Textbook Chemistry without the useless information

Chapter 13

13.1 Classifying the Elements

A modern version of the periodic table was proposed by Mendeleev in 1869. It arranges
elements in ascending proton numbers, with vertical columns called groups and horizontal
rows called periods.

The Periodic Table distinguishes between metals and non-metals, with metals clearly
separated from non-metals. Non-metals are grouped in the top right-hand region above
the thick stepped line. The Periodic Table allows us to predict properties of elements like
hafnium (Hf), which may not have been observed. The transition from metallic to non-
metallic properties is not as clear-cut as suggested by drawing a line between the two
regions. Elements close to the line show properties that lie between these extremes, often
referred to as metalloids or semi-metals. These elements have some properties of metals
and others more characteristic of non-metals. There are eight metalloids, which often
resemble metals but are brittle like non-metals. They are neither conductors nor insulators
but make excellent semiconductors, with silicon being the prime example.

The Periodic Table is a tool used to categorize elements into main-group elements, which
show similarities in chemical and physical properties within the same group. These groups
have specific names and numbers, and are divided into groups I to VIII. Between these
groups is a block of transition metals, which includes important metals like iron, copper,
and zinc. The noble gases in Group VIII are the least reactive elements, while the halogens
and alkali metals in Group VII and Group I are the most reactive. The more unreactive
elements, whether metals or non-metals, are located in the center of the Periodic Table.
This helps in understanding the chemical and physical properties of elements.

The Periodic Table, a two-dimensional representation of the structure of atoms, was

Elements in the same group have the same number of outer electrons, and as you move
across a period in the Periodic Table, a shell of electrons is being filled. Each period in the
Periodic Table represents the filling of an electron shell.

There is a clear relationship between electron arrangement and position in the Periodic
Table for main-group elements. Elements in the same group have the same number of
electrons in their outer shell. Periods of the Periodic Table also have numbers, showing
how many shells of electrons the atom has.

The outer electrons of an atom are responsible for the chemical properties of any element,
making elements in the same group similar. Certain electron arrangements are more
stable, making them harder to break up. The most stable arrangements are those of noble
gases, which are unreactive. The organization of particles in the atom and the regular
variation in elements in the Periodic Table are linked, revealing broad trends. These trends
are most apparent when excluding noble gases from Group VIII. Individual groups also
exhibit specific group characteristics, which follow a particular trend.

The group number and ionic charge are linked through the position in the Periodic Table
and electronic configuration. Metal ions have a positive charge equal to the group number,
indicating they lost their outer electrons to form the ion. Non-metals have a negative
charge of 8 minus the group number, indicating they gained electrons to form the
negative ion. Atoms in the middle of a period usually form covalent compounds.

13.2 Trends in Groups

Group I, also known as alkali metals, are soft solids with low melting points and densities.
They are highly reactive and stored in oil to prevent reacting with oxygen and water vapor.
When cut, they have a light-grey, silvery surface that quickly tarnishes and becomes dull.

The physical properties of these metals change as we go down the group, with lower
melting points and increased density. Observing trends in these values allows us to predict
values for other alkali metals. For example, rubidium's melting point is predicted to be
lower than potassium's by about 20-30°C, but the actual value is 39°C.

Chemical reactivity increases as we go down the group, as all Group I metals react with
cold water to form hydrogen and an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide. The reactions
range from vigorous in lithium to explosive in caesium. The strength of each metal's
reaction can be judged by several observations, such as the production of a gas, whether
the metal melts on contact with the water, and whether the gas produced is ignited.

Francium, at the bottom of Group I, might be the most reactive of all the metals, but it is
highly radioactive and very rare due to its decay with a half-life of five minutes. It has been
estimated that there are only 30 g of francium in existence on Earth at any one moment in
time.

Group VII of the Periodic Table consists of the most reactive non-metals, the halogens.
These elements have a strong smell, are poisonous, form diatomic molecules, and have a
valency of 1. They form compounds with similar formulae, such as hydrogen chloride (HCl),
hydrogen bromide (HBr), and hydrogen iodide (HI). These compounds with hydrogen are
usually strong acids when dissolved in water. They produce a series of compounds with
other elements, known as halides, which can react directly with metals to form metal
halides or salts.

The halogens also form negative ions carrying a single charge, such as chloride ions (CI-),
bromide ions (Br-), and iodide ions (I-). As you go down the group, the boiling points
increase, and the physical state of the halogens changes from gas to liquid to solid. The
intensity of the element's color also increases, from pale to dark. Fluorine, for example, is a
pale-yellow gas at room temperature. The lowest element in this group is also a highly
radioactive and rare element, astatine.

Fluorine and chlorine are highly reactive halogens that combine strongly with both metals
and non-metals. They can ignite Dutch metal foil when placed in a gas jar full of chlorine,
and when passed over heated aluminium, it glows white and forms aluminium chloride.
Aluminum reacts strongly with bromine and iodine, and a dry mixture of powdered
aluminum and iodine can be triggered by adding just a few drops of water. Hydrogen will
burn in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride, which can be explosive.

