OPTO FIBRES

DEMONSTRATION KIT

Users guide
Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................... 2

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 3

SET CONTENTS................................................................................... 5

PHOTO OF PARTS .............................................................................. 9

EXPERIMENT NO 1: PREPARATION OF OPTICAL FIBRES...... 17

EXPERIMENT NO.2: TYNDALL’S LIGHT GUIDING

EXPERIMENT...................................................................................... 20

EXPERIMENT NO.3: MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION

CAUSED BY THE BEND OF A FIBRE.............................................. 24

EXPERIMENT NO.4: OPTICAL FIBRE BASED DYNAMOMETER

............................................................................................................... 27

EXPERIMENT NO.5: SENSOR OF A LIQUID SURFACE............. 31

EXPERIMENT NO.6: TRANSMISSION SENSOR .......................... 34

EXPERIMENT NO.7: MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION

CAUSED BY AN IMPERFECT FIBRE-FIBRE BOND...................... 37

EXPERIMENT NO. 8: DISTANCE SENSOR................................... 40

EXPERIMENT NO.9: THE TRANSFER OF AN AUDIO SIGNAL

(SOUND) BY AN OPTICAL CABLE ................................................. 43

EXPERIMENT NO.10: THE TRANSFER OF DIGITAL SIGNAL BY

AN OPTICAL FIBRE ........................................................................... 46

2
Introduction
For several decades we have been aware of the ability to transfer infor-
mation using light frequencies. Major expansion of and advancements
in fibre optics began taking place after 1966, being signified by the use
of new technology and materials.
The development is on-going and specifically related to opti-
mising the refraction index profile of the fibre itself. Recently developed
materials are utilised as carrier and protection elements. The develop-
ment of tools related to fibre optics, such as semi-conducting lasers and
sensors has also advanced significantly.

The main advantages of systems utilising optical fibres are the follow-
ing:
• transfer capacity,
• lower losses,
• greater number of transfer channels,
• lower overall cost per channel/km,
• receiver and transmitter being galvanicly separated,
• robustness in terms of sustainability against outer electromagnetic
fields,
• larger span between amplifiers,
• savings on use of non-ferrous metals , the prices of which constantly
increase, and the production of which is high in energy consumption.

The following are some disadvantages of optical transfer systems:

• more stringent requirements in following the technological proce-
dures,
• higher cost of inter-operation check-ups.

These inadequacies are gradually being eliminated by increasing the

share of automated manufacturing facilities at production level.
With regard to the practical use of systems with optical cables it
is necessary to point out the increased precautions that need to be taken

3
into account when installing cables. Attention should be paid to me-
chanical strain put on the cables (it is essential not to exceed the maxi-
mum allowable forces, to maintain sufficient radius of curvature, and
prevent damage to the coating of the cable), and to ensure appropriate
cable connection quality.

The following mistakes should try to be avoided when connecting ca-

bles:
• mutual displacement of the axes of the cables,
• tilt of the axes of the cables,
• non-perpendicularity of the connecting ends with respect to the axis
of the cable,
• insufficient smoothness and cleanliness of the cable ends to be con-
nected.

Optical systems are capable of transferring signals in digital or in ana-

logue form. Some of the main areas in which transfer systems with opti-
cal cables are used as follows:
• measuring equipment,
• computer networks,
• control of technological procedures,
• communications links between telephone exchange offices,
• industrial conglomerates,
• remote data transfer.

Development in this field is proceeding at a fast pace and it is

anticipated that in the near future links between fibre optics and other
related fields will expand and give rise to exciting new opportunities in
the realms of science.

4
Set contents

Main panels, pic. 2

The set consists of two main panels each with a 5 V stabiliser and de-
tachable 9 V plug. These panels are mutually non-interchangeable; one
of them serves as the assembly of the transmitter (TX Board), the other
of the receiver (RX Board). They carry three plug-in slots for direct
connectors, into which other components of the set can be plugged in.
There are Measurement Points (MP) between the connectors that facili-
tate voltage monitoring at selected points of the chosen arrangement.
Also located on the main panels are the optical transmitter connector and
the receiver connector, to which the polymer optical fibre (1 mm diame-
ter) can be attached.

Transmitter modules

Potentiometer, pic. 19 (POT.)*

The potentiometer has a linear resistance range capable of setting the DC
voltage from 0 V to 5 V. It is used to determine transmission path pa-
rameters and to adjust the reference signal level.
Low Frequency generator, pic. 20 (LF GEN.)
This generates a sine signal with a frequency of about 1 kHz and an
amplitude swing of 1.4 V (i.e., Uef = 0.5 V), which is super-imposed on
the DC voltage of +2 V. The Wien cell is used within the positive feed-
back of the operation amplifier. The amplitude of the signal is stabilised
by the diode gate within the circuit of the negative feedback.
Microphone amplifier, pic. 18 (MIC.AMP.)
This facilitates acquiring the sound signal as input and amplifying it to
the appropriate level. It is possible to adjust amplification within the
range of 1 – 1000 using the module’s trimmer. The output signal is su-
per-imposed on the DC voltage of +2V.

