Pak.

Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

WAR ON TERROR IMPACTS ON SOCIAL FABRIC: INTRA-

STATE SECTARIANISM AND SOCIAL COHESION IN
PAKISTAN

Hussain Ali
Phd, Scholar
School of International and Public Affairs
Jilin University
Jilin - China
[email protected]

Babar Ali
Bachelor
Department of Political Science
Government Degree College Khair Abad
Mardan - Pakistan
[email protected]

Ayesha Tassawar
Master, Scholar
School of International and Public Affairs
Jilin University
Jilin - China
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper examines the profound impacts of Pakistan's involvement in the global
war on terror, initiated in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. As a frontline state
bordering Afghanistan, Pakistan became a non-formal ally of the U.S. in this
conflict. However, the consequences have been detrimental, affecting various facets
of Pakistani society. The study delves into the social, political, economic, and
religious ramifications of the war on terror, exploring how it has hindered economic
development, disrupted the social fabric, and altered political landscapes. The
research underscores the intensified conflict, reaching densely populated areas like
the federally administered tribal areas, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, northern areas, and
Karachi. The findings reveal a significant inverse relationship between terrorist
activities and political, economic, and social advancements. Moreover, the security
situation in Pakistan rapidly deteriorated, necessitating military operations within
the country to counter terrorism. Overall, the war on terror has left a lasting impact
on Pakistan's political, economic, social, and religious dimensions.

15
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

Key words: War on Terror, Impacts, Social Fabric, Intra-State Sectarianism, Social Cohesion,
Pakistan

Introduction

The "war on terrorism," initiated by the United States post-9/11, aimed to reshape global
relations akin to the Cold War's complexity and impact. This multifaceted campaign left enduring
consequences on surveillance, civil rights, international laws, collaborations, and democratic
accountability. (Brzezinski, 2007). The "war on terrorism" involved major conflicts in Afghanistan
and Iraq, clandestine operations in Yemen, increased military assistance to allies, and a surge in
military spending. On the intelligence front, it led to restructuring, enhanced funding for
intelligence capabilities, global efforts to apprehend suspects, expanded collaborations with
foreign intelligence, and rigorous monitoring of terrorist financing. (Croft, 2006). The "war on
terrorism" encompassed diplomatic efforts to build global coalitions, counter anti-American
sentiment, and legislative measures like the USA Patriot Act. Security institutions, such as the
Department of Homeland Security, were established, and preventive detention, surveillance, and
intelligence programs were implemented by agencies like the NSA and FBI. Security measures at
public events, airports, and borders were reinforced (O’Connell, 2005).

On September 11, 2001, nineteen militants affiliated with Al-Qaida hijacked four planes, executing
suicide attacks on various targets in the United States. Reports indicate that nearly three thousand
Americans lost their lives in these terrorist acts (Howell et al., 2009), Under President George
Bush's leadership, extensive counter-terrorism initiatives were ignited following the 9/11 attacks.
The predominantly Islamic terrorists, motivated by perceived grievances, including U.S. support
for Israel and military presence in the Middle East, were financed by Al-Qaida, led by Usama Bin
Laden. Some spent almost a year in the U.S., undergoing flight training, while others infiltrated
the country in the months leading up to September 11, serving as key operatives in the operation.
(Demir & Guler, 2021). In the aftermath of the attacks, President George Bush delivered a televised
address to the nation, expressing condolences for the loss of American lives and outlining a vision
for a global eradication of terrorism. Emphasizing the resilience of the United States, he asserted
that while terrorists could impact physical structures, they could not undermine the fundamental
strength of the nation. Characterizing the attacks as atrocities that might damage steel but not the
resolve of America, he pledged an unwavering commitment to pursue justice. In a resolute
declaration, President Bush assured the nation that there would be no distinction made between
the terrorists responsible for such acts and those who provided them shelter, alluding to the decisive
military response by the United States. (Bush, 2021). In response to President Bush's speech,
"Operation Enduring Freedom" commenced on October 7, marking an international effort
spearheaded by the United States to oust the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and dismantle Usama
bin Laden's terrorist network. The U.S. military swiftly eliminated the Taliban from operational
control within two months, yet the conflict persisted as American and coalition forces sought to

16
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

quell a Taliban insurgency concentrated in neighboring Pakistan. The operation stood as a

dedicated initiative to eradicate terrorism on a global scale. (Acharya, 2007).

