desired location and by
using direct silt monitors.

Measuring bed transport can be done by using flourescent and radio

active tracers. Bed load can be measured by using sediment traps or
specialized bed load samplers.

2.4 Meteorology

Geography and meteorological conditions of a site can have harmful

effects of the operation of dredging plant. Wind, fog (visibility),
temperature, humidity and rainfall are important parameters.

2.4.1 Wind

Winds, in addition to their action on the sea water in producing

waves, have a direct effect on the navigation of ships traversing in
shallow channels. The effect of wind on dredging is similar to their
effect on ships. Wind velocity and direction are important and should
be recorded for the dredging site for a period of at least one year.
Wind velocity and direction should be recorded 10 meters above sea
level every third hour for a recording interval of 10 minutes. In
addition, continuous recording should be started automatically when the
10 minutes average wind velocity exeeds 20 meters per second. Based on
these observations, a wind rose diagram can be prepared (Figure 2.13).
 - 59 -

Figure 2.13 Wind rose diagrams

In addition, if the area is subject to cyclones with wind speeds

of over 160km per hour, this fact should be carefully recorded.

BEAUFORT VELOCITY
HUMBER DESCRIPTION
In Km/h In Km/h
(1)______ (2) (3) (4)

0 CALM LESS THAN 1.9 LESS THAN 1

1 LIGHT AIR 1.0 TO 0 1 TO 3
2 LIGHT BREEZE 7 " 11 4 " 6
3 GENTLE BREEZE 12 " 10 7 " 10
4 MODERATE BREEZE 20 " 20 11 " 16
5 FRESH BREEZE 30 " 30 17 " 21
6 STRONG DREEZE 40 " 50 22 " 27
7 MODERATE GALE 61 " 61 28 " 33
8 FRESH GALE 02 " 74 34 " 40
9 STRONG GALE 76 " 67 41 " 47
10 WHOLE GALE 88 " 102 40 " 55
11 STORM 103 " 117 50 " 63
12 HURRICANE 110 and above 04 and above

Table 2.11 Beaufort scale of winds

2.4.2 Fog

Fog and heavy rain can reduce visibility and therefore hamper
operation of dredgers, specially in considerable traffic. It is
therefore a factor in the operational efficiency of the dredgers and
their down time. The effect of fog on visibility can be reduced by use
of navigational aids, an electronic positioning system and high
 - 60 -

intensity lights. This information thus assists the dredger operation

planners to suitably equip themselves to counter the effecs of fog and
poor visibility.

2.4.3 Temperature, humidity and rainfall

Temperature and relative humidity seasonal and daily variations

should be carefully recorded as it will help in assessment of down time
and preventive measures for equipment and personnel against the adverse
effects of heavy rain fall, high humidity and high temperature.
 PLANNING OF
DREDGING WORKS
A PROJECT REPORT

' TERMS OF REFERENCE / / EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

main report /
* SITE INFORMATION
* PLANNING
CONSIDERATION
* TECHNICAL AND
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
* DESIGN
* QUANTIFICATION
* ESTIMATION
* WORK PLAN

CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
 - 61 -

3. PLANNING OF DREDGING WORKS — A PROJECT REPORT

Like any other construction activity, for proper planning of

dredging works modern practice relies on preparation of a project
report. A project report examines all the technical and economic
parameters that may possibly affect a project and, based upon a
thorough analysis of all data and information available and/or
specifically obtained/collected for the work, helps to prepare a
detailed plan for implementation.

In most cases, dredging is a part of a much larger developmental

activity like a new port/waterway or expansion/enlargement of an
existing port/waterway. In those situations, while examining the
technical and economic feasibility of the main project the technical
and economic aspects of dredging would also be examined. In cases
where the main work of expansion of the port is deepening for larger
vessels, dredging will be the predominant component. In that case,
independent technical and economic analysis of dredging should precede
the undertaking of the dredging activity.

A project report for a dredging work will normally include all or

most of the following:
- Terms of reference;
- Executive summary;
- Main report;
- Site information and its interpretation, including:
. Hydrographic surveys;
. Soil surveys and identifications;
. Sea environmental data;
. Meteorological data;
. Other site information; and
. Analysis and interpretation of data to establish boundary
conditions and governing parameters;
- Planning consideration;
- Technical and economic analysis (if required);
- Design;
- Calculation of dredging quantities both areawise and soil
typewise;
- Financial estimates;
- Execution plan, including both:
. Methodology; and
. Work plan supported by schedules; and
- Conclusions and recommendations

3.1 Terms of reference

Instructions issued by the employer/client to the consultant or

port's planning team to undertake the preparation of a project report
in respect of a dredging project should contain:
 - 62 -

- Preamble and background that resulted in the formulation of the

proposal ;
- Reference to any earlier study, investigative work, model
studies and information regarding their availability to the
study team/consultants;
- Description of the main works of which the present project is a
part and the scope of future plans if any;
- Scope of the subject project;
- Phasing ;
- Time-frame for the project starting date and the duration;
- Required coverage in the project report (broad guidelines of
the studies required to be included in the project report);
- Time schedule and presentation;
. Time for interim report;
. Time for final report; and
. Number of copies to be submitted; and
- Other interested or involved agencies and the extent of that
involvement; as well as
- Any additional investigation work to be undertaken and the
methodology and responsibility for the same.

3.2 Executive summary

This is the first chapter of the project report, summarizing all

major findings and recommendations. Sometimes it is referred to as part
one of the project report. It should include planning considerations,
alternative proposals considered and their evaluation as well as
governing parameters used to evaluate the design and infrastructure.
It should include recommendations on the technical and economic
feasibility, a clearly delineated methodology and an implementation
plan. It will spell out major items of equipment, manpower for
execution and operation, capital and operating costs, likely maintenance
dredging liability and sensitivity analyses. In short, it should
summarize sufficient information from the main report for the competent
authority to understand and evaluate the project and take the investment
decision.

3.3 Main report

3.3.1 Site information and its interpretation

This section summarizes all site information available or

specially obtained for the project (details are given in the relevant
section). It should include:
- Geographical data and topography;
- Description of the site (location, existing navigational channel
and area plan);
- Meteorological data such as:
. Temperature (hottest, coldest, mean daily maximum and minimum);
. Rainfall (season, total precipitation, distribution over the
year, maximum; intensity);
 - 63 -

. Wind/cyclones, wind rose for different months/seasons;

. Relative humidity (monthly, morning, evening); and
. Visibility (fog, smog, visibility range and monthly record of
number of days with visibility below certain acceptable
limits); as well as
- Oceanographic data, including:
. Tide (highest recorded tide, mean sea level, mean highest
water springs, mean highest water neaps, highest low water,
mean low water neaps, mean low water springs, lowest low
water);
. Waves (monthly wave rose diagram with amplitude and period),
significant wave height); and
. Currents (tidal currents, littoral currents and flow causing
currents); as well as
- Geological conditions (surveys and sub-surface geological
investigations, weatheredness, cracks, fissures, layers, faults);
- Sub-soil condition (seismic survey, bathymetric surveys, bore
holes, soil sampling, in situ and laboratory tests);
- Other site information such as:
. Communications;
. Administrative procedures regarding import, customs, permits;
. Workshop and repair facilities; and
. Labour and climate; as well as
- Interpretation of data to establish boundary conditions.

3.3.2 Planning considerations and identification of

alternative strategies

Two stages precede a dredging project. In the first stage,

project dimensions are established. Traffic, shipping trend, optimal
size of ship, sedimentation characteristics, geography of the site, sea
conditions etc. are taken into consideration to decide upon the
orientation and dimensions of the channels and other water areas.

This stage of planning is done by experts other than dredging

people. Specialist disciplines of navigation, hydraulics, research and
hydraulic and mathematical modelling are involved to evolve optimal
channel and basin configuration and dimensions. At the same time,
technical and economic appraisal of the dimensioning of the fairway is
undertaken. Is deepening the channel an optimal solution? If so, to
what extent? What are other alternatives?

The present stage concern itself with the planning of the dredging
works. Given the task to dredge to certain dimensions from a designated
area, the dredger operator plans to do that at the least cost, in the
stipulated time, accurately and with minimum adverse effects on the
environment. His planning considerations are:
- Equipment in hand or easily available and its characteristics,
limitations (Chapter 4);
- Soil quality and quantity and layer thickness;
- Transport route and disposal method;
 - 64 -

- Sea conditions (waves, currents, navigational facilities, etc);

- Tolerance for the excavation;
- External factors like fog, shipping obstacles, wrecks, munitions;
- Supporting services; and
- Environment criteria.

These are all critically examined to evolve alternative strategies

for handling the project.

3.3.3 Technical and economic appraisal (if required)

The focal point in the technical and economic decision making

process is a cost benefit analysis that asks the following questions:
- What are the costs to provide a certain guaranteed operational
depth in the fairway?
- What benefits can be expected from it?
- What range of possible alternatives should be investigated?

By increasing draught, two advantages accrue:

- Use of larger and more efficient vessels to serve the trade; and
- Waiting time is completely eliminated or reduced.

To illustrate the concept of technical and economic appraisal, a

simple example is given below.

If the benefits from both the causes given above is $X per tonne
and the annual traffic is Y million tonne, the annual benefit is $XY.
If the capital cost of dredging is $A million, capital borrowing rate
is B per cent, then the loss of annual interest is AB/100. If
maintenance dredging is C million m3 per year, and the cost of
maintenance dredging is $D per m2, the maintenance dredging cost is
$CD per year. The total cost therefore equals AB/100 + CD.

If XY AB/100+CD, the project is financially viable.

>

3.3.4 Design

Designing a dredging work is simple. Dimensioning based on

navigational requirements for the "design ship" that will call at the
port has been finalized. The amount and type of traffic, its origin­
destination pattern, the tidal window in which the design ship will get
access to the harbour and consequent waiting time when considered
against the initial dredging plus subsequent maintenance costs, have
been taken into consideration to evolve the optimal channel dimensions
Other design parameters are side slopes (horizontal and vertical),
tolerances, disposal of dredged material, transport distances,
selection of dredging equipment and safety.

Side slope

Stability of underwater slopes is characteristic of soils and the

dynamic environment. Sea areas with heavy wave activity and strong
currents will stabilize at much flatter slopes than those formed in
 - 65 -

similar materials in more stable conditions. Preliminary design may

use information about typical slopes in different soil conditions shown
in Table 3.1 below. These may be confirmed by calculations using soil
properties.

Side slope
Soil type
Nearly vertical Nearly vertical

Rock Nearly vertical Nearly vertical

Stiff clay 45 degrees 45 degrees
Firm clay 35 degrees 40 degrees
Sandy clay 25 degrees 15 degrees
Coarse sand 20 degrees 10 degrees
Fine sand 15 degrees 5 degrees
Mud and silt 1-10 degrees 5 deg. or less

Table 3.1 Typical side slopes (underwater) for various soil types

Accurate formation of side slopes using dredging equipment is

rather difficult. The choice is between:
- A rectangular section allowing sides to collapse to their angle
of repose ;
- Series of stepped or boxed cuts at the angle of repose which
collapse forming a stable slope; and
- Using a cutter suction dredger and an experienced operator who
can form a specified slope by traversing and ladder raising
simultaneously.

When designing side slopes, these points should be considered.

Note: Some profile cutting equipment consisting of a gyro compass and

computer-controlled hauling and ladder raising winches are now
available in the market.

Tolerances - vertical

It is not possible for any dredging operation to produce a given

level with no plus or minus tolerance. In laying down specifications,
this fact should be recognized and realistic tolerances should be
provided. The amount of tolerance will depend upon the dredging
equipment and the degree of exposure of the dredged area. Bucket ladder
dredgers, cutter suction dredgers and bucket wheel dredgers, which by
their method of operation physically sweep the area, produce accurate
vertical finish while dredgers like the grab, dipper and even the
trailing suction hpper dredger are not so good in this regard. Factors
which influence the accuracy of the dredged formation are:
 - 66 -

- Sea conditions (waves, tides, currents);

- Type and size of the dredging equipment;
- Type and properties of the soil;
- Instrumentation on the dredger; and
- Experience of the crew.

Range of vertical tolerances applicable to different types of

dredging plants are given in Table 3.2.

Standard Cutter Bucket Grab Pontoon Bucket Pontoon

Site conditions
trailer suction wheel hopper grab chain backhoe

Bed material
Loose silt 200 200 200 200 200 200 150
Cohesive silt 300 150 150 250 250 150 150
Fine sand 200 150 150 200 200 150 150
Medium sand 200 150 150 200 200 150 150
Gravel 200 150 150 200 200 150 150
Soft clay 250 150 150 250 250 150 150
Medium clay 300 150 150 300 300 150 150
Stiff clay 250 150 150 250 250 200 150
Boulders 250 250 200 250 350 250 250
Very weak rock 300 300 250 N 300 300 350
Weak rock N 300 250 N 350 300 350
Moderately weak N 300 N N N N 350
Pre-treated 350 350 350 350 350 350 350
rock

Adjustment for
site conditions

Sea conditions
Enclosed water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sheltered water 100 150 150 150 200 100 100
Exposed water 300 350 350 350 400 350 300

Currents
Moderate 0 0 0 100 100 0 0
Strong 100 50 0 200 200 100 0

Size of dredger
Small 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Medium 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
Large 100 50 50 150 150 100 50

Distance offshore 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

All figures in millimetres. N-- means not applicable. Site condition

adjustments should be added to minimum figures •

Table 3.2 Normal working vertical +_ tolerances for a dredging

plant under various site conditions
 - 67 -

Tolerances - horizontal

Accuracy varies with dredgers having a positive locating system

like the spud. Dredgers with spuds such as the cutter, dipper or grab
hopper have better horizontal accuracy than free moving dredgers like
the TSHD. Factors which influence the horizontal accuracy are:
- Sea conditions;
- Type and size of dredger;
- Accuracy of positioning system;
- Mean depth of dredging;
- Type of soil; and
- Amount and quality of instrumentation and automation.

An indication of the horizontal accuracy that can be achieved with

different types of dredgers is given in Table 3.3.

Standard Cutter Bucket Grab Pontoon Bucket Pontoon

Site conditions Dippen
trailer suction wheel hopper grab chain backhoe

Bed material
Loose silt 2500 500 500 500 500 500 250 500
Cohesive silt 2500 500 500 500 500 500 250 500
Fine sand 2500 500 500 500 500 500 250 500
Medium sand 2000 500 500 500 500 500 250 500
Gravel 2500 500 500 500 500 500 250 500
Soft clay 2500 500 500 700 700 500 250 500
Medium clay 2500 500 500 700 700 500 250 500
Stiff clay 2500 500 500 700 500 500 250 500
Boulders 2500 700 N 700 700 700 500 700
Very weak rock 2500 500 500 N 700 700 700 700
Weak rock N 500 500 N 800 600 600 600
Moderately weak N 600 600 N N 700 800 700
Pre-treated rock 2500 1000 800 1000 1000 1000 700 800

Adjustment for
site conditions

Sea conditions
Sheltered water 500 500 500 1000 500 700 300 300
Exposed water 2000 1000 1000 4000 1000 1500 700 700

Currents
Moderate 1000 500 500 1500 1000 1000 200 300
Strong 2500 1500 1800 3000 2000 2000 700 700

Size of dredger
Small 0 0 0 100 500 0 0 0
Medium 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Large 0 300 300 300 500 300 0 300

Distance offshore
more than 1 mile 3000 1500 1500 1500 1000 1500 1000 1000

All figures in millimetres. N means not applicable. Site condition

adjustments should be added to minimum figures.

Table 3.3 Normal working horizontal _+ tolerances for dredging plant

under various site conditions

 - 68 -

Disposal of dredged material

The method used to dispose of dredged material is one of the most

important considerations at the design stage.

The first consideration is the means by which the dredged material

is to be transported to the point of disposal.

For dumping at sea, the dumping ground has to be specified.

Selection of a dumping ground has to be carefully done so that the
dredged material does not flow back to the dredged area while at the
same time the distance to the dumping ground is kept to a minimum. At
the same time dumping should have no adverse effect on the marine
environment.

When harder material, such as from capital works, has to be dumped,

the progressive increase in the level of the dumping area must be
accounted for and proper under keel clearance maintained.

In certain maintenance dredging situations, the material may be

side cast.

Dredged material may be pumped ashore for disposal, land

reclamation or beach nourishment. This is normally the most profitable
method of disposal and if the dredged material is suitable, reclamation
should be preferred over other methods.

Design considerations are pumping distance, grain size, size and

capacity of containment area, levels up to which the filling is allowed,
flow back arrangement for surplus water, settling of the filled area,
sub-soil conditions and soil strength improvement measures. (For
further details refer to section 5.4 Reclamation).

Selection of dredging equipment

Factors that influence the choice of equipment such as the dredger

and ancillaries, are the kind of soil, volume of soil and construction
period, dredging depth and dredging thickness, soil disposal method,
disturbance of bottom sediments (environmental damage) and economic
viability (See Chapter 4 for details).

3.3.5 Quantities, outputs and estimates

Quantities should be split into different types of soil at

different depths and for alternative dredging and disposal methods. An
example is given in Table 3.4. This will facilitate working out outputs
for different types of soil using different dredgers.

Computation of volumes

Method of calculation of volumes has to be agreed upon between the

employer and the executing agency. The same method which is used for
estimating should preferably be used for the purpose of measurement of
quantities during operations.
 - 69 -

Quantity Soil properties

Soil Remarks
Area Area Classi- Density
type Area
SPT LL PI
A B C fication Wet Dry

XX 650,000 350,000 1,800,000 CH hard 6-8 1.37 0.62 99 63

clay

YY 249,000 39,000 33,000 Weathered 20-22 - 1.9 - -

rock

ZZ 935,000 254,000 856,000 SP (free 8-10 — 1.5 — — With

running traces
sand) of
shells.

Table 3.4 Summary of soils to be dredged

Based on the cycle time, working conditions and the basic rated
output of the dredger, a cycle output and weekly output is established
(Chapter 4). This is to be used to determine the working time and the
cost of doing the work. Aggregating these for all the machines and for
all the areas provides the basic estimates which are to be suitably
increased to allow for management costs, overheads and profits.

3.3.6 Execution plan

Technical considerations in the choice of methodology and equipment

- Capability to disintegrate or break up the soil;

- Vertical transport by hydraulic or mechanical means;
- Horizontal transport by hopper/barge/pipeline; and
- Disposal at sea or on land.

Cost considerations in the choice of methodology and equipment

- Cost of mobilization or demobilization;

- Operational costs;
- Overhead/management costs; and
- Fixed costs (depreciation, interest on capital profits).

Estimated output of the plant under working conditions

This is the most crucial point which determines the cost of

dredging per unit quantity and also the time schedule. Extreme care
should be exercised in very accurately determining the estimated
output. Most of the international dredging companies have their own
figures based upon their experience of working in different locations
under varying conditions which are kept highly confidential by the
companies and are not easily available. The consultant/planning
engineer should exercise his own judgement based upon various formula,
graphs and tables that are available in the dredging literature (see
bibliography). Alternative combinations of men and machines and the
project cost for each combination should be worked out to find the most
economical combination.
 - 70 -

Working schedules

This will include work plan, equipment deployment schedule,

materials procurement schedule, petrol, oil, lubricant (POL) and, most
importantly spare parts provisioning.

Work plans

The work plan will include the following:

- Mobilization plan for dredgers, ancillaries and manpower; and
- Operating schedule for different dredgers showing:
. Starting date;
. Daily/weekly output, number of days, weeks deployed;
. Area of operation;
. Total quantity to be dredged;
. Dumping area/location;
. Reclamation area (in case of pipe line dredgers); as well as
- Check services and sweeping; and
- Demobilization plan.

The work plan will be supported by the following schedules:

- Equipment schedule;
- Manpower schedule;
- Materials/spare parts schedule; and
- Financial Schedule

An illustrative example of a work plan is given in Figure 3.1.

3.3.7 Conclusions and recommendations

This is the last chapter of the project report and should include:
- Optimal size of the ship using the dredged channel and its
dimensions;
- Draught requirement in the channel, basin alongside berths and
horizontal dimensions;
- Total quantity of material to be dredged by types of soil,
location, depth and dumping location;
- Methodology of execution (by contractor or other agencies);
- Type of dredging equipment and ancillaries;
- Period of deployment and expected outputs;
- Estimate for the project;
- Financial appraisal (if applicable), viability;
- Site management and project management set up; and
- Monitoring and evaluation.
 SI MONTHS
No DESCRIPTION QUANTITY WK 1 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 5 16 17 1S 19 20
AWARD OF WORK ■■ — I
A MOB./DEMOB.
1 MOB.GENERAL —
2 MOS.SOIL EQUIPMENT
■ II 3
3 DEM0B. SOIL EQUIPMENT 3

1
Y
4 MOB.ROCK EQUIPMENT ■ —■ fa
5 DEMOB.ROCK EQUIPMENT
E]
Figure 3.1

6 HANDOVER/DEM0B.GEN.

0 SOFT DREDGING
7 TSHD-1
a AREA-1 (SHALLOW) 240.000 3.3
w
b AREA-1 940,000 6.7 I
8 TSHD-2

a AREA-1 2,750,000 9.5

Work plan

b SWEEPING 1.0
?
9 TSHD-3

a AREA-1 550,000 2.3

b AREA-C 1,980,000 9.3

'////.
c SWEEPING 1.0
K
6,460,000

C ROCK DREDGING

10 CSD

a BARGE LOADING 540,000 5.2

K
b DOUBLE HANDLING 540,000 2.3 fi s!
11 DRILLING+BLASTING(IF REQD.) 10.0

12 JET PROBING/SOIL INVESTI- 30.0

GATION
 - 72 -

DREDGERS AND
4 THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

HYDRAULIC MECHANICAL
DREDGERS DREDGERS
* TRAILING SUCTION ♦ BUCKET CHAIN
HOPPER DREDGER DREDGER

♦ CUTTER SUCTION * CRAB HOPPER

DREDGER DREDGER

* BUCKET WHEEL ♦ DIPPER/BACKHOE

DREDGER DREDGER
* CRAB PONTOON
* DUSTPAN DREDGER
DREDGER

SPECIAL SELECTION OF
DREDGERS DREDGING PLANT
♦ JET PUMP ♦ SEQUENCE
DREDGER
♦ ILLUSTRATIVE
* AIR LIFT EXAMPLES
DREDGER
 - 73 -

4. DREDGERS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The basic functions that dredgers and their ancillaries are called
upon to perform are digging or excavating, transporting or raising the
excavated material vertically, moving horizontally and depositing or
disposing of the material at an alternative location. These functions
can be performed mechanically or hydraulically or through a combination
of the two. In the case of harder material such as rock or highly
packed sands, the material may be pre-treated chemically or by use of
explosives. Depending upon the predominant mode of application of
energy for digging or for transporting the dredged material, the
dredgers are classified into two main categories — mechanical and
hydraulic (Table 4.1). Detailed information about different types of
dredgers and their construction details is available in various
references listed in the bibliography. This basic information is not
related. Only factors affecting deployment, production and some
outstanding design features of the important types of dredger are
included.

Dredger Excavation Vertical Horizontal Deposition Main

type/ or transport transport application
function digging of energy

Bucket Buckets Bucket Barges Dumping/ Mechanical

ladder cha in pumping

Grab Grab bucket Grab Barges/ Dumping Mechanica1

dredger dragline bucket pontoons

Dipper Dipper Dipper Barges/ Dumping Mechanical

dredger backhoe backhoe pontoons
& backhoe bucket bucket

Cutter Rotating Hydraulic Hydraulic Pumping Mechanical

suction cutter (pipeline) & hydraulic
dredger (mechanical)

Buc ke t Bucket Hydraulic Hydraulic Pumping Mechanical

wheel whee1 (pipeline) & hydraulic
suction
dredger

Trailing Drag head Hydraulic Hopper Dumping/ Hydraulic

suction pamping
hopper
dredger

Dustpan Dustpan Hydraulic Hydraulic Pumping Hydraulic

dredger (pipeline)

Table 4.1 Classification of dredgers

 - 74 -

4.1 Trailing suction hopper dredger (TSHD)

The TSHD is a ship capable of coastal or deep sea navigation which

has the ability to load its own hold or hopper. It is equipped with
one or more suction pipes with centrifugal pumps at the top end,
terminating into a draghead at the bottom end. The dredger dredges
while underway. The draghead channels the dredged material to the
suction inlet. The mixture is drawn up by the action of the dredge
pump(s) and transported to the hopper. The dredger physically moves to
the dumping/pumping site and dumps the material by opening doors in the
hopper bottom or pumping it to the shoreline. The latest models of
these dredgers have split hoppers for easy and quick dumping.

Figure 4.1 Trailing suction hopper dredger

The main characteristics of TSHD are its relative immunity to

weather and sea conditions, its independent operation, its minimal
effect on other shipping, the ability to transport dredged material
over long distances, a relatively high rate of production and a
simple/inexpensive mobilization procedure.

The main disadvantages are moderate efficiency, inability to

dredge hard material, inability to cut its own floatation, inability to
work in restricted areas, poor accuracy in vertical and horizontal
planes, sensitivity to concentrations of debris and tendency to dilute
fine material during the Loading process. The dredgers are rated
according to their hopper capacity which may range from 500m3 to
12,000m3 and dredging depths vary from 5-35 metres.

Points needing special mention are:

- The dragheads;
- The hopper;
- The production cycle; and
- Limiting factors.
 - 75 -

4.1.1 Dragheads

Dragheads are the first link in the dredging chain. Their

function is to dislodge the soil, suck it up and transfer it to the
suction pipe. To perform this function efficiently, dragheads should
meet the following requirements.

- Maximum production of solids must coincide with a minimum

trailing force and pressure drop over the head;
- Solids concentration of the mixture should be as high as
possible;
- Its construction should be robust, resistant to wear and fully
reliable.

Dragheads operate on the principle of "erosion". To enhance the

normal erosion characteristics, water jets are sometimes installed. An
activated draghead also increases the erosion and thus improves
productivity.

Many types of dragheads are in use such as Fruhling, Ambrose,

California, Coral, IHC standard, IHC Active and IHC Silt. Special
attention should be given to the IHC Silt draghead which has been found
to be the most effective draghead for silts and maintenance work.
Inlet of the draghead faces the direction of motion, thus forcing silt
into the head. The height of the suction inlet is adjustable. At the
rear of the head is a passive roller which improves the efficiency.

Some types of dragheads and their applications are listed in Table

4.2.
 - 76 -

Type General application Figure number

Fruhling Silts, soft clays, loose sands 4.2

Ambrose Mud, silt, loose sand, light gravel 4.3

California Sands, compacted fine sands 4.4

IHC Standard A general purpose head 4.5

IHC Silt Silts 4.6

IHC Active Medium, firm and stiff clays 4.7

Table 4.2 Types of dragheads

Figure 4.2 Fruhling draghead

 - 77 -

Figure 4.3 Ambrose draghead

 - 78 -

Figure 4.4 California draghead

 - 79 -

Figure 4.5 IHC standard draghead

 - 80 -

Figure 4.6 IHC silt draghead

 - 81 -

Figure 4.7 IHC active draghead

 - 82 -

4.1.2 Hopper

Important considerations that influence the hopper design are

design density (tonnage over volume) and the settlement process in the
hopper, specially in the final stage of the loading process. The
design density is optimal when a full load of dredged material
constitutes full tonnage as well. As several different types of soils
have to be dealt with during the life of the dredger, a choice has to
be made regarding the optimum density. The soil with the lowest
specific weight expected to be dredged governs the design density. The
hopper will rarely be full but the vessel's total load capacity in
tonnes will be used. The expensive parameter in dredger construction
is the tonnage of the vessel rather than the volume of the hopper. The
correct choice of density for a TSHD can save on the unit cost of
production. Too high a design density is undesirable.