*
The abbreviations of the modules’ names are written down in the parentheses. These
abbreviations are printed on the rear sides of the modules.

5
Analogue transmitter, pic. 16 (ANAL.TX)
This module transforms the analogue voltage signal into the current
signal, which feeds the optical transmitter on the main panel. The circuit
is constructed by means of a controlled current source and the output
current is linearly dependent on the input voltage. The level of signal is
indicated on the module by the brightness of the red LED diode.
Digital transmitter, pic. 14 (DIG.TX)
This module consists of four Smith “drop-down” circuits, two of which
shape the input signal, while the other two generate the testing signal
with a frequency of about 1 kHz. Moving the sliding switch on the panel
determines whether the input signal or the testing oscillator is selected as
the modulation source. Input to the module is controlled by protection
diodes. Output status is indicated by the red LED diode.

Serial TxD, pic. 11 (RS232 – Tx)

This module transforms the signal from the serial port (± 12V) to TTL
voltage level (0 – 5V). It is using MAX-232 for the signal conversion.

Receiver Modules

Analogue receiver, pic. 15 (ANAL.RX)

This module transforms the current from the optical receiver on the main
panel into the analogue DC voltage. The level of signal is indicated by
the brightness of the green LED diode. The sensitivity of the module can
be modified by the input trimmer, so that the output voltage of the mod-
ule is at the same level as the input voltage of the analogue transmitter.
This ensures that attenuation changes along the transmission path are
compensated for. These changes are caused by random damping of opti-
cal fibre connections and by using optical fibres of various lengths.
Digital receiver, pic. 13 (DIG.RX)
The signal from the optical receiver on the main panel is transmitted to
the digital receiver. The decision level, which determines output status,
can be altered by the trimmer. The digital receiver status is indicated by
the green LED diode.

6
Low frequency amplifier + speaker, pic. 17 (LF.AMP)
This module processes the signal from the analogue receiver. It is used
when the low frequency generator panel, the microphone amplifier or
another source of sound signal is set up. The module contains a potenti-
ometer for loudness (volume) regulation, an amplifier, and a miniature
speaker. While using the microphone amplifier at the transmitter side
and using the low frequency amplifier at the receiver side, it is important
to position both set-ups sufficiently far apart from each other and to set
the amplification level so that acoustic feedback is avoided.
Serial RxD, pic. 12 (RS232 – Rx)
This module transforms the signal from TTL (0 – 5V) to the serial ports
(± 12V) voltage level. It is using MAX-232 for the signal conversion.

Other parts

Optical components, pic. 1

The set consists of three 1 mm diameter polymer optical fibres 2 m, 3 m,
5 m long, one 2 mm outside-diameter jacketed optical fibre 3 m long,
and one U-probe 1 m long. The fibres have a step profile of refractive
index.
Power supply, pic. 4
Power is supplied by two universal adaptors which are connected to the
main boards. Feed voltage is 9 V.
Measuring device, pic. 3
The universal Multimeter is included in the set. The Multimeter enables
measurement of voltage tension between measuring points GND and MP1
or MP2 on the main boards.
Mechanical fibre holders, pic. 5
The holders are fixed to the calliper. This combination is useful for the
demonstration of losses caused by an imperfect fibre-fibre bond.
Emeries, pic. 8
Three fine emeries purple, yellow and white are included to file and
smooth cut fibre ends.

7
Plastic tube, pic. 7
The plastic tube is used in the Tyndall’s experiment.

Force plates, pic. 6

Two separate metal plates with 3 holes and holders. The force plates
are used in the dynamometer experiment.

Bending cylinders, pic. 9

The bending cylinders are used in the attenuation measurement.

Data cable, pic. 10

Two data cabels are used to connect the Serial TxD and Serial RxD
modul to the transmitter and receiver computer.

CD medium
The CD contains instalation of the comunication software
OptoSerial-RxD, TxD for the Transfer of Digital Signal experiment.

8
Photo of parts

Picture 1: Optical components (not jacketed, jacketed fibre, U-porbe)

Picture 2: Main panels (RxD, TxD board)

Picture 3: Measuring device Picture 4: Power supply

9
 Picture 5: Mechanical fibre holders

Picture 6: Force plates

Picture 7: Plastic tube

Picture 8: Emeries Picture 9: Bending cylinders

Picture 10: Data cabel

10
 Picture 11, 12: RS232 – Tx, Rx

Picture 13, 14: Digital receiver – transmitter

Picture 15, 16: Analogue receiver – transmitter

11
Picture 17, 18: Low frequency amplifier – Microphone amplifier

Picture 19, 20: Potentiometer – Low Frequency generator

12
Recommendations
Some general principles are valid during experiments, to ensure that
devices function properly. It is advised that they are remembered and
adhered to.
1. The laboratory where experiments take place should be dark. Back-
ground light could damage the photodiode of the receiver or cause its
saturation.
2. Never touch unprotected conductive metal parts of modules. This
could cause a discharge and the fine electrical parts could be dam-
aged.
3. Adapters should be inserted into the electricity socket after being
connected to the main panel.
4. The black connector of the Multimeter should be connected to GND
point first.
5. The U-probe must be and clean and dry when changing the liquid.
6. The reference voltage level can be adjusted by the potentiometer. Be
careful not to set it to the extreme position.
7. Do not cause undue stress to the optical fibres by excessive mechani-
cal force. The shape changes are mostly irreversible.
8. Upon completion of the experiment return all components to the
portable case.
The following set of experiments should help you to acquaint
yourself with the basics of fibre optics. There are, of course, many more
experiments which can be undertaken with our set. We welcome any
ideas and suggestions that you might have which could help us to refine
our fibre optics set. In the meantime, we hope that you enjoy using this
set.