Pakistan Joining the War on Terror

In a focused context, Pakistan informally aligned with the United States in the global war
on terror, primarily due to its status as a haven for fugitive terrorist groups. The justification
remains debatable, but Pakistan bore immense costs, including military losses and financial
burdens. A study suggests that Pakistani society underwent a profound transformation, marked by
increased intolerance and extremism as the war infiltrated its territory. (Tellis, 2008). Pakistan,
once considered one of the most perilous nations globally, was particularly deemed precarious
during Musharaf's tenure. The country's anti-terrorism strategy has consistently fallen short of
expectations. Following the events of September 11, Pakistan faced an imminent military threat
from the United States, compelling Musharaf to position Pakistan as a crucial ally in the war on
terrorism. Consequently, Pakistan's decision to align with NATO nations in combating terrorism
in Afghanistan was seen as a significant shift in its foreign policy towards Afghanistan, marking a
departure from its previous stance (Umbreen, 2011).

Preceding 9/11, Pakistan lacked a comprehensive anti-terrorism framework and displayed no

inclination to establish one. However, in an unprecedented step, the Musharaf government pledged
to address the escalating terrorism threats to the nation's security post-9/11. Research indicates that
terrorism posed a significant risk to both the economic prosperity and overall peace conditions in
Pakistan, prompting the government to take decisive action to counteract these burgeoning
challenges. (M. T. Khan, 2013. In the 1990s, domestic violence in Pakistan led to military
intervention against political and ethnic brutality. However, post-9/11 events blurred the line
between domestic and foreign security, prompting a strategic shift. This study argues for a multi-
dimensional anti-terrorism strategy, emphasizing a proactive, non-conventional approach to
address Pakistan's evolving security concerns. It underscores the necessity for a nuanced and
sustainable approach to tackle the intricate challenges posed by terrorism. (Katz, 2016).

Despite its pivotal role as a frontline participant in the American war on terror since September
2001, Pakistan has borne severe consequences. The conflict has wrought havoc on the nation,
hindering economic growth, disrupting the social fabric, and endangering political stability.
Pakistan's active engagement in the war has resulted in an upsurge in terrorist attacks across the
country, leading to far-reaching political, economic, social, and psychological ramifications.
Research indicates that Pakistani society, once regarded as one of the most tranquil globally,
underwent substantial changes in its social fabric and political economy since the USSR invasion
of Afghanistan in 1979. (Kayani, 2011). In the 1980s, global powers supported military
organizations in Pakistan against Russia, fostering a jihadi culture. Significant aid flowed to the
Pakistani government and militant groups, turning Pakistan into fertile ground for terrorism. After
Russia's exit, terrorism spread in response to the changed political landscape. Post-9/11, Pakistan

17
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

joined the global fight against terrorism, effectively countering militants but exacerbating domestic
terrorism, fostering hostility and fear among the public. (Amin & Naseer, 2013). The emergence
of terrorism in Pakistan reflects a global affliction, transcending national boundaries and impacting
societies worldwide. It has become a pressing socioeconomic and political issue, influencing not
only Pakistan but the entire world. The phenomenon underscores the imperative role of social
thinkers and analysts as catalysts for meaningful social change. In understanding and addressing
the multifaceted dimensions of terrorism, these individuals play a pivotal role in shaping
perspectives and formulating strategies to mitigate the far-reaching consequences of this complex
global challenge. (M. Z. Khan, 2017Social thinkers should prioritize mitigating the fear from
terrorism's adverse effects on social well-being. Pakistan's government grappled with sectarianism,
emphasizing social cohesion as a countermeasure. Sectarian tensions hinder efforts to eradicate
both sectarianism and terrorism, requiring a holistic approach. The global spread of violent
extremism underscores the profound impact, necessitating collaboration to address interconnected
challenges. (Zaman, 1998). Terrorism represents a grave violation of human rights, particularly in
terms of liberty, life, personal integrity, and security. Its impact extends beyond personal
consequences to pose a threat to international peace, community, security, and socio-economic
progress (Shah, 2020). Countering terrorism, extremism, and sectarianism requires a
comprehensive approach integrating all society segments. Collective efforts and a holistic
understanding, extending beyond national boundaries, are essential to address these complex
challenges.