Illustrative example

A dredger with deadweight capacity of 3,125 tonnes will carry

1,736m3 of sand of specific weight 1.8 tons/m3 at maximum overflow
level. It can carry only 2,170 tons of silt of specific weight 1.25
tonne/m3 — a reduction of nearly 33 per cent.

If the hopper was designed for silt of specific weight 1.25 tonne/
m3 it will carry 3,125 tons of silt with the hopper full and 3,125
tons of silt of specific weight 1.8 tons/m3 with the hopper part full.

The settlement process in the hopper separates the soil from the
water. In fine materials (fine sands, silt) this can lead to a hopper
never taking a full load as overflow losses reach 100 per cent of
intake well before the hopper is filled. Design features in a hopper
which can facilitate the settlement process are:

- Method of discharging the mixture into the hopper and rate of

discharge;
- Length and width of hopper at overflow level;
- Method of decanting water out of hopper;
- Avoiding any obstruction inside the hopper.

4.1.3 The production cycle

The production cycle for a TSHD consists of:

- Loading time;
- Turning time;
- Sailing to dump site;
- Bottom dumping time/time to discharge by pumping shore; and
- Sailing time to work site.

Loading time is heavily dependent upon the characteristics of the

material to be dredged. Production cycles for dredging sand and silt
are shown in Figures 4.8 and 4.9. Optimum loading time varies in both
cases. Dredging is stopped as soon as overflow starts in case of silt
as the load in the hopper is not likely to increase.
 - 83 -

Figure 4.8 Loading cycle of TSHD (sand)

Turning time depends on the size of the area, size of the dredger
and site conditions.

Figure 4.9 Loading cycle of TSHD (silt)

 - 84 -

Sailing time is given by length of navigation route to dump site

divided by the average speed under load in the prevailing conditions of
weather, waves, current, traffic and navigational restrictions.

Dumping time depends on the design of the hopper, method of

discharge, character of material. At the hopper design stage, dumping
deserves more design attention than the small percentage of time in the
cycle would indicate. Under some circumstances, such as when loading
sticky materials, loads may have to be reduced as hoppers cannot
discharge a full load of sticky material (arching).

If discharge is by pumping ashore, time to moor, make connection

to the discharge pipeline, disconnect when empty and cast off should
also be included. Time to pump depends on length of pipeline, terminal
elevation, particle size and pump characteristics.

The sailig time back to the work site is obtained by dividing the
navigation route by average speed under the ambient conditions.

Daily production will be obtained by number of cycles multiplied

by hopper contents. Time can be lost due to any reasons like weather,
sea conditions, mechanical breakdown, administrative delays etc. For a
well-managed dredger with average site condition, lost production time
should be between 7 to 20 per cent of the available time.

4.1.4 Limiting factors

There are limits under which TSHD can operate and what it can
achieve. These vary according to the size and characteristics of the
dredger. An indication of the extreme limits which will apply to
economic operations is given below:

Minimum water depth to operate 3m

Maximum water depth to operate 35m
Minimum turning circle 75m
Maximum wave height 5m
Maximum cross current 3 knots
Maximum particle size 500mm
2
Maximum shear strength (clays) 75 KN/m
2
Maximum crushing strength (rock) 100 KN/m

4.1.5 Side casting dredger

Trailing suction dredgers are sometimes used to discharge the

material-water mixture through an elevated pipe supported by a boom
structure to one side of the ship up to a distance of 100m. These
dredgers sometimes do not have a hopper or, if fitted with a hopper,
there is arrangement for by passing the hopper. (Figure 4.11).

These are used for maintaining long navigation channels. The

production is high and continuous but the disadvantage is quicker
return of the material back to the channel. The method is also
extensively used in fast flowing waterways where the fast current takes
the dumped material far away before it resettles.
 - 85 -

TRAILING SUCTION
HOPPER DREDGER
$ 0
A LOADING z.
-------- 'U

CHARACTERISTICS :
PRODUCTION ♦ IMMUNE TO WEATHER
§£ CYCLE AND SEA CONDITIONS
-A * INDEPENDENT
/ OPERATION
^gmpincU * HIGH RATE OF
PRODUCTION
PTmPINC ♦ LONG DISTANCE
TRANSPORT OF
MATERIAL
♦ INEXPENSIVE
DRAGHEADSt MOB/DEMOB
♦ FRUHLING
* AMBROSE *
HOPPER
♦ CALIFORNIA
♦ CORAL ♦ DESIGN
* IHC INFLUENCED
STANDARD BY
* IHC SILT 1 DESIGN DENSITY
* IHC ACTIVE 2 SETTLEMENT
♦ SPECIALS PROCESS
3 OPTIMAL
FULL LOAD
WEAKNESSES : FULL TONNAGE
* MODERATE
EFFICIENCY
♦ INABILITY OPERATING LIMITS :
TO DREDGE
HARD SOIL • WATER DEPTH
WORK IN -MIN 3m
RESTRICTED -MAX 35m
SPACE ♦ MAX WAVE
* POOR HEIGHT-5m
ACCURACY ♦ MAX X-
* SENSITIVITY -CURRENT-3Knots
TO DEBRIS ♦ MAX PARTICLE
♦ LOW HOPPER SIZE—500mm
CONCENTRATION ♦ MAX SHEAR
WITH FINE STRENGTH
MATERIAL —75Kn/m2

Figure 4.10 Trailing suction hopper dredger

 - 86 -

BOOM

on Of
r ■ *

. 1
r\
kA ••
____________ L_ ♦___________________ !_______________ /
1 HOPPÇR

______________________________________________________________

Figure 4.11 Side casting dredger

Side Casting — China Inland Waterways

(Source: Proceedings of the Regional Seminar on the Operation and

Maintenance of Inland Waterways)

A 500m3 self-propelled TSHD was specially developed for maintenance

dredging works on inland waterways. The main characteristics are:

LOA 70.5m LBP 6.75m

B moulded 14.0m
D moulded 4.5m
draft 2.50-3.70m

The dredger is equipped with two side-drag arms but only one is
operated at a time. The dredger has a boom pipe 20m long which can be
turned on either side of the dredger by hydraulic rams. The sand and
water mixture sucked from the river bed can be discharged directly
overboard at a distance of 25m from the dredger.
 - 87 -

4.2 The cutter suction dredger (CSD)

A CSD may be self propelled but is normally dumb. The buoyancy

component is a rectangular pontoon with a well at c e end. A suction
pipe mounted on a pivoting ladder is suspended by a gantry in the
well. A cutting tool is mounted in front of the suction inlet. The
free end of the ladder can be raised or lowered by the aid of a winch.
The whole pontoon can be pivoted on a spud and can swing sideways
through an arc of up to 60 degrees through manipulating anchor wires
leading out from the port and starboard side. Forward motion is
achieved by shifting the position of the spud (Figure 4.12).

Figure 4.12 Cutter suction dredger

The mixture drawn up through the suction pipe passes through the
pump and into floating and shore pipelines to a dumping site on shore
or into barges.

A CSD cuts the soil with a powerful electrical or hydraulic cutter

which is enclosed by the suction intake of a centrifugal pump. The cut
material is sucked through the intake pipe into the pump and then
delivered into the delivery end. The ladder can be moved vertically
with one end hinged and swung from side to side making a wide cut.

The ability to dredge a wide range of materials and carry this

material in suspension through pipeline directly to the disposal or
reclamation areas is the main advantage of a CSD. It can operate in
very shallow waters and can even cut its over floatation. It leaves a
good level bottom and has a high rate of production.

Its disadvantages are high sensitivity to sea conditions (waves,

swell, currents), the limited distance over which the dredged material
is discharged (this can be improved by adding booster stations), the
high cost of mobilization, a limited dredging depth and the
1iguification of the material, making the cohesive materials unstable
for a longer period.
 - 88 -

Points needing special mention are:

- Design considerations;
- Cutter heads;
- The production cycle;
- Limitations; and
- Ancillary equipment.

4.2.1 Design considerations

The main design consideration is output requirement for the type

of material and discharge distance. This gives pipe diameter, mixture
velocity, and cutter power. A rough guide for cutter h.p. is given in
Table 4.3.

Material Hardness HP on cutter for 1 cu m/hr production

Clay Firm 0.15 to 0.3

Clay Hard 0.4 to 1.0
Sand Loose 0.05 to 0.15
Sand Hard packed 0.4 to 1.0
Sand stone (in layers) 1.0 to 1.5 or more

Table 4.3 Cutter HP guide

The above table is for dredging depths up to 10 metres. For every

10 metres increase in depth, increase the HP by 50 per cent.

The discharge capacity and discharge distance give the main pump
power.
 - 89 -

The cutting and suction depth can be improved by placing the pump
below water on the ladder. Spud arrangements need special attention,
specially for deeper cutting depths. A spud carriage/trolly reduces
operational delays.

4.2.2 Cutter heads

Cutters come in different forms -- like the crown cutter basket

cutter, closed nose cutter and have different types — plain bladed,
serrated edges, toothed cutter (for rock) and cutters with "replaceable
edges" or blades. They are meant for use with different types of
materials (Table 4.4).

Cutter type Type of material Figure number

Closed nose 4.13 (a)

Serrated blade Medium materials - medium stiff 4.13 (b)

cutters clays medium loose sands and soft
weathered rock. Blade edges
replaceable

Rock cutter with Stiff clays very ) chisel 4.13 (c)

replaceable teeth weak rocks ) point
)
weak/medium ) pick
rocks ) point

Plain bladed Soft material, such as silts, 4.13 (d)

cutter sands and clays. Blade edges
are replaceable

Table 4.4 Cutter heads

Figure 4.13 Different types of cutters

 - 90 -

4.2.3 The production cycle

The cycle consists of six steps:

- Lower cutter to sea bed;

- Cut once across face;
- Further cuts to finished depth;
- Cleaning cut;
- Raise cutter; and
- Advance into face.

Production rate is influenced by the limitation imposed by any of

the following:

- The ability of the cutter to break down the material and

traverse above the face;
- The head and horsepower available for pumping; and
- The rate at which the dredger can be advanced into the face.

Effective working hours will depend upon a number of factors like

weather, sea conditions, anchor movement, pipeline movement, fouling of
cutter head, blockage of suction intake or discharge pipe, movement of
dredger, crew changes and shipping disturbance. In a well organized
normal site, normally 20 to 30 per cent of the theoretically available
working time is lost due to these factors.

4.2.4 Limitations

Minimum water depth to operate: 1.0m

Maximum water depth to dredge: 35.0m
Maximum cut width: 175.0m
Maximum wave height: 2.0m
Maximum swell: 1.0m
Maximum cross current: 2.0 knots
Maximum particle size: 500mm
2
Maximum soil shear strength: 500 kN/m
2
Maximum rock crushing strength: 30,000 kN/m

4.2.5 Ancillary equipment

The main items of ancillary equipment are:

- Pipeline - Floating and on-shore;

- Anchors;
- Workboats; and
- Floating cranes.

In the case the material is to be used for reclamation, a large

variety of land-based equipment will also be needed.
 - 91 -

ancillaries CUTTER HEADS:

PIPELINES * PLAIN BUDED

LAND * SERRATED BLADE
floating « ROCKCUTTER
ANCHORS « CROWN CUTTER
WORK BOATS * BASKET CUTTER
FLOATING « CLOSED NOSE
CRANES
LAND-BASED
EQUIPMENT

CUTTER DUCKET
SUCTION DREDGER
+ WHEEL DREDGER

k Cf^LO WEl'T

fz CUTTER

PRODUCTION
CYCLE

RAISE "c U'f $

CUTTER °v

weaknesses:

* SENSITIVE TO OPERATING LIMITS : CHARA CTERISTICS :

SEA CONDITIONS
* LIMITED DISTANCE ♦
MAX WATER ♦ POSITIVE
OF DISCHARGE DEPTH-35m CUTTING ACTION
* HIGH COST OF • MAX CUT * MIXTURE MOVED
MOB/DEMOB WIDTH-176m VERTICALLY BY
♦ LIMITED ♦ MAX WAVE SUCTION
DREDGING DEPTH HEIGHT-2m ♦ WIDE RANGE
• LIQUIFICATION ♦ MAX OF MATERIALS
OF MATERIAL SWELL-1m * DIRECT DISPOSAL
• CROSS THROUGH
IMPROVED BY CURRENT-2Knols PIPELINE
«
PARTICLE • CAN CUT ITS
• BOOSTERS SIZE--500mm OWN FLOATATION
* SUBMERGED ♦ ROCKSTRENCTH « HIGH PRODUCTION
PUMPS -30000KN/m2 » LEVEL BOTTOM

Figure 4.14 Cutter suction dredger and bucket wheel dredger

 - 92 -

Pipeline

The main criteria is the correct hydraulic characteristics to

match the velocity and concentration.

Velocities necessary for different materials are given in Table

4.5 below:

Material type Velocity range m/s

Silt 2 to 3
Fine sand 3 to 4

Active sand 3.5 to 4.5

Clay - high plasticity 4 to 5
Coarse sand 4 to 5
Sand + fine gravel 4.5 to 5
Sand + medium gravel 4.5 to 5.5
Stiff clays 4.5 to 5.5
Sand + coarse gravel 5 to 5.5
Sand + gravel + cobbles 5.5 to 6.5

Table 4.5 Pipeline velocities for different soil types

Pipe wall thickness should meet the strength requirements and

provide for the abrasive action of the dredged material. The floating
pipelines should have good buoyancy, flexibility, should be suitably
anchored and of robust construction. On the shore end, the pipeline
should provide for adequate valves/bifurcation/diversion arrangements
to prevent burying and clogging.

Anchors

The choice of anchors should be suited to the ground conditions.

There are "ground anchors" which hold by penetration into the bed,
(typical holding forces are between 10-30 times the mass of the
anchor), "gravity anchors" made of concrete blocks and tripod platform
structures flooded by sea water to rest on the sea bed.

4.2.6 Bucket wheel dredger

Essentially, a bucket wheel dredger is a cutter suction dredger

(CSD) with a bucket wheel as a cutter. The wheel cutter consists of
closely spaced bottomless buckets arranged around the circumference of
a circular assembly within which the suction intake to the pump is
located (Figure 4.15). When the wheel rotates material is cut which
moves radically inwards under the influence of the gravity and water
flow to the suction intake chamber. The result is low spillage and very
little clogging of the buckets. Other advantages of BWD are equal
cutting efficiency regardless of the direction of traverse and dredging
depth and improved concentration of dredged material when dredging
cohesive materials.
 - 93 -

Support with integrated

hydraulic drive

Suction pipe

Cutting edge Flow guide

Dredge
ladder

Suction mouth

Figure 4.15 Dredging wheel

Figure 4.16 Dredging wheel with teeth
 - 95 -

The disadvantages include substantially greater mass, higher

capital cost, higher sophistication and, subsequently, better operating
skills (Figure 4.17).

Figure 4.17 Bucket wheel dredger

4.3 The dustpan dredger

The dustpan dredger is another suction dredger that is similar to

CSD in many ways. The main difference is in the suction head and the
mode of operation. The head has no mechanical cutting action. The
material is fluidized by a number of water jets mounted in the suction
head shaped like a dustpan. The dredger is moved by winches into the
face of the material to be removed, takes in the material already
fluidized by the water jets and discharges the material a short
distance away; either into deeper waters, rapidly flowing water or into
on-shore containment areas (Figure 4.18).

Figure 4.18 Dustpan dredger (side view)

 - 96 -

The dustpan dredger is useful for removing thin deposits of loose

material from large areas. Its normal employment is in rivers/channels.
The absence of any positive cutting mechanism limits its usefulness to
unconsolidated/loose deposits. It has been successully used for plane
level surface on the seabed for founding pre-cast structures. (Delta
works Netherlands).

Figure 4.19 Dustpan head

Production per cycle can be assessed from the width of the suction
head, the depth and length of the cut or the hourly production of
solids through the pump. The cycle time consists of laying head
anchor, positioning dredger, commencing dredging and dropping back for
second cut or recovering anchor for move to new location. Hourly
production rate multiplied by effective working hours will give the
daily rate.

Limiting factors will depend on the size and characteristics of

the dredger, but the extreme limits are:

- Minimum water depth to operate 1.5m

- Maximum water depth to dredge 15m
- Maximum cross current 0.5 knots
- Maximum cut width 10m
- Maximum discharge distance 500m
 - 97 -

USEFUL FOR SENSITIVITY TO

★THIN DEPOSITS DEBRIS
NO MECHANICAL
★LOOSE MATERIAL ACTION
★LARGE AREAS CANNOT HANDLE
SPECIALLY FOR HARD MATERIAL
RIVERS SENSITIVITY TO
SEA CONDITIONS

DUSTPAN
DREDGER

RECOVER ANCHOR
MOVE LAYING
HEAD ANCHOR
\

POSITIONING WORKING POSITIONIMG-

DREDGER CYCLE DREDCER

DREDGE DREDGE
LANE(2) LANE(1 )
DROP BACK

ANCILLARIES : OPERA TIONAL LIMITS :

FLOATING MINIMUM WATER--1.5m

PIPELINE MAX. WATER-15m
MAX. CURRENT-0.5Knots
ANCHORS MAX CUT WIDTH-10m
MAX. DISCHARGE
DISTANCE—500m

Figure 4.20 Details of dustpan dredger

 - 98 -

4.4 Mechanical dredgers

The next set of dredgers fall under the heading of mechanical

dredgers. It may be of interest to know that these dredgers have a
higher efficiency than the hydraulic dredgers (i.e., they have a low
fuel consumption per cubic metre of soil dredged). The bucket dredger
has an overall efficiency of 50 per cent while the maximum efficiency
of a hydraulic dredger is only 17 per cent. In a climate of higher
energy prices these dredgers can stage a come-back though at present
their demand and production has been decreasing down. These dredgers
have been in use for many decades and their designs have become nearly
optima1.

There are a variety of these dredgers on the market but only three
will be described. The rest are varations of these three basic types
which include the:

- Grab dredger which can be pontoon mounted or self propelled

with a hopper;
- Dipper Dredger (a modern version of a back hoe); and
- Bucket chain dredger.

4.4.1 Grab dredger

In a grab dredger, the basic tool is a grab which can vary in size
and shape and can be used for a variety of soils and water depths. The
grab, in an open position, is dropped through the water column on to
the soil bed. There is a certain amount of penetration by the teeth of
the grab into the soil and, with the help of winches and ropes, the
grab is closed, thereby biting a large chunk of soil from the seabed.
The closed grab is then lifted out of water and discharged into a
nearby hopper barge or into the hopper of the dredger itself. Its main
characteristics are:

- It loads the dredged material with minimal disturbance or

dilution;
- It is well suited for working in confined areas such as
alongside quays, dock entrances and locks;
- It can operate in any depth of water, being limited only by the
length of the rope; and
- It can deal with any type of rubbish, vegetation and even
materials like chains, ropes and iron scrap.

Its main disadvantages are low rate of production, difficulty in

producing a level bottom and interference with navigational traffic
because of its anchors which have to be cast all round the dredger.
The grab hopper dredger is fitted with more than one grab and fitted
with spuds in place of chains. It is normally self-propelled so that
it can be used for transporting and dumping the material away from the
dredging site. It is related by its hopper volume and they range from
50m3 to 2,000m3 (Figure 4.21).
 - 99 -

Production cycle

The most significant variables in the production cycle of the grab

hopper dredger are the loading time and the sailing time. The pontoon
grab dredger is independent of the sailing time as the material is
carried in the barges and the number of these can be adjusted to meet
the production cycle. The effectiveness of these dredgers is reduced
by rough seas, tide levels, adverse currents and shipping interference.
A well managed dredger should be able to work between 80 to 70 per cent
of the available working time in spite of various types of
interference. The limiting factors are:

Minimum water depth for operation 3m

Maximum water depth for operation 45m
Maximum wave height 2m
Maximum cross current 1.5knot
2
Maximum shear strength of soil 100 kN per m
2
Maximum crushing strength of rocks 500 kN per m

The main types of grab buckets used with the above types of
dredgers are orange peal (for broken rock or boulder) and clam shell
(for sand, mud or heavy digging).

Figure 4.22 Grab hopper dredger

 - 100 -

LOADS DREDGED LOW PRODUCTION

MATERIAL WITH ROUGH BOTTOM
MIN. DILUTION INTERFERENCE
OR DISTURBANCE WITH TRAFFIC
SUITED FOR SENSITIVE
CONFINED AREAS TO SEA
DEPTH OF WATER CONDITIONS
NO PROBLEM
INSENSITIVE
TO DEBRIS

GRAB GRAB HOPPER

DREDGER VARIATION DREDGER[SP]

DREDGE
POSITION
DREDGER
POSITION
BARGE
WORKING
CYCLE

MOVE POSITION
BARGE BARGES

DREDGE
ANCILLARIES LOWER GRAB OPERATING LIMITS
CLOSE GRAB
GRABS-CLAM SHELL LIFT GRAB MIN.DEPTH-3m
-ORANGE PEAL SLEW TO MAX.DEPTH-45m
BARGES-DUMB,SP DISCHARGE MAX. WAVE
-HOPPER SLEW TO HEIGHT-2m
WORK BOAT POSITION MAX.CROSS
CURRENT-1.5Knots
MAX. SOIL SHEAR
100KN/mz
MAX.ROCK STRENGTH
500KN/m2

Figure 4.23 Comparison of grab dredger and grab hopper dredger [SP]
 - 101 -

4.4.2 Dipper dredger

Traditionally, a dipper dredger is a heavily constructed, rope-

operated machine, but that has been replaced by a hydraulic backhoe.
The dipper dredger operates by digging forwards and upwards into the
face. It is mounted on a spud rigged pontoon to provide the necessary
reaction to the digging force. It slews to discharge the load into a
barge alongside.

Figure 4.24 Dipper dredger

The main advantages of the dipper dredger is its ability to handle

a wide variety of difficult materials, including soft rock, stiff clays
and boulder clays. It can cut its own floatation as it is advancing
into the face. The disadvantages include low rate of production,
limited dredging depth, high capital cost and sensitivity to sea
conditions.

Limiting factors

Minimum water depthto operate 2.5m

Maximum water depth to operate 20m
Maximum width of cut 30m
Maximum wave height 2.5m
Maximum cross current 2.5 knots
Maximum shear strength of clays 500 KN/m2
Maximum crushing strength of rocks 1500 KN/m2

The backhoe has high future prospects because of its high

efficiency, accuracy in vertical and horizontal planes and ability to
deal with all types of soils, specially boulders and broken/blasted
rock.
 - 102 -

MAIN ADVANTAGE ★LOWPROD UCTION

★LIMITEDDEPTH
★HARD MA ERIAL ★HIGH CAPITAL
★FRAGMENTEDROCK COST
★CUT OWN ★SENSITIVE TO
FLOATATION SEA CONDITIONS

DIPPER DREDGER
[BACKHOE]

replace
BARGE POSITION
DREDGER
CONTINUE PONTOON
DREDGING BARGE

OPERATIONAL
CYCLE
SWING TO LOWER
DISCHARGE bucket
dredge

RAISE

ANCILLARIES OPERATING LIMITS

* BARGES * MIN. WATER

* TUG POWER DEPTH-W.5m
* MAX. WATER
DEPTH-20m
♦ MAX. WIDTH OF
WATER-30m
* MAX. WAVE-2.5m
* MAXCROSS
CURRENT-2.5Knots
★ MAX. STRENGTH
OF ROCK-1,500KN/m2

Figure 4.25 Details of clipper dredger [backhoe]

 - 103 -

4.4.3 Bucket chain dredger

A very popular dredger in the past, it is now used only for

special applications like removal of very hard material or blasted
rock. The function is achieved by a continuous chain of buckets which
scoop the material from the seabed and raise it above water level.
After coming out of water, the buckets get inverted and drop their load
into a chute which directs the material into waiting barges alongside.
The heavy bucket chain is supported by a steel ladder and driven
electrically or hydraulically via a tumbler. This bucket chain is
mounted in the well of a rectangular pontoon and can be raised or
lowered with the help of a ladder. The pontoon is secured in position
with the help of six winches which also are used for the movement of
the pontoon forward and sideways. The bucket size varies from 150
litres to 1,200 litres and the bucket speed from 10 to 30 buckets per
minute. The advantages offered by this dredger are:
- Continuous dredging action leaving a good bottom finish behind;
- The dredging process is not sensitive to debris, boulders or
other small obstructions; and
- The dilution by water is minimal, thereby allowing minimal
shipment of water along with the solids.

Disadvantages of the dredger are:

- Heavy construction, involving heavy mobilization and
demobilization costs;
- Sensitivity to sea conditions like waves, currents and tides;
- Widely spread anchors that interfere with navigation;
- Suitability only for filling barges (material to be used for
reclamation has to be rehandled);
- Tendency of sticky, cohesive material to stick to buckets; and
- High labour requirement when compared to dredgers with similar
productivity, both capital and operation costs are higher and
mobilization cost is high.

All these drawbacks place this dredger in a disadvantageous

position. (Figure 4.26)

Ancilliary equipment that goes with the dredger are different

sizes and types of barges, a variety of anchors and sometimes a special
pontoon to support the head wire.
 - 104 -

BELT CONVEYER

Figure 4.26 Bucket chain dredger

LOWER LADDER
TO SEABED

ADVANCE CUT ONE

ACROSS
INTO FACE FACE

RAISE FURTHER
LADDER CUTS TO
FINISH
DEPTH

CLEANING
CUT

Figure 4.27 Production cycle of bucket chain dredger

 - 105 -
Limiting factors

Minimum water depth to operate 5m

Maximum water depth to dredge 35m
Maximum cut width 150m
Maximum wave height 1.5m
Maximum cross current 2 Knots
Maximum particle size (boulders) 1500mm
Maximum sheer strength 350 KN/m2
Maximum crushing strength of rocks 3000 KN/m2

★CONTINUOUS ★VERY HEAVY

DREDGING CONSTRUCTION
★NOT SENSITIVE ★HIGH MOB/DEMOB
TO DEBRIS COSTS
★DILUTION ★SENSITIVE TO
SEA CONDITIONS
MINIMAL
★INTERFERES
★VERY HARD
WITH TRAFFIC
MATERIAL
★CAN ONLY FILL
INCLUDING WEAK
BARGES
& BLASTED ROCK ★STICKY MATERIAL
DIFFICULT TO
REMOVE FROM
BUCKETS
BUCKET CHAIN ★HIGH LABOUR
REQUIREMENT
DREDGER
ADVANCE
TO FACE
LOWER
LADDER

RAISE OPERATING CUT ONE

LADDER CYCLE ACROSS

CLEANING FURTHER
CUTS CUTS

ANCILLARIES OPERATING LIMITS

•BARGES ★MIN.DEPTHSm
•ANCHORS ★MAX.DEPTH-35m
•SPECIAL HEAD ★MAX. CUT WIDTH-150m
WIRE PONTOON ★MAX. WAVE HEIGHT 1.5m
•WORK BOAT ★MAX. CROSS CURRENT-2Knots
★ MAX. SHEAR STRENGTH
OF SOIL-350KN/m2
★ MAX. CRUSHING
STRENGTH OF ROCK
3,000KN/m2

Figure 4.28 Details of bucket chain dredger

 - 106 -

Summary of dredger characteristics

Comparative figures for limitations on the use of various dredging

plants are summed up in Table 4.6. Vertical and horizontal tolerances
under normal working conditions for the different types of dredgers may
be seen in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 in Chapter 3.

Type of dredg- Mechanical

Hydraulic
ing plant

Site Trailer Cutter Bucket Grab Grab Bucket Hydraulic

Units suction Dipper
Condition suction wheel hopper pontoon chain backhoe

Minimum depth m 3 1 3 3 3 5 2 2.5

of water to
operate

Maximum depth m 35 35 20 45 80 35 25 20
of water to
operate

Maximum wave m 5 2 1.5 2 2 1.5 1.5 2.5

height to
operate

Maximum swell m 3 1 0.6 1 1 1 0.7 N

height to
operate

Maximum cross knots 3 2 2 1.5 1.5 2.0 3 2.5

current to
operate

Minimum cut
width m 4 5 5 5 5 10 2 3

Maximum cut
width (single m 4 175 105 N 70 150 50 30
pass)

Maximum par- mm 500 500 450 450 3,500 1,500 3,000 250
ticle size

Maximum KN/m2 75 500 400 100 300 350 450 500

soil shear
strength

Maximum rock KN/m2 100 30,000 10,000 500 1,000 3,000 10,000 1,500
crushing
strength

N - not applicable.

