Name:Ajitaramu seun

Couse:Action and uses of Medicines

Matric no:CHT /23/PHT/2333

Course code:AUM122

Semester:second semester

AUM ASSIGNMENT

1.DEFINITION OF PHARMACOLOGY The definition of

pharmacology is the study of the effects of drugs and
medications on the body. The scope of pharmacology includes
the study of how drugs are made, how they're absorbed by the
body, their mechanism of action, and their therapeutic and
adverse effects. In addition, pharmacology also studies drug
interactions and the effects of drugs on different populations,
such as children, pregnant women, and the elderly.

SCOPE OF PHARMACOLOGY

-DRUG DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT

Drug discovery and development is a multi-stage process that
can take several years. It begins with the identification of a
potential drug target, followed by the screening of candidate
molecules to identify one that is likely to be effective. Then, the
candidate molecule is tested in animal models to assess its
safety and efficacy. If the drug is found to be safe and effective,
it moves on to clinical trials, which are studies that involve
people. Finally, if the drug is approved by regulatory agencies, it
is released to the market. Drug discovery and development is a
long and complex process, but it can lead to life-saving
medications.
-DRUG DESIGN AND SYNTHESIS
Drug design and synthesis is the process of creating new
molecules that have potential therapeutic value. It starts with
understanding the structure and function of the target of the
drug, such as an enzyme or protein.
-PHARMACOKINETICS AND PHARMACODYNAMICS
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics are closely related,
but they are two distinct processes. Pharmacokinetics refers to
how the body affects the drug, while pharmacodynamics refers
to how the drug affects the body. Pharmacokinetics involves
processes like absorption, distribution, metabolism, and
excretion, while pharmacodynamics involves processes like
receptor binding, signal transduction, and gene expression. The
two processes are connected, as the pharmacokinetics of a
drug can affect its pharmacodynamics, and vice versa.
Understanding both pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics
is important for developing and optimizing drugs.
- TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology is the study of how chemicals and other substances
can harm the body. It's an important field because many
substances that we come into contact with on a daily basis,
from the food we eat to the products we use, can have harmful
effects on our health.
- CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY
Clinical pharmacology is a branch of medicine that focuses on
the study of how drugs affect people. It's different from other
branches of medicine in that it's not focused on a particular
disease or body system, but rather on how medications can be
used to treat diseases. Clinical pharmacologists work with other
healthcare professionals, such as doctors and nurses, to ensure
that patients are getting the best possible care.
- PHARMACOGENETICS
Pharmacogenetics is the study of how genetic factors can
influence a person's response to drugs. It's a relatively new
field, but it's already making a big impact on healthcare.
Pharmacogenetics looks at how variations in genes can affect
how a person responds to a medication.
-PHARMACOEPIDEMIOLOGY
Pharmacoepidemiology is the study of the effects of drugs on
large populations. It's a branch of epidemiology, which is the
study of how diseases occur and spread in populations.
Pharmacoepidemiology looks at how drugs are used in the real
world, outside of clinical trials.
-PHARMACOVIGILANCE
Pharmacovigilance is the science and activities relating to the
detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of
adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. It is also
referred to as drug safety, or "pharmacovigilance and
pharmacoepidemiology."
- PHARMACOECONOMICS
Pharmacoeonomics is the study of the economic aspects of
medication use. It's a relatively new field, but it's quickly
becoming an important part of healthcare. Pharmacoeonomics
looks at how the cost of medications affects their use, and how
this affects patient outcomes. It also looks at the cost-
effectiveness of medications, which is how much benefit they
provide compared to their cost.
-PHARMACEUTICAL MARKETING
Pharmaceutical marketing is the process of promoting and
selling prescription medications to healthcare professionals and
consumers. It's a complex and highly regulated field, with many
rules and regulations in place to protect patients and ensure
ethical marketing practices.
-PHARMACOLOGY EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
Pharmacology education and research is an important part of
the field of pharmacology. It involves teaching and training
people about the use of medications, as well as conducting
research to further our understanding of medications and their
effects. Pharmacology education and research takes place at all
levels, from undergraduate and graduate education to
continuing education for healthcare professionals.

IMPORTANCE OF PHARMACOLOGY IN PHARMACY

1.A strong knowledge of Pharmacology allow pharmacist to
provide the best possible care for their patient
2.Without a thorough understanding of
Pharmacology,pharmacist wouldn't be able to effectively and
safely dispense medication
3. it also help pharmacy to spot any potential drug interactions
and avoid potentially harmful situation
NOTE
Pharmacology is a fundamental and essential
component of pharmacy practice, as it plays a
crucial role in understanding how drugs interact
with the human body and how they can be used
effectively and safely to treat various medical
conditions. The importance of pharmacology in the
field of pharmacy can be highlighted in several
ways:

1. Drug Therapy: Pharmacology provides

pharmacists with a deep understanding of how
drugs work in the body, including their mechanisms
of action, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics,
and potential side effects. This knowledge is crucial
for pharmacists to recommend appropriate drug
therapies to patients, ensuring optimal treatment
outcomes.
2. Dose Optimization: Pharmacology helps
pharmacists determine the appropriate dosage of
medications for individual patients based on factors
such as age, weight, renal function, and coexisting
medical conditions. By understanding
pharmacokinetic principles, pharmacists can tailor
drug doses to achieve therapeutic levels while
minimizing the risk of toxicity.

3. Drug Interactions: Pharmacology knowledge

enables pharmacists to identify and manage
potential drug interactions that may occur when
multiple medications are used concurrently.
Understanding how drugs interact with each other
at the molecular level helps pharmacists prevent
adverse drug reactions and optimize patient safety.

4. Patient Education: Pharmacology equips

pharmacists with the knowledge to educate
patients about their medications, including how to
take them correctly, potential side effects to watch
for, and the importance of adherence to the
prescribed treatment regimen. Patients can make
informed decisions about their health when they
understand how drugs work in their bodies.

5. Adverse Effects Management: Pharmacology

knowledge allows pharmacists to recognize
common side effects and adverse reactions
associated with medications. Pharmacists can
intervene to mitigate these effects, provide
appropriate counseling to patients, and collaborate
with healthcare providers to adjust treatment plans
when necessary.

6. Drug Development: Pharmacology research

contributes to the discovery and development of
new drugs by elucidating the mechanisms of action
of potential therapeutic compounds and assessing
their safety and efficacy. Pharmacists play a key role
in translating research findings into clinical practice
and ensuring the rational use of medications.

7. Public Health: Pharmacology plays a vital role in

public health initiatives by informing drug policies,
promoting medication safety, and addressing issues
such as antimicrobial resistance, opioid misuse, and
drug access disparities. Pharmacists advocate for
evidence-based practices that improve population
health outcomes.

In summary, pharmacology is integral to pharmacy

practice as it underpins the safe and effective use of
medications, supports patient-centered care, and
contributes to advancements in healthcare.
Pharmacists rely on their pharmacological
knowledge to deliver high-quality pharmaceutical
care, optimize drug therapy outcomes, and
promote patient well-being.
BRANCHES OF PHARMACOLOGY Pharmacokinetics :is the study
of how drugs move through the body. It focuses on four main
processes: absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion.
Within these processes, there are many factors that can affect
how a drug works. For example, some drugs are absorbed
better in certain parts of the body, such as the stomach or
intestines. Some drugs are broken down by enzymes in the
liver, which can make them less effective. And finally, some
drugs are eliminated from the body more quickly than others.
All of these factors are important to consider when taking
medications.
IMPORTANCE OF PHARMACOKINETICS
-it helps to understand how a medication is absorbed,
distributed, metabolized, and eliminated from the body. This
information is essential for determining the appropriate dosage
of a medication and for understanding why side effects occur.
-pharmacokinetics can help to predict how a medication will
interact with other medications or substances.
-it can be used to optimize drug therapy by adjusting the dose
and schedule of a medication based on an individual's
response. -pharmacokinetics can help to develop new and
improved medications that are more effective and have fewer
side effects.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHARMACOKINETICS
There are four main characteristics of pharmacokinetics:
- Absorption - How the drug gets into the body.
- Distribution - How the drug moves through the body.
- Metabolism - How the body breaks down the drug.
- Elimination - How the body removes the drug.
Each of these characteristics can affect how a drug works and
how long it stays in the body. For example, a drug that is poorly
absorbed will not have as strong an effect as a drug that is well
absorbed.