RELATED LITERATURE

The War on Terror has diverse impacts on Pakistan, leading to socioeconomic decline. Post-
9/11, disruptions in peace and religious harmony fueled intrastate sectarianism. Scholarly research
extensively examines the consequences, emphasizing Pakistan's alliance with the U.S. against
terrorism. This literature forms a crucial background, providing insights into the intricate dynamics
of Pakistan's role in the War on Terror.

Tariq Khan (2013) This study delves into the profound impacts of the War on Terror on
Pakistan, asserting its frontline role since September 2001. The conflict has inflicted extensive
damage on the nation, hindering economic growth, disrupting social structures, and imperiling
political stability. Focused on a two-year span, the research highlights the intensification of the
war, expanding into established areas, with the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) bearing the brunt. The author elucidates that terrorism manifests
through harassment, suicide attacks, and unjustifiable killings, aiming to disrupt daily life, damage
infrastructure, and undermine the economic and social well-being while tearing at the social fabric.
Terrorist activities significantly impact economic growth by diminishing foreign investment,
capital formation, local investments, and elevating risk perception. The author contends that
historically, war-torn countries, whether in Europe, the USA, or elsewhere, have experienced
economic downturns. Determining the precise economic losses attributable to the War on Terror

18
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

proves challenging, with Pakistan's Finance Ministry estimating a $67 billion loss without
specifying the methodology.

Moreover, Zahid Shahab Ahmad and Musharad Zahoor (2020), In their research papers,
the authors argue that religious minorities in Pakistan have faced persecution since the country's
independence. The 1980s' rise of Islamization exacerbated religious persecution, prejudices, and
violence against minorities, resulting in widespread structural violence and violation of their civil
rights. The 9/11 attacks reshaped global dynamics, particularly in Pakistan, where Anti-
American/Western sentiments surged with the War on Terror. The study notes that extremist groups
label local Christians as Western spies due to drone attacks, fostering distrust. Post-9/11, Muslim
diasporas in the West face fear and Islamophobia, straining inter-group relations. Public discourse
often portrays Muslims as incompatible with Western values, contributing to a global pattern of
dehumanization, exemplified in political spheres, including the dehumanization of former
President Barack Obama based on his race.

Nadia Mushtaq Abbasi (2013) The analysis emphasizes the lasting impacts of the War on
Terror on Pakistan, highlighting the nation's struggle with insecurity and political violence since
the 1980s. Despite twelve years of active involvement, there's no clear resolution in sight, with
terrorism intensifying and posing dire consequences. Pakistan's proximity to Afghanistan, the war's
epicenter, compelled its participation, but historical hesitations stem from the prolonged US and
Western involvement, leaving behind an Islamic Jihad residue in the region after their withdrawal.
Hidayat Ullah argues that Pakistan, a significant net troop contributor to the United
Nations, has played a pivotal role in global crisis resolution. Positioned strategically in South Asia,
Central Asia, and the Middle East, and being a key partner to the US near Afghanistan, Pakistan
actively contributed to the US-led global war on terrorist groups and the Taliban. This collaboration
traces back to the Cold War, extending into the post-9/11 era when the incident triggered a
determined US response. The primary objectives were targeting Osama bin Laden, addressing the
Taliban's harboring of him in Afghanistan, and engaging in a broader international war against
terrorism, distinct from a battle against Islam or the Afghan people.