Table 4.6 Limitations on the use of various dredging plants

 - 107 -

4.5 Special purpose dredgers

Jet pump dredgers, pneumatic dredgers and air lift dredgers for
special applications have been developed recently in different
countries.

4.5.1 Jet pump dredger

The principle of the jet pump dredger is illustrated in Figure

4.29 below:

Figure 4.29 Jet pump dredger

The jet pump is positioned in the suction pipe thus conferring the
advantage of being able to dredge to greater depths and to continue
dredging with a buried suction intake without risk of cavitation.
Other advantages claimed for jet pumps are reduced risk of pipeline
blockage and reduced cost of wear by handling abrasive material. The
disadvantages include reduced system efficiency and limited residual
head available for the discharge of dredged material through the
pipeline. The maximum discharge distance is significantly less than
for the centrifugal pump.

4.5.2 Air lift dredger

The air lift dredger achieves flow in a pipe by injecting

compressed air at the submerged end of the pipe. The entrained air
reduces the density of the air and water mixture within the pipe and an
upward flow is induced. Loose soils are eroded and carried in
suspension by the flowing water. The basic features are illustrated in
the figure below:
 - 108 -

COMPRESSED AIR INPUT

MECHAMtCAL
ATOR
AClL

INDUCED MIXTURE
FLOW

Figure 4.30 Air lift dredger

The advantage of the system is its great simplicity with the

complete absence of submerged moving parts. The disadvantages are,
very low head characteristics, a relatively low limit on the density of
the mixture and limited application with loose and fine materials. Its
main use has been in cleaning sediment from around wrecks, submerged
foundations and structures.

SUCTION PHASE DELIVERY PHASE

COMPRESSED r
WATER - AIR *.
ri «
level \\

I— _ —SEDIMENT _MZi---
SUPPLY — - L — — -------

LAYER TO BE REMOVED

Figure 4.31 Pneumatic dredger

 - 109 -

4.5.3 Pneumatic dredger

The system uses compressed air for pressure delivery of the

mixture. A hollow cylinder is placed near the bed to be dredged with a
suction pipe, a mixture delivery line and a compressed air line. The
latter two are above water and the first one is embedded in the
sediment (Figure 4.31). During the suction phase, air escapes from the
cylinder and the mixture is sucked into the cylinder through the feed
line. After the cylinder is full, air pressure is applied to the
cylinder, the suction pipe suck valve closes and the mixture is forced
out through the delivery pipe above water. The process is repeated
with the compressed air escaping and mixture being sucked in. Three
cylinders are used in a battery to have continuous working.

Theoretically, its efficiency increases with increased depth.

These pumps have been used up to depths of 50m and have production
range of up to 2,000 m3/hr.

4.6 Low cost dredging technology

For small ports and fishing harbours with limited draughts and
budgets, low cost dredging techniques have regained their importance.
These methods rely on nature to perform one or two of the processes
(dislodging material, raising it vertically; horizontal transport and
dumping or discharging overboard) or maximize the use of locally
available energy sources to minimize heavy mobilizing and demobilizing
costs of special dredgers and equipment. In "Agitation Dredging,"
natural water currents are used for transporting the material away from
the site. Locally available tug launches, fire fighting boats,
trawlers etc. are used for towing of agitation equipment such as rakes,
underwater ploughs scrapers and mud wheels. Innovative techniques of
mounting locally available cranes or suction pumps on pontoons to form
composite dredging units are employed to perform small, shallow, local
dredging jobs. Very high efficiencies cannot be expected from such
techniques but, considering overall economics and possible savings in
time and foreign exchange, these methods have found favour. These
methods have been covered in two separate ESCAP publications titled
"Low Cost Dredging Technology" (ST/ESCAP/849)and "Agitation Dredging"
(ST/ESCAP/352). The reader is recommended to refer to the above
mentioned publications for more details.

Agitation devices;

- Hydraulic rake;
- Mud wheel; and
- Modern underwater dozer, scraper or plough.

Innovative methods;

- Use of ship propellers for agitation;

- Air bubble injection; and
- Water jet injection system (jetsed).
 - 110 -

Composite dredgers:

- A backhoe or dragline mounted on a pontoon; and

- Barge with a dismountable trailing unit with a push tug boat.

Integrated dredging system

Multi-functional service system which can provide different

services for a harbour. Functions of survey vessel, patrol
launch, tug boat and dredgers can be performed and cost reduction
is expected to result.

4.7 Future trends

There is likely to be an increased trend to concentrate on

dredgers for maintenance, specially the trailers. Future maintenance
trailers will have large hoppers in relation to dead weight capacity.
These hoppers must be large enough to contain the lightest soil and
sail with full load on maximum draught. At the same time, when
dredging high specific weight sand, the sand level in the hopper must
be above the maximum draught level of the ship to prevent water above
the sand in the hopper. These trailers of the future will have no
superfluous equipment like cranes which are not going to be used. It
shall have the optimum number of dumping doors to suit the material.
There will be only one large maneuverable trailing pipe with a
submerged pump and there will be more extensive automation of the
dredging process. Propulsion will be by a single controllable
propeller with bow thrusters for better navigational control. The
engine room will be unmanned with the engineer in the wheel house.
There may be arrangements for treating polluted materials in the hopper
before discharge.

4.8 Selection of dredgers

Factors which must be considered in selecting the most suitable

dredger are:

- Kind of soil;
- Volume of soil and construction period;
- Dredging depth and dredging thickness;
- Soil disposal methods;
- Length and quality of the transport route to the disposal area;
- Disturbance of the bottom sediments;
- Meteorological, oceanological and geometric condition;
- Tolerances of the excavation;
- Kind of dredger and auxiliary equipment;
- Availability of the desired dredger;
- Type of dredging work.
 - 111 -

Kind of soil

The bottom materials to be dredged should be examined from two

different angles — dredgeability (response to excavation) and
transportability. Dredgeability is a function of many soil properties
(these have been described in the section on geotechniques). But the
most important property is N (SPT) value in case of sands, compressive
strength value and Atterberg limits for cohesive material and fracture
strength and elastic wave velocity for hard and rocky materials. For
transportability, grain size, specific weight and matrix are involved.
The relationship between the kind of soil and standard dredging methods
is shown in Tables 4.7 and 4.8.

Type of Soil Type of dredger

Classifi- State N Value CSD TS Grab Bucket Dipper

cation (SPT) hopper dred- dredger dredger
dredger ger

Soft mud -4
soft 4-10
medium 10-20
Clay hard 20-30
harder 30-40
hardest 40-50

soft -10
medium 10-20
Sand hard 20-30
harder 30-40
hardest 40-50

Clay with soft -30

gravel hard 30-

Sand soft -30

hard 30-

sof ter 40-50

soft 50-60
Rock medium
hard
hardest

Gravel loose
packed

Table 4.7 Type of soil and dredger suitability (Japan)

 - 112 -

E - Easy
F - Fair
D - Difficult
- - Not applicable

Nature of soil
Type of dredging Non--cohesive Cohesive
equipment Graval Sand Cemented si It Clay
2./ 60 0.06/ fine 0.002 /0.06 <0.002 mm.
mm 2.00 sand mm
mm Stiff Soft Stiff Soft

1. Mechanical dredgers

1.1 Bucket dredger E E F E E E E

1.2 Dipper dredger E E F E E E E

1.3 Backhoe or face

shovel dredger E E F E E E E

1.4 Grab dredger D F D F E D F

2. Hydraulic dredgers

2.1 Pipeline
suction dredger F E - - - - -

2.2 Dustpan dredger - E - - - - -

2.3 Cutter suction

dredger/BW E E D F E F E
dredger

2.4 Trailing suction

hopper dredger F E D F E F E

2.5 Boom dredger - E - D E D E

3. Transport

3.1 Booster station D E E F E F E

3.2 Barges
(non-self) F E E E E E E
propelled

3.3 Pipelines D E E E E E E

Table 4.8 Suitability of dredgers in relation to soil

(maintenance work) [PIANC]
 - 113 -

Other properties which should also be considered are:

- Composition, stickiness, maximum size of gravel, specific

gravity, grain size distribution and weatheredness; and
- Kind of rock, state of weatheredness, distribution and occurrence
of cracks.

Volume of soil and construction period

Volume of soil and construction period are very important factors

in determining the size
* and capacity of the dredger. In certain cases
when sufficient time is available, a smaller and more economical
dredger may be able to do the job within the time available instead of
using a heavy and more expensive dredger.

Dredging depth and dredging thickness

Each dredger has a specific maximum dredging depth. This is

governed by the mechanism, size and capacity of the dredging
machinery. Hydraulic dredgers are much more sensitive to dredging
depths. Even mechanical dredgers have limits in dealing with depths
beyond certain levels. See Table 4.6 on limitation.

Soil disposal methods

Depending upon the location and methodology for the disposal of

dredged soil, transportation to the dumping area is an important factor
in the selection of a dredger and auxiliary equipment. Table 4.9
shows different disposal systems and the associated equipment.

Length and quality of transport route

These data are essential in selecting the type of transport

equipment.

Disturbance of the bottom sediment

Pollution, turbidity and disturbance to marine life are important

issues which are becoming increasingly important as a result of
environmental regulations and conventions regarding dredging.
Preference should be given to those dredgers which cause the minimum
disturbance to the environment.

Meteorological, oceanological and geometrical conditions

Dredgers have different performance capabilities in different

weather conditions. Selection of a dredger can be determined after
examining :

- Waves, wind, current, tide and site exposure;

- Workable days and hours;
- Place of refuge for dredgers and ancillary craft;
- Anchoring conditions; and
- Loading area, mooring place and dumping area.
 - 114 -

Situation Dredger and soil disposal method

In case of distant Stationary bucket D. —

soil disposal site Stationary dipper D. —

— Stationary barge
Stationary grab D. and tug boat
(or pusher)
Stationary CSD —
— Self-prop. barge
Self-prop. bucket D.

Self-prop. TSHD

Self-prop. grab D. - Self-propelled

In case of direct Stationary CSD Direct pump out

dumping in the Booster pump

station
reclaimed area
Sand carrier

Hopper barge

Self-prop.TSHD Direct pump out

Bottom door dumping

Side casting
(agitation dredging)

In case of disposal Hopper barge

for reclamation

(dumping)

In case of Combination of

re-handling above methods

Table 4.9 Soil disposal methods

 - 115 -

Tolerances of the excavation

Small tolerances demand either overdredging or a very accurate

method of execution which affects the efficiency of the dredger. (see
Chapter 3).

Kind of dredger and auxiliary equipment

The auxiliary equipment that usually matches each dredging process

has been described. Hopper barges, whether self-propelled or dumb, are
the most common carriers for transporting of dredged material. Care
should be taken to optimise the number of barges based upon the
transport cycle so that at no time are costly dredgers kept waiting for
barges. It will always pay to have sufficient reserves and the size
and capacity of each barge should be commensurate with the requirements
of the dredger.

Availability of the desired dredger

Mobilization and demobilization of a dredger is one of the biggest

costs in a dredging job. Availability of the most suitable dredger,
selected using the criteria mentioned above, may be restricted because
of this constraint. In that case, the second best choice may have to
be used with a subsequent decrease in efficiency.

Type of dredging work

The selection of the plant will also be very much governed by the
type of dredging work that is to be undertaken. The dredging work may
be divided into maintenance dredging, capital dredging, land
reclamation and rock dredging.

Maintenance dredging

In maintenance work, only recently deposited fine sediments

usually need to be removed so the plant required need not be
exceptionally powerful or heavily built. For preliminary selection of
the most suitable plant for the type of soil encountered during
maintenance dredging, please refer to Table 5.2.

The usual problems encountered in maintenance dredging are the low

density of the material to be dredged, thinness of the layer and the
high frequency of work. Special dredging techniques have been developed
to deal with these three problems. Reference is also invited to the
section on nautical depth and hydrography in muddy areas.

The most suitable plants for maintenance dredging are the

trailing suction hopper dredger and grab dredger in areas not easily
accessible to the trailing suction hopper dredger. Low cost dredging
techniques like agitation dredging, bed levellers, under water
scrappers etc. have become popular because of their low cost and low
profile technology.

Capital dredging

In many cases, capital dredging involves a range of different

materials to be dredged. The disposal methods can also differ for
different materials. Even though extensive soil investigation works
 - 116 -

are undertaken, there is always a fair amount of unpredictability in

the type of materials likely to be met in capital dredging.
Consequently, the versatility of the equipment is an important factor
to consider when selecting aplant for capital dredging. Its
versatility should include both ability to tackle a wide range of soil
conditions and the ability to work in a variety of ways, for example,
to employ different methods of dredged material disposal. Generally
speaking, the plant required for capital dredging needs to be more
robust, of more rugged construction and with greater power. For
further details refer to Chapter 5.

Land reclamation

The most suitable dredger for land reclamation, especially when

the area to be reclaimed is within the pumping reach, are the cutter
suction dredgers pumping through the pipeline directly to the
reclamation area. In any other case, double handling is involved which
adds to the cost of the reclamation. Factors like soil type, pumping
distance, depth of reclamation, depth of dredging, utilization of
reclaimed area are factors which must be considered for selection of
the dredger. The subject of reclamation has its own attendant issues
and problems, which are dealt with separately in Chapter 5.

Rock dredging

Most rocks need pre-treatment before they can be dredged.

Pre-treatment can be done chemically by using explosives. Recently,
some water jetting system has been developed for breaking up and
fragmenting rock. Their efficiency under water is still not properly
established. In the past 20 years, some heavy cutter dredgers have
been developed which can do direct dredging of sedimentary and coral
rocks. In situ state of rock has a profound influence on its
dredgeability. For further details refer to Chapter 5.

Summarizing

The objective of selection is to arrive at an optimum combination

of machines from among those that are available — to carry out the job
with the minimum overall cost. To be able to do that, information
required is the:

- Weekly cost of each machine; and

- Number of weeks the dredger is likely to be employed.

This is derived from the quantity and weekly production. Weekly

production is obtained either from production per hour or production
per cycle and cycle time.

The production per hour under various conditions is usually

derived using coefficients determined by analysing previous operations
and tests and investigations at the site.

Different combinations or groupings are possible to meet the

requirements of time. The combination which gives the least cost is
the optimum.
 - 117 -

4.9 Case study - Dredger selection

The new port of Nhava Sheva on the west coast of India near the
existing port of Bombay, was opened to traffic in 1988. The port is
designed to handle containers and bulk cargoes. Formerly, this traffic
could not be accommodated in Bombay (built in 1914) due to draft
restrictions and the unsuitable layout of the berths which were
oriented towards general cargo handling.

The project included dredging from the existing depths to -11.00m

for the soils and -12m for rock in the channel and in the turning
circle. (Figure 4.32)

In front of the berths, and in the anchorage, these depths were

specified as -12.5m for soft soils and -14.5m for rock. The dredged
material was to be disposed of by barges or other means into the
designated dumping ground separately for ebb and flood tides.

The dredging area was divided into sections A, B and C. The

quantity of material to be dredged in all three sections was 6.46
million m3 of soft material and 540,000 m3 of rock.

To determine the elevation of the rock in different areas, jet

probing was specified. The area to be probed was about 226,000 m2.

The distance to the dumping grounds was 20km. From October to May,
waves in the dredging area were no disturbance to operations. There
was no interference from shipping traffic. There was a possibility of
wave disturbance in the dumping ground for a small percentage of the
time from May to October. The bed levels in the dumping area allowed
unrestricted dumping by vessels with a draft of up to 11m.

Results of extensive soil investigations were available in the

tender documents. Bore holes with standard penetration tests had been
carried out in the soft material and rotary drilling had been performed
in the rocky material.
 - 118 -

Methodology

With the aid of the bore hole logs, the results of laboratory
tests, photographs of the rock cores and visual inspection of the
samples, it was inferred that, for the purposes of tendering and
pricing, only two classifications were appropriate, soft material and
rock. This was- reflected in the bill of quantities.

A portion of the channel was very shallow and contained only soft
material. The contractor decided to use a shallow draft trailing
suction hopper dredger to create a 100 metres wide channel with
sufficient depth that the larger silt dredgers could be deployed
subsequently. From the study of the rock structure and its strength,
it was concluded that most of the rock could be dredged by using a
heavy cutter without pre-treatment. But as the possibility of meeting
harder portions which may need pre-treatment could not be ruled out, it
was expedient to mobilize rock blasting equipment. The contractor was
also required to perform jet probing from a jack-up platform. These
two functions could be combined and suitable equipment mobilized to
assist in jet probing — and for the purpose of blasting in case it was
required. For environmental reasons, blasting was not encouraged and
was used only when there was no other alternative.

The equipment selected by the contractor along with their

characteristics are listed in the table below:

Type of _ Approximate time

Size Draft Production
dredger to be used

Heavy CSD 112m x 19m 4.60m 8 weeks 600,000 m3

HP-21,000 of rock

TSHD-1 4,800 m3 6.49m 10 weeks 1.2 x 106 m3

TSHD-2 10,570 m3 8.0m 15 weeks 3.2 x 106 m3

TSHD-3 8,000 m3 8.0m 14 weeks 2.5 x 10$ m3

Jackup 25m x 16m 30 weeks Jet probing

platform over 200,000 m2

Table 4.10 Available dredgers and their particulars (case study)

Output calculations for trailing suction

hopper dredger (shallow draft)

This dredger created a channel 100m wide, 2,000m long and -5.2m
deep involving a total quantity of 240,000 m3. Subsequent to this
shallow draft operation of the dredger, the same dredger was used for
widening and deepening the channel involving of 980,000 m3 of
dredging material and a depth of -7.2m.
 - 119 -

Production assessment: The envisaged cycle time, hopper loads and

weekly production for the dredger with restricted draft and non­
restricted operation was:
240,000 m3 980,000 m3
- Suction time 20 min. 30 min.

- Turning time 40 min.

- Sailing time loaded 66 min. 66 min.

- Dumping time 8 min. 8 min.

- Sailing time empty 65 min. 65 min.

- Filling rate in situ m3 1,740 m3 2,622 m3

- Weekly production 73,000 m3 140,000 m3

Output calculations for trailing suction hopper dredger No. 2

This dredger used the access channel of -7.2m created by the

shallow draft dredger to have unrestricted operation at all stages of
tide and gradually deepen and widen the access channel to the
contractual levels. The total quantity of material to be removed was
2.75 million m3.

Production assessment: The envisaged cycle time, hopper load and

weekly production for the above described operation was:

- Suction and turning time 34 min.

- Sailing time loaded 67-79 min.

- Dumping time 8 min.

- Sailing time empty 60-70 min.

- Filling rate in situ m3 5,940 m3

- Weekly production 290,000 m3

Output calculations for trailing suction hopper dredger No.3

Total volume envisaged to be removed by this dredger was 2.53

million m3. Production assessment for this dredger is shown below:

- Suction and turningtime 34 min.

- Sailing time loaded 66-77 min.

- Dumping time 8 min.

- Sailing time empty 59-69 min.

- Filling rate in situ m3 4,600 m3

- Weekly production 218,000 m3

 - 120 -

Output calculations for heavy cutter suction dredger

Positioning of this dredger was done with a Motorola mini-ranger.

An antenna on board was placed on the ladder gantry in the centre line
of the vessel at a location from which the relative position of the
cutter head at various dredged levels could be calculated. The cut
pattern is based on a cut height varying between 1.30m to 2.80m. The
operation of this dredger falls under two headings:

- Rock dredging/barge loading

During this operation, the CSD dredged rock from different

locations and discharged the same via a short floating pipeline
and barge loading pontoon into two 1,000 m3 self-propelled,
split-hull dumping barges. These barges dumped the material
underwater, close to the shore, as designated by the employer.

- Rehandling of the rocky material from the storage area

The cutter suction dredger pumped the rehandled dredged material

into the designated dumping ground near the shore using a
floating and land-based pipeline.

Production assessment: For the cut heights of 1.3m and 2.8m, the
production figures are shown below:
In metres

- Cut heights 1.30m 2.80m

- Swing speed m/min 15 7.9

- Stepsize in metres 0.6 0.6

- Weekly production (average)

Rock dredging 100,000 m3

Rehandling 235,000 m3

The time schedule for these operations is shown in Figure 3.1 in

Chapter 3.

Reclamation project — MALE,capital of Maldives

This project demonstrates that the proper selection of dredgers is

essential for the success of dredging operations. The Government of
Maldives took a bold decision to purchase cutter suction dredgers and
operate them departmentally. Their first deployment was on the
reclamation project for the extension of the airport at Hilule. Free
running coral sand was available and the dredgers were operated by
expatriate experts within the guarantee period. The 12" cutter suction
dredgers gave a very good performance and the project progressed well.
 - 121 -

The same dredgers were later transferred to the Male Reclamation

Project. Here the coral was much harder, the area was more exposed and
the expatriate crews were no longer available. The dredgers proved to
be underpowered for the cutting work involved, suffered heavy damage
and had low productivity. The fleet had to be rehabilitated and
augmented with a blasting barge fitted with a 2 3/8" diameter Altas
Copco overburden drilling rig operating through a 3" casing pipe. The
blasted rock could then be more easily picked up by the cutter suction
dredgers and pumped ashore.

Maintenance dredging — Port Authority of Thailand (PAT)

In 1987, anassessment was made that estimated that the

maintenance dredging requirement of PAT at that time was 5.6 x LO6
m 3. This was expected to increase by 1.5 x 106 m3 due to
widening of a bar channel and by another 1.5 x 106 m3 due to
deepening to 9m. Procurement of a 2,500 m3 capacity TSHD was
recommended by the consultants. The dredger was to be equipped with
most of the modern instrument and capable of dredging silt mud and fine
sand.

Yearly estimated output is given by the formula:

Annual output = Number of cycles per day x load factor x hopper

capacity x number of working days per year.

Cycle time was calculated as one hour 45 minutes giving 13.5

cycles per day.

Load factor - In situ volume/hopper volume for modern hopper

assumed as 0.85.

Number of working days per year = 267 days.

Annual output = 13.5 x 0.85 x 2,500 x 267 = 7.60 x106 m3 in situ.

A more conservative estimate basedon 12 cycles and 240 working

days gives an annual output of 6.12 x 106 m3 meeting the present
requirement.

Summary

To select the dredging equipment required to carry out a project

within a given period of time, boundary conditions, price parameters
and equipment performance must be known. Important boundary data,
apart from soil quality and quantity, are dredging depth, layer
thickness, length and quality of the transport route, waves and current
data, tolerances of the excavation and other interfering parameters
like shipping traffic, fog, obstacles, disturbances and the
accessibility of the dredging area. The suitable types of dredgers
are determined based on the operating conditions, parameters and
constraints. Knowing what it costs to keep, operate and maintain a
dredger per week, and its weekly production, it is possible to
determine the unit cost of dredging.
 - 122 -

5 DREDGING PROCESS

CAPITAL DREDGING MAINTENANCE DREDGING

TECHNICAL FACTORS OPTIMIZATION STRATEGY

♦ WRECKS ♦ REDUCTION IN SILTATION

* DEBRIS ♦ LOCALIZING SEDIMENTATION
♦ HIGH PLASTICITY ♦ IMPROVING DREDGING
CLAYS/PEATS MANAGEMENT
♦ VEGETATION ♦ AUTOMATION
♦ COBBLES BOULDERS ♦ NAUTICAL DEPTH
* DENSELY PACKED
SANDS
RECLAMATION

ROCK DREDGING SUB—SOIL/RECUMA TION

MATERIAL—CHARACTERISTICS
DIRECT DREDGING
♦ STABILITY
* ROCK BREAKER
♦ SETTLEMENT
♦ CSD
* CONSOLIDATION
♦ MECHANICAL
DREDGERS * BULKING
PRE-TREATMENT
SITE PREPARATION
* SURFACE HANDLING OF
BLASTING RECLAMATION PIPELINES
* DRILLING AND DRAINAGE OF
BLASTING SURPLUS WATER
ARTIFICIAL CONSOLIDATION
 - 123 -

5. DREDGING PROCESS

Introduction

Dredging takes three basic forms — digging, transport and

dumping. These actions are affected by site conditions. The most
important and crucial site condition is the "Soil." Depending on the
state of the soil, its hardness and other properties (Chapter 2)
dredging has been divided into three processes -- capital dredging,
maintenance dredging and rock dredging. Though there are other reasons,
for this categorization, soil remains the main criteria. In capital
works, dredgers are called upon to dig original, hard, well
consolidated soils. In maintenance works, the materials are from
recent deposits, are not as hard or thick, may be polluted and usually
are of low density. In rock dredging the distinction is obvious. It
is a separate process because of the extreme difficulty of removing
rock and the frequent adoption of other means like mechanical or
chemical pre-treatment before dredging.

All dredging works consist of one or a combination of these three

processes. When the material removed under any of these three
processes is deposited on land or low lying areas for the purpose of
creating usable land, special measures are called for. To distinguish
this requirement, "reclamation" is recognized as a separate process.

5.1 Capital dredging

Dredging undertaken to create or enlarge basins, turning areas,

access channels, etc. as a developmental activity is commonly called
capital dredging (also development dredging) . Normally, this dredging
would be undertaken on virgin soil for the first time. But this is not
always the case. Restoration of navigational depth in an old
basin/harbour when taken up as a developmental activity will also fall
under capital works. Removal of an old cofferdam adjoining a pier to
create navigational depths when done after a lapse of many years is
also capital work. A cofferdam adjoining Ballard Pier in the Port of
Bombay, India was dredged in 1963 whereas the cofferdam was provided
for construction of the pier in 1914.

Before the physical work of capital dredging can start, two

important stages in the planning process have to be completed —
dimensioning of the facility to meet the navigational requirements and
detailed site investigation to establish the governing parameters. For
a large project, technical and economic feasibility should be checked
followed by a detailed project report spelling out the methodology,
cost estimation, time schedule and work plan. The strategy being
postulated starts from there.

For managements in many developing countries, the word "dredging"

is usually associated with capital dredging. It is a project or a big
construction activity, most of the time undertaken by expatriate
contractors selected by international tendering, and, in addition to
the users, ports/waterways, many deparments of the Government, banks,
financial institutions (World Bank, Asian Development Bank) research
laboratories and consultants are involved. It is a major activity
sometimes monitored at very high levels. In some cases, it is expected
to achieve spectacular results such as creating valuable land,
beautifying the environment, channelizing rivers or building a new
 - 124 -

island. A lot of care and attention is therefore devoted to planning

and scheduling and the perfomance is usually entrusted to established
international contractors. These projects usually fair well.

Features which can have significant effect on the success of

capital dredging may be divided into technical and management factors.

5.1.1 Technical factors

- Presence of wrecks;
- Debris;
- High plasticity clays;
- Peat;
- Vegetation;
- Cobbles boulders;
- Densely packed sands; and
- Unexploded bombs, munitions and mines.

5.1.2 Management factors

Contractual conditions - interpretation of understanding and

knowledge of the latest technologies by the Employer
Methods of measurement and certification of works
Regulation of interim payments
Relationship between the Employer and the execution body
(Contractor).

Wrecks

Large wrecks are usually charted and sometimes buoyed. Site

scaning or magnetometer sweeping can detect wrecks if not charted.
Removal of wrecks, if they interfere with navigation, is usually
included in the contract under a separate item in the bill of
quantities. Method of disposing of the material recovered from wrecks
should be laid down clearly in the contract.

Debris

Debris can have many adverse effects on hydraulic dredging work.

Grabs are ideal to deal with it. It can be raked away from the
dredging area if the site conditions permit.

