Directorate of Distance Education

INTEGRAL UNIVERSITY
Set up under UP state ACT NO.9 of 2004,Recognized by UGC,AICTE,NCTE,PCI,NAAC,MIC,UGC-
DEB)

MASTER OF ARTS
POLITICAL THEORY 101

Q-1 What is contemporary political theory?

Ans- Contemporary Political Theory

Highlighting the characteristic features of contemporary

political theory, David Held refers to the following:

(i) Contemporary political theory has been viewed as the history

of political thought, involving an attempt to examine the
significance of text in their historical context.

(ii) It has sought to revitalise the discipline as a form of

conceptual analysis, and in the process, finding political theory
as a systematic reflection upon, and classification of, the
meanings of the key forms and concepts such as sovereignty,
democracy, justice and the like.
(iii) It has been developed as the systematic elaboration of the
underlying structure of our moral and political activities; the
disclosure, examination and reconstruction of the foundations
of political value.

(vi) It has been revitalised as a form of argument concerned

with abstract theoretical questions and particular political
issues.

(v) It has been championed as a critique of all forms of, either

the post-modernists or the liberal defenders. Contemporary
political theory It, accordingly, presents itself as a stimulant to
dialogue and to conversation among human beings.

(vi) It has been elaborated as a form of systematic model

building influenced by theoretical economics, rational choice
theory and game theory; it aims to construct formal models of
political processes. Contemporary political theory

(vii) It has developed as the theoretical enterprise of the

discipline of Political Science. As such it attempts to construct
theory on the basis of observation and modest empirical
generalisations. Contemporary political theory is mainly
concerned with the explanation, investigation and ultimately,
with the comprehension of what relates to politics: concepts,
principles and institutions.

Q-2 What is direct democracy?

Ans- Discussions on direct-democratic institutions deal with
several issues. The strongest normative grounds for
direct democracy are the democratic principles of
popular sovereignty, political equality, and all the arguments
for participative democracy that support the idea that all
citizens should have the right not only to elect representatives
but also to vote on policy issues in referenda. Since assembly
democracy cannot be an option in modern societies (outside
Switzerland), direct-democratic institutions are regarded not as
a full-scale alternative to representative democracy but as a
supplement to or counterweight within democratic systems
with major representative features. Nevertheless, the
institutional difference and competition between
representative and direct-democratic processes lie at the core
of the controversy whether direct democracy contributes to
undermining representative democracy or can offer
enrichments of democracy.

In general, representative democracy is often seen as superior

because general elections give citizens an encompassing
between alternative governments and complex
and coherent programs; because governments and parliaments
have greater capacity for informed decisions, including expert
judgment; and because representatives can be held
accountable for their decisions.

Q-3 write short note on the relationship between equality vs.

inequality?

Ans- EQUALITY vs. INEQUALITY

 Before we discuss the meaning of equality, we must
understand that equality is a relative concept. The demand for
equality has always been against the prevailing inequalities of
the times. The existence of social inequalities is probably as old
as human society and the debate about the nature and cause of
inequalities is an ancient topic of political philosophy. In
classical Greece, Aristotle in his book Politics distinguished
three social classes and noted the significant difference
between citizens and slaves, men and women in terms of
rational and civic capacities. Participation in the Polis was
restricted to the citizens only. Similarly, in our Hindu Society,
according to the classical text, the society was divided into four
(varnas) categories: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudras.
All rights and duties were based upon this classification. During
medieval feudalism, legal privileges were based upon status
and birth. In short, different types of inequalities have been
long enduring, giving rise to the notion that inequality is
inevitable in social relations. In fact, the pre-eighteenth century
teachings argued that men were naturally unequal and that
there was a natural human hierarchy. Different ideologies
justified inequality on grounds of superior race, ancestry, age,
sex, religion, military strength, culture, wealth, knowledge, etc.
According to Turner, inequality is multi-dimensional and the
elimination of one aspect of inequality often leads to the
exaggeration of other aspects of social, political and cultural
inequalities. In fact, all human societies are characterised by
some form of social inequalities in terms of class, status, power
and gender. While studying the concept of equality, the
contradiction between equality as a general value of modern
society and inequality at a practical level, as a fact of all human
societies must be kept in mind.

Q-4 Discuss the various dimensions of citizenship.

Ans- Paradox is at the heart of the relationship between

architecture and citizenship. For every act of fortified inclusion
and exclusion, there is a counter, perhaps informal or
subversive, act that strives to undermine distinctions. Border
walls are the default architectures that describe nationhood,
but also just one of many architectural expressions of
citizenship. Citizenship has never been constituted as a singular,
monumental edifice, reducible to any one institution of power
or construction of identity. As a cluster of rights,
responsibilities, and attachments, the lived experience of
citizenship speaks to the plural, complex, and intimate relations
we have with the actual and virtual spaces we inhabit. If
citizenship itself designates both a border and the networks
that traverse and ultimately elude them, then what kind of
architecture might be offered offer in lieu of “The Wall”? What
designed objects, buildings, or spaces might speak to the heart
of what and how it means to belong today?
Dimensions of Citizenship is a collaboration between e-flux
Architecture and the United States Pavilion of the 16th
International Architecture Exhibition at La Biennale Venezia.
The first seven essays of Dimensions of Citizenship were
published as a part of Dimensions of Citizenship: Architecture
and Belonging from the Body to the Cosmos (Inventory Press,
2018).
Q-5 What is the relevance of satyagraha and civil disobedience
in the contemporary world?