Dr. Saima Ashraf Kayani (2011) contends in her research paper that while terrorism has
existed in various forms for a considerable period, the incidents of 9/11 and the subsequent grand
war on terror elevated it to a global phenomenon. A historical analysis reveals diverse periods,
groups, methods, individuals, and motivations associated with terrorism. The war on terror aimed
to eradicate global terrorism and hold the 9/11 hijackers accountable, targeting states sponsoring
terrorism and terrorist organizations. Pakistan, chosen as a regional ally, faced exacerbated
challenges due to its involvement in the war on terrorism. The article estimates that Pakistan
suffered over eight thousand casualties, both civilian and security personnel, within eight years,
resulting in significant economic and psychological damage to the nation.

Zafar Iqbal and Sumaira Lodhi (2014) argue that Pakistan has witnessed a substantial rise

19
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

in violent religious extremism in recent years. The current economic crisis is attributed to factors
like unstable governance, ineffective policies, corruption, resource misallocation, and
underutilization. The government's failure to effectively counter terrorism and extremism,
especially during the war on terror, has exacerbated the economic collapse. Indicators of this
struggle include low GDP growth, reduced interest from economists in public and private
investment, heightened unemployment, decreased foreign direct investment (FDI), and
unprecedented poverty levels. Target killings and suicide attacks represent extreme manifestations
of extremist violence, significantly contributing to the economic downturn. This violence not only
disrupts law and order but also impedes business and financial activities, jeopardizing the nation's
overall stability.

Bruce Riedel (2014) The article argues that Pakistan is both a significant sponsor of
terrorism and a major victim of it. Despite experiencing horrific terrorist attacks, such as the
assassination of Benazir Bhutto, Pakistan is considered an active state sponsor of terrorism, driven
by its national security goals. The Pakistani army is implicated in establishing connections with
various Islamist terror organizations, including the Taliban and Osama Bin Laden, driven by its
fear of India. The article contends that Pakistani support for the Taliban played a crucial role, with
over sixty thousand Pakistani students estimated to have fought in Afghanistan in support of the
Taliban against the U.S. The military's involvement included providing advice and covert
operations, indicating Pakistan's comprehensive knowledge of the Taliban's military capabilities,
command structure, and supply routes.
Zahid Shahab Ahmad and Khan Zeb (2016) explore the impact of the war on terror on
youth in Pakistan, noting that pervasive terrorist activities have generated a sense of unease among
the populace, evident in observed behaviors. The complex nature of terrorism, with varying
perspectives on its definition, contributes to the challenge of categorization. The invisibility of
terrorists in Pakistan exacerbates this unease, leading to emotions like anxiety and depression.
Youth, having direct or indirect exposure to terrorism, bear the brunt of psychological issues. The
study reveals that 91 percent of university students in Karachi experienced terrorism primarily
through electronic media. Economic conditions, as highlighted in the research, leave many youths
with no option but to join terrorist organizations, emphasizing the broader, indirect impact of
terrorism on the nation.

The article by Zain ul Abideen et al. explores Pakistan's challenges since joining the war
on terror in 2001, highlighting its impact on national integrity, social dynamics, and the overall
fabric. The decision triggered a decline in security, leading to military operations against domestic
threats. This war has significantly shaped Pakistan's political, social, and economic landscape,
contributing to global divides in sentiments toward the U.S. As a staunch ally, Pakistan faces
heightened security risks. The article probes into sectarianism, identifying religious extremism and
violence as contributors to ongoing conflicts and social polarization, exacerbated by foreign
involvement and support for diverse religious schools of thought.

20
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

Methodology

Our social sciences research employs qualitative methods, emphasizing the exploration of
ideas and behaviors to comprehensively address theoretical questions. Through a descriptive
approach, we analyze the war on terror's impacts on Pakistan's social fabric, drawing from diverse
opinions. This study not only enhances immediate understanding but also lays groundwork for
future inquiries in Political Science and International Relations. Utilizing a deductive approach,
our investigation progresses from general to specific, delving into intricate dimensions of social,
political, economic, religious, and psychological aspects affected by the conflict. Diverse scholarly
sources contribute to a thorough exploration, ensuring a nuanced examination of the subject matter.

DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

In response to the US-led invasion of Afghanistan on September 11, 2001, Pakistan, under
the leadership of General Pervez Musharaf, unequivocally supported the coalition, positioning
itself as a frontline state in the war on terror. The regrettable decision to provide land and aviation
facilities to the US and its allies for operations against alleged perpetrators of the 9/11 attacks had
significant repercussions for Pakistan. Subsequently, the Taliban and Al Qaeda labeled Pakistan an
enemy of Islam, initiating targeted attacks on the state and society in an attempt to compel it to
cease support for the Western coalition (Siddiqa, 2011). This transformed Pakistan into a
battleground for a proxy war, with various sectarian groups and organizations exploiting the
situation to advance their respective agendas. The proliferation of bomb blasts, suicide bombings,
and other forms of violence has instilled profound fear and terror across both small and large cities
in Pakistan, with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Baluchistan, and Karachi experiencing the most severe
consequences. Exploiting the situation, adversaries of Pakistan sought to destabilize the nation by
promoting separatist elements in different provinces. (H. Khan, 2013).

Pakistan has borne a substantial toll, both in human lives and financial resources, due to its
involvement in the war on terror. Approximately seventy thousand Pakistanis have lost their lives,
and the country has expended over a hundred million dollars in its defense. Regardless of the most
persuasive argument, there is widespread acknowledgment that Pakistan's choices in aligning with
the war on terror after the 9/11 attacks were excessive. The impact has been severe, with around
35,000 civilians and officers falling victim to militancy and brutality (Kayani, 2011). Some costs,
such as religious division, the rise of militant gatherings, and the breakdown of traditional political
and social administrative structures in tribal regions, are challenging to quantify. The consequences
also include communal upheaval and the displacement of people within the country due to anti-
Semitism. Terrorism-related activities have taken a toll on the already fragile economy, putting
Pakistan in a precarious position with both internal and external challenges posing an existential
threat to the nation. (Arshad, 2010).

21
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

Terrorism, characterized by indiscriminate and unjustified mass violence, particularly through

tactics like suicide bombings, creates an environment of fear. This fear factor not only discourages
foreign direct investment (FDI) but also triggers capital flight and reduces overall economic
activities due to a pervasive sense of insecurity among both businesses and the public. Pakistan,
having aligned itself with the war on terror in 2001, faced these consequences as the activities of
terrorists instilled fear and uncertainty, negatively impacting the nation's economic landscape. (Ali,
2010).

Economic Ripples: Unpacking the Impact of the War on Terror

In the realm of the economic repercussions of terrorism on Pakistan, the initial casualty
was the country's tourism sector. Prior to the onset of the war on terror, Pakistan had experienced
a thriving tourism industry, with millions of visitors and the establishment of a dedicated tourism
department elevating the nation to a sought-after destination. However, a comprehensive study
reveals that Pakistan's active participation in the war on terror and its ensuing aftermath led to a
near dissolution of the tourism sector in the first decade of the 21st century. While other events
such as the earthquakes in 2005 and floods in 2010 also contributed, terrorism emerged as the
predominant factor. Regrettably, the picturesque tourist havens in Pakistan, specifically the
Northern Areas and Gilgit Baltistan, were compelled to shutter due to the infiltration of extremist
elements. (Bano & Khan, 2020). Swat, located in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and often
referred to as the Switzerland of Pakistan, was formerly a renowned tourist haven. Recognized for
its natural splendor and rich historical heritage, Swat boasted over four hundred Buddhist sites,
captivating waterfalls, expansive meadows, flowing streams, and various other attractions within
its district (Rabbi, 2012). This region accommodated a network of more than forty thousand people
engaged in diverse sectors such as adventure tourism, ecotourism, travel industries, and
recreational trades. Swat held the distinction of being a multifaceted tourist destination, catering
to a broad spectrum of portable industries and offering a rich tapestry of experiences for visitors.
Nevertheless, the city of Swat experienced a substantial setback in its tourist industry due to
militancy and subsequent military interventions. Formerly recognized as the lost paradise of
Pakistan, Swat employed over five thousand people in large-scale businesses, including hotels and
restaurants. Regrettably, the city witnessed nearly fifty hotel attacks orchestrated by terrorists,
leading to their closure and a severe blow to the entire travel industry. The Taliban's actions in
Swat significantly undermined the once-thriving tourism sector. However, commendable efforts
by the PTI government have enabled Swat to reclaim its former prominence and influence in the
tourist industry. Despite these positive developments, during the war on terror, the government of
Pakistan incurred losses exceeding 100 billion dollars in counterinsurgency operations,
exacerbating the challenges faced by the tourist industry. (Javaid, 2020).