High plasticity clays

The problem created is of adhesion to buckets, grabs, hoppers,

balling around cutters and in the pipeline. Special arrangements for
jetting have to be made to break up the adhesion and possible time loss
has to be taken into consideration when estimating output.

Peat

The low density of peat, possible gas content and tendency to swell
rapidly upon removal of over-burden cause many difficulties in
dredging. When hoppers are used, no overflow is used because no
 - 125 -

increase in load takes place. Because of the swelling of peat, in

reclamation the volume requird for containment is much more than the
in situ volume.

Vegetation

Weeds in water cause pump blockage, cooling system blockage and

create difficulties in steering of dredging vessels. Grab dredgers are
most successful in removing the weeds and should be used in addition to
the main dredging operations .

Cobbles and boulders

The most versatile dredger to deal with high concentrations of

cobbles and boulders is the bucket chain dredger. If they are mixed
with clays or other fine materials, they can be handled by cutter
suction dredgers or even by trailers. Some modifications are made to
the dragheads or the suction pipes of the cutter suction dredger.
Grids are placed on the suction head and the cutter, stone box and
grids are placed in the suction pipe. A three-bladed impeller is used
in the suction pump. Boulders prevented from entering the suction head
because of these measures can be removed by using grabs.

Densely packed sands

The use of jets near the dragheads or cutter heads may be helpful
in loosening densely packed sands. Rakes or welded rails may some time
help in dislodging. Even after removal, these sands sometimes exhibit
the characteristics of sandstone and create difficulties when
discharging the hopper.

The characteristics and limitations of different types of dredgers

are given in Chapter 4. Table 5.1 gives some guidelines for selection
of a dredger to handle different types of soil under different sea
conditions and shore or sea disposal.

The management factors are fully covered in Chapter 7 -- Management

of Dredging Contracts.

5.2 Maintenance dredging

Maintenance dredging is a special activity that generally involves

removal of soils recently deposited and comprised of relatively fine
sediments. Normally the layer of material to be removed will be thin
and of low strength. At the same time, maintenance dredging is a
continuous process and a large portion of a port's resources are
sometimes used to deal with the heavy siltation that takes place in its
fairways and channels. A lot of effort has been expended during the
past two decades to minimize the cost of maintenance dredging.

The cardinal points of a good maintenance strategy are:

- Put the channel in the right place;

- Develop a good plan for channel maintenance; and
- Continuously monitor, by studying trends and applying the latest
dredging techniques and eventually correct the course of the
navigation channel.
 - 126 -

Site Standard Cutter Bucket Bucket

Grab Dipper Backhoe
conditions trailer suction wheel chain

Bed material
Loose silt 1 1 1 2 3 2 2
Cohesive silt 1 1 1 1 3 2 1
Fine sand 1 1 1 2 3 2 1
Medium sand 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
Gravel 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Soft clay 1 3 1 2 2 2 1
Medium clay 2 3 2 2 2 1 1
Stiff clay 3 3 2 3 1 1 1
Boulders N 3 3 2 1 1 2
Very weak rock 3 1 2 3 1 1 2

Sea condition
Enclosed water N 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sheltered water 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
Exposed water 1 3 3 3 3 2 3

Disposal to:
Shore 1 1 1 N N N N
Sea 1 3 3 1 1 1 1

Quantities
100,000m3 2 1 1 1 1 1 2
250,000m3 1 1 1 2 2 2 1
500,000m3 1 1 1 3 3 3 1
>500,000m3 1 1 1 3 3 3 1

1 - Suitable, 2 - Acceptable, 3 - Marginal, N - Unsuitable or

inapplicable

Table 5.1 Guidelines for dredger selection - capital dredging

Other measures include:

- Reduction in siltation;
- Consolidation of silts to inprove efficiency of dredging.
- Improved dredging management;
- Automation of the maintenance process; and
- Adoption of the concept of nautical depth.

An introduction to channel location and alignment is included in

Chapter 1. Comprehensive studies of the sea conditions (waves,
currents, tides, storms), sedimentation phenomenon, hydrography and
bathymetry, the design ship and its navigational requirements, seabed
characteristics and meteorology are made and analysed to locate and
align a channel. Sometimes trial dredging along the proposed alignment
may also be done to get an assessment of resiltation.
 - 127 -

A good plan for maintenance aims at dredging at the right place

and to the correct depth. For this purpose, continuous surveys for
position fixing and depth measurement are essential (Chapter 2).

Over time, trends related to position and time will be discernable

(e.g., areas prone to siltation and the periods of increased
siltation). Dredging strategy must then be corrected to concentrate
on those areas and during those times. Capacity provisioning,
allocation and utilization can be decided upon. The type of dredger,
the type of draghead and special requirements such as degassing,
improving settlement in hoppers. Any ancillary equipment such as bed
levellers or scrapers also gets projected through continuous monitoring.

5.2.1 Reduction in siltation

The first step towards reducing siltation in estuaries and other

dredging areas is to understand the phenomena of the origin of silt,
its transport and sedimentation.

Silt can originate either from upland discharges or due to tidal

influx from the sea. Silt coming with river water is caused by
upstream erosion, industrial waste and human waste.

The silt originating from the sea consisting of former fluvial

deposits that have undergone further erosion and been transported into
the estuary with the tide or through density currents. The difference
in propagation timings between the flood and the ebb tide is
responsible for the deposition of the silt load. The flood tide has
higher velocities and therefore larger silt carrying capacity. The ebb
tide being of longer duration has lower velocity and lower silt
carrying capacity. More silt is deposited in areas where the velocity
is lower.

In certain estuaries, there is a divergence between the flood and

the ebb tide. Tidal currents flow at an angle across the dredged
channel which is an area of low energy. Part of the silt load gets
deposited there.

Another major contributory factor is the interface between sea

water and the river water. The fresh water from the river tends to
flow over the heavier salt water. Salt water penetrates under the
lighter fresh water. As soon as the salt tongue reaches a calm basin an
exchange takes place and fresh water in the basin is replaced by salt
water. The reverse occurs during ebb tide.

The phenomena of coagulation or flocculation where the fresh water

meets the salt water, increase the fall velocity of silt particles and
sedimentation increases. The degree of flocculation depends on
concentration, salinity, depth and composition.

Transportation of silt can take place in three ways. As a

homogeneous suspension, as suspension irregularly distributed in layers
and as a layer close to the bed. The bottom fluid mud layer is the one
which contributes most to siltation in channels. When this silt layer
reaches the navigation channel which has been deepened substantially
compared with the surrounding areas, it starts accumulating in the
channel and the action of the tide or the density currents moves it up
or down along the channel to other parts of the harbour.
 - 128 -

Consolidation

After the silt has settled and is not disturbed either by

turbulence or by ships movement, it tends to consolidate.
Consolidation is a process whereby the grain structure in silt mass
becomes closely packed resulting in greater strength and resistance to
shear. The shear strength of the sediment becomes a key parameter in
the dredging process. It affects production efficiency, nautical
depths and bathymetric surveys.

Settled silt particles can also get exposed to erosion and reenter
the water mass. Erosion suddenly changes the deposit characteristics
of the sea water and nautical depths.

Measures to reduce the sedimentation in the channel may be grouped

under the following heads:

- Screening off the sources of silt;

- Reduce silt transport;
- Provide silt barriers; and
- Localizing sedimentation.

Screening off the source of silt

If the source contributing silt to the system can be identified,

measures such as underwater dams covering the areas contributing silt
with heavier material like sand and gravel offer some solution. It is,
however, difficult to definitely establish the source contributing to
siltation and therefore this method is not very often practical.

Measures to reduce silt transportation

The exact mode by which the silt transportation takes place has to
be determined to devise measures to prevent such transportation. Of
particular interest is the distribution of silt in the vertical axis
and the time period over which sediment transport takes place. It is
possible that the silt transportation is spread over the whole year or
is confined to periods of high water discharge. This will help to
study the type of screen to be installed - should it be of a permanent
or a temporary nature.

Silt barriers

Three different types have been used:

- Water jet barrier;

- Pneumatic or air bubble barrier; and
- Permeable flexible barrier.

Water jet and pneumatic barriers are expensive and studies show
they are only marginally cheaper than dredging work. The permeable
flexible barrier is the only feasible solution. One of the major
requirements is that it should not obstruct shipping. In Rotterdam, a
movable barrier that could slide backwards and forwards along a rail at
the bottom of the harbour was tried for a while but later abandoned.
 - 129 -

Localizing sedimentation

Various measures are available to influence the deposition of silt

in a particular area. These are based on creating comparatively calmer
conditions such as by reducing the current and deepening the flow
channel into a silt trap. The dredging activites can be concentrated
in a specific area and it helps improve the productivity of the
dredgers as the silt has time to consolidate and acquire a higher
density.

Traps are also provided to intercept littoral drift that may foul
up the navigational areas. Such a trap has been provided in
Visakhapatnam Outer Harbour (India) to trap the littoral drift into a
sheltered location. The accumulated material (sand) can be dredged
with the dredger operating in a comparaively calm area. The dredged
material is used for nourishing the down drift beach. (Figure 5.1)

Figure 5.1 Visakhapatnam outer harbour sand trap

5.2.2 Improved dredging management

Good management of maintenance dredging is very important. it

usually does not get the attention it deserves. Management's concern
ends with the setting up of an organization for dredging. Its
performance is one of the minor activities in the overall scheme of
things. Non-performance is noticed only when shipping is obstructed.
If the work is done through contracts, there is better control.
Management should also have a system of checks and answerability for
work done by Government departments. Important aspects are:

- Process preparation, control and evaluation; and

- Output improving techniques on board the dredger.
 - 130 -

Process preparation

The corner-stone of successful preparation is gathering and

registering sea bottom topography, resulting in efficient programming
of the weekly activities. Information obtained from surveys, needs to
be processed speedily to produce depth/density charts and quantified
through computation. This is then translated into a dredging programme.

Process control

Supervising personnel are furnished with detailed information to

enable them to monitor and control the execution of the dredging pro­
gramme. Information to be supplied to them consists of fixed data like
topography, design dredge depth, tolerances, restriction over overflow
and turbidity, disposal areas, etc. The variable data is made available
weekly and consists of quantities and location where dredging is to be
performed, depth and density charts of that area, tidal information,
etc. This information can be exhibited through video plotters. The
dredging process is automatically recorded in the form of:

- Dredging tracks;
- Dredging intensity charts;
- Hopper loading diagram;
- Cycle output for every trip; and
- Weekly output volumes.

Process evaluation

The recorded data, mentioned above, is evaluated and interpreted

to compare dredge levels with target depths, weekly output with
estimates; dredging volumes per area with programmed volumes; dredged
tracks with bed evolution and loading rates with statistics for the
area. The stored information can also be used to make long-term
evaluation of sedimentation rates and natural phenomena like occurrence
of fluid mud as well as in choosing a dredging plant.

5.2.3 Output improving techniques

A number of very interesting features have been developed for

trailing suction hopper dredger which assist in improving the
productivity of the dredgers. These include video display systems,
suction tube position monitoring, adjustable overflow systems, constant
flow devices and automatic light mixture overboard (ALMO), deep
loading systems of hoppers, degassing systems and additional dredge
pumps on suction tubes.

Similarly for the cutter suction dredgers a variety of devices

have been developed which help to improve productivity. (These are
described in Chapter 6 - Automation in dredging).

Automation of the dredging activity

The main objective of automation is to relieve the operator of

repetitive low intelligence tasks. The first step towards automation
is to recognize those processes which can be better performed by
machines and assign these to automatic devices. The devices themselves
shoud have inbuilt capability to provide information to the operator
and monitor its own action for any malfunctioning. (Chapter 6 -
Automation in dredging).
 - 131 -

5.2.4 Nautical depth

A completely different approach to optimization of dredging is

based upon the concept of nautical depth. Nautical depth has been
defined in Chapter 2 along with the procedure for determining nautical
depth by measurement of density with the help of nuclear probes.

The usefulness of the concept of nautical depth stems from the

fact that muddy waters with suspended fine particles, up to a certain
concentration, allow navigation of ships through them with minimum loss
of manoeuvring capability or excessive loss of power and these
suspended particles which are otherwise removed by dredging can be
safely left in position. The concept has gained acceptance in some of
the biggest ports in the world like Rotterdam in Holland, Zeebrugge in
Belgium, Bordeaux in France.

Introduction of the concept of nautical depth can be done in

stages:

- "Once off" lowering of the navigable depth as compared to the

old sea bottom measured with an echo sounder, (i.e. "depth gain"
without dredging) . This can be done on the basis of point
density measurements with back scatter gauges. This is also a
confidence-building step.
- Further lowering of the nautical depth to the level correspond­
ing with the changeover in the deformation characteristics of
mud can then be introduced. For this, density measurement with
a towed density probe supplemented with small-scale rheological
investigations are required. Means should be available for
constant monitoring of the defined nautical depth. Ability to
survey critical area with fast and accurate echo sounders and
towed density probes and production of a combined echo
sounding/density map within a reasonable time is to be built up.

This will result in an annual saving equal to the fluid mud volume
between the echo sounder level and the navigation density level that
are not dredged. (This may vary between 1.15 to 1.20 ).

With increased confidence, the results of in situ tests and the

observations of ships manoeuvring, necessary guidelines for the keel
clearances above the defined nautical bottom can be laid down.
Considerable savings on maintenance dredging in many ports of the world
are possible by using the concept of nautical depth.

5.3 Rock dredging

Dredging of rock is the most expensive process, therefore its

necessity should be carefully considered before a decision is taken to
dredge. There are normally two methods available for dredging rock:

- Direct dredging; and

- Dredging after pre-treatment.
 - 132 -

Cutter Bucket Standard Grab Bucket

Site conditions Grab
suction wheel trai1er hopper chain

Bed material
Loose silt 1 1 1 2 2 2
Cohesive silt 1 1 1 1 1 1
Fine sand 1 1 1 2 2 2
Medium sand 1 1 1 2 2 2
Coarse sand 1 1 1 2 2 2

Sea conditions
Enclosed water 1 1 3 1 2 2
Sheltered water 1 1 1 1 1 1
Exposed water 3 3 1 3 3 N

Disposal to:
Shore 1 1 2 N 2 2
Sea N N 1 1 1 1

Quantities
100,000m3 1 1 2 1 2 1
250,000m3 1 1 1 1 1 2
500,000m3 1 1 1 2 1 3
>500,000m3 1 1 1 3 1 3

1 - Suitable, 2 - Acceptable, 3 - Marginal, N - Unsuitable or

inapplicable

Table 5.2 Guidelines for dredger selection - maintenance dredging

5.3.1 Direct dredging

Only sedimentary rocks and corals are suitable for direct

dredging. But sometimes harder varieties of igneous or metamorphic
rocks may also be tackled by direct dredging provided they are heavily
weathered, have lot of cracks and fissures or occur in thin layers so
that the dredger can get underneath. The methods that can be used for
direct dredging are mainly mechanical.

Long ago, rock breakers were used. A rock breaker works by

droppig a heavy chisel on the rock to be broken. The fragments so
obtained are dredged by grabs. It is a very slow and tedious process,
especially with harder rocks at considerable depth. It leaves pinacles
which are extremely difficult to remove subsequently. To illustrate:

For example, to remove a thick layer of basalt rock, a 20-ton

chisel was used on a grid four feet square. The average number of
drops needed to punch a hole of 2 square feet into this rock exceeded
230. So many pinacles were left in the strata that blasting ultimately
had to be done to obtain a reasonably level bottom.
 - 133 -

Some very powerful cutter suction dredgers have been developed

which can be used for direct dredging of rock. One such dredger, the
Taurus with 5,000 HP on the cutter, was used recently in the port of
Nhava Sheva where it successfully removed 54,000m3 of rock with a
uniaxial compressive strength of between 476 to 866 kg/cm2. The
efficiency of dredging is governed by the same parameters: weathering,
jointing, rock strength and type of rock. Sea conditions also affect
the use of cutter suction dredgers.

5.3.2 Dredging pre-treated rocks

The normal method of dredging hard rocks is after pre-treatment

and the most common pre-treatment is blasting. Blasting may be divided
into two types: surface blasting and drill and blasting. Surface
blasting is effective for fragmenting boulders, weak sedimentry and
crushable rocks in thin layers and heavily cemented soils. Normally
explosives or shaped charges (Figure 5.2) are used for surface
blasting. At the Port of Tuticorin in India, extensive surface
blasting techniques were used. With the assistance of the Earthquake
Engineering Research Division of the Central Water Power Research
Station in Pune, the safety distance from the area to be blasted to the
nearby structures was estimated. A table showing the charge in
kilograms and the distance between the centre of explosion and the
structure to be safeguarded is shown in Table 5.3.

Figure 5.2 Shaped charges (10 liter canister)

 - 134 -

Distance between centre of

Total charge
No. explosion and the structure
in kilograms
to be safeguarded (in m)

1. 80 10.3
2. 90 15.7
3. 100 22.6
4. 110 31.3
5. 120 42.3

Table 5.3 Relationship between size of explosive charge

and safe distance

With the development of the latest micro detonation techniques,

this safety distance can be considerably reduced. Some blasting in the
channel leading to the port of Nhava Sheva in India was done using
micro detonation techniques. As a result, the vibration or pressure
effect was considerably reduced.

Drilling and blasting

Drilling and blasting is the most widely used method of

pre-treatment for bulk rock excavation. Holes are drilled using
floating or elevated pontoons in a set pattern. Holes are charged
with exposives for approximately l/3rd of the length of hole and the
balance of the hole is filled with soil and tamped. Depending upon the
type of rock and the fragmentation required the amount of explosive
required varies from 0.45 to 2.0 kg per m3.

The overburden method of drilling gives a better blasting effect.

An outer casing is jetted through the overburden to the rock and
socketed for a short distance into the rock. The drilling equipment is
then lowered through the outer casing and the hole is drilled in the
rock to the desired depth. A number of holes are drilled in this
fashion and charged with plastic explosives. (Figure 5.3). The
drilling pontoon or the self-elevating platform is then removed to a
safe location and the drilled holes are blasted. Though this is an
efficient blasting system, its disadvantage is that until the
overburden is removed, the efficiency of blasting and fragmentation
cannot be checked. As a result, some contractors prefer to remove all
the overburden before drilling. The blasting method remains the same
except that the charged holes have to be carefully tamped.

One of the most important requirements in rock dredging is the

accuracy of measurement of the work. To locate the top of the rock
strata, jet probing is normally used. Jet probing is preceded by a
seismic survey to generally delienate the area over which the rock is
likely to occur. The surest method of defining the top of the rock
before dredging starts is jet probing. After completion of the rock
dredging, the use of sweeps and side scan sonars is essential to make
sure that the area is clear of pinacles or left over pieces of broken
rock.
 - 135 -

Figure 5.3 Overburden drilling (schematic)

Tolerances in rock dredging should be on the liberal side because

it is very difficult to maintain close tolerances in blasting work.
Contractors always tend to go deeper to ensure design depths and if
suitable tolerances are available they will be compensated adequately.

Table 5.4 below gives a rough guideline for dredger selection for
different strengths of rocks.
 - 136 -

Site Floating Jack-up Bucket Bucket

Grab Dipper Backhoe
conditions pontoon pontoon wheel chain

Bed material
Very weak rock N N N 2 1 1 1
Weak rock N 1 3 3 1 1 2
Moderately
weak rock N 1 N N 2 3 3
Pre-treated
rock 1 2 3 2 1 1 2

Sea conditions
Enclosed water 1 2 2 1 1 1 2
Sheltered
Water 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Exposed
Water 3 2 3 3 2 3 2

Disposal to:
Shore N 1 1 N N N N
Sea N 2 2 1 1 1 1

Quant ities
10,000m3 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
50,000m3 1 1 1 2 1 2 1
100,000m3 1 1 1 3 2 2 1
300,000m3 1 1 1 3 2 3 1

1 - Suitable, 2 - Acceptable, 3 - Marginal, N - Unsuitable or

inapplicable

Table 5.4 Guidelines for dredger selection - rock dredging

5.4 Reclamation

Land reclamation may be carried out using fill material derived

from dredging. Areas which are permanently submerged and subject to
regular tidal inundation are raised permanently above sea level.
Sometimes inland low-lying lands or marshy areas are reclaimed to
create useable land.

When planning reclamation, characteristics of the soil in the area

to be reclaimed and the characteristics of the material obtained from
dredging have to be considered separately. Important characteristics
of the material to be pumped are:

- Grain size;
- Bulking characteristics; and
- Consolidation and settlement characteristics.
 - 137 -

Usually, coarse grain material like sand and gravel are preferred
for reclamation. Silts can be used if the area is not needed for
immediate use. Clays create a permanent problem. Most soils will
increase in volume during hydraulic fill. This should be accounted for
when providing containment areas.

Characteristics of the soil into which reclamation material is

being pumped are the bearing capacity, shear strength and permeability.
The height of the reclamation will be limited when the sub-soil is
weak. Permeability will effect on its drainage characteristics.

5.4.1 Preparation of the site for reclamation

As the material being pumped is in the form of slurry and in order

to avoid flooding the surrounding areas, it is essential to make
containment bunds around the area to be reclaimed. These containment
bunds are normally made of local material. The height to which these
bunds can be built depends on the saturated soil strength. If the
material is not suitable for making bunds it may have to be imported
from other areas or borrow pits. Coarse grain soils usually
create no problems. The rule of thumb for determining the height of
the containment bund is that these bunds can be built to a height five
times the wet shear strength but should normally be kept to just three
times. If the bund shows signs of puncturing at the base, its height
should be reduced.

The width of the bund or dyke and its side slopes should be stable
enough to contain the fill and water under saturated conditions. Dykes
in contact with sea water should be protected against erosion.

5.4.2 Placing and handling of pipelines

If the material being pumped has suitable strength, it will settle

in front of the pipeline. Mechanical equipment can extend or change
the reclamation pipeline. If the material is not strong enough to
withstand the load of mechanical equipment, the pipes may be moved
manually or laid along pre-formed bunds.

Drainage of surplus water

During the process of reclamation, large quantities of water are

pumped into the reclamation area which has to find its way back to the
sea/river. Properly designed weirs and flow channels are required for
this purpose. Weirs should be located so that the maximum time
possible is allowed for the fine material to settle in the reclamation
area in order to ensure that the water flowing back into the dredging
area carries the minimum amount of fines. In some cases, however, the
fines are allowed to escape so that the material left behind in the
reclamation area has better grading and improved bearing capacity.
Environmental considerations are important, however, and may not permit
such a practice.

5.4.3 Containment areas

When designing the capacity of containment areas, bulking of

dredged material should be taken into consideration. The behaviour of
sand and cohesive material is completely different. For sands, a
relative density (density of the deposited sand when compared to
in situ density) of 70 per cent is achieved with the normal dredging
procedure in which some mechanical equipment is used for spreading the
 - 138 -

sand. With the addition of mechanical plants specifically for

compaction, 100 per cent relative denity is easily feasible.

When clays, especially those with higher cohesive strength, emerge

from a pipeline, there are two distinct forms; slurry with
disintegrated clay particles, and clay balls. It has also been seem
that the moisture content of dredged clays will be two times the liquid
limit with the bulking factor varying between 1.5 to 1.7. The bearing
capacity of this clay mixture is almost negligible and they also have
very low permeability. Riping of clayey soils is a slow process. In
some experiments one to two years of surface treatment was required
before acceptable consolidation was obtained in layers 1 to 1.5 metres
thick.

5.4.4 Artificial consolidation

Where reclamation is done on weak sub-soil using clays as fill

material and it is desired to use the reclaimed area for some
construction activity at an early date, artificial consolidation and
settlement means may be adopted. Paper wicks, sand drains, stone
columns, pre-loading, drainage filter layers and drainage ditches are
some of the means available and have been used extensively. For
information refer to the bibliography.

Guidelines for selecting dredgers for reclamation and for

different types of soils are at Table 5.5.

Cutter Bucket Standard Bucket

Site conditions Grab Dipper
suction wheel trailer chain

Bed material
Fine sand 1 1 1 2 2 3
Medium sand 1 1 1 1 2 3
Coarse sand 1 1 1 1 2 3
Gravel 1 1 1 1 2 3
Cobbles 2 2 2 2 2 2
Very weak rock 1 2 3 2 3 1
Weak rock 2 3 N N N 3

Sea conditions
Enclosed water 1 1 N 2 1 2
Sheltered water 1 1 1 1 1 1
Exposed water 3 3 1 3 N 3

Placing by:
Direct dumping N N 3 1 1 1
Direct pumping 1 1 N N N N
Transport and pump N N 1 2 2 3
Dump and pump N N 1 1 1 1

Quantities
100,000m3 1 1 2 2 1 1
250,000m3 1 1 1 1 2 2
500,000m3 1 1 1 1 2 3
>500,000m3 1 1 1 2 3 3
1 - Suitable, 2 - Acceptable, 3 - Marginal, N - Unsuitable or
inapplicable

Table 5.5 Guidelines for dredger selection - reclamation

 AUTOMATION IN
6 DREDGING

AUTOMATION AUTOMATION IN
INSTRUMENTS HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
* COMMON FOR PIPE- AUTOMATION OF PIPE-
-LINE DREDGERS (CSD)
-LINE & H0PPER DREDGER

* INSTRUMENTS FOR AUTOMATION OF HOPPER

-- DREDGER (TSHD)
CUTTER SUCTION
DREDGER ' z
* INSTRUMENTS FOR AUTOMATION OF MONI-
TRAILING SUCTION -TORING & CONTROL
HOPPER DREDGER

TDM ( TONNES DRY MATERIAL)

 - 139 -

6. AUTOMATION IN DREDGING

Introduction

Micro electronics and computer technology are playing an

increasingly important role in the dredging industry. There is an
increasing trend towards developing automation development programmes
and introducing data based monitoring systems for evaluation purposes.
These systems, when used judiciously, increase productivity and
quality. Man can perform certain functions better than a machine but
computers can perform some functions faster or better than man. When
the two complement each other, maximum system productivity can be
achieved. The strength of man is his intelligence and intuition. The
strength of a computer is its large memory, calculating speed and
absence of fatigue and emotion. The introduction of automation must
recognize the need for this integration of both man and machine and
delegate appropriate functions to both.

The gains expected from automated systems include:

- Increased quality control;

- Cost reduction and increased efficiency;
- Better support for management; and an
- Increase in the executing agency's efforts to improve its
working methods.

Early attempts at automation concentrated on the introduction of

automatic devices wherever possible. The results, in many cases, were
unsatisfactory. Analysis showed that the absence of suitable monitoring
and alarm systems which could detect malfunctioning of the automatic
devices created problems. This has prompted the development of
"integrated dredge automation systems" which remain constantly under
the control and supervision of the dredge masters.

In the field of dredging, important systems that were the first to

be automated were the survey and charting systems. As more experience
with the successful functioning of automated devices has become
available and a better understanding of the dredging process gained
through research and the easy availability of personal computers (PCs)
at an economical cost, automation has slowly permeated almost the
entire dredging industry.

PC-based dredging automation systems play a positive role in

developing countries. They can contribute to better performance of the
dredging equipment with little or only marginal effect on the employment
potential. Such applications are covered in this chapter. Topics to
be discussed are:

- Description and functioning of special instruments for use in

the dredging industry (for CSDs and TSHDs);
- Automation in hydrographic survey;
- Automation of pipeline dredgers like CSD;
- Automation of hopper dredgers — TSHD;
- Automation of monitoring and control systems.
 - 140 -

6.1 Instrumentation

Instruments provide information which is to be used to control,

monitor, record and cumulate. In hydraulic dredgers, vacuum indicators,
pressure indicators, concentration indicators, flow rate indicators,
integrated concentration and flow rate indicators and production
indicators are important instruments. These are used for cutter
suction and hopper suction dredgers. The concentration indicator uses
radioactive gauge with an amplifier to measure density and an induction
flow rate gauge for measuring mixture velocity. A unit integrating
these two provides dirct indication of production (Figure 6.1).