13
Basic overview of fibre optic cables
Fibre optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light
introduced at one end of the cable through to the other end. The light
source can either be a light-emitting diode (LED) or a laser. The light
source is pulsed on and off, and a light-sensitive receiver on the other
end of the cable converts the pulses back into the digital ones and zeros
of the original signal.

Even laser light shining through a fibre optic cable is subject to loss of
strength, primarily through dispersion and scattering of the light, within
the cable itself. The faster the laser fluctuates, the greater is the risk of
dispersion. Light strengtheners, called repeaters, may be necessary to
refresh the signal in certain applications.

While fibre optic cable itself has become cheaper over time - an equiva-
lent length of copper cable cost less per foot but not in capacity. Fibre
optic cable connectors and the equipment needed to install them are still
more expensive than their copper counterparts.

There are two types of fibre optic cable commonly used:

• single mode
• multi mode and plastic optical fibre (POF)

Single Mode (Figure 1) cable is a single stand of glass fibre with a di-
ameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of transmission. Single
Mode Fibre with a relatively narrow diameter, through which only one
mode can propagate typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher band-
width than multimode fibre, but requires a light source with a narrow
spectral width. Single-mode fibre gives you a higher transmission rate
and up to 50 times more distance than multimode, but it also costs more.
Single-mode fibre has a much smaller core than multimode. The small
core and single light-wave virtually eliminate any distortion that could
result from overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal attenua-
tion and the highest transmission speeds of any fibre cable type. Single-
mode optical fibre is an optical fibre in which only the lowest order
bound mode can propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300
to 1320nm.

14
 Figure 1: Single mode fibre

Multimode cable and plastic optical fibres (POF) (Figure 2) are made
of glass fibres, with common diameters in from 50 to 100 micron for the
light carry component (the most common size is 62.5). POF is a newer
plastic-based cable which promises performance similar to glass cable
on very short runs, but at a lower cost. Multimode fibre gives you broad
bandwidth at high speeds over medium distances. Light waves are dis-
persed into numerous paths, or modes, as they travel through the cable's
core typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical multimode fibre core diameters
are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers. However, in long cable runs (longer
than 3000 feet [914.4 m]), multiple paths of light can cause signal distor-
tion at the receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete data
transmission.

Figure 2: Multimode fibre

15
NOTICE:
1. Prepare the optic fibre fairly following instructions in ex-
periment #1 before each of experiments.
2. For each experiment use only neccessary long piece of fi-
bre, because the longer it is, the bigger the loss is.
3. Remember that the fibre gets worn off or destroyed while
performing some of experiments e.g. #3 & #4. So take
care to not destroy whole fibre for the first time.
4. Values measured in the experiments are only approximate
and they should vary for each repeating of experiment. It
depends on a number of circumstances like preparing of the
fibre, its length, deflection etc.

16
Experiment No 1: Preparation of optical fibres

Introduction
As it was mentioned before, careful attention has to be paid to the fibres
bond during optical transmission system building. Imperfect worked
fibres bonds are responsible for large losses in the whole system. This is
the reason why fibres must be prepared before starting experiments. In
this experiment the proper cutting of fibre will be demonstrated
(Figure 3).

Objective
Preparing the fibres before experiments so any losses after connecting
connectors will be as low as possible.

Principle of light propagation in optical fibres

Optical fibres consist of a core, a cladding and a protective coating. The
core diameter is usually about 5 to 50 µm. The cladding can be of
a diameter up to hundreds of µm. The core and the cladding are neces-
sary for light propagation, whereas the coating has a protective function
against mechanical and chemical damage.
The Snell Law of refraction controls propagation inside a fibre.
Light is subject to total reflection on the core-cladding border. The re-
fractive index of the core n1 is higher then that of the cladding, n2. Light
is propagated, in terms of geometrical optics, only through the core of
the fibre. The cladding has an important role in this process, because
through the division of the two indices one of the main parameters of the
fibre can be defined as the numerical aperture (Figure 3)

NA = sin α = n12 − n22

The numerical aperture is a sine of the maximum incidence light angle

entering the fibre and fulfilling total reflection requisites. It is also the
maximum angle of the light cone leaving the fibre at the other end, until
the output cut is planar and perpendicular to the fibre axis.