Pharmacodynamics:is the study of how drugs produce their

effects on the body. This branch of pharmacology focuses on
how drugs interact with specific targets in the body, such as
enzymes, proteins, and receptors. Drugs can have different
effects based on their interactions with these targets. For
example, a drug that blocks a receptor can produce an opposite
effect to a drug that activates the same receptor.
Pharmacodynamics also considers the factors that can affect
the potency and duration of a drug's effects.
IMPORTANCE OF PHARMACODYNAMICS
-Pharmacodynamics is important because it helps to
understand how a medication works in the body to produce its
therapeutic effects. This knowledge is essential for developing
new medications and for optimizing existing medications. For
example, knowing how a medication interacts with its target
receptor can help to develop medications that are more
selective and have fewer side effects.
-Pharmacodynamics also helps to explain why certain
medications may be more effective in some individuals than
others.
-Additionally, it can be used to predict and explain adverse drug
reactions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHARMACODYNAMICS
- It considers the mechanism of action of the medication,
including its binding to receptors and enzymes.
- It considers the concentration of the medication in the body,
as well as the time it takes for the medication to reach its
target.
- It considers the concentration-response relationship, including
the dose-response relationship and the maximum tolerated
dose.
- It considers the duration of action of the medication, including
its half-life and elimination.
- It considers the individual differences in response to the
medication, including
Pharmacovigilance:This is an important part of the field of
pharmacology that focuses on the detection, assessment, and
prevention of adverse reactions to medications.
Pharmacovigilance is important because it helps to ensure that
medications are safe and effective. It includes monitoring
patients for side effects, collecting and analyzing adverse event
reports, and reporting safety concerns to regulatory authorities
IMPORTANCE OF PHARMACOVIGILANCE
-it helps to protect patients from harm by identifying and
reporting safety concerns as soon as possible. -it helps to
improve the quality of information about the safety of
medicines
-it helps to ensure that medicines are used in the most
appropriate way for the patient's condition
it helps to build trust between patients, healthcare
professionals, and the pharmaceutical industry.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHARMACOVIGILANCE
- It is a continuous process that never ends.
- It is population-based and includes all patients taking a
particular medication.
- It includes not only adverse reactions that have been reported
but also those that have not been reported.
- It is global in scope.
- It is multidisciplinary, involving input from a variety of
healthcare professionals.
- It is based on scientific evidence.

Pharmacotherapeutic:Pharmacotherapeutics is branch of
pharmacology that focuses on the appropriate use of
medications to treat diseases. It's also sometimes referred to as
clinical pharmacology or applied pharmacology. This branch of
pharmacology considers how medications work in the context
of specific diseases and how to optimize their use in clinical
practice. It also considers the cost and benefits of using
different medications to treat a disease.
IMPORTANCE OF PHARMACOTHERAPEUTIC
-it helps to ensure that patients are getting the most effective
and safe treatment for their condition. This is important
because there are many different medications available to treat
the same condition, and they can have different side effects
and levels of effectiveness. So, by considering all of the
available evidence, pharmacotherapeutics can help to find the
best medication for each individual patient.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHARMACOTHERAPEUTIC
-It can help to reduce the cost of healthcare by choosing
medications that are effective and
- It is evidence-based, using clinical trials and other forms of
research to determine the efficacy and safety of medications.
- It considers the balance between benefits and risks when
choosing a medication.
- It involves considering the patient's individual characteristics,
such as age, gender, and health status.
- It takes into account the cost of the medication, as well as its
cost-effectiveness.
Chemotherapy :Chemotherapy is defined as the use of
medications to treat cancer by killing cancer cells or stopping
them from dividing and growing. It's usually given as part of a
treatment plan that may also include surgery, radiation
therapy, or targeted therapy. There are many different types of
chemotherapy, and the specific type used depends on the type
of cancer and other factors. Chemotherapy can be used to cure
cancer, control the spread of cancer, or relieve symptoms
caused by cancer
IMPORTANCE OF CHEMOTHERAPY
-Chemotherapy is an important part of cancer treatment
because it can be very effective in killing cancer cells and
stopping them from growing and spreading. -chemotherapy can
help to control the disease and improve the chance of a cure
-It's also important because it can relieve symptoms and
improve quality of life for people with cancer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMOTHERAPY:
-chemotherapy drugs are systemic, meaning they circulate
through the body and target cancer cells wherever they are
located. This is in contrast to localized treatments, such as
surgery or radiation therapy, which target a specific area of the
body
-chemotherapy drugs are cytotoxic, meaning they kill both
healthy and cancerous cells. This is one of the main reasons
chemotherapy can cause serious side effects
-chemotherapy drugs often have a narrow therapeutic index,
meaning the difference between the dose that is effective and
the dose that is toxic is small.

Pharmacokinetics:Pharmacokinetics is a branch of
pharmacology that studies the movement of drugs through the
body. It looks at how the body absorbs, distributes,
metabolizes, and excretes drugs. In other words,
pharmacokinetics is concerned with what the body does to the
drug. The goal of pharmacokinetics is to understand how a drug
is handled by the body, so that a safe and effective dose can be
determined. By understanding how drugs are processed by the
body, pharmacologists can develop new medications that are
more effective and have fewer side effects.
IMPORTANCE OF PHARMACOKINETICS
-Pharmacokinetics is important because it helps to ensure that
patients get the right dose of medication. If a medication is not
absorbed properly, or if it is metabolized too quickly, the
patient may not get the full therapeutic effect. If a medication is
not distributed properly, it may cause side effects in other parts
of the body.
-Pharmacokinetics also helps to ensure that medications are
safe. For example, if a medication is metabolized into a toxic
compound, this information can be used to develop a different
formulation of the drug that is safer for patients..
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHARMACOKINETICS
There are four main characteristics of pharmacokinetics:
- Absorption - How the drug gets into the body.
- Distribution - How the drug moves through the body.
- Metabolism - How the body breaks down the drug.
- Elimination - How the body removes the drug.
Each of these characteristics can affect how a drug works and
how long it stays in the body. For example, a drug that is poorly
absorbed will not have as strong an effect as a drug that is well
absorbed

Pharmacogeronics: is a relatively new field of study that

combines pharmacology and geriatrics. It focuses on how
medications are metabolized in older adults and how this may
affect their health. This is important because older adults often
have multiple chronic conditions and take multiple medications.
Pharmacogeronics helps to ensure that these medications are
safe and effective for this population. Additionally, this field can
help to improve the quality of life for older adults by reducing
side effects and improving compliance with medication
regimens.
IMPORTANCE OF PHARMACOGERONICS
-it helps to ensure that older adults get the right medications at
the right doses
-it helps to reduce side effects and improve quality of life
-it can help to reduce healthcare costs by avoiding unnecessary
hospitalizations and emergency room visits
-it can help to improve compliance with medication regimens,
which can lead to better health outcomes. In addition, as the
population ages, pharmacogeronics will become increasingly
important in ensuring that medications are safe and effective
for older adults.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHARMACOGERONIS
- It focuses on the individual needs and preferences of the
patient.
- It takes into account the patient's overall health, not just their
specific disease.
- It considers the potential for drug interactions and the
potential for side effects.
- It includes patient education and support.