Baluchistan, another region of significant geological and archaeological importance, faced adverse
consequences due to resistance against the Pakistani army's military actions. Ziarat, a picturesque
mountain resort in Baluchistan, renowned for its paleontological significance and historical

22
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

artifacts, attracted numerous explorers and researchers. This tourist attraction, known for its
juniper forests and panoramic views, held additional significance as the former residence of
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan. Unfortunately, on June 15th, Baloch Zealots
detonated an explosive in a prominent habitation, causing substantial damage to the neighborhood
and the tourist sector. This incident further exacerbated the challenges faced by the tourist industry
in Baluchistan during the turbulent period of the war on terror. (Raza & Jawaid, 2013).

Furthermore, the detrimental impact on the tourism sector extended with the tragic loss of several
international tourists. In the base camp of Nanga Parbat, ten foreign climbers and a local visitor
fell victim to acts of terrorism. The victims included individuals of diverse nationalities, such as
one American of Chinese ancestry, three Ukrainians, two Chinese, one Lithuanian, two Slovaks,
and one Nepalese. These targeted attacks not only resulted in the loss of precious lives but also
significantly tarnished Pakistan's travel industry reputation both domestically and internationally.
The repercussions of these incidents reverberated, directly affecting the lives of many individuals
dependent on the tourism sector. (R. E. A. Khan & Rasheed, 2016). These incidents and the
subsequent losses induced fear among Pakistani vacationers, leading them to abandon their
meticulously planned excursions, resulting in a significant setback for the country. Notably, Ihsan
Ullah Ihsan, the Pakistani Taliban leader, acknowledged his group's involvement in the attacks
through a videotape. According to him, the assault was a retaliatory measure for the actions of the
American airforce, which had resulted in the death of their fighter, Wali Rehman Mehsud. Ihsan
further explained that the attack was orchestrated by the newly unveiled Tehreek-i-Taliban wing
named "Junoon-e-Hafsa," specifically created to target foreigners in Pakistan and make a statement
against U.S. strikes worldwide on any member of the group. (Raza et al., n.d.).
Primarily, the terrorists aimed to inflict damage on the travel industry, tarnish Pakistan's image,
and isolate it internationally. Studies indicate that once a negative perception of a country takes
root among outsiders, rebuilding trust becomes a challenging, lengthy process (Qadri & Khan,
2019). Numerous instances of harm and execution of Chinese experts and individuals from other
nationalities in Pakistan have perpetuated concerns within the travel industry. Despite ongoing
debates within Pakistan's travel sector about the accuracy and impact of such incidents, these tragic
occurrences have exacerbated existing apprehensions, dissuading potential visitors. Moreover,
terrorism has significantly undermined Pakistan's economic foundations, impeding its economic
growth during the prolonged war on terror. Since the events of 9/11, Pakistan's economy faced
substantial challenges amid the fight against terrorism, especially as it aligned itself with the
United States. (A. Khan et al., 2020).