Chlorine dissolves in water to give an acidic solution called chlorine water, which acts as an
oxidizing agent and a bleach. This reaction is used as a chemical test for chlorine gas, and
damp litmus or universal indicator paper is bleached when held in the gas. The halogens
become less reactive as you go down the group.

Halogen displacement reactions demonstrate the order of reactivity of the three major
halogens. For example, adding chlorine to a solution of potassium bromide, it displaces
bromine, forming potassium chloride. Chlorine also displaces iodine from potassium
iodide.

Mendeleev's table predicted the existence and properties of undiscovered elements, but
there was no clear indication of a whole group of elements (Group VIII) due to their lack of
reactivity. However, John William Strutt's analysis of air gases led to the discovery of argon
in 1894, which led to the existence of a new group. Helium, a noble gas, was first detected
by spectroscopy of light from the Sun during an eclipse. Sir William Ramsay isolated other
noble gases in the 1890s, and radon was the last to be purified in 1909. All noble gases are
present in the Earth's atmosphere, making up about 1% of the total. They are particularly
unreactive and were sometimes referred to as inert gases. Since the 1960s, some
compounds of xenon and krypton have been made and their name has been changed to
noble gases.

The uses of noble gases depend on their unreactivity. Helium is used in airships and
balloons due to its light and unreactive nature, while argon is used to fill incandescent light
bulbs due to its resistance to high temperatures. The best-known use of noble gases is in
'neon' lights, which work when an electric discharge occurs in a tube containing a small
amount of a noble gas.

Group VIII, or noble gases, were first predicted by Mendeleev's table but were not
discovered due to their lack of reactivity. However, the discovery of argon in 1894 led to
the creation of a new group, which includes helium and other noble gases. These gases
make up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, with argon being the most common.

These gases are particularly unreactive, often referred to as inert gases, meaning they do
not react at all. Since the 1960s, some compounds of xenon and krypton have been made
and their name has been changed to noble gases. Their uses depend on their unreactivity,
with helium used in airships and balloons and argon used in incandescent light bulbs. The
best-known use of noble gases is in 'neon' lights, which work when an electric discharge
takes place in a tube containing a small amount of a noble gas.

The atoms of noble gases are energetically very stable, meaning they do not react readily
with other atoms. This stability allows them to achieve the energetically stable
arrangement of electrons found in the noble gases. The elements of Group VIII lie between
the two most reactive groups of elements (Groups I and VII) in the Periodic Table, making
alkali metals and halogens so reactive. They can fairly easily achieve a noble-gas electron
structure, with Group VII elements gain or share electrons and Group I elements lose
electrons to reach a noble gas electronic configuration.

13.3 Trends across a period

The Periodic Table consists of five periods, each with unique properties. The first period
contains two elements, hydrogen and helium, while the final period is recently complete
with the discovery of elements like oganesson (Og). Each period starts with a reactive alkali
metal and ends with an unreactive, non-metallic, noble gas. In Period 3, the transition from
sodium to argon is gradual, centered around silicon. The changeover is emphasized in
Group IV, where the elements transition from non-metal to metal when going down the
group, with silicon and germanium at the center.

The different structures of elements in Periods 2 and 3 are reflected in their boiling points
and melting points. The values for the melting points and boiling points of elements in
Period 3 increase up to Group IV and then decrease to Group VIII. As you move across a
period, there are differences in some chemical properties linked to the metal to non-metal
transition. Metal oxides are usually basic, while those of non-metals are acidic.

The change from metal to non-metal across a period is evident in changes in bonding type
from metallic bonding to covalent bonding. In Periods 2 and 3, there is a shift from
metallic lattice to giant covalent structure and then to simple molecular structure.

Transition elements, also known as transition metals, are a block of elements in the
Periodic Table, located in the center of the periodic table. These elements are less reactive
than metals in Groups I and II and have excellent corrosion resistance, such as chromium.
Their high melting point led to their use in filaments of incandescent light bulbs. Transition
metals being very hard and highly dense, are used in various objects, such as steel nails,
vanadium spanners, silver cutlery, gold jack plugs, copper pipe joints, iron magnets,
titanium camera bodies, and chromium-plated balls on the Newton's cradle.

These transition metals are useful in various ways, including as catalysts, such as iron in the
Haber process for making ammonia. They often show more than one valency, forming
more than one type of ion. Transition metals can form more than one type of oxide due to
different oxidation states they can show. The oxides of the lower oxidation state are basic
ionic oxides, while the oxides of the highest oxidation states, such as chromium(VI) oxide,
tend to be covalent and produce acidic solutions in water. Chromium(lll) oxide (Cr2O3) is
similar to aluminum oxide (Al2O3) in being an amphoteric oxide.