Pharmacoeconomics:Pharmacoeconomics is the study of the

cost-effectiveness of medications. It looks at how much a
medication costs and how much benefit it provides. The goal of
pharmacoeconomics is to help make sure that healthcare
resources are used efficiently. It can be used to compare
different medications and determine which one is the most
cost-effective. Pharmacoeconomics also looks at the indirect
costs of a medication, such as the cost of hospitalization and
missed work days. It is an important part of healthcare
decision-making.
IMPORTANCE OF PHARMACOECONOMICS
-it can help to save money by identifying the most cost-
effective medications
-it can help to improve the quality of life for patients by
ensuring that they get the medications that are most likely to
be effective
-it can help to promote the development of new and better
medications by providing information about the cost-
effectiveness of different medications
-it can help to inform public policy and healthcare reform
-it can help to ensure that healthcare resources are used in the
most efficient way possible.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHARMACOECONOMICS
- It is multidisciplinary, drawing on the fields of economics,
epidemiology, health services research, and health policy.
- It is evidence-based, using data from a variety of sources to
make informed decisions.
- It considers both the direct and indirect costs of medications.
- It takes into account the cost-effectiveness of medications, as
well as their cost-benefit.
- It looks at the broader societal impacts of medications,
including quality of life and productivity.

Toxicology :Toxicology is the study of the adverse effects of

chemicals on living organisms. It looks at how chemicals can
cause harm, either by being toxic themselves or by causing
other substances to become toxic. Toxicology is important in
both the healthcare and environmental fields. In healthcare,
toxicology is used to determine the safety of new drugs and to
identify the toxic effects of existing drugs. In the environmental
field, toxicology is used to study the effects of pollutants on the
environment and to develop methods to reduce or prevent
pollution
IMPORTANCE OF TOXICOLOGY
-it helps to protect the public from harmful chemicals by
identifying and assessing the risks of exposure
-it helps to protect the environment by identifying and
mitigating the effects of pollution
-it helps to prevent occupational hazards by identifying and
controlling exposures to chemicals in the workplace
-it helps to improve the quality of life by developing safer
chemicals and products
-it contributes to our understanding of human health and
disease by studying the effects of chemicals on the body.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TOXICOLOGY
- It is multidisciplinary, drawing on the fields of chemistry,
biology, and medicine.
- It focuses on both acute and chronic effects.
- It considers both the dose-response relationship and the time
course of effects.
- It uses both in vitro and in vivo studies.
- It considers the routes of exposure and the mechanisms of
action.

ORIGIN/HISTORY OF PHARMACOLOGY

Pharmacology, the study of drugs and their effects on the body, has a
long history dating back to ancient civilizations. The ancient Egyptians,
Greeks, and Chinese all had their own methods of using plants and
other substances for medicinal purposes.

1. Ancient Egypt: The ancient Egyptians were known for their extensive
use of medicinal plants for treating various ailments. The Edwin Smith
Papyrus, dating back to around 1600 BCE, contains descriptions of
different medical treatments, including the use of herbs and other
natural substances.

2. Ancient Greece: In ancient Greece, the father of medicine,

Hippocrates, emphasized the importance of using natural substances to
treat illnesses. He is known for his concept of the four humors, which
were believed to influence a person's health and temperament. Greek
physicians like Dioscorides also documented the properties of various
plants and herbs in their pharmacopeias.

3. Ancient China: Traditional Chinese medicine has a rich history dating

back thousands of years. The Chinese used various herbs, minerals, and
animal parts in their medical treatments. The concept of yin and yang
and the flow of Qi (life force) were central to understanding the effects
of different substances on the body.

Overall, the ancient civilizations laid the foundation for pharmacology

by experimenting with different substances, documenting their effects,
and developing methods of administering them. While their
understanding of pharmacology may not have been as advanced as
modern science, their contributions were vital in shaping the field of
pharmacology as we know it today.

Pharmacology emerged as its own discipline in the 19th Century,

branching off from research done in fields of science such as organic
chemistry and physiology. Oswald Schmiedeberg, who was born in
what is now Latvia in 1838, is considered the father of pharmacology.
His doctoral thesis was on the measurement of chloroform levels in
blood, and he went on to become a professor of pharmacology at the
University of Strasburg, where he ran an institute of pharmacology.
There, he studied chloroform, which was used as an anesthetic, chloral
hydrate, a sedative and hypnotic, and muscarine, a compound isolated
from the mushroom Amanita muscaria that stimulates the
parasympathetic nervous system and has been used to treat various
diseases such as glaucoma.

In 1890, John Jacob Abel became the first pharmacology chair in the
United States, at the University of Michigan. He later went to Johns
Hopkins University in Baltimore. Abel was the first to isolate the
hormone epinephrine from the adrenal gland, isolate histamine from
the pituitary gland, and make pure crystalline insulin. Animals such as
dogs, cats, pigeons, and frogs were used to test pharmacological
substances. Humans were even used as test subjects. Sometimes they
suffered through severe adverse effects from these substances, such as
when the German pharmacist Friedrich Serturner and three of his
friends had poisoning for several days from an alkaloid that Serturner
had isolated from opium. This alkaloid was later named morphine, after
the Ancient Greek god of sleep, Morpheus.

Today, the most common test animal is the mouse, which is convenient
to use because it is small, easy to breed, and can produce many
generations in a relatively short amount of time. Guinea pigs and
rabbits are also sometimes used. Once a compound has undergone
enough testing to be considered reasonably safe, it is used in Phase I
clinical trials on human volunteers, and eventually it may become a
widely available drug.

Chinese medicine is the earliest and records dated about 2500

B.C. available today give an idea about the medical knowledge
of Chinese. In Chinese medicine, the use of Ephedra or Ma
huang as a tonic has been reported.
Ayurveda or Indian Medicine is equally ancient. To form the
science of life namely Ayurveda, Charaka, Sushruta and
Vagbhatta (the great three classics) made a compilation of old
and new drugs in the cure of diseases.
The Charaka Samhita is believed to have arisen around 400-200
BCE. This work is considered a redaction of an older and more
voluminous work of Agnivesha Samhita (46,000 verses).
Dridhabala, living about 400 A.D, is believed to have filled in
many verses of missing text (perhaps up to 20%). The language
of Charaka is Sanskrit and its style is poetry, with meter and
melody to serve as a memory aid. Most of their theoretical
edifice concentrates on the branch of Ayurveda called
Kayachikitsa (internal medicine), largely based on the theory of
the internal fire - of digestion - or internal medicine, in modern
terms.
The Sushruta Samhita presents the field of Ayurvedic surgery
(Shalya). This branch of medicine arose in part from the
exigencies of dealing with the effects of war. Ashtanga
Sangraha and Ashtanga Hridayam are the work of a person
named Vagbhata.
Egyptian medicine is also very ancient. The Ebers Papyrus (a
kind of medical encyclopaedia) dated about 1500 B.C. gives a
collection of drugs prevalent in Egypt at that time, their
classification and their use. Some of the drugs employed now
such as, castor oil and pomegranate bark are mentioned in this
papyrus.

Pre-Christian Era
Greek medicine is said to be the origin of modern medicine and
therapeutics. Hippocrates in fifth century B.C. separated
medicine from religion and was known as the father of
medicine.
He laid down certain principles on which modern medicine is
built. According to Hippocrates the four elements of nature
namely water, fire, air and earth gave rise to the four humors of
the body namely blood, phlegm, yellow bile or urine and black
bile. Any imbalance in one or more of these humors inflicted
sufferings.
Galen (Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus) was a famous Greek
physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire who
practiced in Rome. In Galen's view, an imbalance of each humor
(the bodily liquids) corresponded with a particular human
temperament (blood—sanguine/cheerful, black bile—
melancholic/pensive sadness, yellow bile—choleric/bad-
tempered or irritable, and phlegm—phlegmatic/calm). Among
Galen's major contributions to medicine was his work on the
circulatory system. He was the first to recognize that there are
distinct differences between venous (dark) and arterial (bright)
blood. His name is still used to refer some drugs as galenical
drugs. He was the father of polypharmacy (the concurrent use
of multiple medications).
Galenical drugs are pharmaceuticals compounded by
mechanical means, mostly of the vegetable material.