17
Equipment
Optical fibres, scalpel or sharp knife*, mechanical holders of fibres
(fixed on the calliper), emery papers

Procedure

1. Cut the end of the fibre accurately by applying steady pressure to the
knife.
2. Fix the end of the fibre to the mechanical holder (fixed on the calli-
per). Let about 0.1 mm of the end overhang the plane of the holder.
3. Lay down the emery on flat and solid field and keep trying to grind
the fiber only vertically. Grinding not uprightly should cause crea-
tion of a number of various fields at the end of fibre.
4. Resurface the end of the fibre with the purple emery, then polish it
with the yellow and finally with the white emery.
5. Repeat the procedure for every fibre.

The fibres are prepared to be used for light transmission with

lower losses.

Exercises

1. Try to derive the formula for numeric aperture.

2. What should be the maximum value of the refractive index of the
core if the index of the cladding equalled to 1? (in the case of a fibre
without cladding, it consists of a core only)

*
Not contained in this kit

18
 n1
α

n2

Figure 3 Well and badly cut fibre. The radiation angle is limited by the numeri-
cal aperture, therefore when the fibre is cut badly, the angle is unlimited.

19
Experiment No.2: Tyndall’s Light Guiding
Experiment

Introduction
The modern-day technology of fibre optics starts back in the days when
inventors and scientists were trying their best to bend the light around
corners. It isn't exactly clear why anyone would want to do that, but a lot
of people, even a hundred years ago, were unwilling to accept that light
travel was confined to straight lines. They tried many different devices
like mirrors and special tubes, but none received much attention until
John Tyndall came along. In 1870, before members of the prestigious
British Royal Society, Tyndall demonstrated how to guide a light beam
through a falling stream of water. His method is shown in Figure 4. The
tank of water had a horizontal pipe extending out one side which
allowed water to flow out in an arc to a collection pan on the floor. A
bright light was directed into the pipe and the light rays traveled within
the water until they were broken up by the turbulence of the water
hitting the collection pan.

Figure 4: John Tyndall’s light guiding experiment

20
Objective
Demonstration of the Tyndall’s light guiding experiment.

Equipment
Main transmitter panel, analogue transmitter, optical fibre, plastic tube,
2x empty plastic bottle (min. size 1,5 liter or 0,5 galon)*,
sticking plaster*, scalpel or sharp knife*, bucket*, water

THIS EXPERIMENT CAN BE REALIZED IN MANY WAYS. THE FOLLOWING

METHOD IS ONLY PRINCIPIAL AND YOU SHOULD TAKE IT LIKE A TIP
FOR THE REALIZATION. IT DEPENDS ONLY ON YOUR POSSIBILITIES
AND EQUIPMENT.

Procedure

1. Fill up one empty plastic bottle with water.

2. Insert the analogue transmitter into Slot 3, as given in Figure 7.
3. Connect the prepared optical fibre to the transmitter.
4. Take other empty bottle and using knife cut a hole (approximately
twice of the size of the optical fibre diameter) on the plastic bottle
and cover it with a sticking plaster.
5. Using knife make a hole on the opposite side of the sticking plaster.
The hole should be so big, that you can stick the plastic tube through
it.
6. Stick the plastic tube in to the bottle (you can tighten it with plaster).
Push the optical fibre from the transmitter through the other sticking
plaster to the bottle.
7. Guide the optical fibre through the bottle to the plastic tube.
8. Put down the bucket in front of the table, and place the plastic bottle
at the edge of the table so the plastic tube is over the table and bucket
is under the tube Figure 5.

*
Not contained in this kit

21
9. Darken the room and connect the power sources of the main
transmitter panels to the power.
10. Start pouring water carefully from one bottle to the other one (try not
to pour water on the electronics). Observe the light beam after it
leaves the end of the plastic tube end and the stream of water. Do
you see the light in the water stream? The light will leave the plastic
tube and follow, or be guided by the stream of water to the bottom
of the bucket. For better effect you can to the water few drops of
milk.

Advices for better effect

ƒ choose a tube with smaller diameter

ƒ take care to have appropriate strong water stream
ƒ the angle of deflection have to be sufficient
ƒ the bucket shouldn’t be too deep; for better efect you
can insert an object to see the light beam better
ƒ on supplied CDrom you can find video which shows another tip
for the experiment demonstration

Figure 5: The set-up diagram of the Tyndall’s experiment

22
Questions

1. Describe where do you see the light, once the stream of water is in
motion?
2. How does the light get down to the bottom of the bucket?
3. Where is visible the majority of the light?

23
Experiment No.3: Measurement of attenuation
caused by the bend of a fibre

Introduction
When bending a fibre, the incidence angles of beams at the boundary
between the core and the cladding of a fibre changes, consequently some
beams get emitted from the fibre. A bent fibre results in losses caused by
emittance and an increase in attenuation, because the angle of incidence
decreases at the points with a too small curvature radius and the condi-
tion of total reflection is not achieved (Figure 6). It is therefore neces-
sary to maintain a sufficiently large curvature radius of a fibre when
installing the cable nets.

Figure 6: The losses caused by a bent fibre.