(PRODUCTION INDICATOR
IN l9 INSTRUMENTS RACK
y~~----------------------- 1
INTEGRATED
DENSITY &
VELOCITY
TRANSOUCER DREDGING
INSTRUMENTS
-PANEL

WHEEL HOUSE

I PUMP ROOM

Figure 6.1 Integrated concentration and flow rate indicator

Instruments specially designed for cutter suction/bucket wheel

dredgers are the sedimentation monitor, vacuum relief valve, bypass
valve, dredge profile monitor, automatic cutter controller and
automatic pump controller. The sedimentation monitor alerts the
operator to the risk of sedimentation in the delivery pipe and the
bypass valve automatically admits water into the delivery system to
prevent choking if the delivery pressure falls. The same funcion of
admitting water to the suction pipe is performed by the vacuum relief
valve when the vacuum becomes too high.

The dredge profile monitor helps to verify and control the

position of the cutter to avoid under or over cutting. It can
automatically adopt to changes in the vessel draft and tidal
variations. It can be, if .required, sufficiently automated for profile
dredging and can operate independently.

The cutter controller serves to fully automate control of the

cutter. Optimum production is obtained by setting the highest possible
swing rate at a given horizontal and vertical cut. Six parameters
affect the swing rate: cutter loads, swing winch load, vacuum of the
dredge pump, pressure differential between suction and delivery end of
the pump, mixture concentration and mixture flow rate. In manual
operation, all these parameters are constantly monitored by the dredge
master and, by obtaining the maximum values for the parameters, he can
change the rate of swing. During automatic control, a maximum
permitted values are pre-fed into the computer. Control is effected by
means of a keyboard in conjunction with a video display.
 - 141 -

1 PRODUCTION CALCULATOR'
DENSITY VELOCITY
TRANSDUCER TRANSDUCER 2 AUTOMATIC CUTTER
CONTROLLER
3 DREDGEE material
PROFILE MONITOR
W 4 DREDRING CONSOLE

5 RELAY BOX
6 HYDR./ELEC POWERING
7CUTTER DRIVE
8 winch

Figure 6.2 Cutter controller

Automatic pump control

This instrument is designed to control the constant flow of

dredged slurry into the pipeline by monitoring a flow velocity which is
below critical.

Instruments for trailing suction hopper dredgers

These include automatic suction tube position monitors, draft and

loading monitors, hopper pressure and volume measurement, automatic
drag head winch controllers, automatic light mixture overboard (ALMO) ,
drag head visor controllers, automatic draft and trim controllers and
automatic suction tube controllers. These are the most important
instruments being installed in modern trailers.

Automatic suction tube positioning monitor

This instrument displays at the video display unit the position of

the drag head and the suction pipe in relation to the vessel, thus
ensuring greater accuracy.

Draught and loading monitor

This instrument provides accurate data on the loading of the

hopper and the draft of the vessel. This is done by placing two
pressure transducers fore and aft.

Hopper pressure and volume measurement

This instrument displays a loading graph showing the volume in the

hopper as the dredging proceeds. This assists the master in deciding
his dredging time, especially when dredging light material.

Automatic drag head winch controller

This controls the drag head winch to compensate for the variation
in the dredging depth, vessels draft and the effects of tide and swell.
 - 142 -

Automatic light mixture overboard (ALMO)

This instrument prevents light mixtures from being loaded into the
hopper. Figure 6.3 shows the usefulness of this instrument when
dredging very light materials.

-------------- POWER SUPPLY

r*“----------------------------------- -------------------

0VERBOARD TO HOPPER

1 FLOWRATE INDICATOR

2 concentration INDICATOR

Figure 6.3 Automatic light mixture overboard

(ALMO) installation

Drag head visor controller

The visor over the drag head is meant to control aperture across
the draghead to achieve the optimal erosive and suction effect. This
instrument helps in automatically actuating the movement of the visor.

Automatic draught and trim controller

Function of this instrument is to set the overflow level to suit

density of the material being pumped into the hopper. By doing that
for mixtures of low density the setting will help increase the volume
of the hopper while reverse will be done for high density materials
(Figure 6.4).

Figure 6.4 Automatic draught and trim controller

 - 143 -

Automatic suction tube controller

This controller serves to control and monitor the positioning of

the suction tube so that under different environmental conditions the
safety of the suction tube can be ensured. The controller commands the
winches responsible for the movement of the drag arm when dangerous
situations arise. Sometimes the suction tube controller and the
suction tube position monitor are linked together for better controls.

6.2 Hydrographic surveying - automation

Modern hydrographic surveying methods of data collection and

processing have improved hydrography's productivity, leading to
considerable improvement in channel operations. Safety has increased
and the available channel depths are used more effectively as frequent
soundings are available. The dredging processes have improved because
of the accuracy of the furnished data. The intimate and accurate
information has also improved knowledge of the sedimentation process
and patterns, leading to a better maintenance strategy.

An increase in the number of surveys and the enhanced use of

electronic equipment for surveys has naturally led to increased
automation. Components of data collection such as position data and
depth data were the first to be automated. Processing software
followed that allowed the raw data to be processed into bathymetric
charts.

To further improving the usefulness of hydrography, the

acquisition, processing and presentation of data have been automated.
The data acquisition system is installed on the survey vessel. The
data processing system is installed ashore and the data presentation
system — which is a part of the dredge operation -— is installed on
board the dredgers. The automation matrix showing the hardware and
software in use and their interrelationship is shown in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5 Automated hydrographic survey system

 - 144 -

The dredge control system is divided into two parts:

- Dredger positioning control; and

- Dredger process control.

Realizing that the dredger should dredge only where material needs
to be removed, the area to be dredged and the position of the dredger
should be displayed on the screen. The bathymetric data is displayed
on the VDU and vessel's position is superimposed by interfacing with
the positioning system. The dredge master has to ensure that the
dredger operates within the area. The dredger's movements can be
stored simultaneously on the magnetic disc.

6.3 Automation of cutter suction dredgers (CSDs)

Automation in cutter suction dredgers is meant to achieve:

- High efficiency of operation;
- Improvement of dredging accuracy;
- Safety in operation; and
- Easy operation.

The automation system is naturally based on the operations

performed manually. In the manual operation of a CSD, the efficiency
of dredging depends upon the optimum swing speed, the cutter head
position, the dredge profile and the machine load. These functions are
exhibited on various instruments fitted in the CSD. These instruments
are:

- The suction pressure gauge;

- Dredge pump revolutions indictor;
- Flow meter ;
- Discharge pressure gauge;
- Swing motor revolutions indicator;
- Gyroscope;
- Ladder depth indicator;
- Swing winch ammeter;
- Ladder winch ammeter; and
- Cutter motor ammeter.

External information on tide level, ship position, and hull motion

is also fed into the system.

Based on these readings and information, the master makes his

operating judgement about the swing speed, cutter head position, dredge
profile and machine load. He must constantly monitor the magnitudes of
the cutter load, swing winch load, vacuum of the dredge pump, pressure
between suction and delivery pumps, mixture concentration and mixture
flow rate.

The automation system is meant to perform the same functions.

These include:
 - 145 -

- Setting a cutting course most suitable for the configuration of

the sea bottom, the nature of soil, the performance of the
cutter dredger, dredging depth, designed sections and required
dredging accuracy. All these are obtained previously from the
experience of the operator and stored in the computer system.
- Realization of high dredging efficiency can be achieved by
maintaining the highest solid concentration ratio. This can be
done by maintaining:
. Maximum swing speed, automatically controlled on the basis of
the process data;
. Maximum solid concentration in the discharge pipeline without
sedimentation ;
. Maximum suction vacuum without correlation; and
. Maximum load allowed by the dredge machine.

- Control of the cutter head position to ensure accuracy of

dredging. Accuracy is a function of the hull position and
cutter head position taking into account the hull motion. Trim
heel reclamation angle, gyro angle and tide level are all
processed effectively to give the accurate position of the
cutter head.
- Display on a video screen of all relevant process data --
suction vacuum, swing speed, swing winch load, cutter load, flow
velocity and the dredging conditions — present cutter position,
cutter track history to monitor the operation.
- Recording of all the above data for re-display if required and
for management’s information and analysis.

Outline configuration and components of the automation system are

shown in Figure 6.6 below:
 - 146 -

6.3.1 Input and output control unit

This unit processes the input data from the sensors, the dredging
machinery and the control console and reads the data transmitted from
the automatic control unit. The output from the unit are the processed
results from the automatic control unit to the dredging machinery and
transmission of the data between the automatic control unit and the
operation supervisory unit. It also makes appropriate checks against
defective sensors.

6.3.2 Automatic control unit

This unit provides the foilwing control functions:

- Automatic swing speed control function;
- Cutter head position control; and
- Cutter and swing winch load control.

6.3.3 Operation supervisory unit

This is the dredge master's control unit providing visual displays

of operations and giving alarms of any abnormal position. It also
records the working process data and draws up the daily report.
Principle functions are:
- Dredging section display — cutter position, track history;
- Dredging condition supervisory function — all the relevant
process data — suction, vacuum of the dredge pump, the load and
speed of swing winch etc. are displayed alongwith the trend
g raph;
- Daily report function — this is printed out at a pre-determined
time. An example of a daily report is shown below (Table 6.1).

10 July 1989
Site A point Weather Fine
Disch. length 1,365m Wind lOm/sec
Orientation 123.0 deg. Current 0.8m/sec
Dredge width 87.0m Wave height 0.2m
Soil Sand with shells

*** RESULT ***

PORT STBD TOTAL

System running time 12:04
Pump running time 12:04
Cutter running time 12:04
Swing time 6:23 4:21 10:44
Dredging volume 10,060 5,270 15,330 mJ
Dredged volume/swing time 1,270.0 911.0 1,228.0 m3/hour
Swing speed 6.5 8.3 7.4 m/min
Swing motor elec. power 46.2 74.3 60.3 kW
Cutter motor elec. power 282.6 656.2 469.4 kW
Dredge pump suct. press. -0.48 -0.44 -0.46 kg/cm2
Dredge pump elec. power 3,796 3,759 3,781 kW
Disch. pipe pressure 7.7 7.6 7.7 kg/cm2
Disch. pipe velocity 7.2 7.2 7.2 m/sec
Slurry density 1.32 1.29 1.31 ton/m3

Table 6.1 Daily dredging report - automatic control CSD

 - 147 -

6.4 Automation of trailing suction hopper dredgers

Application of automation to the operation of TSHDs is slowly

gaining ground. Preparation of work schedules based on visual
interpretation of depth charts and dredging by feel based on the
experience and hunches of the dredge master as well as monitoring of
the dredging process by one inspector who was supposed to observe the
whole process continuously have given way to computer based data
acquisition, planning and processing systems.

Instruments that are in use to collect and process data on boardf

hopper dredgers are listed in Section 6.1. A video plotter visualizes
the position and the course of the ship in the dredging zone with
reference to the harbour geography.

By using some of these instruments, some functions of a TSHD can

be automated. The present trend is toward an integrated automation
system as it has sufficient monitoring facilities to ensure that a
timely warning is given of faults in the system itself or in the
devices which transmit information. Integrated control systems
contribute to the certainty and safety of operating procedures.

6.4.1 Mechanics of automation

The program starts with the first part of the cycle — dredging
based on a survey carried out earlier. The dredging alters the
configuration and the new configuration gets automatically recorded,
laying the pattern for dredging to follow. While dredging is going on,
all the controlling mechanisms which optimized the production of solids
such as the pump speed, travelling speed and pressure of the draghead
on the bottom are automatically controlled. The hopper filling in
relation to sailing time is also continuously watched. Once the
dredging action is comleted, the dredger sails to the dumping ground.
The sailing route and speed are automatically controlled with the drag
arm automatically stowed on its cradle. On arrival at the dump site,
the same control system operates the dumping procedure. If the trailer
is discharging to a shore terminal, that is also automated.

Tasks to be performed during dredging and dumping/pumping of

dredged material are as follows:

- Regulation of the pump speed;

- Control of the drag arm winches;
- Monitoring the position of the draghead and its pressure on the
bottom;
- Monitoring the position of the swell compensator;
- Monitoring the trailing speed and the duration of trailing;
- Control of the adjustable overflow weir;
- Choice of the dredging track; and
- Generating of new survey data.

All these tasks are automated and, to avoid having a mass of

presentation and control elements, the whole system is integrated
through a man-machine interface consisting of a monitor screen and a
keyboard. With this interface system as a control unit, a
comprehensive and clear display of the work situation is obtained and
this, together with the available automation function, results in
optimized production.
 - 148 -

The system has flexibility built in and the tasks to be performed

can be varied to suit the need of individual dredgers. It can be
expanded or modified rapidly.

A navigation and dredge monitoring system and an integrated

presentation and control system, courtesy of IHC, are shown in Figures
6.7 and 6.8.

I positionin o
SYSTEM
2 SURVEY data
VIA TAPE
3 LM DRAUGHT
D

ca f' 4 4
INFO
OYRO5

II * I ’ TIDE MEASURE-
MENT
6 ANOLE

h MEASUREMENT

7 PERSONAL
COMPUTER
8 OPERATOR
12 STPM
13 PLAN VIEW 9 KEYBOARD
14 SIDE VIEW 10 RS 232
15 PLOTTER 11 HARD DISC

Figure 6.7 Navigation and dredging monitoring system

Figure 6.8 Integrated presentation and control system

 - 149 -

6.4.2 Integrated dredge automation system for planning

The first step is to optimize planning of dredging works. After

determining the volume of the work for the next working period, the
quantities are arranged in order of urgency based on a priority scheme
creating a rough programme. Using the information about available
dredgers and their characteristics, each dredger is assigned its
quantity and a final work programme for each dredger is drawn up. The
subsystem also produces cost and production estimates to compare with
the realized production at the end of the next working period. The
information is stored on a magnetic disc which is transmitted to the
dredger.

6.4.3 Process implementation

Process implementation is done on board the dredger. The

objectives are to ensure execution of dredging work according to the
plan and to record the course of events as they actually take place for
process control purposes. The system plays a supporting role in
achieving the first objective by supplying necessary information to the
helmsmen, pipemen and inspectors. The information needed includes how
much was dredged, where from, when and how long it took? Information
can be fixed or real time. Fixed information is obtained from the
contract conditions and weekly work programme. Fixed parameters
include the:

- Positioning data for locating the dredger;

- Dredger data such as its code, hopper capacity, production
standard etc;
- Work requirements such as process margins relating to dredging
and dumping location, suction depths, etc. (The work programme
related information consists of quantities to be dredged, the
dredging area, the dumping area, sailing locations and route
planning) ;
- Real time information includes time, date, position, load and
status of ship. Time, date and position are no problem. They
are electronically recorded on all modern dredgers. Load
recording is based on displacement calculated from measurements
with pressure sensors in stem and stern.

Recording data is carried out in two ways — position related or

dredging cycle related. The dredging cycle for the trailing suction
hopper dredger consists of:

- Sailing from the dumping to dredging area;

- Dredging;
- Sailing from dredging to the dumping area; and
- Dumping.

The duration of these activities, possible delays and their

starting and closing times are recorded together with cycle number,
dredging location, dumping location, total hopper production, etc. The
following additional information also needs to be recorded:

- Course of dredgers;
- Dredgers velocity, mixture density;
 - 150 -

- Dredging pumps revolutions per minute, vacuum and pressure; and

- Vertical and horizontal position of the drag heads.

The data are pre-processed by the system to a form suited for

presentation to the helmsmen, pipemen and inspectors and tested to see
if they meet the requirements of the system.

The following parameters must be tested:

- Position of ship and drag heads (Are they within the limits,
fixed by the plan and work requirements?);
- Time (Is the work executed within the plan?); and
- Hopper production (load increase vs time).

6.4.4 Process interpretation

This system has two characteristic features. It recapitulates the

results of the past week and compares the results to the planning to
determine whether the starting points for the planning were correct.

Recapitulation

Dredging cycle reports recorded by the dredgers monitoring system

are processed to weekly reports per contract per dredger. These
include cumulated performance and the related expenses.

The position related production of each dredger is added and stored

on a production database and presented on charts.

Feedback

Production per unit of time for each dredger is compared with its
standard. Deviations, if any, are investigated.

Siltation rates are compared with what can be considered normal

for the dredging area in order to locate problem spots and this has to be
considered in relation to the capacity of the dredgers.

Expenses are compared with cost estimates and unit of production

cost with unit of capital cost.

Data updating

The weekly interpretations are represented over a long period to

determine trends. These parameters include survey data in a grid
configuration database, production data (also in a grid configuration
database), dredger related data, average gross and net production
figures, average cycle time for dredging sector and a weekly work
report database.

6.4.5 Process evaluation

The process evaluation may involve undertaking the following tasks:

- Trend calculations for siltation, production and cost of

production;
 - 151 -

- Prognosis for siltation and capacity needs;

- Comparisons of dredgers, working methods, price per unit of
production and per unit of capacity;
- Relation between hopper and in situ production; and
- Research on special measurement, experimental registration
techniques, new or improved dredging implements, etc.

6.5 Automation of monitoring

Monitoring of projects has always been a personal and highly

subjective activity supported by subjective daily/weekly reports. With
the highly sophisticated dredging techniques now in use and the
availability of personal computers with sophisticated software for
database management, monitoring of projects has also stepped into the
automation era. Monitoring has the following objectives:

- To ensure that the project is going according to plan;

- To have complete information in order to be able to resolve any
disputes; and
- To use the database as a foundation for future planning.

The basic elements of a monitoring system are:

- Surveying (Sec. 6.1);
- Planning (Sec. 6.2 and 6.3);
- Dredge control via a video display unit;
- Real time data recording; and
- Processing.

6.5.1 Cutter suction dredgers (CSDs)

The automation of the CSDs explained in section 6.2 has all the
elements of a monitoring system built in. The data recorded and the
reports generated during the process are used for monitoring.

6.5.2 Trailing suction hopper dredgers (TSHDs)

For monitoring of TSHDs, a new system based on measuring Tonnes

Dry Material (TDM) has recently been accepted in the Port of Rotterdam
(1988). The system, as expected, is cycle based and uses real time
information collected during dredging operations to check the
performance of the dredgers. The hardware is simple and a personal
computer (PC) is adequate for all the storage and processing that is
required.

The standard system has the following components:

- Personal Computer ;
- Two depth gauges for assessment of vessel displacement;
- Two level indicators for assessment of the volume of the load;
- Two pressure transducers in the trim tanks for ballast indication
and real time position recording (Figure 6.9).
 - 152 -

Figure 6.9 System for measuring TDM

The system has five functions:

- Time recording on the cycle activities;

- Load recording (the system records the loading process) ;
- A built in system of checking the correct functioning of the
instruments ;
- Video display for the dredge master; and
- Printing a report of each dredging cycle

6.5.3 Time recording

The status of the dredger and time spent on sailing, dredging and
dumping is established through a series of sensors as shown in Table
6.2 (This can also be done by a supervisor who can also add for delays,
if required).

Suction pipe Average Bottom doors Dredge Shore Dredger

in dredging draught closed pump on delivery activity
position < 6 m valve open

No Yes Yes - - Sailing empty

Yes - Yes Yes - Dredging

No No Yes No - Sailing full

No - No - - Dumping

- - - Yes Yes Shore delivery

Table 6.2 Status determination

 - 153 -

6.5.4 Load recording

The volume and the weight of the ship are continuously recorded.
The process is automated, suitable for any type of soil and provides
on-line information. (More details are given at the end of this
section).

6.5.5 Checking of instruments

All sensors have an built-in feature for checking the correct

operation of sensors. An open door check is one of the control
mechanisms. After dumping, when the doors are still open, the water
level inside and outside the dredger has to be the same. The depth
gauges and level gauges should show this accordingly.

6.5.6 Video display

The displayed information includes a graph and data. The graph

shows time versus load (TDM) and average density of the mixture in the
hopper. Other particulars such as draught, trends, traffic volume and
displacement are all displayed.

6.5.7 Reporting

All information displayed also gets recorded for detailed review

later.

With all this information continuously available to the dredger

master, continuous monitoring is automatically going on. Corrections
are applied immediately to remedy shortfall, deviations and
malfunctions. In addition, standard reports are made from the analysis
of the data resulting in status reporting, forecasts and evaluation of
dredger performance. Some of these reports are the:

- Dredge cycle time review;

- Delay report;
- Quantity review report; and
- Performance analysis report.

6.6 Tonnes dry material (TDM)

The method of measurement in the means of conveyance (hopper) for

a TSHD is based upon the soundings of settled solids with a specific
gravity of 1.2 plus the solids in suspension above the settled solids
measured either by density probe or by centrifuging samples taken at
different depths. This system has a number of drawbacks, especially
with soft materials. These are subjectivity, based on few obsevations,
results are not available immediately but must go through laboratory
analysis, and the dredge master is not able to optimize the operation.

TDM is a weight measurement method. It has been tested extensively

and offers the following advantages:
 - 154 -

- Its independent of the soil type;

- Its objective as it eliminates human fatigue;
- It requires no manual actions; and
- Its more precise than the current methods.

The method of determining total amount of dry matter in the hopper

of a trailing suction hopper dredger is shown in Figure 6.10 below.

INPUT OUTPUT
ANALOGUE SIGNALS
LEVEL GAUGES : HOPPER LEVEL r— FORE
VOLUME

PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS : DRAUGHT

WEIGHT
OF LOAD
BALLAST TANK : BALLAST VOLUME/ -AFT
TRANSDUCERS WEIGHT DENSITY

i COMPUTER
HOPPER SOUNDING TABLE
TDM
LOAD DIAGRAM
JU—L

Figure 6.10 Determination of TDM

Two level gauges on the top give the level of the top surface of
the slurry in the hopper using the average value. The total volume of
the load is found from the level table. The two pressure transducers
for and aft indicate the draught of the ship. Using the average
draught the corresponding value of the displacement of the ship can be
read from the dredger's load diagram (Carene diagram). Immediately
after dumping, the weight of the ship with an empty hoper is determined
using the open door method. The transducers in the ballast tanks give
the content in cubic metres. This is then multiplied by the density of
the water to obtain the weight of the ballast water in tonnes.

If the weight of the dredger with an empty hopper is W2 and with a

full hopper is W3 and the weight of ballast water is Wl, the total
weight of the load is given by the formula W = W3-W1-W2 and the tonnes
af the dry matter in the hopper can be given by the equation:

W - fw
TDM = V x fm x V
- Cvi

where fw is the density of water

Cm is the density of particles
 - 155 -

(Both these are determined in the laboratory using random samples

and are taken as constant factors for a dredging area.)

It has been stated that measurements can have a maximum random

error of _+ 20 per cent per trip in adverse weather. The method is also
susceptible to ship-dependent systematic errors caused by reduction in
pressure of the measuring devices as a result of speed, an apparent
decrease of draught and due to squat. Systematic errors can be reduced
to an acceptable level by calibration.

If the measurements are continued over a long period such as a

year, the +_ measurements are likely to cancel each other and the result
is likely to be a fairly accurate annual production.

6.7 Summary

With the advancement of electronics, computer hardware and the

development of sophisticated software, many devices and instruments
have become available to the dredging industry. These devices and
instruments can be used to optimize operations, processes and systems
and are available to management for monitoring, control and evaluation.
Totally integrated automation systems are also likely to be
incorporated in new buildings.

The degree of application of these systems will vary with different

countries and with different organizations within a country. The
inportant point to remember is that it is the man-machine interface and
complementarity that will bring benefits and not the integrated circuit
alone. Manpower training must therefore accompany, if not precede,
automation.
 - 156 -

MANAGEMENT OF
7 DREDGING CONTRACTS

* LETTER OF ACCEPTANCE
* POST TENDER
ACTIVITIES
♦ CONTRACT SUPERVISION
AND MONITORING
♦ MEASUREMENT OF
WORK
♦ POST COMPLETION
REVIEW

* DREDGE RELATED
BUSINESS PHILOSOPHY
* PRE-TENDER ACTION
* TENDER DOCUMENTS:
SPECIAL CLAUSES FOR
DREDGING WORK
* PRE-QUALIFICATION
* INVITATION TO TENDER

* PRE-BID MEETING
* SUBMISSION OF
TENDERS
* TENDER EVALUATION
 - 157 -

7. MANAGEMENT OF DREDGING CONTRACTS

About 80 per cent of all dredging for navigation undertaken in the

world is done through contracts. For capital dredging, which is
considered as a "construction activity," traditionally contractors have
been employed. Heavy, more versatile and diverse equipment is normally
used for capital works which may involve harder digging, removal of
obstruction, wrecks, debris, munitions, long haulage and difficult
dumping or reclamation. It may also involve rock dredging, trenching
and ancillary works like containment of soils, reclaimed soil
improvement and formation of underwater berms using dredged material.

In the last two decades there has been a noticeable trend to get
maintenance dredging also done through contracts. In Rotterdam, the
largest port in the world, 100 per cent of the maintenance load
amounting to nearly 20 millionm3 per annum is done by contracting.
Under a new Federal Law, the U.S. Corps of Engineers has shed nearly 70
per cent of its maintenance load and transferred it to contractors and
private industries. Germany has also started using contractcrs for
maintenance dredging in ports. A survey carried out by Prognos, a firm
of consulting engineers, has established that as a result of this
transfer of responsibility from public sector (ports, waterway
authorities, government departments), efficiency has improved, unit
cost of dredging has come down and channels/waterways are better
maintained.

Contracting for dredging has become a multi-billion dollar

industry. It has its own characteristics distinct from other similar
activities. It is highly capital intensive, technologically advanced
and confined to a few distinct geographical areas. The contracts look
too simple with few single line drawings and a single page bill of
quantities. There is a tendency among employers to devote in sufficient
attention to pre-tender preparatory work, supervision and monitoring of
operations and post execution management of dredged areas. This has
resulted in avoidable expenses, conflicts between employers and
contractors and impaired utilization of the created assets (a deepened/
widened fairway).

This section highlights dredge related business philosophies and

all important aspects of managing a dredging contract in the pretender,
post tender and execution stages. Aspects covered include:

- Dredge related business philosophy;

- Pre-tender action on the part of the employer;
- Drafting tender documents (special clauses for dredging work) ;
- Selection of tenderers (pre-qualification);
- Issue of "Invitation to Tender";
- Pre-bid meeting(s);
- Submission of tenders;
- Tender evaluation;
- Employer's action after selection (issue of letter of
acceptance);
- Post tender activities;
 - 158 -

- Contract supervision and monitoring;

- Measurement of work and certification; and
- Post completion review of the contract.

7.1 Dredge related philosophy for developing countries

An Employer confronted with a compulsive requirement to dredge has

to choose between two alternatives:

- Use of a port owned and operated dredging fleet; and

- Getting the dredging done by a contractor.

Without going into the controversial issues like efficiency in the

private sector vis-à-vis | public sector, the political systems that do
not permit private enterprises and the many advantages over the private
sector that the champions of the public sector claim, a dredge related
business philosophy is postulated below. This could guide the
authorities and the employer to make an optimal choice to meet the
circumstances and situation.

The governing principles of this philosophy are optimum use of

scarce national resources, controlled expenditure of foreign currency
and maximium employment. Within the framework of these governing
principles, essential elements which render the performance of a
service successful may be defined as:

- Motivation;
- Demand;
- Resources (trained and experienced personnel);
- Market; and
- Organization.