Mediaeval Medicine
Paracelsus introduced inorganic chemicals like mercury into
medicine. He called this ‘Iatro Chemistry’ or medicinal
chemistry.
He induced practitioners to use laudanum (an opium
preparation), Sulphur, Iron, Copper Sulphate, Potassium
Sulphate, Mercurial, tinctures and fluid extract of various plants
for
treatment of diseases.

Revolts in Medicine
By the beginning of 19th century the principle of shotgun
prescription flourished (Shotgun
prescription is one that contains a number of substances with
no therapeutic efficacy. It is
a result of ignorant attempt to cure the disease, no matter what
may be its nature).
Gregory advocated methods like venesection, leeching emetics
and drastic purgatives.
Large doses of purgatives were given. The patient either
survived or died. This sort of symptomatic treatment was
referred to as allopathy meaning 'other suffering'. This term
allopathy is now being used to refer modern medicine.
Samuel Hahnemann introduced homeopathy meaning ‘similar
suffering’ at the commencement of 19th century. In Greek,
“homos” means same and “patheia” means suffering. He was
known as the father of homeopathy. Homeopathy introduced
by him had two newer principles that ‘like cures like’ and
‘dilution potentiates the action of drugs’.

Modern Medicine
Buccheim, a professor of Dorpat University who was known as
the father of Pharmacology set up the first laboratory to study
pharmacology. He discarded many remedies because rational
scientific action or explanation could not be demonstrated in
his laboratory. By the middle of the 19th century, modern
medicine had brought to fight disease only one effective
weapon i.e. immunization against smallpox.
Later in quick succession came the anesthetics and antiseptics.
In the last quarter, the causative organisms for malaria, plaque,
cholera etc. were identified.
Beginning in the 20th century, the fresh wind of synthetic
chemistry began to revolutionize the pharmaceutical industry
and with it the science of pharmacology.
New synthetic drugs, such as barbiturates and local anesthetics,
began to appear and the era of antimicrobial chemotherapy
began with the discovery of arsenical compounds for the
treatment of syphilis by Paul Ehrlich in 1909. He was known as
the father of chemotherapy.
Further breakthroughs came with the discovery of
sulphonamides by Gerhard Domagk in 1935 and the
development of penicillin during world war II.
The addition of drugs to the therapeutic jungle is growing with
rapid pace from the latter half of the 20th century

ANCIENT HISTORY OF PHARMACOLOGY

The history of pharmacology goes way back! The use of
medicinal plants and herbs for healing dates back to ancient
times. The ancient Egyptians, Chinese, Greeks, and Romans all
had extensive knowledge of herbal remedies and other
substances with medicinal properties. The ancient Egyptians
were some of the first to develop a system of medicine that
used plants and herbs, while the ancient Greeks developed a
more scientific approach to studying the effects of drugs.
During the Middle Ages, pharmacology was largely influenced
by the teachings of Galen, a prominent Greek physician. Galen's
work laid the foundation for the development of modern
pharmacology.

MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN PHARMACOLOGY

In the modern era, pharmacology has undergone some major
developments! In the 19th century, Louis Pasteur and Robert
Koch made great advances in microbiology, which led to the
development of the first antibiotics. Later, in the 20th century,
pharmacology began to use more sophisticated techniques,
such as animal testing, clinical trials, and biochemistry. These
advances led to the development of many life-saving drugs,
such as insulin, penicillin, and other antibiotics. The 21st
century has seen even more dramatic advances in
pharmacology, with the development of drugs like monoclonal
antibodies, gene therapy, and stem cell

ORIGIN OF PHARMACOLOGY
Ancient Practices: People likely experimented with plants and
other substances for medicinal purposes since prehistoric
times. We have evidence of this from places like Mesopotamia
and ancient Egypt, where written records mention various
remedies.
Herbal Traditions: Many cultures around the world developed
rich traditions of herbal medicine. Examples include the
Ayurvedic texts from India and the Ebers Papyrus from ancient
Egypt, which list a variety of plants used for medicinal
purposes.

Greek and Roman Influences: Greek and Roman physicians like

Dioscorides (1st century AD) documented and classified
medicinal plants, laying the groundwork for Western
pharmacology.

Medieval Advancements: The Middle Ages saw the rise of

Arabic scholars like Avicenna, whose writings on medicine,
including "The Canon of Medicine", significantly influenced
European pharmacology.

Birth of Modern Pharmacology: The 16th and 17th centuries

witnessed a shift from traditional beliefs to a more scientific
understanding of drugs. This period also saw the coining of the
term "pharmacology" in the late 17th century.
19th Century Boom: The 19th century marked the emergence
of modern pharmacology as a distinct scientific discipline. This
involved establishing dedicated departments for
pharmacological research and applying scientific methods to
understand how drugs work.

While the word "pharmacology" is a relatively recent invention,

the use of medicinal substances has a very long history. The
field has continuously evolved, progressing from ancient herbal
remedies to the development of powerful, targeted drugs we
see today.
The term "pharmacology" originates from the Greek words
"pharmakon" (meaning drug or poison) and "logos" (meaning
study). So, pharmacology literally means the study of drugs or
poisons. It encompasses the study of the effects of drugs on
living organisms, including their interactions with the body,
mechanisms of action, therapeutic uses, and potential side
effects
The origins of pharmacology trace back to ancient civilizations,
where people observed the effects of various plants, minerals,
and animal substances on the human body. Early
pharmacological practices were often intertwined with
religious, mystical, or folkloric beliefs. Over time, as civilizations
developed, so did the systematic study of drugs and their
effects, leading to the establishment of pharmacology as a
scientific discipline. The modern field of pharmacology
incorporates elements of chemistry, biology, physiology, and
medicine to understand how drugs work and how they can be
used to treat diseases and improve health.

DRUGS AND MEDICINE

Medicine:
- Medicine is a branch of healthcare that involves
the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of
diseases using a combination of therapies, including
medications, surgeries, lifestyle changes, and other
interventions.
- It encompasses both the science and practice of
healing and maintaining health, focusing on the
overall well-being of individuals and populations.
- Medicine is evidence-based and guided by
principles of efficacy, safety, and patient-centered
care, with the goal of improving health outcomes
and quality of life.
- Medical professionals, such as doctors, nurses,
pharmacists, and allied health professionals, play
essential roles in delivering safe and effective
medical care to patients.
- Medicine is a constantly evolving field, driven by
research, technological advancements, and
advancements in understanding the human body
and disease mechanisms.

Medicine and drugs are terms often used

interchangeably in everyday language, but they
have distinct meanings in the field of healthcare:

- Medicine refers to substances or preparations

used for the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, or
cure of diseases or medical conditions.
- It includes pharmaceutical products that are
regulated and prescribed by healthcare
professionals for therapeutic purposes.
- Medicines can be categorized into various classes
based on their chemical composition, intended use,
and therapeutic effects.

Drugs:
- Drugs are substances that have physiological
effects on the body when introduced into the
system.
- They can be natural or synthetic compounds that
alter biological processes, often used for medicinal
purposes.
- Drugs can be legal or illegal, with the legal ones
approved for medical use by regulatory agencies
and prescribed by healthcare providers.
- Drugs are chemical substances that have biological
effects on the body when administered, altering
physiological functions, biochemistry, and behavior.
- They can be derived from natural sources (plants,
animals, minerals) or synthesized in laboratories,
classified based on their chemical structure,
pharmacological properties, and therapeutic uses.
- Drugs can act on various targets in the body,
including receptors, enzymes, ion channels, and
cellular processes, to produce therapeutic effects or
alter physiological functions.
- The use of drugs in healthcare involves
pharmacology, which studies drug actions,
mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, and
pharmacodynamics.
- While pharmaceutical drugs are primarily used for
medicinal purposes, drugs can also include
substances used recreationally, illicitly, or for non-
therapeutic purposes.
In extreme terms, the key distinction is that
medicine is a subset of drugs, specifically referring
to substances used in healthcare for therapeutic
purposes, while drugs encompass a broader range
of substances that can have physiological effects,
including recreational, stimulant, or potentially
harmful substances.