Objective
Demonstration of the attenuation of transmitted light power increase
caused by a bent fibre.

24
Equipment
Main transmitter panel, main receiver panel, analogue receiver, analogue
transmitter, potentiometer, optical fibre, Multimeter, bending cylinders

Procedure

1. Insert the analogue transmitter into Slot 3 and the potentiometer

into Slot 2 of the main transmitter panel, following the order as
given in Figure 7.
2. Connect the main transmitter panel to the main receiver panel by
using the optical fibre.
3. Insert the analogue receiver into Slot 3 of the main receiver
panel.
4. Connect the Multimeter to the main receiver panel; plug it into the
ground (GND) and to the measuring point MP2.
5. Connect the power sources of both the main receiver and the main
transmitter panels to the power.
6. Measure the emitted power P0. (Set the reference level by the poten-
tiometer to appropriate level)
7. Coil one turn onto the bending cylinder of a diameter 1 cm, 1.5 cm,
2 cm and 2.5 cm and measure the transferred power Px.
8. Repeat point 7 for up to five turns. The optical fibre must fit the
bending cylinder tightly.
9. Calculate the additional attenuation from the formula

P0
A =10 log P
x

10. Make a graph of the dependence of the attenuation on the radius of

the cylinders at five coiled turns.

Questions

1. What is the influence of the number of turns on the losses caused by

bending?

25
2. What is the influence of the radius of a cylinder on the losses caused
by bending?

POT. ANAL.TX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

TX BOARD

ANAL.RX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

RX BOARD

V
Figure 7: The set-up diagram of the experiment of attenuation caused by a bend.

26
Experiment No.4: Optical fibre based
dynamometer

Introduction
In the previous experiment you verified the fact that the attenuation of a
fibre is dependent on its deformation. This effect can be used in the
construction of a dynamometer. Such device could measure the force
applied on the fibre cable or it can be used for measurement of the
heaviness.

Objective
Demonstration of the dynamometer based on bent fibre.

Equipment
Main transmitter panel, main receiver panel, analogue receiver, analogue
transmitter, potentiometer, jacket optical fibre, Multimeter, force plates,
weights∗

Procedure

1. Insert the analogue transmitter into Slot 3 and the potentiometer

into Slot 2 of the main transmitter panel, following the order as
given in Figure 8.
2. Insert the analogue receiver into Slot 3 of the main receiver panel.
3. Tow the optical fibre thorough the force plate holes as shown in
Figure 8.
4. Connect the main transmitter panel to the main receiver panel by
using the optical fibre.

∗
Not contained in this kit. You can use a bottle filled with water instead of weights.

27
5. Connect the Multimeter to the main receiver panel; plug it into the
ground (GND) and to the measuring point MP2.
6. Connect the power sources of both the main receiver and the main
transmitter panels to the power.
7. Measure the emitted power P0. (Set the reference level by the poten-
tiometer card to appropriate level.)
8. Hang up one side of the first force plate and put a weight to the other
side of the second plate. Check the emitted power Px .
9. Calculate the power difference between Px and P0. Try this experi-
ment with different weights. Always adjust the power to the same
level as the first measured P0 was when switching the weights. Avoid
using weights that are too heavy or too light. Use weights which
voltage difference is between 0.1 V – 0.5 V. Try not to change the
position and the bending level of the optical fibres between meas-
urements.

NOTE:
The fibre can get worn off during the experiment and you may
not reach the initial reference level if you set the potentiometer at
maximal level at the beginning of the experiment. To avoid this, begin
with lower weights. You can destroy the fibre using too heavy weights.

28
 POT. ANAL.TX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

TX BOARD

ANAL.RX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

RX BOARD

Figure 8 : The set-up diagram of the dynamometer experiment

29
Questions
1. Calculate the size of the force applied to the optical fibre using
different weights. Compare your calculation results with a me-
chanical dynamometer.

2. How would you calculate the weight of an unknown sample

(X kg) using 1 kg weight and the optical fibre dynamometer?
Hint: 1:d1 = X:d2, where d1=abs(PX1– P01), d2=abs(PX2-P02)

3. Try to check the linearity of the system, by calibration with dif-

ferent weight standards and suggest an optimal calibration
equation.

4. It’s also possible to measure weight with the method shown on

the picture Figure 9? Try this experiment.

1kg

Optical fibre

Figure 9: Weight measurement

30
Experiment No.5: Sensor of a liquid surface

Introduction
Using the optical fibre bent in 180 degrees (U-shaped) on a very small
radius of curvature, it is possible to vividly demonstrate the tie-out of an
optical wave by submersing it in a liquid matter with the refraction index
having a value close to the refraction index of the fibre itself. Light is
emitted through the fibre at the point of the bend, because the condition
for total reflection is not satisfied (Figure 6). The loss increases when
the refraction index of the surrounding environment approaches the
refraction index of the fibre. If the power of transferred light is meas-
ured, the type of environment in the vicinity of the sensor can be deter-
mined.