Whether these principle elements can be obtained through a

departmental or private organization must be decided by each port using
applicable criteria. The main criteria that have to be considered to
decide their direction are:

- Quantum of dredging to be done;

. Annual requirement; and
. Monthly distribution;
- Operating conditions;
. Weather;
. Shipping traffic;
. Navigational facilities, position fixing arrangements;
. Disposal methods;
. Possibility and technical feasibility of over dredging, traps
creation, etc;
- Manpower availability and manning scales;
. Skills (degree of skills is important);
. Numbers (sufficiency for the task);
. Productivity;
 - 159 -

. Mercantile marine regulations regarding manning scales;

. Trade union requirements;
- Appraisal facilities;
. Documentation;
. Hydrographic survey & plotting facilities;
- Equipment and instrumentation;
. Indigenous availability;
. Facilities for maintenance, repairs, spares, overhauls,
docking ;
. Dredge control systems;
- Infrastructure facilities;
. Bunkers, water, victualing;
. Lay-up facilities;
- Dredging management system, hierarchy, delegation;
. Answerability, accountability;
- Access to outside dredging effort;
. Timely;
. Procedural requirements for requisitioning the effort;
. Foreign exchange availability;
. Political desirability of dependence on an outside agency;
. Taxation regulations applicable to foreign companies;
. Foreign companies assessment of market conditions and market
potential ;
- Costs;
. Real cost of departmental dredging;
. World cost-estimated cost of dredging by outside agency;
. Sensitivity of costs of outside agency to factors unrelated to
home country or the port, such as world demand for dredging
and world inflation;
. Funding arrangements (internal, donors, lending agencies).

The relative importance of these criteria will vary with different

ports and the political and fiscal policies of Governments. For
example, union activities which have marked effect on the productivity
of departmental dredgers may be of great significance in some ports.
Access to foreign exchange for obtaining an outide dredging contractor
may become a guiding factor under certain governmental political and
fiscal policies. Non-availability of suitably equipped plant and
dredgers within the ports own resources may be the motivating force for
hiring an outside contractor.

7.2 Pre-tender actions of the employer

The employer should gather all the site information and data which
may be relevant for the execution of the project and prepare a project
plan. The employer should furnish the following information:
 - 160 -

- Geography and infrastructure;

- Physical conditions;
. Soil;
. Water movements;
. Climate;
- Environmental constraints;
- Facilities;
. Work areas, quays, docks;
. Dump areas;
. Borrow areas;
. Workshops;
. Instrumentation;
. Bunkering facilities;
. Communication;
. Camp site, medical facilities;
- Institutional;
. Import/export regulations;
. Licences, permits, royalties, monetory control system;
. Unions, industrial relations;
. Laws, rules, regulations.

7.3 Selecting the form of a tender contract

Different forms of contract are in use in different countries and

under different circumstances. The variation in contract forms
originates from the division of tasks, duties and risks between the
parties to a contract. In the traditional case, the owner carries out
all investigations and prepares a detailed design. Execution is the
contractor's task. Depending on the sharing of the risk between the
owner and the contractor, four forms of contract may be identified.
These, in ascending order of risk to the contractor are:

- Charter (unit rates, time) ;

- Unit quantities (measured in the means of conveyance);
- Unit quantities (measured in situ); and
- Lump sum.

In the time charter, the owner hires certain specific equipment,

properly manned and managed, and directs the dredging operations. The
contractor is made responsible for satisfactory performance of his
outfit but not for his output. Payment is made on the basis of time
and contracted time rates (daily, hourly). In this type of contracts,
specifications for the chartered equipment and the payment conditions
play a major role. The responsibility for the output and performance
incentives is on the owner. The owner is not only responsible for
supervision but must also play a major role in the execution.
 - 161 -

In the unit quantity (means of conveyance) contract, production

replaces time as the principle payment unit. The production, however,
is with a limited degree of risk. The quantity of material dredged,
transported and deposited is measured in hopper, in the barge or in the
pipeline. Compared to the charter, more risk is transferred to the
contractor as his payment depends on his ability to produce. The
contractor is strongly motivated to maximize his production.

In a unit quantities (in situ) contract, the main stress is on the

design. It is essential to describe accurately, if and when the soil
is to be removed. Tolerances, payment conditions and restrictions have
to be accurately formulated and methods of measurement and tools for
measurement clearly defined. More risk is transferred to the
contractor, but he is motivated to dredge what the employer requires.
A possible source of conflict in such a contract is the resiltation
during dredging. The role of the owner is minimal during execution but
good records are essential to avoid conflicts.

In the lump sum contract, the total risk is transferred to the

contractor. The contractor himself assesses the quantity and
dredgeability of the soil, resilting phenomena and consequences of
specified tolerances. Detailed and accurate site information is
essential for the success of such contracts.

Many hybrids of these four basic contract forms are possible. The
traditional contract situation is characterized by sharp division of
tasks. But with the extraordinary developments in the dredging
requirements and technology, such sharp divisions are not conducive to
good project execution so new forms of contracts have been devised and
used to meet these difficult situations. Risk sharing contracts, the
design/execution contract, management contract and the frame contracts
are examples of these new contemporary contract forms (ESCAP Dredging
Series No. 6).

Guidelines to assist the employer in choosing a contract form from

the large selection available are given below. The leading principle
should always be to get the bes value for money. To do this, the owner
should be fully aware of the:

- Adequacy of the site investigation;

- Suitability of the design with respect to the physical
conditions;
- Most suitable dredging equipment for the realization of the
design; and
- Potential availability of such equipment during planned
execution period.

Only in exceptional cases where the principle organizations

together with their advisors are very experienced and fully qualified
can the above requirements be met. If this is not the case, the
employer should be wise enough to recognize this and choose a contract
form which can utilize his own organization’s capabilities and make
proper use of the potentia know-how of the market.
 - 162 -

7.4 Tender documents

Tender documents for a dredging contract will consist of the

following :

- Invitation to tender;
- Form of acknowledgement;
- Instructions to tenderers;
- Form of tender ;
- Form of agreement;
- Conditions of contract;
. General conditions;
. Conditions of particular application;
. Special conditions for dredging work;
- Specifications and description of work;
- Bill of quantities;
- Schedules; and
- Annexures.

7.4.1 Invitation to tender

Dear Sir,

You are invited to tender for the above mentioned works as detailed in
the attached Tender Documents. Your tender will be placed in a sealed
cover clearly bearing the name of your company and be addressed to

Your tender shall be received on the above mentioned address not later
than the date and time stated in the Instructions to Tenderers.

Tenders received after the date and time stated will be considered
invalid.

Please complete and return the enclosed Form of Acknowledgement within

three days after receipt.

If you do not intend to tender, please return the complete package with
the letter.

Yours faithfully,
 - 163 -

7.4.2 Form of acknowledgement

To...... (The Employer)

Dear Sirs,

(Name of the Tenderer)

With reference to the above, we acknowledge receipt of your Invitation

to Tender for the above mentioned works, your letter ref. ...........
dated ..............

We do/do not intend to submit a Tender for the works described.

Yours faithfully,

7.4.3 Instructions to tenderers

These will include all or most of the following:

- General information;
- Scope of work;
- Eligibility and qualification requirement (Any restrictions
regarding nationality of the bidder);
- Evidence of capability and adequacy of resources to effectively
carry out the subject contract;
- Legal evidence of the status by joint venture, consortium, etc.
of the bidder ;
- Financial turnover of the bidder;
- Cost of bidding (Tenderer shall bear all costs for preparation
and submission of the tender);
- Site visit;
- Requirement to visit the site and carefully examining the
furnished information and data at tenderer's own expenses;
- Contents of the tender documents (a list of all the documents
forming part of the tender will be listed therein);
- Clarification of tender documents (specifies the person to be
contacted to obtain clarifications, replies to be furnished in
writing and copies to be made available to other tenderers);
- Amendments or additions to the tenderers (prior to the date set
for the opening of bids the employer may issue amendments and
additions to all tenderers and will submit written acknow­
ledgement of receipt of such communications);
- Language of the tender;
- Tender price (requires all tenderers to fill in rates and prices
for all items of work described in the Bill of Quantities (Such
rates and prices shall be applicable for the duration of the
contract]) ;
 -164 -

- Instructions regarding currency in which the tender is to be

made ;
- Pre-bid meeting (fixes a time and location for a pre-bid meeting
in which all enquiries received in writing prior to the date of
the meeting will be clarified and the minutes of the meeting
issued to all prospective bidders);
- Tender validity (number of days for which the tender is valid
should be specified and the right of the employer to extend the
validity period included) ;
- Tender security which is to be furnished along with the tender
in the form of cash, bank draft, bank guarantee, etc. (to be
returned within a certain specified period after the expiry of
the validity period and to be forefeited if the tenderer
withdraws his tender prior to the expiry of the validity period);
- Instructions regarding sealing, marking and submission of
tenders;
- Tender opening (instructions regarding the opening date and
location and wether it will be a public opening or restricted) ;
- Correction of errors (any arithematic error in computation and
submission will be included in this clause) ;
- Evaluation of tender (criteria for evaluation and comparison of
tenders will be spelled out under this clause and it will also
include any preference for domestic tenders and shadow pricing
for foreign exchange);
- Award of contract (under this clause the method of notification
of award, submission of performance bond and signing of the
agreement will be specified).

7.4.4 Form of tender

A sample Form of Tender for dredging is given below:

FORM OF TENDER

NAME OF CONTRACT: .......................................................

TO: ...........................

Gentlemen,

Having examined the Conditions of Contract, Special Applications,

Specifications and Description of Work, Bill of Quantities, Annexes,
Appendices and Addenda Nos. ... for the execution of the above-named
work, we the undersigned, offer to execute and complete such work and
remedy any defects therein in conformity with the Conditions of
Contract, Special Applications, Specifications and Description of Work,
Bill of Quantities, Annexes and Appendices for the sum of ..............
......... (................ )•

We acknowledge that the Appendix forms part of our Tender.

We undertake, if our Tender is accepted, to commence the work as soon

as is reasonably possible after the receipt of the Engineer's notice to
commence, and to complete the whole of the work comprised in the
Contract within the time stated in the Appendix to Tender.
 - 165

We agree to abide by this Tender for the period of 90 days from the
date fixed for receiving the same and it shall remain binding upon us
and may be accepted at any time before the expiration of that period.

Unless and until a formal Agreement is prepared and executed, this

Tender, together with your written acceptance thereof, shall constitute
a binding contract between us.

We understand that you are not bound to accept the lowest or any tender
you may receive.

If our tender is accepted, we understand that we are to be held jointly

and severally responsible for the due performance of the contract
(applicable only in the case where two or more firms tender jointly) .

Dated this............. day of ............ 19....

Signature ................ in the capacity duly authorized to sign

tenders for and on behalf of

(IN BLOCK CAPITALS)

Address

Witness

Address ..

Occupation

7.4.5 Form of agreement

The form of Agreement is the sealed and signed legal document

governing the operation of the contract.

A sample Form of Agreement is given below:

FORM OF AGREEMENT

This Agreement made the .................. day of .................

19 .... between ...................................................
(hereinafter called "the Employer") on the one part

and

............................................ (hereinafter called

"the Contractor") on the other part.

Whereas the Employer is desirous that certain Work should be

executed by the Contractor, viz ............ and has accepted a
tender by the Contractor for the execution and completion of such
Work and the remedying of any defects therein.
 - 166 -

NOW THIS AGREEMENT WITNESSETH as follows:

1. In this Agreement, words and expressions shall have the same

meanings as are respectively assigned to them in the Conditions
of Contract hereinafter referred to.

2. The following documents shall be deemed to form and be read

and construed as part of this Agreement; viz:

a) The Letter of Acceptance;

b) The said Tender;
c) The Conditions of Contract (Part I and II);
d) The Special Applications;
e) The Specifications and Description of Works;
f) The Bills of Quantities;
g) The Annexes; and
h) The Appendices.

3. In consideration of the payments to be made by the Employer to

the Contractor as hereinafter mentioned, the Contractor hereby
covenants with the Employer to execute and complete the Work
and remedy and defects therein in conformity in all respects
with the provisions of the Contract.

4. The Employer hereby covenants to pay the Contractor in

consideration of the execution and completion of the Work and
the remedying of defects therein the Contract Price or such
other sums as may become payable under the provisions of the
Contract at the time and in the manner presribed by the
Contract.

In witness whereof the parties hereto have caused this Agreement

to be executed the day and year first before written in accordance
with their respective laws.

The common seal of ............................................ was

hereunto affixed in the presence of:

or

Signed, sealed and delivered by the said ..........................

in the presence of:

Binding Signature of Employer .

Binding Signature of Contractor

 - 167 -

7.4.6 Conditions of contract

General conditions of contract

This sets down the contractual terms which form the basis of the
contract that is to be entered into. This ensures that the client
receives comparable tenders which are easy to evaluate. These terms or
conditions are not negotiable.

The fourth edition of the Conditions of Contract for Works of

Civil Engineering Construction prepared by the Federation Internationale
des Ingénieurs Conseils (FIDIC) and published in 1987 is recommended
for general use where tenders are invited on an international basis.
The main headings in these conditions are:

- Definitions and interpretations;

- Engineer and engineer’s representative;
- Assignment and sub-contracting;
- Contract documents;
- General obligations;
- Labour;
- Materials, plant and workmanship;
- Suspension;
- Commencement and delays;
- Defects liability;
- Alterations, additions and omissions;
- Procedure for claims;
- Contractor's equipment, temporary works and materials;
- Measurement;
- Provisional sums;
- Nominated sub-contractors;
- Certificates and payment;
- Remedies;
- Special risks;
- Release from performance;
- Settlement of disputes;
- Notices;
- Default of employer;
- Changes in cost and legislation; and
- Currency and rates of exchange.

Conditions of particular application

In the FIDIC document, general conditions are linked with the

conditions of particular application by a corresponding numbering of
clauses. The two parts together comprise conditions governing the
rights and obligations of th parties.
 - 168 -

Usually, general conditions stay unaltered while condition of

particular application are specially drafted for each contract. This
is done to allow for special circumstances and the location of the work
to be suitably reflected.

Special conditions for dredging works

For dredging and reclamation works, guidelines for amending some

clauses to reflect the special features of dredging works are included.
For ease of reference, a list of these clauses is given below:

Sub-clause 11.1 Inspection of site

Sub-clause 12.2 Adverse physical obstructions or conditions
Sub-clause 18.1 Boreholes and exploratory excavation
Sub-clause 19.1 Safety, security and protection of environment
Sub-clause 28.2 Royalties
Sub-clause 40.1 Supervision of work
Sub-clause 45.1 Working hours
Sub-clause 49.5 Extension of defects liability
Sub-clause 50.2 No responsibility for cost of searching of
dredging work
Sub-clause 51.1 Variations

It has also been suggested that the aspects given below also be
included in maintenance dredging contracts:

- The contractor's responsibility will be limited to interpretation

only of the data made available by the employer and shall not
extend into making his own investigations.
- Contract conditions should clearly allocate the responsibility
for dumping the dredged material. Responsibility for making
available a dumping ground and for the environmental effects
thereof should be that of the employer. The contractor should
undertake to adhere strictly to the agreed working methods.
- The contractor is made responsible for moving the material while
the problem of payment of royalties should rest with the
employer.
- Normally, the contractor should be allowed to work continuously.
If it is not permissible, the Contractor should spell out the
consequences thereof.
- Measurement methods should be agreed upon beforehand.
- The method of supervision by the employer should be spelled out.
- Extreme sea conditions or other forces of nature may also be
included under a force majeure clause. Financial consequences
of circumstances which no contractor could have foreseen may be
borne by the employer.
- Disputes can be first referred to a small committee of experts
before resorting to arbitration.
 - 169 -

7.4.7 Specifications and description of work

This is the standard heading in civil engineering contracts. For

dredging this may be changed to "workmanship." Suggested titles of
clauses to be included with explanatory notes are given below:

General

- Standard (Standard of workmanship, employment of skilled and

experienced tradesmen, and specified standards to be followed) .
- Plant (Contractor responsible for supply, use and maintenance,
suitability for work; engineers power to order removal of
unsuitable plant).
- Sub-contracts
- Supervision (Experienced staff)
- Temporary works (Engineer to be satisfied with their safety)

Dredging

- Scope and nature of the work (area, soil conditions, etc.);

- Traffic, navigational priorities, safety, use and anchoring of
contractor’s craft;
- Programme (contractor to submit detailed working programme and
dredging method);
- Use of explosives for pretreatment of rocks (safety regulations,
monitoring of vibrations in the vicinity of structures);
- Deposition of dredged material, designated dumping grounds,
temporary storage underwater ;
- Setting out, marking and lighting (setting out accurately);
- Joint survey, soundings density, instruments to be used,
recording and mapping; and
- Rock levels (method to be specified like jet probing, joint
survey and recording).

Post dredging soundings

Limits of tolerance (Horizontal and vertical tolerances for both

rock and soil areas with no payment for over dredging)
- Final quantities (Net volume computed from the agreed drawings,
recording overall and post dredging levels)
- Interim measurements (Interval, sounding density, method of
calculating quantities)
- Sweeping by side scan sonar survey
- Responsibility for re-siltation during dredging
- Acceptance
 - 170 -

7.4.8 Bill of quantities

General instructions

The Bill of Quantities must be read with the Drawings, Conditions

of Contract and the Specifications. The Contractor shall be deemed to
have examined the Drawings, Specifications and Conditions of Contract,
to have acquainted himself with the work to be done and the way in
which it is to be carried out.

Notwithstanding that the work has been sectionalized, every part

of it shall be deemed to be supplementary to and complementry of every
other part and shall be read with it or into it so far as it may be
practicable to do so.

The detailed description of work and materials given in the

Specifications are not necessarily repeated in the Bill of Quantities.

The quantities given in the Bill of Quantities are approximate

only and are given to provide a common basis for tendering. Payment
will be made according to the actual quantities of work ordered and
carried out, as measured by the Engineer and valued a the rates and
prices quoted in the Bill of Quantities.

With reference to Clause 52 of the General Conditions, the rates

quoted in the Bill of Quantities shall not be adjusted in the case of
an increase or decrease in the value of the work by 15 per cent.

For the purpose of this clause, the value of the work in above
shall be treated as the total of the relevant sections and sub-sections.

Each individual item in the Bill of Quantities is to be priced.

If any item is not priced, it is to be indicated under which item or
items the value of the work has been included. Items which are of the
same price shall not be bracketed. If the Contractor omits to price an
item, the cost of the work of such item shall be held to be spread over
and included in the prices given for other items. He is not to mark
items "included" when the rate is asked for.

Rates and prices to be inclusive

Rates and prices set against items are to be the full inclusive
value of the finished work shown on the Drawings and/or described in
the Specifications or which can reasonably be inferred therefrom and
are to cover the. cost of provision of plant, labour, supervision,
materials, erection, insurance, maintenance, overheads, profits, every
incidental and contingent cost and charge whatsoever. They should
also include all taxes (such as sales tax and corporate tax)and every
kind of temporary work executed or used in connection therewith (except
those items in respect of which provision has been separatel made in
the Bill of Quantities) and all the contractor, obligations under the
Contract and all matters and things necessary for the proper completion
and maintenance of the work.

The specification is intended to cover the supply of materia and

the execution of all work necessary to complete the work. Should there
be any details of construction or materials which have not been
referred to in the Specifications or in the Bill of Quantities and
 - 171 -

all works in all trades, the same shall be deemed to be included in the
rates and prices named by the Contractor in the Bill of Quantities. If
there is an inconsistency between the Bill of Quantities, Specifications
or Drawings, the description in the Bill of Quantities shall prevail.

Underwater and tidal works

The Contractor shall be deemed to have ascertained for himself the

extent to which the work has to be carried out underwater or in tidal
conditions, and his rates and prices shall include for all costs and
charges whatsoever arising out of such working.

Dredging

Payment under the item for provision of plant and equipment shall
be made after all the necessary plant and equipment is brought to the
site. The rates shall include for removing, transporting and dumping
the dredged material in approved dumping areas.

Provisional sums

No expenditure shall be undertaken by the Contractor against

provisional sums except on the written order of the Engineer.

Currency

All monetary reference herein and the Bill of Quantities shall be

priced in Currency.
specimen Bill of Quantities

Item Description Qty Unit Rate Amount

No. Rs. Rs.

1. Mobilization of equipment for soil LS

2. Demobilization of above LS
3. Mobilization of all equipment for "rock" LS
4. Demobilization of above
5. Dredging all "soil" in areas A, B m3
and C and disposing the same in
assigned dump areas
6. Dredging all "rock" in areas A, B m3
and C and disposing the same in
nearshore dump areas
7. Provide, operate and remove self­ LS
elevating platform with all
equipment for jet probing
8. Perform jet probes of Technical m3
Specifications
9. Provide equipment specified in LS
Special Applications
10. Operate equipment under No. 9 above days
11. Contingencies
12. Price tag of Bill items 1 to 10 LS
inclusive
 - 172 -

7.4.9 Schedules

The tenders contain a number of schedules required to be completed

by the tenderer. These include:
- A Foreign currency;
- B Experience of the contractor;
- C Personnel;
- D Resources - plant;
- E Financial statement;
- F Method statement;
- G Equipment data;
- H Idle charges; and
- I Insurance statement.

7.4.10 Annexures

1. Form for bank guarantee for Tender Security

2. Form for Performance Bond
3. Form for Surety Bond for Performance

7.5 Prequalification

While preparation of tender documents is going on, the employer,

if he considers it necessary, may take action to prequalify selected
tenderers who will be the only ones issued the tenders. The purpose of
the prequalification is to eliminate those potential tenders who would
not be suitable contractors. In order to be prequalified, a company
may be required to demonstrate its capability to perform the contract.
The company's experience, past record of performance, its ability to
supply necessary technology equipment, materials and services, its
financial status and present commitments will be relevant.

The first step in the prequalification process is either an

advertisement or a letter of invitation to apply for prequalification.
Along with this letter, the employer may issue a questionnaire which
the intended companies will be required to complete and it will be so
formulated that it will elicit the information mentioned above. The
replies are then evaluated based on set criteria. The criteria may
cover items unrelated to the performance capability of the tenderer and
may include a few questions about nationality, constitution of the
company and the qualification of the manpower employed by them. Broad
headings to be included in a specimen prequalification document are
given below:
- Preamble which establishes the employer's identity and brings out
background information leading to the tender;
- Nature of work (A description of the type of work, its
geographical location, the condition under which it is to be
executed, the action required of the contractor to complete the
job. Supplying and installation of any hardware and software
and training requirements will all be included under this
heading) ;
- Intended contract party (Any restrictions regarding the
nationality, joint ventures, wll be spelled out);
 - 173 -

- Prequalification requirements (This shall include documentary

evidence and all other things that are considered relevant with
respect to the company such as location and headquarters,
management, staff and laboratories, work performed over the last
five to ten years, financial status over the last five years and
capability to undertake securities and bonds, statement of
assets including major items of equipment held, statement of
available work force especially highlighting key personnel,
joint venture partners, subcontractors and consultants proposed
to be used) ;
- Proposed work plan and methodology to achieve the objective;
- Employer's time schedule to include likely date of award of
contract and commencement of work, expected date of completion by
phases and the last date for submission of the prequalification
documents.

The above information may be in the form of a questionnaire.

7.6 Invitation to tender

Once the employer has finalized his requirements and gathered

suffficient data and information which will be required by an intending
tenderer to formulate his proposal, he may issue "Invitation to Tender."
The purpose of the invitation to tender is to provide potential
tenderers with basic information about the proposed work and to obtain
from them offers to execute the job in concurrence with the tender
conditions.

The invitation to tender may be an open advertisement, in which

case any company which considers itself eligible will be allowed to
purchase the tenders and make an offer. It may be restricted based
upon the prequalification carried out earlier and the tenders in that
case will be issued only to prequalified companies. Even without going
through a prequalification, the employer may limit the issue of the
letter of invitation to selected companies which, based upon his
previous experience and market information, are considered suitable to
undertake the project. Another method which is sometimes used is to
introduce a post tender criteria. In that case, any tenderer can
purchase the document and submit their offer but they have to meet the
post tender criteria before their tenders can be opened and
considered. The date, time and place where the tenders are to be
submitted must be clearl mentioned with no ambiguity.
 - 174 -

Sample Invitation to tender

Dated .............

1. The Government has received a loan from the IBRD in various

currencies towards the cost of the ... project and it is intended
that part of the proceeds of this loan will be applied to eligible
payments under the contract for ..... Tender is open to all
tenderers from eligible source countries as definded under the
"Instructions to Tenderers" in accordance with international
competitive bidding procedures.

2. The ...... Port, now invites sealed tenders from eligible

tenderers for the scope of work described in Volume II (Part I to
V) "Technical Specifications, Drawings and Schedules'
* and briefly
described here:

Dredging and reclamation areas are marked in the Drawings and

described in the Instructions to Tenderers as is the disposal of
the material at designated dumping grounds. The total quantity to
be dredged consists of ... millionm3 of soft material and ...
millionm3 of hard material.

3. Interested eligible tenderers may obtain further information from,

and inspect the tender documents at, the office of the consulting
engineers to the project:

M/s _____________________
Consulting Engineers
(Address)

4. A complete set of tender documents may be purchased by any

interested eligible tenderer on the submission of a written
application to the above and upon payment of a non-refundable fee
of Rs.... US Dollars or UK Pounds Sterling. Additional set of
documents may be purchased at the same price.

5. All tenders must be accompanied by a tender security in an

acceptable form of Rs...., in the currency of • the tender, in
equivalent US Dollars or in UK Pounds Sterling and must be
delivered to .... on or before 12:00 hours on (date).

6. Tenders will be opened in the presence of those tenderer’s

representatives who choose to attend at 1:00 hours on (date) at
the office of the:

.... Port
(Address)

7.7 Pre-bid meeting

After issue of tenders and sufficient time has been allowed for
tenderers to study them, a pre-bid meeting may be held. The purpose of
the pre-bid meeting is to clarify issues and answer questions on any
matter that may be raised. The questions/clarifications are required
to be submitted in writing to reach the Employer/Engineer by a
specified date. Venue and date are announced well in advance. Minutes
of the meeting, including copies of the questions raised and replies
 - 175 -

given, are furnished expeditiously to all those attending the meeting.

Any modifications of the tender which may become necessary as a result
of the pre-bid meeting will be issued as an addendum to all tenders.

7.8 Submission of tenders

The tenderers will be required to conform to a pattern for the

submission of their tenders so that checking of its completeness,
correctness and ability to be compared with other tenders can be
intelligently performed. Broad headings of an internationally accepted
format for the submission of tenders is shown in the specimen below.

Dear Sirs:

In response to your tender enquiry dated ... we have pleasure in

enclosing herewith our tender for the above work.

Having assessed the layout of the work and the various types of
materials to be dredged, we arrived at a most economical plant type
deployment which dictates the use of a powerful cutter suction dredger
for the rock dredging and large trailing suction hopper dredgers for
the soft material. For the rock dredging we intend to make use of our
cutter suction dredger which features 5,000 HP on the cutterhead.

For the dredging of the soft materal, we intend to operate our

TSHD-1, one of the largest type vessels available today.

In order, however, to ensure access to sufficiently large trailing

suction hopper dredger capacity, if the contract will be awarded to us,
we will enter into a subcontract agreement with the owners of a TSHD
(presently under construction and to be delivered shortly) featuring a
10,570 m3 hopper.

Shallow soft material, south of Gomo Island is envisaged to be

executed by a small shallow draft TSHD, to be subcontracted for this
part of the works.

For the execution of the remaining part of the contract, we would

refer to the Method Statement enclosed herewith.

We trust that our tender, which is also subject to and conditional

on the enclosed Conditions of Offer, is of interest to you. We look
forward to you giving us an early opportunity to discuss any points
which may arise from this tender.

We assure you of our best endeavours should we entrusted with the

execution of the contract.

Yours faithfully,

Sample Conditions of Offer

Our offer is subject to the following conditions being fulfilled:

1. We shall receive timely approval of the National Bank (both for

ourselves as main contractor and for our subcontractors, where
applicable) to work in the country and to operate the necessary
bank accounts.
 - 176 -

2. We shall be permitted to repatriate foreign exchange transferred

by us to finance our obligations until the final settlement of our
tax returns.