Overall, medicine focuses on the practice of healing

and healthcare delivery, while drugs are compounds
with physiological effects that can be used for
therapeutic or non-therapeutic purposes. The
distinction lies in the context of their use and the
intended outcomes in promoting health and
treating diseases.
EXAMPLES OF SOME MEDICINE AND DRUGS
1. Acetaminophen (Tylenol) - pain relief and
fever reduction
2. Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) - pain relief,
inflammation reduction
3. Aspirin - pain relief, blood thinner
4. Penicillin - antibiotic
5. Amoxicillin - antibiotic
6. Ciprofloxacin (Cipro) - antibiotic
7. Lisinopril - blood pressure control
8. Amlodipine - blood pressure control
9. Metformin - diabetes management
10. Insulin - diabetes management
11. Albuterol - asthma relief
12. Fluticasone (Flonase) - nasal allergies
13. Loratadine (Claritin) - hay fever, allergy
relief
14. Sertraline (Zoloft) - antidepressant
15. Atorvastatin (Lipitor) - cholesterol
management
16. Omeprazole (Prilosec) - acid reflux,
heartburn
17. Ranitidine (Zantac) - acid reflux, heartburn
18. Levothyroxine (Synthroid) - thyroid
hormone replacement
19. Simvastatin - cholesterol management
20. Hydrocortisone - anti-inflammatory, skin
conditions
21. Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) - allergies,
sleep aid
22. Diphenoxylate/atropine (Lomotil) - diarrhea
relief
23. Warfarin (Coumadin) - blood thinner
24. Nitroglycerin - angina relief
25. Gabapentin (Neurontin) - nerve pain relief,
seizures
26. Metoprolol - beta blocker for heart
conditions
27. Citalopram (Celexa) - antidepressant
28. Diazepam (Valium) - anti-anxiety, muscle
relaxant
29. Hydrochlorothiazide - diuretic for blood
pressure
30. Clonidine - blood pressure control, ADHD
31. Budesonide - asthma, COPD
32. Diclofenac - pain relief, anti-inflammatory
33. Meloxicam (Mobic) - pain relief, arthritis
34. Fluoxetine (Prozac) - antidepressant
35. Bupropion (Wellbutrin) - antidepressant,
smoking cessation
36. Methylphenidate (Ritalin) - ADHD
37. Tramadol - pain relief
38. Prednisone - anti-inflammatory
39. Furosemide (Lasix) - diuretic
40. Topiramate (Topamax) - seizures, migraine
prevention
41. Alprazolam (Xanax) - anti-anxiety
42. Levofloxacin - antibiotic
43. Sildenafil (Viagra) - erectile dysfunction
44. Amiodarone - heart rhythm control
45. Dexamethasone - anti-inflammatory
46. Esomeprazole (Nexium) - acid reflux
47. Lorazepam (Ativan) - anxiety, seizures
48. Quetiapine (Seroquel) - antipsychotic
49. Nifedipine - blood pressure control
50. Ondansetron (Zofran) - nausea and
vomiting prevention

CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINE AND DRUGS

The classification of medicines and drugs
involves categorizing these substances based
on various factors, such as their
pharmacological effects, therapeutic uses,
chemical structure, and regulatory
considerations. This classification system helps
healthcare professionals, regulatory agencies,
and patients better understand the properties,
uses, and safety profiles of different
medications. Here is an overview of the
classification of medicines and drugs:

1. Regulatory Classification:
- Regulatory authorities, such as the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States,
classify drugs based on their legal status and
level of control. This classification typically
includes prescription drugs (requiring a
healthcare provider's prescription for
purchase), over-the-counter drugs (available
without a prescription), and controlled
substances (regulated due to their potential for
abuse and dependence).

2. Therapeutic Classification:
- Medications are often classified based on their
therapeutic effects and intended uses.
Common therapeutic classes include antibiotics
(treat bacterial infections), analgesics (relieve
pain), antihypertensives (lower blood pressure),
anticoagulants (prevent blood clotting),
antidepressants (treat depression), and
antipsychotics (manage psychiatric disorders).

3. Pharmacological Classification:
- Drugs can be categorized based on their
pharmacological properties, such as their
mechanism of action, interactions with specific
receptors or enzymes, and physiological effects.
Examples of pharmacological classes include
beta-blockers (block beta-adrenergic
receptors), proton pump inhibitors (inhibit
gastric acid secretion), and bronchodilators
(dilate airways).

4. Chemical Classification:
- Medications can be classified based on their
chemical structure and composition. This
classification system groups drugs with similar
chemical properties together, which can
provide insights into potential cross-reactivity,
metabolism, and pharmacokinetic profiles. For
instance, drugs like statins (cholesterol-
lowering agents) share a common chemical
structure.

5. Disease-Specific Classification:
- Drugs may also be classified based on the
specific diseases or conditions they are
designed to treat. This includes categories such
as antiretrovirals (treat HIV/AIDS), anticancer
agents (target cancer cells), antidiabetic
medications (manage blood sugar levels), and
anti-inflammatory drugs (reduce inflammation).
6. Anatomical Classification:
- Some drugs are classified based on the
anatomical systems or organs they target. For
example, medications classified as
cardiovascular agents target the heart and
blood vessels, while dermatological agents are
used for skin conditions.

7. Combined Classification:
- In practice, medications are often classified
using a combination of the above criteria. For
instance, a drug like metoprolol can be
classified as a beta-blocker (pharmacological),
antihypertensive (therapeutic), and
prescription medication (regulatory).

8. Route of Administration Classification:

- Medications can also be classified based on
the route of administration, which refers to
how the drug is delivered into the body.
Common routes include oral (taken by mouth),
topical (applied to the skin), intravenous
(injected into a vein), subcutaneous (injected
under the skin), and inhalation (breathed into
the lungs).

9. Duration of Action Classification:

- Drugs can be classified based on their
duration of action, indicating how long the drug
remains active in the body. This classification
helps in determining dosing frequencies and
optimizing treatment regimens. For example,
medications may be classified as short-acting,
intermediate-acting, or long-acting based on
their duration of action.
10. Herbal and Natural Products Classification:
- In addition to pharmaceutical drugs, herbal
remedies and natural products derived from
plants, minerals, or animals are also classified
based on their traditional uses and therapeutic
effects. These products may be regulated
differently and are often categorized separately
from conventional medications.

11. Combination Products Classification:

- Some medications are formulated as
combination products, which contain multiple
active ingredients in a single dosage form. The
classification of these products involves
consideration of the specific combination,
synergistic effects, and therapeutic rationale for
combining multiple agents in a single
formulation.

12. Age-Specific Classification:

- Medications may be classified based on their
suitability for different age groups, including
pediatric, adult, and geriatric populations.
Dosage forms, dosing regimens, and safety
considerations can vary based on age-specific
physiological differences and drug metabolism
rates.

13. Adverse Effects and Safety Classification:

- Medications can also be classified based on
their potential adverse effects and safety
profiles. This classification helps healthcare
providers and patients understand the risks
associated with drug therapy and make
informed decisions about treatment options.

14. International Nonproprietary Name (INN)

Classification:
- The World Health Organization assigns
International Nonproprietary Names (INNs) to
drugs as a universal standard naming system to
facilitate the identification and communication
of pharmaceutical substances worldwide. These
INNs provide a basis for the international
classification of medications.

15. Pharmacopeial Classification:

- Pharmacopeias, such as the United States
Pharmacopeia (USP) and British Pharmacopoeia
(BP), provide standards for the classification of
medicines and drugs, including specifications
for drug quality, purity, potency, and
formulations.

By considering various aspects of classification,

healthcare professionals can effectively select,
prescribe, and monitor the use of medications
to optimize patient outcomes and ensure safe
and effective pharmacotherapy.