Equipment
U-shaped fibre (so-called ‘U-probe’), main receiver panel, main trans-
mitter panel, potentiometer, analogue transmitter, analogue receiver,
beak*, water and sugared water, ehtylalcohole

Objective
Demonstration of the operation of the water liquid sensor.

Procedure

1. Insert the analogue transmitter into Slot 3 and the potentiometer

into Slot 2 of the main transmitter panel (Figure 10).
2. Connect the main transmitter panel to the main receiver panel by the
U-shaped fibre. <RXKDYHWRSUHSDUHWKHILEUHDVLQH[SHULPHQWQR
3. Insert the analogue receiver into Slot 3 of the main receiver panel.
4. Connect the Multimeter to the main receiver panel; plug it into the
ground (GND) and into the measuring point MP2.

*
Not contained in this kit

31
5. Connect the power sources of both the main receiver and the main
transmitter panels to the power.
6. The reference level has to be set by the potentiometer at appropriate
level.
7. Measure the emitted power, which is proportional to the voltage in
MP2, using the Multimeter, when the U-probe is
a) not submersed (power P0)
b) submersed in water (power Pw)
c) submersed in ethylacohole (power Pe)
d) when sensor is submersed in a water-sugar solution (power Ps)
Ensure that the U-probe is dry before changing the liquid.
8. Calculate the attenuation for the U-shaped fibre in the case of sub-
mersion in water and in ethylalcohol according to the formula :

P0
A =10 log P
e

Questions

1. How and why is the attenuation for water different from the one for
ethylalcohol?
2. Why does the power of emittance decrease when the U-probe is
submersed in liquid?
3. What is the relationship between the sensitivity of the U-probe and
the value of the refraction index of the environment in which the
sensor is submersed?

32
 POT. ANAL.TX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

TX BOARD

ANAL.RX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

RX BOARD

Figure 10 The set-up diagram of the U-probe experiment

33
Experiment No.6: Transmission sensor

Introduction
The transmission sensor facilitates detection of changes in the optical
signal between two separate optical ends. Sometimes we refer to it as an
optical gate. It is used as a counter of the amount of transferred objects,
as a detector of speed and movement.

Objective
Demonstration of the principle of a transmission sensor.

Means
main transmitter panel, main receiver panel, analogue receiver, analogue
transmitter, digital receiver, potentiometer, jacketed optical fibre, me-
chanical holder of the optical fibres with a calliper, Multimeter

Procedure

1. Insert the analogue transmitter into Slot 3 and the potentiometer

into Slot 2 of the main transmitter panel (
2. Figure 11).
3. Insert the analogue receiver into Slot 3 of the main receiver panel.
4. Connect the main transmitter panel to the main receiver panel by the
optical fibres, the other ends of which are fitted into the mechanical
holders of optical fibres which are in turn fitted into the calliper.
5. Connect the Multimeter to the main receiver panel; plug it into the
ground (GND) and into the measuring point MP2.
6. Connect the power sources of both the main receiver and the main
transmitter panels to the power.
7. Set the ends of fibres 5 mm apart in the mechanical holder and set
the appropriate signal level by the potentiometer on the main trans-
mitter panel.

34
8. Pass a diaphragm through the space between the separated ends of
fibres while observing the change in the transferred power.
9. Switch off the power on the main receiver panel. Replace the ana-
logue receiver in the main receiver panel with the digital receiver.
10. Set the signal level by the potentiometer of the main transmitter
panel to get “zero” (the green diode lights) when the diaphragm is
between the ends of the fibres, and to get “one” when the diaphragm
is absent. By doing so we have set up a counter which records the
number of objects passing through the space between the fibres.

Questions

1. In what manner could the transmission sensor be used for measuring

speed, or alternate movement (the investigated object may be pro-
vided with ticks)?
2. How could the transmission sensor be used as a passing objects
counter?

35
 POT. ANAL.TX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

TX BOARD

ANAL.RX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

RX BOARD

Figure 11 The set-up diagram of the transmission sensor.

36
Experiment No.7: Measurement of attenuation
caused by an imperfect fibre-fibre bond

Introduction
The optical signal is attenuated along its entire path during the transfer.
The losses which arise in the optical cable depend on the type of cable
and on its length. The unit for evaluating losses in the cable is dB/m; it
represents the attenuation of a 1 m long cable. Optical connectors and
connections are additional sources of losses during transfer of an optical
signal. When connecting optical cables, it is important that the axes of
the fibres are aligned, and that the front sides fit each other well in longi-
tudinal as well as latitudinal direction.

Objective
The demonstration of the influence of an insufficient fibre-fibre bond on
attenuation, when increasing the separation of the fibres.

Equipment
Main transmitter panel, main receiver panel, analogue receiver, analogue
transmitter, potentiometer, jacketed optical fibres, mechanical holder of
the optical fibres with a calliper, Multimeter

Procedure

1. Insert the analogue transmitter into Slot 3 and the potentiometer

into Slot 2 of the main transmitter panel (Figure 12).
2. Insert the analogue receiver into Slot 3 of the main receiver panel.
3. Connect the main transmitter panel to the main receiver panel using
the optical fibres, the other ends of which are fitted into the mechani-
cal holders of optical fibres which are in turn fitted into the calliper.
4. Connect the Multimeter to the main receiver panel; plug it into the
ground (GND) and into the measuring point MP2.
5. Connect the power sources of both the main receiver and the main
transmitter panels to the power.