Moreover, the permission for foreign exchange transfers shall

apply to surplus funds at the end of the contract and to other
proceeds originating from this contract such as the refund of
retention money and withheld taxes, if any. All these transfers
shall be effected at the exchange rate as referred to in the
Instructions to Tenderers.

This condition will also apply to our expatriate subcontractor(s).

3. We will apply for all radio licences as required under the law.
In case these licences are not issued in time, we will be allowed
tooperate our equipment under the existing licences of the Port.

4. Our offer assumes that, the removal of any wreck as a result of

our undertaking, will not become our property or the property of
our subcontractor and that import duties which may be leviable or
any other charges, duties or taxes as a result of this wreck being
lifted from the seabed and delivered to a disposal sit, will be
borne by the Employer.

5. For disposal of the wreck, our offer assumes a suitable dump site
accessible to the floating plant be within a five kilometre radius.

6. Our offer contains no provision for the presence of and/or the

removal and disposal of any ammunition and/or explosives which
might still be on board the wreck. Any charges connected
therewith will be refunded to us at cost.

7. Idle time of our plant resulting from the presence of and/or the
removal and disposal of such ammunition and/or explosives, is to
be paid for by the Employer at the appropriate rate.

8. We do not accept any liability pertaining to the wreck and claims

from third parties, including claims such as but not limited to
oil pollution, which may arise during the removal operation.

9. Our offer does not include [Construction All Risk] insurance as

mentioned in the Conditions of Contract, since we have been unable
to obtain any coverage in this respect, and assumes the Employer
will obtain the required insurance at its cost.

7.9 Opening of tenders

Procedure to be followed for the opening of the tender varies from

country to country and from employer to employer but it is good
practice to let the tenderers know the procedure that is likely to be
followed. For this, the exact time of opening, the place where it will
be done, whether it will be a public opening or confidential and
whether the information submitted by various tenderers will be made
public or read out at the opening meeting should be defined in the
tender. To prevent violation of the sanctity of the tenders, the
Employer may have his own regulations regarding the number of officials
who will be present at the time of opening and the placement of their
signatures on each page of the tender immediatly after opening.
 - 177 -

7.10 Evaluation of tenders

The evaluation has two objectives :

- To ensure that the tenders comply technically with the
employer's requirements and
To compare the relevant merits of all tenders so they can be
placed in their order of merit; and
- Financial assessment.

Most countries have their own rules regarding financial evaluation.

The tender price need not be necessarily the most important criteria.
But such a deviation, should be justified on grounds which are
sufficiently strong to .bypass the lowest financial offer. Tenders
offering a superior technology or shorter time of execution, even though
financially not the lowest, could be preferred over the lowest tender.

The evaluation involves preliminary screening where the

completeness of the tender, meeting of eligibility criteria,
substantial compliance with the contractual terms and technical
requirements will be evaluated. The documents may also be checked for
any arithmatical or clerical errors. A substantially non-responsive
tender may be rejected at this stage. This is followed by detailed
evaluation where all aspects will be considered in detail. The main
headings from an illustrative example of evaluation for a large
dredging project in a developing country are given below:

An evaluation report (illustrative example)

- Background (Brief description and technical evaluation of the
project; issue of invitation to tender and date of submission of
tender);
- Introduction (Number of firms who purchased the document, any
amendments issued before submission, notification regarding
pre-bid meeting, and amendments after pre-bid meeting);
- Receipt of tenders (Date, time, tenderer's name);
- Opening of tenders (Date, time, public/confidential);
- Scrutiny of tenders for responseness (Commercial conditions,
technical aspects);
- Rejection of non-responsive tenders ;
- Issue of letters to responsive tenderers asking for clarification
(Withdrawal of certain conditions, more details of method
statement, clarification of technical points and give
undertaking);
- Discussions on the replies and formal letter from tenderers;
- Rejection of tenders still considered non-responsive;
- Resubmission of final clarification and price changes;
- Scrutiny and analysis of fully responsive tenders;
- Check for arithematical errors;
- Effect of price adjustments;
- Idle time for plant;
- Comparative prices; and
- Recommendations.
 - 178 -

7.11 Letter of acceptance

After evaluation of the tender and approval by the competent

financial authority, a Letter of Acceptance is issued to the successful
bidder. A specimen letter of acceptance is shown below:

Specimen letter of acceptance

Dear Sirs:

1. On behalf of the Board of Directors, I have the pleasure of

informing you that your 'Offer' for the subject work pertaining to Bill
of Quantities, as enclosed, for a sum of .... is hereby accepted for
the execution and completion of the above mentioned works.

2. This sum includes the amount to be paid to you in .... which is

equivalent to .... of the contract price. Your offer mentioned above
shall be deemed to consist of the following:
i) Part I of your tender submision, which you submitted vide your
letter no.... ;
ii) Your supplementary submission of your letter ... concerning
part I of your tender;
iii) Your subsequent submission of your letter no.... concerning
part I of your tender ;
iv) Part II of your tender submission, containing pricing details
dated ........ and submitted on ..............;
v) Supplementary price submitted by you in your letter No...... ;
vi) Your letter dated ... submitted after meetings on ...; and
vii) Your letter no.... along with its enclosures.

3. Together with your 'Offer' as mentioned above, the correspondence,

as enumerated in Annex I to this letter, shall also form part of the
contract (not enclosed).

4. Our acceptance of your 'Offer' is subject to the tender documents

as amended and the correspondence, as enumerated in Annex I to this
letter.

5. Your attention is drawn to Clause 10 of the conditions of the

contract, wherein you are required to furnish within 30 days from the
receipt of this letter, either a bank guarantee or a performance bond
as security for due performance of the contract. The guarantee or oond
is to be in the form stated in Annex II or Annex III in the tender
documents. In the case of a bank guarantee, the initial period for
which the guarantee shall be valid must be at least three months longer
than the time stated in the contract for the execution of the works.
You are, therefore, requested to inform us immediately, for our
approval, the name of th bank, insurance company, or other surety that
you wish to engage for this purpose and which is authorized to do
business in ... (country).

6. M/s.... who are our consultants for this project, will act as the
"Engineer" for this contract and will receive all further instructions
concerning this contract from them.

7. Please acknowledge receipt of this letter.

Yours faithfully,
 - 179 -

7.12 Post tender activities

Once the contractor has been selected and the contract awarded,
the two parties become partners in a cooperative effort to complete the
job to specifications, in the specified time and at minimum cost. The
attitude required is not that of adversaries, standing up and fighting
for ther rights, but that of partners struggling for a common cause.
To make a good start and to ensure smooth operation, certain actions on
the part of the employer and the contractor are called for. These are
listed below.

7.12.1 Employer
- Nominate a resident engineer and allow him to select his own
team;
- Establish a good communication system;
- Set up, or supervise the contractor in setting up shore stations
and control points;
- Select (after discussion with the contractor):
. A survey system;
. A method of measurement;
. Calculation of quantities for interim payment;
. A procedure for interim payment; and
. A reporting system for the plant on site, manpower, materials,
spares, etc.

7.12.2 Contractor
- Final selection of the major dredging equipment which will be
deployed ;
- Final selection of all auxiliary equipment;
- Arrangements for shipment of equipment;
- Preparation of all shipping and customs documents;
- Selection of crew and finalization of their terms of service on
the contract;
- Briefing the selected staff about the contract, country living
conditions, any special precautions;
- Final selection of subcontractors;
- Preparation of work programme and methodology;
- Financial arrangements (banking, guarantees, bonds etc.);
- Insurance; and
- Arrangement for travel documents.

7.13 Contract supervision

The objectives of supervision are:

- The safety of all plants, personnel and navigation;
- Conformity to specification; and
- Quality control which includes:
. Tolerances;
 - 180 -

. The stability of underwater slopes;

. The stability of reclamation and retaining bunds; and
. Financial controls.

In case of a unit rate contract, the employer is not too concerned

about the output of a plant and the methods adopted by the contractor.
In a charter contract, however, the responsibility for the performance
of the plant and optimization of production thereof falls on the
employer and adequate supervisory controls should be exercised to make
sure that the contractor uses his equipment to the maximum productivity
level. Some automatic monitoring systems have been developed which can
produce very authentic and objective records of performance. Use of
these can relieve the employer from the tiresome duty of 24-hour
monitoring and the need for inspectors and checkers. Details of these
automated systems are included in Chapter 6.

Avoidance of disputes is one important function of contract

supervision. Disputes not only lead to lengthy legal action but also
vitiate the atmosphere between the contractor and employer. Early
detection of possible causes which can lead to disputes and clear-cut
enunciation in the contract regarding the means to deal with such
causes of conflict will help in overcoming this serious problem.

7.14 Progress report and monitoring statement

The contractor will be obligated to submit his weekly report which

should be carefully monitored by the employer and analysed from
technical and financial angles. The usual practice of filing these
reports without properly analysing them is bound to result in
undesirable consequences for the employer. With the availability of
modern control methods aided by computers, reports should be carefully
analysed to ensure activities are progressing according to the schedule
and, if not, the causes for the delays should be investigated and
removed. If delays are due to circumstances beyond the control of the
contractor, such as political unrest, strikes, adverse sea conditions
and unexpected obstructions, the contractor should be asked to define
his alternative strategy to the original schedule and, if found
necessary, the cost thereof should be evaluated and the contractor
compensated. If the delay is not considered crucial to the overall
progress of the work, extension of time should be agreed upon.

7.15 Methods of measurement

One of the most important aspects of a dredging contract is an

agreed method of measuring payable quantities dredged by the contractor.
The standard of accuracy of measurement which is common on land cannot
be economically achieved in floating operations. Movement of water
vertically due to tides and waves and horizontally due to currents and
the motion of the survey vessels introduces significant sources of
error. More and more electronic equipment is being used in such
measurements but errors are still introduced due to the inherent
limitations of the systems employed.

Measurement of quantities in a dredging contract has two primary

objectives :
- To ensure that the requirement of the specification and drawings
are met with; and
- To make payments.
 - 181 -

The methods available for measurement may be divided into three

categories :
- Measurement in situ;
- Measurement in the means of conveyance such as hoppers, barges
or pipelines; and
- Measurement in the deposit areas such as in land reclamation.

7.15.1 In situ measurement

In situ measurements involve bathymetric surveying before and

after the dredging operation and computation of quantity based upon the
difference in the two measurements. In case of harder soils like sand,
gravel etc. which have distinct boundaries, this method is quite
suitable and is often used, especially in capital dredging. In case of
softer bottom and muddy areas, certain precautions are necessary.
These include:
- The density of the survey line and sounding should preferably be
not more than 25 metres;
- The same high frequency echo sounder should be used throughout;
- Tide levels should be recorded in the area where soundings are
being recorded or in the area close to it;
- The speed of the survey vessel should be as slow as possible
while still allowing safe steerage (a speed of 3 knots is
recommended);
- A position recorded by electronic instruments should be rechecked
with reference to an onshore transit mark;
- In areas where the sea bed is sloping steeply, a survey line
should run at right angle to the slope; and
- Survey lines should be extended beyond the dredging area.

The quantities computation can be done by calculating volumes from

cross sections and the distance between the cross sections or by
transfering the recorded depths to grid points and using average levels
for the grid before and after dredging. The modern method uses an
automatic data processing system for fast computation.

7.15.2 Measures using means of conveyance

When in situ measurements are not possible or likey to lead to

errors, measurements may be made in the means of conveyance. In
maintenance dredging work, when heavy siltation during dredging is
expected, in situ measurements will not be acceptable to a contractor
unless the re-siltation can be accurately predicted or measured.

7.15.3 Hoppers

Hopper measurement involves the estimation of the solids contained

in the loaded hopper of a barge or trailing suction hopper dredger.

7.15.4 Settled solids measurement

For granular materials, which quickly settle out of suspension,

the hopper contents may be determined by taking account of a number of
soundings from a fixed reference level to the surface of the solids
load. Soundings should be taken at not less than five points on each
side of the hopper.
 - 182 -

The average surface level, will relate to a particular filled

volume, as determined from the official hopper calibration for the
vessel.

The volume measured in the hopper may be quite different to the

volume actually removed by dredging from the sea bed due to difference
in density.

If the dredged material contain significant quantities of fines,

there will be a vertical density gradient within the hopper load.

An approximate quantity can be determined by sounding to the

surface of the solids, as described for granular materials, and
computing that volume. The remaining volume of suspended, or very
loose solids, can be estimated either by the use of a densimeter to
determine the vertical density profile or samples can be recovered from
various depths within the hopper and analysed in the laboratory to
determine the solids content or density. A sample at half the depth of
suspended material is sometimes used to get average density.

H average level of solids

fi/2 half height of suspended

load = sampling depth

Overflow

Figure 7.1 Hopper sampling method

 - 183 -

7.15.5 Ship displacement method

The weight of material, including water, contained in a hopper is

reflected by the change in displacement of the vessel as a result of
loading. Displacement is measured in terms of the change of draught of
the vessel. For reasonably accurate draught determination, measrements
should be made fore and aft and port and starboard. Most modern
trailing suction hopper dredgers are fitted with load indicators based
upon the measurement of draught at two or more points.

The average change in draught can be used to determine the change

in displacement by reference to the official calibration of the
particular vessel.

When the change in displacement is known, the weight of dry solids

in the hopper may be calculated using the following expression:

Ws = (W - V fw) x (1 - ^)-1
fs

Where

Ws is the weight of solids in the hopper in tonnes

W is the total weight of the dredged load in tonnes

fw is the density of water in tonnes/m3

fs is the density of the dry solids in tonnes/m3 {generally 2.65)

V is the total volume of the mixture in m3

If the density of the sea bed material is known, the volume of sea
bed material loaded into the hopper can be calculated using the
expression

Vsitu = (fh - fw) x v

(fsitu - fw)

Where

^h is the density of mixture in the hopper in tonnes/m3

f situ is the in situ density of the material to be dredged in

tonnes/m3

V is the volume of mixture in the hopper in m3

Vsitu is the volume removed from the sea bed.

Hopper measurement takes no account of material removed by

agitation so may seriously underestimate the true production achieved.

7.15.6 Measurement by instrumentation

The solids production of hydraulic dredgers, such as the trailing

suction hopper dredger and cutter suction dredger is given by the
integration with time of mixture flow and solids concentration.
 - 184 -

Most modern dredgers, of the hydraulic type, are fitted with

velocity or flow meters and density meters in the discharge pipeline.
Unfortunately, the accuracy of the individual instruments is currently
not better than + or - 10 per cent and hence the overall accuracy is
less.

Errors are greatest in mixed materials when flow is not

homogeneous. Measurement of density may then be subject to serious
error.

When operations on a particular site are prolonged and the dredged

material is fairly consistent, a correlation between the production
recorded by instruments and by survey may be possible. Thereafter,
instrument readings can be used to estimate production between progress
surveys.

7.15.7 Measurement in deposit areas

Land survey methods are used. Surveys should be made prior to

filling on a 10 or 25 metre grid. If the ground to be filled is soft
with possibility to settle settlement measuring devices should be
installed in such a way that they are not easily disturbed during the
process of reclamation. Afer filling, a survey is made, possibly on
the same grid lines, and computation of quantities can be made using
any of the known methods used for calculations.

7.16 Post completion review of the contract

Every contract is a potential source of adding to dredging

knowledge and therefore should be exploited for the benefit of future
works. The contractor has every interest in the possible improvement
in his performance capabilities. He can improve on his metnodology,
tactics, equipment, management and control capability. He can also
learn from a review of his completed contract about his ability to do
job evaluations, production predictions and simulations as well as his
ability make and compare test estimations, anticipated and actual
degrees of difficulty, wear and tear and outputs. He can also review
his financial problems, check on the work of estimating and determine
and compare precalculated costs against actual costs. The employer has
an opportunity to improve upon his control, financial forecasts and
cost overruns. He can also probe into his methods of data acquisition
and the accuracy of his testing and analysing techniques.

The evaluation can only be fruitful if there was good project

preparation, good site investigation, good choice of work materials
and equipment and an effective estimation of working hours, down time
etc. In analysing performance in the post dredging stage, it is
essential to know what boundary conditions and parameters were
introduced in the total job assessment. Comparisn with actual
proceedings can be fulfilled, provided the monitoring of the project
was done with care and at least to the same level of detail as was done
at the planning stage. So during the monitoring stage, observations
should be continuous. A golden rule is, do not wait until the end of a
project; do it day by day during the whole execution period. Observe,
monitor, digest and control reliability and adequate coverage without
delay. Both the contractor and the employer should identify and agree
upon the monitoring scheme and ensure that it is adequate to look at
all aspects of the contract. The subjects to be covered under the
monitoring scheme are:
 - 185 -

- Bathymetry (tides, currents, waves);

- Soil sampling in situ and in the dreging system;
- Other investigations such as side scan sonar, sub-bottom
profiling, diving;
- The dredger mechanical data (load on key machinery, cutters,
winches, pumps, propulsion, wear and tear, repairs);
- Operational data (time, place and type of work, down time and
cost, outputs;
- Manpower employment pattern;
- Fuel lubricants consumption; and
- Budget control.

7 .17 Final evaluation

All evaluations carried out during execution of the project are to

be grouped together in a final evaluation report to show:
- Where key items of the project have shown to be reasonably in
accordance with expectations; and
- Deviations between expected and actual performance and the cost
of these deviations. Based on these two, a final evaluation
report will suggest ways and means for further investigations,
studies and improvement.
 - 186 -

QUALITY ASSURANCE
8 OF
DREDGING PROJECTS

IMPORTANT
MEASURABLE
SPECIFICATIONS

* PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS
* TOLERANCES
* SIDE SLOPES
* DUMPING AREAS
* TIME KEEPING
* DREDGING PLANT
* SETTING OUT
♦ MEASUREMENTS
QUALITY CONTROL
♦ ENVIRONMENT
PROGRAMME

* ENGINEERING
STAGE

♦ DREDGING
STAGE

♦ CORRECTIVE
ACTION
 - 187 -

8 . QUALITY ASSURANCE OF DREDGING PROJECTS

Introduction

"Quality assurance of a project" in its broadest sense implies

that, after completion, the resultant facility should fully meet all
the requirements that it had set out to achieve. A dredging project
taken up to increase the available draft for a port, after completion,
should, therefore, allow free, unrestricted, and safe passage for ships
with a draft equal to or less than the design draft at the specified
time in the tidal cycle without undue adverse after-effects.

Unfortunately results achieved through dredging are not

irreversable and the created depths silt up, reducing draft. This
re-shoaling has to be removed (at intervals) and maintenance dredging
resorted to. How much and when re-siltation takes place and how it
effects the dredged areas depends on the nature of the area, the
ambient environment, sea conditions, water movement due to tides,
currents, waves, upland discharges and the intensity of waterway usage.

A properly conceived project should foresee siltation, its likely

impact and provide for proper maintenance. This also is part of
quality assurance. The foundation of good quality assurance is laid at
the conceptualization and design stage and covers the entire spectrum
of planning, selection of equipment and the choice of an executing,
directing and controlling agency. In this handbook, a limited meaning
is assigned to quality assurance.

8.1 Quality assurance

Quality assurance is all those planned and systematic actions

necessary to provide adequate confidence that a facility will perform
with satisfactory results. Its essence is "conformity to
specifications" and it is realized by controlling quality.

In the case of hardware, technical specifications and quality

standards are easy to formulate and measure. In the case of services,
this is not so easy. Proper definition of the service to be rendered
is complicated. Even more difficult is to lay down norms to measure
the quality of the services.

Important measurable specifications/requirements in a dredging

project are:
- Physical dimensions (length, width and depth of the area to be
dredged) ;
- Tolerances (horizontal and vertical);
- Side slopes;
- Location and dimensions of dumping areas;
- Time keeping of operations (operation plan) ;
- Supply, use and maintenance of dredging plant;
- Accuracy of setting out and surveys;
- Characteristics of the materials to be dredged;
- Accuracy of measurements;
- Safety; and
- Compliance with environmental consideration.
 - 188 -

How conformity to these specifications through quality control can

be assured is elaborated upon in the following sections:

8.1.1 Physical dimensions

Navigational and economic considerations determine the physical

dimensions of areas to be dredged (channels, basins alongside berths
etc.). (Chapter 1 - Section 2). These are accurately shown on the
survey maps with the help of coordinates in the horizontal plane and
levels in relation to chart datum or a bench mark in the vertical
plane. Quality assurance demands conformity to these dimensions.

During the process of dredging, accurate instruments are used to

ensure positioning of the dredger and its draghead, cutter, grab,
bucket, etc. and continuously checked to keep the dredging tool within
the specified area. Depth gauges and echo sounders help in controlling
the depth of dredging. The importance of calibrating the instruments
and the accuracy of recording have been stressed in Chapter 2. In the
process of dredging, errors cannot be eliminated. Measurements are
taken with instruments mounted on a moving craft sailing on a moving
medium (sea/river) these can only be minimized by constant vigil and
continuous observation.

8.1.2 Tolerances

Tolerances do not imply relaxing of norms but conformity to and

acceptance of realities. Tolerances and costs are closely related.
With modern instruments such as underwater TV cameras, computer
controlled dragheads, cutters or buckets excellent finished profiles
can be obtained. Costs will go up proportionately. For navigation
purposes there is very little ultimate advantage.

The ships are temperamental, so are the water movements. The

interaction between these two can override the most meticulous
calculations of ships sinkage and an elaborately dredged bottom can
foul.

Specifications for tolerances should take these into account so

that conformity (quality assurance) is within practical limits.
Instruments should be used extensively to measure at closer densities.
Properly calibrated echo sounders, side scanners and sweeps are the
tools to be used. Dredgers have variable capabilities so the choice of
machine should match the tolerance requirements. The skill of the
operating crews have considerable effect on tolerances achieved.

8.1.3 Side slopes

One of the difficult operations in dredging is formation of stable

side slopes. Design of side slopes depends upon the soil and the
amount of disturbance due to waves, currents and ship's wash that these
slopes are subjected to. Forming of the slopes and their accurate
measurement are difficult operations. The usual procedure is to form
steps which are expected to form the required slopes when these
collapse under the effect of waves/currents etc. These need to be
carefully monitored as steeper steps may cause siltation in the channel.
 - 189 -

8.1.4 Dumping areas (location and dimensions)

Location of dumping areas is of considerable importance. Its

influence on re-siltation, the environment and the cost of the project
can never be overemphasized. These aspects assume added importance
when dredging in rivers. Dumping areas too close to the dredged
channels can contribute considerably to re-siltation. Areas too far
add to dredging costs. Environmental considerations when dealing with
polluted materials need special attention and solutions (see Chapter
9-Environment) .

From the quality assurance angle, continuous monitoring is

necessary to ensure:
- Dumping in the right place (there may be alternative sites for
flood and ebb tides) ;
- Dumping using the specified method (bottom discharging, grabs,
pumping underwater, using submerged diffusers, depending on the
type of material and the degree of control required);
- Dumping height (as specified e.g. not above a certain level) ;
- After treatment, such as providing underwater dams, wave-damping/
constructions, covering of contaminated material by clean
material (capping); and
- Protection of the environment against excessive turbidity,
unrestricted discharging of polluted materials, damage to flora
and fauna, etc.;

For land disposal, it is important to evolve a monitoring procedure

after taking into consideration the future use of the land where the
disposal takes place. Regulating the dispersion of polluted water
through the subsoil is an important aspect to watch. A capping layer
of sufficient thickness can prevent contaminants being taken up by
plants. For control of settlements, consolidation, etc. of reclaimed
areas for construction activity see Chapter 5.

Dimensions of the disposal areas should meet the requirements of

the amount of material to be disposed after taking into consideration
the bulking factor. It will be very inconvenient to change locations
during the currency of the project, considering cost and contractual
obligations.

8.1.5 Timeliness of operation

An important aspect of quality assurance is time keeping on the

project. Time keeping, in addition to its own intrinsic value, has far
reaching effects on other connected activities and on the quality of
work. Work required to be completed before the onset of rough sea
conditions, if allowed to spill over, may effect the finish, outride
the tolerances and, in extreme cases, require a change in the dredging
technique with the consequences of cost overrun, further delays and
upsetting of the schedule of the whole project.

8.1.6 Dredging plant

An aspect of quality assurance is to check that the right type of

dredger is available and manned by skilled crew and masters, in a good
state of repair, provided with a systematic maintenance routine and
equipped with proper tools and tackles and spares. Suitable ancillary
 - 190 -

craft and equipment should be arranged in conformity with the work

programme. It is alsp important that adequate arrangements for the
supply of fuel and lubricants be made. There will be a need for a site
workshop and tie up with a ship repair yard for handling repairs and
replacements.

8.1.7 Setting out and surveys

Dredging projects are sometimes undertaken in areas far removed

from surveyed and marked areas. In these cases, as in all dredging
work, the importance of accurately and visibly setting out the project
boundaries and physical dimensions is important. With the availability
of modern electronic position fixing, levelling and distance measuring
instruments, this task, has been simplified. But the importance of
checks and re-checks has.not diminished. The procedures and instruments
for surveys are fully described in Chapter 2. The requirements of
quality assurance demand qualified manpower, properly calibrated
instruments, good working conditions and thoroughly competent checks
and re-checks. The landmarks used should be easily identifiable, fixed
and not subjected to disturbance or dislocation during the currency of
the project. The markings used shall have sufficient permanence and
distinction to avoid confusion. In certain locations these may have to
be guarded to avoid tampering or loss.

8.1.8 Material to be dredged

The one single parameter which has the maximum effect on

productivity and quality in dredging is the type of material to be
dredged and its properties. PIANC's classification of soils for
dredging purposes is universally accepted and the highlights have been
discussed in Chapter 2. Quality assurance starts with site
investigation, sampling, sealing, laboratory testing and interpretation
of the test results. No amount of care in preserving the original
character of the soil is excessive and no effort should be spared to
test the important properties and use the test results to define the
soil fully. Retention of samples properly indexed is equally important
in order to allow the executing agencies to see and form their own
judgements. Description of soils in the tender documents should be
complete and with no disclaimers.

8.1.9 Measurements of dredged material

The accuracy and reliability of measurements of dredged quantities

is an important part of quality assurance. Measurements mean money,
production, efficiency of operation and are a barometer of skill as
well as showing conformity to norms and timeliness. Efficiently
conducted measurements, in conformity with the agreed (contracted)
methods act, as an incentive for quality.

Measurements can be done in situ, at the dredging site, in the

means of transport or at the dumping site (on land) . For in situ pre
and post hydrographic surveys are used to compute quantities. There
are many inaccuracies in this process but it is a universally accepted
method, especially for capital dredging.

Hopper measures by volume, or by weight in barges or trailers, is

the second alternative. Quantity measurement in the hydraulic circuit
(pipeline) is done in hydraulic dredging systems, using density and
flow measuring instruments. The concept of Tonnes Dry Material (TDM)
has recently been introduced and is much more reliable especially when
dealing with fine material. These methods are described in Chapter 7.
 - 191 -

8.2 Quality control programme

A quality control programme has several functions:

- During engineering it assures that all engineering activities
are performed correctly and in accordance with instructions,
procedures, specifications, drawings, laws, regulations, codes
and standards. Its components include:
. Design control;
. Document control;
. Design change control;
. A quality control record (of engineering); and
. A review process;
- During dredging it assures that all construction activities are
correctly performed in accordance with applicable specifications,
codes and standards. Its subcomponents include:
. Document control;
. Receiving, storing and handling control of all materials,
spares and equipment;
. Measuring and testing equipment control (all instruments to be
adjusted, calibrated and controlled);
. Checking inspection and testing control;
. Corrective action control (conditions adverse to quality to be
identified and corrected in time);
. Inspection and test data control (acquisition, reduction,
evaluation, analysis and recording of test data); and
. Quality control records (to be prepared during dredging); and
- It also takes corrective action which embraces correction of
documents, specifications, drawings, modification of the quality
assurance programme, revision of standards and manuals,^
improvement of the project execution process and correction of
adverse conditions. Its subcomponents include:
. Identification of deficiencies or errors in engineering or
design and defects or deficiencies in construction;
. Determination of the cause of the problem by means of a
review of the engineering, design, procurement, transport
field construction!; and
. Establishment of corrective action to change the design or
construction process and review standards and manuals.