Overall, the classification of medicines and

drugs serves as a valuable framework for
organizing and understanding the diverse array
of medications available, assisting healthcare
professionals in prescribing appropriate
treatments and patients in using medications
safely and effectively.
PROPERTIES OF MEDICINE AND DRUGS
Medicines and drugs are substances used to
prevent, diagnose, treat, or cure diseases or
medical conditions. They are designed to
interact with the body in specific ways to
produce a therapeutic effect. Some important
properties of medicines and drugs include:

1. Pharmacological properties: These properties

describe how a drug exerts its therapeutic
effects in the body. This includes the drug's
mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics
(absorption, distribution, metabolism, and
excretion), and pharmacodynamics (effects on
the body).
2. Chemical properties: The chemical structure
of a drug determines its pharmacological
properties and how it interacts with the body.
Chemical properties also affect factors such as
stability, solubility, and bioavailability of the
drug.

3. Physical properties: Physical properties of a

drug include its appearance, taste, odor, and
formulation. These properties can affect patient
compliance and acceptability of the drug.

4. Therapeutic index: The therapeutic index is a

ratio that compares the dose of a drug that
produces therapeutic effects to the dose that
causes toxicity. A higher therapeutic index
indicates a safer drug with a wider margin of
safety.
5. Side effects and adverse reactions: Medicines
and drugs can have side effects and adverse
reactions, which are unintended and potentially
harmful effects. Understanding and managing
these effects is important for safe and effective
use of medications.

6. Drug interactions: Some drugs can interact

with each other, altering their pharmacological
effects or causing harmful reactions. It is
important to be aware of potential drug
interactions when prescribing or taking multiple
medications.

7. Formulation: The way a drug is formulated

can affect its bioavailability, dosing frequency,
and route of administration. Different
formulations (e.g. tablets, capsules, injections)
may be used to optimize the therapeutic effect
of a drug.

8. Stability: The stability of a drug refers to its

ability to maintain its potency and effectiveness
over time. Factors such as temperature, light,
and moisture can affect the stability of a drug.

9. Expiry date: Drugs have an expiry date after

which they may not be safe or effective to use.
It is important to check the expiration date
before taking any medication.
10. Selectivity: Selectivity refers to the ability of
a drug to target specific receptors or pathways
in the body. Selective drugs interact with their
target sites more preferentially, which can help
reduce off-target effects and improve
therapeutic outcomes.

11. Bioavailability: Bioavailability is the fraction

of an administered dose of a drug that reaches
the systemic circulation and is available to
produce an effect. Factors such as drug
formulation, route of administration, and first-
pass metabolism can affect the bioavailability
of a drug.

12. Half-life: The half-life of a drug is the time it

takes for the concentration of the drug in the
body to decrease by half. The half-life
influences dosing frequency and duration of
action of a drug.
13. Dosage form: The dosage form of a drug
refers to the physical form in which it is
administered, such as tablets, capsules, syrups,
or injections. Different dosage forms have
varying rates of absorption and routes of
administration.

14. Efficacy: Efficacy describes the ability of a

drug to produce the desired therapeutic effect.
A drug with high efficacy is more effective at
producing the desired outcome compared to a
drug with lower efficacy.

15. Tolerance: Tolerance occurs when a

patient's response to a drug decreases over
time, requiring higher doses to achieve the
same therapeutic effect. Tolerance can lead to
drug dependence and potentially harmful
effects.

16. Withdrawal: Withdrawal refers to the onset

of symptoms when a drug is discontinued after
prolonged use. Withdrawal symptoms can vary
depending on the drug and may include
physical and psychological effects.

17. Drug metabolism: Drug metabolism refers

to the process by which the body breaks down
and eliminates drugs. Metabolism can affect
the duration of action and effectiveness of a
drug, as well as the potential for drug-drug
interactions.
18. Development of resistance: Some bacteria,
viruses, and cancer cells can develop resistance
to drugs over time, making them less effective
in treating infections or diseases.
Understanding mechanisms of drug resistance
is important in developing new therapies.

19. Storage requirements: Medicines and drugs

may have specific storage requirements,
including temperature, light exposure, and
humidity levels. Proper storage is essential to
maintain the stability and effectiveness of
drugs.

20. Dosage regimen: The dosage regimen of a

drug specifies the dose, frequency, and
duration of treatment. Following the prescribed
dosage regimen is important for achieving
optimal therapeutic outcomes and minimizing
the risk of adverse effects.

21. Placebo effect: The placebo effect refers to

the phenomenon in which a patient
experiences a therapeutic benefit from a
treatment that has no pharmacological effect.
Understanding the placebo effect is important
in clinical trials and patient care.

22. Polypharmacy: Polypharmacy refers to the

use of multiple medications by a patient.
Managing polypharmacy is important to avoid
drug interactions, side effects, and
complications associated with taking multiple
medications simultaneously.
23. Over-the-counter (OTC) vs. prescription
drugs: Medicines and drugs are classified as
either over-the-counter (OTC) or prescription
drugs based on their safety profile and
potential risks. OTC drugs can be purchased
without a prescription, while prescription drugs
require a prescription from a healthcare
provider.

24. Dosage adjustments: Dosage adjustments

may be necessary for certain patient
populations, such as elderly individuals,
children, or patients with kidney or liver
impairment. Individualized dosing
considerations are important to ensure safe
and effective treatment.
25. Compliance and adherence: Compliance
and adherence refer to the extent to which
patients follow their prescribed medication
regimen. Poor compliance can lead to
treatment failure, worsening of symptoms, or
development of complications.

26. Off-label use: Off-label use occurs when a

drug is prescribed for a condition or a patient
population for which it is not approved by
regulatory authorities. Off-label use should be
based on scientific evidence and medical
judgment.

27. Generic vs. brand-name drugs: Generic

drugs are bioequivalent to brand-name drugs
but are typically more affordable.
Understanding the differences between generic
and brand-name drugs can help patients and
healthcare providers make informed decisions.

These properties of medicines and drugs play a

crucial role in determining their effectiveness,
safety, and appropriate use in clinical practice.
Healthcare professionals and patients should
be aware of these properties to ensure optimal
outcomes and minimize risks associated with
medication therapy.

Overall, understanding the properties of

medicines and drugs is crucial for healthcare
professionals to prescribe and administer
medications safely and effectively, and for
patients to use medications appropriately for
their intended purpose.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEDICINE AND
DRUGS
While the terms "medicine" and "drugs" are
often used interchangeably, there are some key
differences between the two:

1. Definition:
- Medicine: Medicine is a broad term that refers
to substances used to prevent, diagnose, treat,
or cure diseases or medical conditions.
Medicines are typically prescribed by
healthcare professionals and are regulated by
government authorities.
- Drugs: Drugs, on the other hand, refer to any
chemical substance that affects the body's
physiological processes. Drugs can include
medications used for therapeutic purposes, as
well as substances used recreationally or
illegally.

2. Legal Classification:
- Medicine: Medicines are typically regulated
and approved by government health
authorities for safety and efficacy. They are
prescribed by healthcare professionals and
dispensed by pharmacists.
- Drugs: Drugs can include both legal and illegal
substances, such as prescription medications,
over-the-counter medications, and illicit drugs.
Illicit drugs are typically illegal to possess, use,
or distribute.

3. Intended Use:
- Medicine: Medicines are intended for
therapeutic purposes, such as treating medical
conditions, managing symptoms, preventing
diseases, or improving health outcomes.
- Drugs: Drugs may be used for therapeutic
purposes, recreational purposes, or illicit
activities. Illegal drugs are often used for non-
medical purposes and can have harmful effects
on the body.

4. Regulation:
- Medicine: Medicines are subject to strict
regulations, testing, and approval processes to
ensure their safety, efficacy, and quality.
Pharmaceutical companies must adhere to
regulatory guidelines when developing and
marketing medicines.
- Drugs: Drugs can vary in terms of regulation
based on their intended use. Prescription
medications are regulated and require a
healthcare professional's prescription, while
over-the-counter medications have less
stringent regulations. Illicit drugs are illegal and
unregulated.