37
6. Position the ends of fibres fitted in the mechanical holder to a dis-
tance until you still have signal and set the appropriate signal level
by the potentiometer on the main transmitter panel.
7. Gradually bring the fibres towards each other measuring the level of
transferred power Px at each 1 mm interval. Make an effort to pre-
vent crosswise shift of the fibres during the measurement.
8. Denote the measured transferred power at zero separation of fibres as
P 0.
9. Calculate the attenuation from the formula:

P0
A =10 log P
x

10. Make a graph of the dependence of the transferred power on the

distance between the ends of the fibres and the dependence of the at-
tenuation on the same distance.

Questions

1. What are the main sources of attenuation during the transfer of an

optical signal?
2. What is the contribution of an imperfect treatment of the fibre end to
the losses?
3. Why do we need to bond fibres?

38
 POT. ANAL.TX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

TX BOARD

ANAL.RX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

RX BOARD

Figure 12: The set-up diagram of the measurement of attenuation caused by an

imperfect fibre-fibre bond.

39
Experiment No. 8: Distance sensor

Introduction
In the previous experiment you verified the fact that the attenuation of a
divided fibre depended on the distance between the two ends. This effect
can be used in the construction of a distance sensor. A sensor of this
kind could cause another device to turn on or off when the fibre ends
reach a certain distance.

Objective
Demonstration of the distance detector principle.

Equipment
Main transmitter panel, main receiver panel, digital receiver, transmitter,
module with the potentiometer, jacketed optical fibre, mechanical holder
of the optical fibres with a calliper, Multimeter

Procedure

1. Insert the analogue transmitter into Slot 3 and the potentiometer

into Slot 2 of the main transmitter panel (Figure 13).
2. Insert the digital receiver into Slot 3 of the main receiver panel.
3. Connect the main transmitter panel with the main receiver panel by
the optical fibres, the other ends of which are fitted into the mechani-
cal holders of optical fibres which are in turn fitted into the calliper.
4. Connect the Multimeter to the main receiver panel; plug it into the
ground (GND) and into the measuring point MP2.
5. Connect the power sources of both the main receiver and the main
transmitter panels to the power.
6. Position the ends of fibres 10 mm apart in the mechanical holders.
7. Adjust the power on the transmitter side by the potentiometer so that
the digital receiver shows “zero” (the green LED diode light shows)

40
 for distances shorter than 10 mm and “one” (the green LED diode
light does not show) for distances longer than 10 mm.
8. You have created a distance sensor, which is able to turn off or on
another device in the event of the calliper arms approaching.

Questions

1. What is the practical use of distance sensor?

2. Try to calculate the most convenient switch distance of fibres in
accordance with your previous measurement.

41
 POT. ANAL.TX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

TX BOARD

DIG.RX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

RX BOARD

Figure 13: The setup diagram of a distance sensor.

42
Experiment No.9: The transfer of an audio signal
(sound) by an optical cable

Introduction
Signals of frequencies within the range of 15 Hz to 20 kHz are audible
to people and they are referred to as audio signals. In order to transfer
sound via optical cable we must provide a microphone for the transfor-
mation of the audio signal into an electrical signal. This electrical signal
is transformed further into an optical signal. After the signal is trans-
ferred via the optical cable, it is transformed in a receiver through the
electrical signal back into sound using a speaker.

Objective
The demonstration of the principle of sound transfer by an optical fibre
and the use of this principle in practise.

Equipment
Main transmitter panel, main receiver panel, analogue receiver, analogue
transmitter, low frequency generator, microphone amplifier, potentiome-
ter, optical fibre, oscilloscope*

Procedure

1. Insert the analogue transmitter into Slot 3, the potentiometer into

Slot 1, and the low frequency generator into Slot 2 of the main
transmitter panel (Figure 14).
2. Insert the analogue receiver into Slot 3 of the main receiver panel.
3. Connect the main transmitter pannel and main receiver pannel with
optic fibre.

*
Not contained in this kit

43
4. Connect the input of the oscilloscope to GND and MP 2 on the main
receiver panel. (Set the sensitivity to 1 V/tick, set the time frame to
approximately 2,5 ms/tick.)
5. Plug the power sources of both the main receiver and the main
transmitter panels to the power.
6. Monitor the time variations of the signal coming from the receiver
module on the oscilloscope.
7. By adjusting the potentiometer the range of output voltage can be
determined. Set the signal to be in the middle of the linear range us-
ing the potentiometer.

Demonstration of the transfer of sound

1. Replace the low frequency generator with the microphone amplifier

on the main transmitter panel.
2. Insert the low frequency amplifier into Slot 2 on the main re-
ceiver panel.
3. Position both the set-ups as far as possible from each other to pre-
vent acoustic feedback.
4. Set the volume (loudness) using the potentiometer on the LF.AMP.
slightly below the level of the origin of the acoustic feedback (high-
pitched sound).
5. The system is now ready to transfer acoustic signals
(speech, music, ...).