Ans- Relevance of Satyagraha-

Satyagraha is liberating. It liberates both the oppressed of his
bondages and the oppressor of his need to behave inhumanly
with others. Satyagraha is the best weapon to ensure and
sustain human rights. The birth of non-violence as a political
theory is seen as a seminal contribution of Gandhi to conflict
resolution.
Gandhi's approach to peace is based on satyagraha.
Satyagraha is the moral alternative to war. Gandhi showed us
the way to use it for problem-solving and conflict-resolution
from micro-level to macro-level. Gandhi's satyagraha proved to
be an effective means for political redress. Many of the
contemporary challenges related to war and peace, terrorism,
human rights, sustainable development, climate change, socio-
political unrest, and politico-administrative corruption could be
faced through adoption of the Gandhian Way. The twenty-first
century world has much to learn from it.

Q-6 What is socialism? Explain its early strands.

Ans- Socialism is a political
philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic
and social systems characterised by social ownership of
the means of production as opposed to private ownership. It
describes the economic, political, and social-theories
and movements associated with the implementation of such
systems. Social ownership can take various forms
including: public, community, collective, cooperative, or employ
ee. No single definition encapsulates the many types of
socialism but social ownership is the common element.
Traditionally, socialism is on the left-wing of the political
spectrum Types of socialism vary based on the role of markets
and planning in resource allocation, the structure of
management in organizations, and different approaches from
below or from above. Some socialists favour a party, state,
or technocratic-driven approach, while others disagree on
whether government is the correct vehicle for change.

Q-7 Explain the meaning of conservatism.

Ans- Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political

philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve
traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets
of conservatism may vary in relation to
the culture and civilizationin which it appears. In Western
culture, depending on the particular nation, conservatives seek
to promote a range of social institutions, such as the nuclear
family, organized religion, the military, the nation-
state, property rights, rule of law, aristocracy, and monarchy.
Conservatives tend to favour institutions and practices that
guarantee social order and historical continuity.
Edmund Burke, an 18th-century Anglo-Irish statesman who
opposed the French Revolution supported the American
Revolution, is credited as one of the main philosophers of
conservatism in the 1790s The first established use of the term
in a political context originated in 1818 with François-René de
Chateaubriand during the period of Bourbon Restoration that
sought to roll back the policies of the French Revolution and
establish social order.
Conservative thought has varied considerably as it has adapted
itself to existing traditions and national cultures Thus,
conservatives from different parts of the world—each
upholding their respective traditions—may disagree on a wide
range of issues. Historically associated with right-wing politics,
the term has been used to describe a wide range of views.
Conservatism may be either more libertarian or
more authoritarian; more populist or more elitist;
more progressive or more reactionary; more moderator
more extreme.

Q-8 What are the causes and forms of political violence?

Ans- The causes and forms of political violence-

Due to the imbalances of power which exist between state and

non-state actors, political violence often takes the form
of asymmetric warfare where neither side is able to directly
assault the other, instead relying on tactics such as guerrilla
warfare and terrorism. It can often include attacks on civilian or
otherwise non-combatant targets. People may be targeted
collectively based on perception of being part of a social,
ethnic, religious, or political group; or selectively, targeting
specific individuals for actions that are perceived as challenging
someone or aiding an opponent.
Many politically motivated militant, insurgent, extremist,
and/or fundamentalist groups and individuals are convinced
that the states and political systems under which they live will
never respond to their demands, and they thus believe that the
only way to overthrow and/or reshape the government or state
accordingly to their political and/or religious worldview is
through violent means, which they regard as not only justified
but also necessary in order to achieve their political and/or
religious objectives. Similarly, many governments around the
world believe that they need to use violence in order to
intimidate their populaces into acquiescence. At other times,
governments use force in order to defend their countries from
outside invasions or other threats of force and coerce other
governments or conquer territory.

Q-9 Discuss the political theories of libertarianism.

Ans- Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and political

freedom, emphasizing equality before the law and civil
rights to freedom of association, freedom of speech, freedom
of thought and freedom of choice. Libertarians are often
skeptical of or opposed
to authority, state power, warfare, militarism and nationalism,
but some libertarians diverge on the scope of their opposition
to existing economic and political systems. Various schools of
libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the
legitimate functions of state and private power. Different
categorisations have been used to distinguish various forms of
Libertarianism. Scholars distinguish libertarian views on the
nature of property and capital, usually along left–
right or socialist–capitalist lines. Libertarians of various schools
were influenced by liberal-ideas.
In the mid-19th century,libertarianism originated as a form
of left-wing politics such as anti-authoritarian and anti-
state socialists like anarchists especially social anarchists but
more generally libertarian communists/Marxistsand libertarian
socialists. These libertarians sought to abolish
capitalism and private ownership of the means of production,
or else to restrict their purview or effects to usufruct-property
norms, in favour of common or cooperative
ownership and management, viewing private property as a
barrier to freedom and liberty While all libertarians support
some level of individual rights, left-libertarians differ by
supporting an egalitarian redistribution of natural resources.

Q-10 Define Feminism. Enumerate the different type of

feminism.

Ans- Feminism is a range of socio-political movements

and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political,
economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism
holds the position that societies prfioritize the male point of
view and that women are treated unjustly in these societies.
Efforts to change this include fighting against gender
stereotypes-and improving educational, professional, and
interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.

Kinds of Feminism.
Liberal Feminism.
Radical Feminism.
Marxist and Socialist Feminism.
Cultural Feminism.
Eco-Feminism.