8.3 Conclusion

Quality assurance of a dredging project is a joint responsibility

of the employer, the consultant and the contractor. The employer and
his consultant spare no efforts to gather, present and analyse all
relevant data and information. The project is formulated in accordance
with good engineering practice, taking into account all standards,
codes, instructions and ambient conditions, and are presented in
properly documented drawings, specifications, bills of quantities and
unambiguous conditions of contract. The contractors make a thorough
 - 192 -

analysis of the project, constraints, local conditions and technical

parameters and select the most suitable equipment, ensuring that it is
properly functioning, well-maintained, manned by a qualified crew and
managed by competent masters and engineers. These are good foundations
for quality assurance. Deviations, variations and changes during
execution are identified and analysed and corrective actions initiated
in time in a cooperative effort to ensure satisfactory completion.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT
OF
9 DREDGING AND DISPOSAL
OF
DREDGED MATERIAL

DREDGING
AND
ENVIRONMENT

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS

ADVERSE EFFECTS

ENVIRONMENT
IMPACT
ASSESSMENT

ENVIRONMENT
PROTECTION

♦ DREDGING

•DISPOSAL ANNEX
PROFORMA

LONDON DUMPING CONVENTION

 - 193 -

9. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT OF DREDGING AND

DISPOSAL OF DREDGED MATERIAL

Introduction

Dredging and related operations of disposal of dredged material

are essential to maintain safe navigation in most of the waterways and
seaports around the world. The primary purpose of dredging is
beneficial as it is undertaken to satisfy organized human activities
such as deepening a fairway/waterway for safe navigation and
reclamation of low lying areas to make them useful for humans. The
largest part of dredged material, 90-95 per cent, is unpolluted or
polluted within certain limits. Its relocation has acceptable effects
because of their temporary or transitory nature. But as a result of
the London Dumping Convention (LDC) and grouping dredged material under
the definition of "wastes and other matter," many ports around the
world are incurring or likely to incur heavy additional costs on their
dredging operations.

If, however, the bottom sediment is polluted with harmful

chemicals, heavy metals, organic or toxic substances which can harm
human beings, marine life, flora and fauna or if the dredging
introduces adverse physical effects such as turbidity, noise, ugliness,
erosion, smell etc, dredging, transporting and disposal of such
materials at sea or on land is unacceptably harmful to the environment
and due caution needs to be exercised in dealing with such material.

There is a need for a balanced strategy under which vital

dredging for safety and development of navigation that has a minimal
environmental impact is free from unnecessary constraints while
positive steps are taken to minimize the damage to the environment
caused when contaminated or potentially contaminated materials have to
be dredged.

This chapter covers:

- Potential effects of dredging on environment;
- Benificial effects;
- Adverse effects;
- Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ;
- Solutions to dredging problems;
- Solutions to disposal problems; and
- An annex containing a sample questionnaire to be used for
Environmental Impact Assessment.

9.1 Potential effects of dredging on environment

The effects of dredging and disposal on the environment can be

grouped into many subsets such as:
- Effects related because of the location where they manifest
themselves such as the dredging site, along the transport route
or at the dump site;
- Effects grouped according to their character (positive,
negative);
- Effects related to the nature of the changes that are brought
about such as physical, morphological, chemical or biological;
 - 194 -

- Effects related because of the immediate discomfort they cause to

humans due to noise, vibration, air pollution, vista impairment
or indirectly through the food chain, flora or fauna;
- Effects grouped by their length such as immediate, short-lived,
medium-term, long-term, semi-permanent and permanent
(irreversable);
- Effects related by the process which produced them such as
dredging, transfer or disposal; and
- Effects related because of the purpose of the operation such as
capital dredging, maintenance dredging, pollution control o’r
winning of material.

The effects of dredging manifest themselves in different ways and

accurate assessments are required in order to initiate remedial
measures.

9.2 Beneficial effects

The benefits of dredging include:

- Improved flow pattern or flow condition of the water;
- Improved navigation;
- Removal of polluted sediment;
- Winning of construction material like aggregates or sand;
- Beach nourishment; and
- Mining of minerals.

At disposal sites, both under water and on land, there are some
beneficial effects such as:
- Existing bottom pollution can be covered up;
- Artificial marshy areas can be created;
- New land or an island can be created;
- Nutrients may be added;
- Land can be produced for different purposes such as port
activities, townships, etc.;
- Agricultural nutrients can be provided; and
- Land subsidence can be compensated for.

United States Army Corp of Engineers manual No. 1110 - 2.5026

mentions the following beneficial uses for dredged material:
- Landfill for industrial, commercial and urban development;
- Creation of islands in waterways and estuaries;
- Beach nourishment;
- Wet land creation;
- Sports and commercial fisheries;
- Gravel refill beds;
- Fresh water aquatic vegetation;
- Sea grass beds, underwater berms;
 - 195 -

- Parks;
- Aqua culture ponds;
- Salmon hatcheries;
- Military bases; and
- Bank stabilization.

In addition to the direct benefits enumerated above, there are

incidental benefits associated with dredging such as:
- Incidental control the water body’s eutrophication;
- Transfer of nutrients from the bottom sediments to suspension in
the water column, making them available to aquatic biota and
thus enhancing productivity throughout the food chain;
- Absorption of polluted materials in the water by the resuspended
sediments;
- Increase in the oxygen content of the water due to turbulence;
- Reoxygenation of sediments stirred up by the operation (of
particular value when material is mainly organic or when organic
pollution would prevail without reoxygenation);
- Creation of traps for algae and refuges for aquatic fauna with
the associated beneficial effects extending to adjoining areas
and throughout the food chain;
- Increase in the impounding capacities of lagoons (favourable in
special cases) ;
- Reduction of resistance to tidal flows to the benefit of water
renovation (of special value in some cases) ;
- Establishment of new and more favourable conditions for certain
species of flora and fauna which may eventually prove more
useful to productive activities and environmental conditions and
equilibrium than those that previously existed at the site.

9.3 Adverse effects

The redistribution of sediments, which is always associated with

dredging, can have a negative effect on the environment, either at the
dredging site, along the transit route or at the dumping site. Common
adverse environmental effects at the dredging site include:
- Creation of turbidity;
- Disturbance or removal of flora and fauna, including plankton;
- Acceleration of beach erosion;
- Increased salt water intrusion into estuaries, affecting fresh
water supplies;
- Increased demand for oxygen.

The negative effects of transporting dredged material include:

- Smell and noise;
- Leakage of polluted material; and
- The ugliness of pipeline and river transportation modes.
 - 196 -

The negative effects of dumping dredged material at a disposal

site include:
- Turbidity;
- Contamination of the site with pollutants;
- Suffocation of flora and fauna;
- Pollution and/or discoloration of beaches, ports, harbours and
sailing areas; and on land
- Pollution of groundwater by seepage, absorption of toxic
substances by vegetation and the creation of objectionable
smells and noise.

In addition to the direct negative effects of dredging, there are

incidental negative effects on the environment which include:
- Turbidity at the dredging site caused by fine material stirred
up and brought into suspension, which disturbs aquatic fauna and
impairs photosynthesis by aquatic flora;
- Turbidity in the receiving waters caused by overflow from barges
or hoppers;
- Removal of flora and fauna, including plankton, or at least
disturbance of the same, at the dredging site;
- Potential inconveniences associated with the reduction of oxygen
demand and the increase of dissolved oxygen in sediments in
particular cases and possible conversion of some chemical
compounds by bacterial action to others more dangerous;
- Alterations of the bottom surface, unfavourable to growth of the
established flora and fauna, with potential decrease in the
nutritive capability of the estuaries and shallow waters in
general ;
- Transfer upstream of the salinity wedge limits in estuaries;
- Reduction of resistance to tidal flows to and from land in
lagoons, unfavourable in particular cases in relation to the
enhanced sped of rise and to the levels of tidal water height;
- Acceleration or promotion of beach erosion, under particular
circumstances but usually within very narrow limits of space;
- Creation of stagnant areas due to presence of mining trenches;
- Inconvenience for trawl fishing due to presence of dredged
trenches;
- Interference of stationary dredges with navigation and with
fishing, unless avoided by advance programming and coordination;
- Disturbance and danger of damage to stationary installations,
such as underwater cables, pipelines, sewer outfalls;
- Objectionable noise, which may cause discomfort to the crew, and
especially at night, to people in nearby areas;
- Vista impairment by the operation of dredging or by the
turbidity caused by the operation.

9.4 Environnent impact assessment

Before corrective measures can be designed/initiated or planned,

it is necessary to understand the process of contamination which in
 - 197 -

turn is associated with sedimentation. The first step is evaluating the

effects of dredging and disposal of the dredged material. For this
purpose the items to be considered may be summarized as under:
- Topography of the dredging and dumping site - water depth,
width of the river bed, slope of the bank/shore line, etc.;
- Geology of the dredging and dumping sites (If land disposal is
planned, the porosity and permeability of the soil will be of
considerable importance) ;
- Nature and condition of the dredged material (quantity and
quality);
- Hydraulic conditions - currents, tidal flows, waves, etc.;
- Meteorological condition - winds, temperatures, evaporation
etc. ;
- Physical, chemical, and microbial quality of water and bottom
sediment ;
- Presence, types, species, behaviour and habits of existing
biota ;
- Features of adjoining land and its use - residential,
industrial, commercial, agricultural;
- Groundwater table in the adjoining land; and
- Characteristics of water bodies expecced to receive overflow,
spills, drained water.
A questionnaire which may be used for making Environment Impact
Assessment is attached as Annex I.

9.5 Concept of environment protection

The modern concept of environment protection and conservation is

based on the following principles.

"The impact of the environmental alteration essentially required

to satisfy organized human activities should be limited so that through
application of corrective measures within a reasonable time and space
the previous environmental conditions may be re-established to an
approximate extent".

Keeping this principle in mind, the environment management demands

that while retaining beneficial effects to the maximum the adverse
effects should be minimized. Some special methods which have been
evolved to achieve the above objective both in dredging and disposal
are described below.

9.6 Solutions for dredging

It has been established through research that most contaminates

attach themselves to the finer silt particles. These finer silt
particles get dispersed in the form of turbidity at the dredging site
along the transport route and at the dumping location. Turbidity has a
number of causes. Particles adjoining the moving parts of the dredging
equipment are disturbed and go into suspension. Second source is
spillage due to mechanical handling of the material, leakage in pipes
and other equipment and transport in barges, hoppers, etc. Thirdly,
the presence of gas in the deposits which, being disturbed, moves
upwards as gas bubbles, carrying with it silt particles.
 - 198 -

Turbidity is easy to measure and it can represent the degree of

contamination. It is thus possible to use turbidity as a criteria for
defining the contamination levels and also as a means of judging the
effectiveness of anti-contamination measures. Some of these methods
which restrict turbidity during dredging are described below:

9.6.1 Suction wheel dredgers

Suction mouth consists of a hollow wheel surrounded on the outside

by half buckets and in the inner side of the wheel there is an opening
for the suction tube. The half buckets are provided with a cutting
edge and due to the small and close cutting surface and forced feed
into the suction mouth, turbidity is considerably reduced. A similar
dredger has been developed by IHC, Holland (Figure 9.1).

Figure 9.1 Suction wheel

9.6.2 Pneuma system

Underwater there is hollow cylinder with the air line and soil­
water mixture delivery line to the water surface. As soon as the
pressure within the cylinder is reduced below the pressure in the feed
line, the water along with the sediment enters the cylinder and fills
it. By pressurising the inside of the cylinder the soil-water mixture
is forced upwards to the water surface. The compressed air escapes and
the process restarts by filling the cylinder. The system has been used
in depths up to 50 metres with production ranging from 40 to 2,000 m3
per hour.

9.6.3 Oozer pump

This system uses the same principle as the pneuma system where,
instead of three cylinders, only two cylinders are used and there is a
vacuum producing pump in the cylinders for suction of soil-water
mixture (Figure 9.2).
 - 199 -

Figure 9.2 Oozer pump

There are two other systems called clean up system and refresher
system, both developed in Japan for use with heavily contaminated
silt. All these systems are extremely expensive and, based on an
evaluation made by a specialist group in Holland, it has been
established that by minor adoptation to the work methods of normal
dredgers like the cutter suction dredgers and the trailing suction
hopper dredgers, it is possible to reduce the turbidity considerably.
(More details are in Chapter 4. )

9.7 Solutions for disposal

Disposal of the dredged material can be either at sea or on land.

Disposal at sea can be in open waters with no restrictions or with
restrictions. It also can be in confined waters with restrictions.

Open water disposal would be selected if the initial testing

indicates that the water column and benthic effects are acceptable.
Any method of disposal like direct pipe line discharge, hopper dredger
discharge or pump from barges may be used and no special placement
techniques are required. The capacity of the open water disposal sites
is determined by the volume of accumulated material that can be placed
there without exceeding the site boundaries or existing water depth
constraints. The open water environment is physically dynamic and
materials placed therein will be dispersed and diluted to some degree.

9.7.1 Open water disposal with restrictions

In cases where testing indicates that the water column or benthic

effects will be unacceptable, certain restrictions are imposed on
disposal techniques. Special discharge methods like underwater
discharge points, diffusers, underwater confinement of material or
capping with clean material may be used. Figure 9.3 shows the type of
diffuser that has been developed and used in the United States of
America. Underwater confinement . may be effected by providing
underwater banks on the sea bed (Figure 9.4).

Capping of the polluted material with clean material is sometimmes

used to protect the environment when polluted material is dumped in the
open sea. Figure 9.5 shows the arrangement.
 - 200 -

Figure 9.4 Underwater banks

Figure 9.5 Capping polluted material

 - 201 -

Considerations in evaluating the feasibility of capping include

water depth, bottom topography, current, site capacity and the dredged
material and capping material characteristics. This method is also
accepted by the London Dumping Convention (LDC), although subject to
careful monitoring and research.

9.7.2 Confined disposal

This is an expensive method of disposal of contaminated material

as it consists of placing or pumping the dredged material into diked
containment area where the material settles and consolidates. The area
should provide good sedimentation and sufficient volume of storage.
Recent large scale examples of this can be found in the Slufter
containment area for receiving contaminated silt from Rotterdam Port.

9.7.3 Confined disposal with restriction

The confined disposal method described above may be modified to

accommodate disposal of contaminated sediments in new, existing and
reusable disposal areas. In making selection of the site, due
consideration must be given to ensure that the contaminant does not
spread into the neighbouring areas. There is no, or minimum, surface
runoff from the area due to flooding. Contamination of the groundwater
is minimized if the site has natural clay as a lining medium and the
site is not an aquifer recharge area.

The site design should take into consideration retention time so

that the suspended solids can settle. The weir should be properly
designed to avoid over-topping and leakage. The discharge rate is
regulated to reduce the suspended solids of the effluent. The site
should also not be subjected to erosion during storms.

The four options that are available for confined disposal with
restrictions are:
- Containment;
- Treatment;
- Storage and rehandling; and
- Reuse.

In some sites and locations combination of the above options may

be more effective. Personal attention needs to be given to effluent
control, runoff control, contaminant, uptake by plant and emission of
gases which might be a human health hazards.

Covers, vertical barriers, trenchvents, pipevents, and gas

collection systems may be used to control gas emission. Wind erosion
sometimes can transport contaminated material from the dumping site to
the surrounding area and if there is a likelihood of heavy winds then
the normal dust control measures for stabilization of surface — either
physical, chemical or vegetative — should be used.

9.8 Summary

Ports and waterways have major socio-economic importance for

most countries of the world. Dredging is essential for providing safe
accessability to the ports and waterways. Disposal of dredged material,
in most cases, is harmless to the environment, but if the material
 - 202 -

to be disposed of is polluted, or has the potential to pollute, special

considerations are needed for dredging and disposal. Unnecessarily
restrictive regulations can lead to an unnecessary increase in the cost
of dredging or undue delays. Dredging of uncontaminated material, and
its disposal, has many beneficial effects and its primary objectives
are to promote organized human activity. It is, therefore, essential
that the developing countries adopt a balanced strategy wherein the
beneficial effects of dredging are utilized to the maximum and, where
polluted material is present, suitable measures are adopted to
eliminate or minimize its harmful effect on the environment at the
dredging site, along the transport route and at the disposal areas.
 - 203 -

Annex 1

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONNAIRE
(Replies to be furnished in the space provided)

General

Gl. Name of the project

G2. Location

G3. Scope

G4. Owner

G5. Consultant (if any)

G6. How is project expected

to be executed
(Departmentally,
Contractor - local
- expatriate)

G7. Expected date of start

completion

G8. Name, designation, address

of the official authorized
to deal with this questionnaire

G9.

G10.

Technical

Tl. Topography of the dredging

and dumping sites

T2. Geology of the dredging and

dumping sites

T3. Nature and condition of the

dredged material
A. Quantity (volume in cu.m.)
B. Quality
i) Grainsize distribution
ii) Atterberg limits
iii) Consolidation and settlement
iv) Cohesion, shear strength
v) Polluting materials
vi) Organic matter
vii) heavy metals
viii) Chemicals
 - 204 -

T4. Hydraulic conditions:

i) Currents
ii) Tides
iii) Waves

T5. Meteorological conditions:

i) Winds
ii) Evaporation
iii) Rainfall

T6. Physical, chemical and

microbial quality of water
and bottom sediment

T7. Presence, type, species,

behaviour and habits of
existing biota

T8. Features of adjoining land

and its use:
i) Residentail
ii) Industrial
iii) Commercial
iv) Agricultural

T9. Soil:
i) Water table
ii) Porosity
iii) Permeability of soil

T10. Character of water bodies

expected to receive overflow
spill, drained water etc.

Dredging

D1. Type and size of dredgers

and ancillary equipment
to be used

D2. Daily working hours

D3. Noise effect (specially at night)

D4. Turbidity generation

D5. Physical effects of dredging

on the shore topography:
Drift
Siltation
Erosion
Changes in tidal/wave phenomenon
 - 205 -

D6. Any in-built pollution control

equipment/devices (in the
dredgers) :

Turbidity control
De-gassing
Silt processing
Overflow control

D7. Means of transporting the

material to the dump site

D8. Possible effects of

transportation:

Noise
Spillage
Unsightly structures
Smell
Obstructions to traffic
Air pollution due to exhaust

D9. Dumping procedures for:

Sea dumping:
i) Bottom discharge
ii) Pumping out
iii) Diffuser
Land disposal
i) Pipeline
ii) Bottom discharge barges

Environmental monitoring

El. Are there any existing

environmental monitoring
features in the project area?

E2. If not what are the

monitoring facilities
planned to be set up for
this project?

E3. What pollution control

measures are proposed
to be adopted?

E4. Give details for organi­

zational set up proposed
to have pollution control
and monitoring
 - 206 -

E5. What percentage of the

project cost is earmarked
for pollution control:

Non-recurring
Recurring

SIGNATURE
NAME
DESIGNATION
ADDRESS
 - 207 -

REFERENCES

Chapter 1

1.1 General design criteria for depths of dredged navigational facilities,

Dredging Coastal Ports, Marine Board, Commission on Engineering and
Technical Systems, National Research Council, National Academy Press,
Washington, D.C. 1985.

1.2 Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses, Report of

the International Commission for the Reception of Large Ships.

1.3 Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses,

Dimensions and layout of channels and fairways (Report of Permanent
Technical Committee II, Working Group No. 7).

1.4 British Standard Specification (B.S.S.) No. 5370 (Part I), 1984.

1.5 Indian Standard Specification No. 4651 (Part V), 1980.

1.6 J.V.D. Weide and others, Design and operational use of navigation
channels, SEATEC V.

1.7 Technical Standards for Port and Harbour in Japan - 1980 (OCDI).

1.8 Prof. W. Winkelmans, A macro-economic evaluation of deepening seaports,

Proceedings of World Dredging Congress, May 1989, Orlando, Florida.

1.9 R. Simoen, D. Vandenbossche and D. Decroo, The design of approach

channels and ship manoeuvering areas, Permanent International
Association of Navigation Congresses, Bulletin No. 56, Brussels, 1987.

Chapter 2

2.1 Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses, Economic

Methods of Channel Maintenance, Supplement to Bulletin No. 67,
Brussels, 1984.

2.2 Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses,

Classification of Soils and Rocks to be Dredged, Supplement to Bulletin
No. 47, Brussels, 1984.

2.3 Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses,

Navigation in Muddy Areas, Supplement to Bulletin No. 43, Brussels,
1983.

2.4 H. De Vlieger and J. De Cloedt, "Navitracker: a giant step forward in

tactics and economics of maintenance dredging", Terra et Aqua No. 35,
December 1987.

2.5 British Standard Specification (B.S.S.) No. 6349.

 - 208 -

Chapter 4

4.1 R. Cornet, Marine technology perspective 2000 AD - Some aspects of

dredging in the next century, Institutional of Engineers (India) -
Fourth National Convention of Marine Engineers.

4.2 Jan van’t Hoff, The pumping process of dredger, Country-level Workshop
on Inland Dredging, 16-20 October 1989, New Delhi.

4.3 Prof, Ir. J. de Koning, Developments in hydraulic deep dredging.

4.4 British Standard Specification (B.S.S.) No. 6349 (Part I).

4.5 T. Okude, Dredgers and dredging.

4.6 J.J.C.M. van Dooremalem and others, Dragheads: From the early
beginning to the latest developments, Proceedings of the tenth World
Dredging Congress, 1983, Singapore.

4.7 A.L.P. Estourgie, Theory and practice of water injection dredging,

Terra et Aqua No. 38, December 1988.

4.8 Ing. C. Verhoug, An example of evaluation of various methods and

equipment to arrive at an optimum project execution, "Course on
International Dredging".

Chapter 5

5.1 T.N. Burt and S.M. Husain, Reduced maintenance dredging through
improved strategies: A case study of Port Qasim approach channel,
Proceedings of the 12th World Dredging Congress, May 1989, Orlando,
Florida.

5.2 K.A. Sundaram, Capital dredging in the port of Taticorin, SEATEC V.

5.3 M.S. Aggour and others, Design methodology of dredged material

containment areas, Proceedings of the tenth World Dredging Congress,
April 1983, Singapore.

5.4 L.G. Bromwell and W.D. Carrier III, Disposal and reclamation of dredged
material.

5.5 Minimizing the cost of maintenance dredging, Permanent International

Association of Navigation Congresses, Bulletin No. 63, Brussels, 1988.

5.6 Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses, Disposal

of dredged material at sea, Supplement to Bulletin No. 52, Brussels,
1986.

5.7 E. Sanchez-Cuadros, Sedimentation studies for channel improvement at

the Port of Guayaquil, Terra et Aqua No. 39, April 1989.

5.8 C.P. De Mayer and B. Malherbe, Optimization of maintenance dredging

operation in maritime and estuaries areas, Terra et Aqua No. 35,
December 1987.
 - 209 -

Çhapter 6

6.1 M. Katoh and others, Automatic controls for cutter suction dredgers,
SEATEC V.

6.2 Automation of trailing suction hopper dredgers, IHC.

6.3 Automation of cutter suction dredgers, IHC.

6.4 P. Prins, Automation in surveying, Dredging Reference Manual, Applied

Dredging Consultancy, 1989, the Hague.

6.5 W.D. Rokosch, Measuring dry matter in trailing hopper dredgers, Terra
et Aqua No. 41, December 1989.

6.6 R.W. van Oostrum and M. van Rijn, Automation in monitoring, Dredging
Reference Manual, Applied Dredging Consultancy, 1989, the Hague.

6.7 Efficient dredging, IHC publication Pu 94 Sliedrecht, the Netherlands,

1987.

Chapter 7

7.1 Federation Internationale Des Ingenieurs-Conseils, Conditions of

Contract for Works of Civil Engineering Construction (Part I: General
conditions with forms of tender and agreement; Part II: Conditions of
particular application with guidelines for preparation of Part II
clauses), Fourth edition 1987.

7.2 Dr. Gavin Kennedy, Privatization of maintenance dredging - Expectations

and Experience.

7.3 United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), Legal

guide on drawing up international contracts for the construction of
industrial works.

7.4 United Nations/ESCAP, Proceedings of a seminar on the dredging

contract, September 1988, Bangkok.

7.5 International Association of Ports and Harbours, Dredging for

development (Report of the Dredging Task Force Sub-committee).

Chapter 9

9.1 N.J. van Drimmelen and others, Development and first production unit of
the IHC Beaver wheel dredger, Proceedings of the tenth World Dredging
Congress, April 1983, Singapore.

9.2 A. Kaneko and Y. Watari, Special dredgers for fighting pollution,

Proceedings of the tenth World Dredging Congress, April 1983,
Singapore.

9.3 G.H. van Raalte and A. Zwartbol, The disc-bottom cutterhead: report on
laboratory and field tests, Proceedings of the 11th World Dredging
Congress, March 1986, Brighton.
 - 210 -

9.4 Dr. H. Scheurlein, Reservoir sedimentation - a vital problem of the

future and a challenge to dredging technology, Proceedings of the 11th
World Dredging Congress, March 1986, Brighton.

9.5 B.P.C. Chi and others, A study on available methods for a deep dredging
project in Shihmen reservoir, Proceedings of the tenth World Dredging
Congress, April 1983, Singapore.

GENERAL - BIBLIOGRAPHY

Proceeding of Conferences and Symposia

International Symposium on Dredging Technology:

1st - 1975 Canterbury (U.K.)

2nd - 1977 Texas University USA Vo. I&II
3rd - 1980 Bordeoux (France).

International Conference on Coastal Engineering:

1968, 1970, 1974.

International Navigation Congress.

Oceanology Internat ional.

International Hydrographical Conference.

CEDA - Dredging Days.

International Harbour Congress: 1st to 9th.

World Dredging Congress:

1st to 9th;
Xth, 1983, Singapore;
XIth, 1986, Brighton;
Xiith, 1989, Florida.

SEATEC: I; II; III; IV (along with WODCON X) 1983; V, 1985, Jakarta.

Congress on Maintenance Dredging, May 1987, Bristol.

United Nations/ESCAP Proceedings of Seminars:

Seminar on management of the dredging industry, December 1983,

Shanghai ;

Seminar on the dredging project, October 1984, Bangkok;

Seminar-cum-study tour on dredging operations, planning and

training, October 1985, the Netherlands;

Seminar on the dredging contract, September 1988, Bangkok.

 - 211 -

BOOKS

J. Granboulan, Measurement in hopper, 1988.

Prognes AG, Basle.

Bristol Ports Association, Hydrographic surveys in small ports - Guidance

notes, 1981.

Institution of Civil Engineers and Royal Institute of Chartered Engineers,

Guidelines for the preparation of hydrographic surveys for dredging, 1984.

Prof. Ir. J. de Koning, Boundary conditions, 1981.

R.N. Bray, Dredging - A handbook for engineers, London, Edward Arnold, 1979.

Margaret S. Petersen, River Engineering, Prentice-Hall, 1986.

P. Bruun, Port Engineering, The Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1976.

Coastal Engineering Research Centre, Shore Protection Manuar, 1973.

Minimizing the Costs of Maintenance Dredging, Ministry of Transport and Public

Works, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.

Applied Dredging Consultancy, Dredging Reference Manual Vol. I and II.

T. Okude, Dredging and dredging works.

MAGAZINES/PERIODICALS

Terra et Aqua - International Association of Dredging Companies, the Hague,

the Netherlands.

The Hydrographic Journal.

Dredging and Port Construction - UK.

International Hydrographic Review.

Institution of Civil Engineers - London.

Ports and Dredging - IHC Holland, P.O. Box 204 - 3360, AE Sliedrecht, the
Netherlands

World Dredging - Mining and Construction (US ISSN 1045-0343) P.O. Box 17479,
California 92713.

Bulletins and Supplements of Permanent International Association of Navigation

Congresses, Brussels.