5. Use in Healthcare:
- Medicine: Medicines are an essential part of
healthcare, used to diagnose, prevent, and
treat various medical conditions. Healthcare
professionals prescribe medicines based on a
patient's medical history, symptoms, and
diagnosis.
- Drugs: Drugs can have medical, recreational,
or illicit uses. While some drugs are used
therapeutically under medical supervision,
others are used recreationally or abused for
their psychoactive effects.

6. Formulation:
- Medicine: Medicines are typically formulated
in specific doses and dosage forms (e.g.,
tablets, capsules, injections, syrups) for ease of
administration and optimal therapeutic effects.
Formulation considerations are important for
stability, bioavailability, and patient
compliance.
- Drugs: Drugs can exist in various forms and
formulations, including solid, liquid, semi-solid,
and gas forms. Some drugs may be formulated
for specific routes of administration (e.g., oral,
topical, inhalation).
7. Purpose and Action:
- Medicine: Medicines are designed to have
specific therapeutic effects on the body, such as
relieving symptoms, curing diseases, preventing
conditions, or maintaining health. They target
specific physiological processes or biochemical
pathways.
- Drugs: Drugs can have a wide range of effects
on the body, beyond therapeutic applications.
Some drugs may alter mood, perception, or
consciousness when used recreationally or
illicitly, leading to potential abuse or addiction.

8. Safety and Side Effects:

- Medicine: Medicines undergo rigorous testing
to ensure their safety and efficacy for clinical
use. They are prescribed based on individual
patient characteristics and medical history to
minimize adverse effects and optimize
treatment outcomes.
- Drugs: Some drugs, especially illicit or
recreational drugs, can have significant safety
risks and side effects, including dependency,
addiction, overdose, and serious health
complications. The misuse of drugs can pose
serious health hazards.

9. Availability and Access:

- Medicine: Prescription medicines are available
through healthcare providers and pharmacies,
following a diagnosis and prescription. Over-
the-counter (OTC) medicines can be purchased
without a prescription but still have regulatory
oversight.
- Drugs: Illicit drugs are not legally available for
purchase or use and are associated with legal
consequences. Recreational drugs may be
accessible through illicit channels or in
jurisdictions where they are legally available for
adult use.

10. Research and Development:

- Medicine: The development of medicines
involves extensive research, preclinical studies,
clinical trials, and regulatory approvals before
they can be marketed and used in healthcare
settings. Pharmaceutical companies invest
resources in developing new medicines.
- Drugs: The study of drugs encompasses a wide
range of substances, including therapeutic
agents, psychoactive compounds, and harmful
substances. Research on drugs may focus on
understanding their effects, mechanisms of
action, and potential risks associated with their
use.

These differences highlight the varied roles,

regulations, purposes, and considerations
associated with medicine and drugs, reflecting
their impact on healthcare, society, and
individual health outcomes.

In summary, while medicines are a subset of

drugs used for therapeutic purposes in
healthcare settings, drugs encompass a broader
range of substances that can have various
implications, including therapeutic,
recreational, or illicit uses. The main difference
lies in their intended use, regulation, and legal
classification.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDICINE AND
DRUGS
Definition and Characteristics of Medicine:

Medicine:
- Definition: Medicine refers to substances
or preparations used for the prevention,
diagnosis, treatment, or cure of diseases or
medical conditions in humans or animals.
Medicines can be prescribed by healthcare
professionals and are regulated for safety,
efficacy, and quality.
- Characteristics:
1. Therapeutic: Medicines have therapeutic
properties and are intended to produce
specific beneficial effects on the body to
alleviate symptoms, treat diseases, or
improve health outcomes.
2. Regulation: Medicines undergo rigorous
testing, approval, and regulatory oversight
to ensure their safety, efficacy, and quality.
Pharmaceutical companies must adhere to
regulatory guidelines when manufacturing
and marketing medicines.
3. Purpose-driven: Medicines are used for
specific medical purposes based on a
patient's diagnosis, medical history,
symptoms, and healthcare provider's
recommendations. They are prescribed
based on evidence-based guidelines to
optimize treatment outcomes.
4. Formulation: Medicines are formulated in
specific doses and dosage forms, such as
tablets, capsules, syrups, injections, or
topical preparations, to facilitate
administration, bioavailability, and patient
adherence.
5. Patient-specific: Medicines are prescribed
based on individual patient characteristics,
including age, weight, medical history,
allergies, and potential drug interactions.
Tailoring medicines to each patient helps
ensure personalized and effective
treatment.

Definition and Characteristics of Drugs:

Drugs:
- Definition: Drugs refer to chemical
substances that affect physiological
processes in the body, including
therapeutic, psychoactive, or harmful
effects. Drugs can include medications used
for medical purposes, recreational
substances, or illicit substances.
- Characteristics:
1. Broad Scope: Drugs encompass a wide
range of substances with varied
pharmacological effects, including
therapeutic drugs used in healthcare,
recreational drugs used for non-medical
purposes, and illicit drugs with potential
legal and health risks.
2. Regulation Varies: Drugs may be
regulated differently based on their
intended use. Prescription medications are
subject to stringent regulations and require
healthcare provider prescriptions. Over-the-
counter medications have less stringent
regulations, while illicit drugs are illegal.
3. Effects on the Body: Drugs can have
diverse effects on the body, including
therapeutic, psychoactive, or harmful
effects. Some drugs target specific
physiological processes or receptors, while
others may alter mood, perception, or
consciousness.
4. Potential for Abuse: Some drugs,
particularly recreational or illicit drugs, have
a higher potential for abuse, dependency,
addiction, and adverse health effects.
Understanding the risks associated with
drug use is important in promoting safe and
responsible behavior.
5. Varied Forms: Drugs can exist in different
forms and formulations, such as solid,
liquid, semi-solid, gas, or topical
preparations. The formulation of a drug can
affect its pharmacokinetics, bioavailability,
and route of administration.

In summary, while medicine and drugs

overlap in their use of chemical substances
to affect physiological processes in the
body, they differ in terms of regulation,
intended use, purpose, and impact on
health outcomes. Medicines are a subset of
drugs used for therapeutic purposes in
healthcare, while drugs encompass a
broader range of substances with varied
effects and implications.
FATE OF MEDICINE
The fate of medicines refers to what
happens to a drug once it is
administered or ingested in the body.
The fate of medicines includes several
processes that occur within the body,
determining the drug's absorption,
distribution, metabolism, and excretion
(ADME). These processes collectively
influence the drug's therapeutic effect,
duration of action, and potential side
effects. Here is an overview of the fate
of medicines:
1. Absorption: Absorption is the process
by which a drug enters the bloodstream
from its site of administration. The rate
and extent of drug absorption determine
how quickly and how much of the drug
reaches systemic circulation. The route
of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous,
topical) affects the absorption rate of a
drug.

2. Distribution: Distribution refers to the

dissemination of a drug throughout the
body via the bloodstream. Drugs can
distribute to various tissues, organs, and
body compartments depending on
factors such as blood flow, tissue
perfusion, protein binding, and lipid
solubility. The drug's ability to reach its
target site influences its therapeutic
effect.

3. Metabolism: Metabolism, also known

as biotransformation, involves the
chemical alteration of a drug's structure
in the body. Drug metabolism
predominantly occurs in the liver, where
enzymes break down the drug into
metabolites that are more easily
eliminated. Metabolism can activate,
deactivate, or alter the pharmacological
properties of a drug.

4. Excretion: Excretion is the elimination

of drugs and their metabolites from the
body, primarily through the kidneys
(urine) and liver (bile). Other routes of
excretion include feces, sweat, saliva,
and breath. The rate of drug excretion
influences the drug's half-life and overall
duration of action.

5. Metabolites: As drugs undergo

metabolism in the body, they are
converted into metabolites with varying
pharmacological activity. Some
metabolites may retain the therapeutic
effect of the parent drug, while others
can be inactive, toxic or more potent
than the original compound. The
elimination of metabolites is essential to
prevent their accumulation in the body.