44
POT. MIC.AMP. ANAL.TX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

TX BOARD

LF.AMP. ANAL.RX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

RX BOARD

Figure 14 A set-up diagram of a device for sound transmission.

45
Experiment No.10: The transfer of digital signal
by an optical fibre

Introduction
Optical fibres are a key component of modern communications network,
largely because of the high speed of communications and virtually
error-free transmission they offer. In many cases the data is in digital
form already - such as the output from the readout system of a CD
(compact disc) player or a network card. In order to transfer digital sig-
nal via optical cable we must provide a transformation further into an
optical signal. After the signal is transferred via the optical cable, it is
transformed in a receiver through the electrical signal back into digital
signal. With the next experiment we will demonstrate how can be data
transferred from one computer to another with the help of optical cable.
For this experiment you will need two computers with CD-ROM and
serial port. The experiment is using as asynchronous serial transmission
through serial ports with no flow control.

Objective
Demonstration of digital communication by an optical fibre.

Equipment
Main transmitter panel, main receiver panel, digital receiver, digital
transmitter, serial RxD, serial TxD, jacketed optical fibre, 2 data cables,
CD-medium, 2 computers with serial (RS232) ports, CD-ROM and
equipped with one of the following operating systems: Windows
9x/NT/2000/Xp

Setting up the hardware

1. Insert the digital transmitter into Slot 3 and the serial TxD into
Slot 2 of the main transmitter panel. Set the switch on the digital
transmitter to the left position (the black part should be further from
the red diode, Figure 15).

46
2. Insert the digital receiver into Slot 3 and the serial RxD into
Slot 2 of the main receiver panel.
3. Connect the main transmitter panel to the main receiver panel by
using the jacketed optical fibre.
4. Connect the power sources of both the main receiver and the main
transmitter panels to the power.
5. Adjust the trimmer on the digital receiver so that the receiver shows
“zero” (the green LED diode light is off). Than start turning slowly
the trimmer to the opposite position till the receiver shows “one” (the
green LED diode light is on). Stop turning immediately after the di-
ode flashes on. RHSHDWWKLVVWHSEHIRUH\RXWU\KLJKHU connectionVSHHG.
6. With the data cabel connect the transmitter computer’s serial port
and the serial TxD modul. Make sure the cabel’s jack conenctor is
fitted properly to the modul.
7. With the data cabel connect the receiver computer’s serial port and
the serial RxD modul. Make sure the cabel’s jack conenctor is fitted
properly to the modul.

Setting up the software

1. Insert the installation CD to the transmitter computer and install the

OptoSerial-TxD program.
2. Insert the installation CD to the receiver computer and install the
OptoSerial-RxD program.
3. Run both programs on both computers from the desktop (Figure 16,
Figure 17).
4. Select the first port in the OptoSerial-RxD program on the receiver
computer, and press the connect button. If you receive “Failed to
open com port“ message in the connection status message box, then
switch off the program*, run it again and choose a different port.
Repeat the procedure till you receive message: “Waiting for
connection...”.

*
hint: you can switch off the program by pressing ESC

47
5. Select the first port in the OptoSerial-TxD program on the transmitter
computer, and repeat the same procedure as was described before
with the receiver computer. Repeat it till you receive a message
saying: “Ready to send”.
6. Now check the receiver computer’s connection status, it should say:
”Ready to receive”.
7. Now check the OptoSerial-TxD program. Type in any text to the
message edit field and press the send button.
8. Now check the OptoSerial-RxD program. You should see your
message displayed in the received messages list box.
9. Try to change the transmission speed on both sides, and create new
connection. Watch the flashing speed of red and green led diode.

Troubleshooting

1. If any of the programs reports “Failed to open com port“ message

for all the com port’s check the serial port setup in the computers
CMOS setup. If it is still not working try to close all running pro-
grams on the computer which could use the com ports.
2. If you can’t get ”Ready to receive” message on the receiver
computer, try to adjust the trimmer on the digital receiver board. If
this does not help, you can try to exchange the digital receiver and
digital transmitter boards for analogue receiver and analogue trans-
mitter board. Be sure to use a good prepared optical fibre. The
transmissions voltage level measured in the measuring point MP2 on
the main receiver board should not be lover than 1 V.
3. If you can not transmit data, check the transmission speed in the
program. It must be the same on the transmissions and receivers side.
Be sure to run and press the connect button on the receivers side
first.

Questions

1. How is the asynchronous serial transmission working through serial

ports?

48

RS232 - TX DIG.TX

Red
diode
SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2
Switch
GND position
TX BOARD

 RS232 - RX DIG.RX

SLOT1 SLOT2 SLOT3

MP1 MP2

GND

RX BOARD

Figure 15: A set-up diagram of device for data transmission.

49
Figure 16: OptoSerial-TxD program (on the transmitter computer)

Figure 17: OptoSerial-RxD program (on the receiver computer)

50