6. Elimination: Clearance is the body's

ability to eliminate a drug from the
systemic circulation, often quantified as
the drug's clearance rate. Factors such as
renal function, liver function, age, and
genetic factors can influence drug
clearance and the duration of drug
action in the body.
Understanding the fate of medicines is
crucial for healthcare professionals to
optimize drug therapy, minimize adverse
effects, and ensure therapeutic efficacy.
Factors such as drug interactions,
patient-specific characteristics, and
disease states can affect the ADME
processes of a drug, ultimately
influencing its fate and effectiveness in
clinical practice.

SOURCES OF MEDICINE
Sources of Medicines:

1. Natural Sources:
- Plants: Many medicines are derived from
plant sources. Examples include aspirin from
willow bark, digoxin from foxglove plant, and
quinine from the cinchona tree.
- Animals: Some medicines are derived from
animal sources. For example, insulin is derived
from the pancreas of pigs or cows, and heparin
is obtained from the mucosal tissues of pigs
and cows.

2. Microbial Sources:
- Bacteria and fungi are used to produce
antibiotics and other medicines through
fermentation processes. Examples include
penicillin produced from the fungus Penicillium
and streptomycin from the bacterium
Streptomyces griseus.

3. Synthetic Sources:
- Many medicines are synthesized in
laboratories using chemical reactions. These
synthetic drugs can mimic the structure and
function of natural compounds or be designed
for specific therapeutic purposes.

4. Marine Sources:
- Marine organisms, such as sponges, corals,
and algae, are being explored as potential
sources of novel medicines. Marine-derived
compounds have shown promise in drug
discovery for various diseases.
5. Biotechnological Sources:
- Biotechnology techniques are used to produce
medicines, such as genetically engineered
proteins, antibodies, and vaccines.
Biopharmaceuticals are a rapidly growing class
of medicines derived from biotechnological
sources.

6. Traditional Sources:
- Traditional medicine systems, such as
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and
Ayurveda, have a rich history of using natural
sources, including plants, herbs, and minerals,
to prepare medicines for various health
conditions.
7. Nanotechnology Sources:
- Nanomedicine involves the use of
nanoparticles and nanoscale materials for drug
delivery and targeted therapy. Nanotechnology
is a cutting-edge source of medicines with
potential benefits in precision medicine and
personalized healthcare.

8. Combinatorial Sources:
- Some medicines are derived from a
combination of natural, synthetic, and
biotechnological sources. Combination
therapies are often used to enhance treatment
efficacy, reduce side effects, and improve
patient outcomes.
In conclusion, medicines are sourced from a
diverse range of natural, microbial, synthetic,
marine, biotechnological, traditional, and
nanotechnology sources. Understanding the
sources of medicines is essential for drug
discovery, development, and delivery in
modern healthcare practices. Researchers
continue to explore new sources and innovative
technologies to create effective and safe
medicines for treating various medical
conditions.

BRANCHES OF PHARMACOLOGY:
PHARMACOLOGY
Pharmacology is a diverse field that
encompasses the study of drugs and
their interactions with living organisms.
Within pharmacology, there are several
branches that focus on different aspects
of drug action and use. The main
branches of pharmacology include:

a. Pharmacokinetics: This branch of

pharmacology deals with how drugs are
absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and
excreted by the body. Pharmacokinetics
helps in understanding how the body
processes drugs, including how quickly a
drug is absorbed into the bloodstream,
how long it stays in the body, and how it
is eliminated.
Example: Pharmacokinetic studies may
involve measuring the concentration of a
drug in the blood over time after
administration to determine its half-life
or how the drug is metabolized in the
liver.

b. Pharmacodynamics:
Pharmacodynamics is the study of how
drugs exert their effects on the body. It
explores the relationship between the
concentration of a drug at its site of
action and the resulting pharmacological
response. This branch helps in
understanding the mechanisms of drug
action and how drugs interact with
specific receptors or enzymes.

Example: Pharmacodynamic studies may

investigate how a drug binds to a
receptor and triggers a biological
response or how a drug inhibits an
enzyme's activity to achieve a
therapeutic effect.

c. Clinical Pharmacology: Clinical

pharmacology focuses on the application
of pharmacological principles in clinical
practice. It involves studying how drugs
are used in patients, including dosing
regimens, drug interactions, therapeutic
monitoring, and adverse effects. Clinical
pharmacologists play a vital role in
optimizing drug therapy for individual
patients.

Example: Clinical pharmacologists may

conduct clinical trials to evaluate the
safety and efficacy of a new drug in
patients with a specific medical
condition before it is approved for
widespread use.

d. Toxicology: Toxicology is the branch of

pharmacology that deals with the
adverse effects of drugs and other
chemicals on living organisms. It involves
assessing the potential toxicity of
substances, identifying toxic
mechanisms, and establishing safe
exposure limits. Toxicologists study the
toxic effects of drugs, environmental
pollutants, and chemicals to protect
human health and the environment.

Example: Toxicology studies may involve

investigating the toxic effects of an
overdose of a medication, assessing the
risks associated with environmental
toxins, or determining the toxicity of a
new chemical compound before its
release into the market.

Each branch of pharmacology plays a

crucial role in understanding how drugs
work, how they can be safely and
effectively used in patients, and how
toxic effects can be minimized.
Researchers and healthcare
professionals often collaborate across
these branches to advance drug
development and improve patient care.

TERMS IN PHARMACOLOGY
a. Dose and Dosage Forms: The dose refers to the
amount of a drug administered at one time, while
dosage forms refer to the various ways in which
medications can be taken (e.g. tablet, liquid,
injection). An example of this would be taking a
500mg tablet of ibuprofen for pain relief.

b. Side Effects and Contra-Indication: Side effects

are unwanted effects of a drug, while contra-
indications are situations where a drug should not
be used due to potential harm. For example, a side
effect of taking antibiotics can be stomach upset,
and they are contra-indicated for patients with a
known allergy to that antibiotic.

c. Antagonism and Tolerance: Antagonism occurs

when one drug interferes with the action of
another, while tolerance is the decreased response
to a drug over time. An example of this would be
antihistamines counteracting the effects of
histamines in the body, or a patient developing
tolerance to pain medication after prolonged use.

d. Addiction and Dependence: Addiction is a

psychological and physical dependence on a drug,
while dependence is a reliance on a drug to function
normally. An example of this would be someone
addicted to opioids due to the euphoric effects,
while a patient may be dependent on insulin to
manage their diabetes.

e. Sensitivity and Hypersensitivity: Sensitivity refers

to how receptive an individual is to a drug, while
hypersensitivity is an exaggerated immune
response to a drug. For example, a patient may be
sensitive to sedatives and require a lower dose,
while someone with a penicillin allergy may have a
hypersensitive reaction.
f. Compliance and Synergism: Compliance refers to
how well a patient follows prescribed drug
regimens, while synergism is when two drugs work
together to produce a greater effect than either
would alone. An example of this would be a diabetic
patient following their insulin regimen correctly and
also taking a medication that enhances the insulin's
effects.

g. Potentiation and Cumulative Effects: Potentiation

is when one drug enhances the effects of another,
while cumulative effects occur when a drug builds
up in the body over time. For example, alcohol
potentiates the sedative effects of some
medications, and certain drugs with long half-lives
can lead to cumulative effects if not properly
cleared from the body.
h. Chemotherapy and Therapeutics: Chemotherapy
is the use of drugs to treat cancer, while
therapeutics refers to the treatment of diseases
with medications. An example of this would be a
cancer patient undergoing chemotherapy to shrink
tumors, while someone with high cholesterol may
be prescribed statins for therapeutic purposes.

i. Allergy and Abuse/Misuse of Drugs: Allergy is an

immune response to a drug, while drug
abuse/misuse is the inappropriate use of
medications for non-medical purposes. For
example, someone with a sulfa allergy may react to
antibiotics containing sulfa, while a person abusing
prescription opioids for recreational purposes is
engaging in drug misuse.