In essence, the economy of Pakistan suffered severe setbacks due to the war on terror, resulting in
a myriad of economic crises. Progress was impeded, external obligations reached critical levels,
trade dwindled, unemployment surged, commodity prices soared, and military expenditures
escalated significantly. The onslaught of terrorist attacks dealt a severe blow to the once-thriving
travel industry. Moreover, military operations targeted the nation's infrastructure, exacerbating the
economic strain. The influx of refugees from Afghanistan and other conflict-ridden regions

23
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

strained the country's economy, prompting extensive research by business analysts. The human
toll of this war, with numerous security personnel and civilians losing their lives, further
underscored the profound impact on both the nation's economy and its people. (Zakaria et al.,
2019). The absence of developmental ventures during the war had profound implications for both
the economic and social spheres, constituting an unprecedented crisis in Pakistan's history.
Rebuilding financial growth, stabilizing payments, and attracting foreign investors became
formidable challenges amid the ongoing conflict. Significant resources, both human and financial,
were diverted to counter-terrorism efforts, with the government prioritizing security concerns. The
spillover effects of conflicts in neighboring countries, particularly the influx of terrorists seeking
safe havens, compelled Pakistan to undertake numerous military operations along its borders,
including in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP). This
intricate scenario posed significant hurdles to economic recovery, development, and social well-
being during the war on terror. (Nazir, 2010). The research analyst has pinpointed several crucial
indicators linked to terrorism that exert a profound influence on the country's financial landscape.
Firstly, terrorism-induced intimidation affects all facets of national financial activities, resulting in
a decline in the production of goods and services, cessation of foreign investment, reduced revenue
generation, and significant constraints on exports. The pervasive influence of terrorism has acted
as a deterrent to economic growth, creating substantial challenges for financial stability and
sustainable development. (Qadir & Alasuutari, 2013).

Secondly, historically, external liabilities and obligations had peaked. With diminished economic
output, the country faced challenges in meeting its debt obligations. Pressure to fulfill past
installments intensified from business development agencies, the World Bank, and the
International Monetary Fund. Thirdly, the influx of displaced individuals from neighboring
Afghanistan and conflict-ridden regions like KP and FATA strained the country's resources
significantly. The surge in unemployment led to the collapse of the travel sector. (Ahmad, 2010).
The substantial cost of security operations conducted by the Pakistani armed forces in the northern
regions against terrorists constituted the fourth impact of terrorism on the economy. This
heightened external obligations while diminishing employment opportunities in these conflict
zones. The unanticipated terrorist attacks represented the sixth effect, leading to the delay and
increased costs of development projects due to untimely completion (Fair, 2012). In summary,
terrorism proved to be a profound economic tragedy.

Political Ramifications of the War on Terror in Pakistan

The Musharaf government unilaterally committed Pakistan to the war on terror, bypassing
political parties and leaders in the decision-making process. This lack of inclusive decision-making
led to the absence of a unified national consensus. Musharaf's policies to align with the U.S. in the
fight against terrorism created divisions among political parties and their leaders. The Quaid-I-
Azam group of the Muslim League staunchly supported Musharaf's policies, contrasting with the
Pakistan Muslim League (N) and Pakistan People Party, which emphasized the government's anti-

24
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

extremist efforts while cautiously endorsing its involvement in the war. This unilateral
commitment and subsequent political divisions had profound implications for Pakistan's political
landscape. (Durrani, 2022). The Muttahida Majlis Amal (MMA) adeptly capitalized on anti-
American sentiments during the 2002 general elections, securing a majority of seats in the NWFP
and Baluchistan, both neighboring Afghanistan. Religious political factions criticized Musharaf's
Kashmir policy and the presence of the Pakistan army in the FATA. They perceived the
government's crackdown on extremists as a betrayal of the Kashmiri independence cause,
attributing it to pressure from India and the United States. The MMA's electoral success
underscored the resonance of anti-American sentiments in shaping political dynamics in the
aftermath of Pakistan's commitment to the war on terror (Mustafa et al., 2020). While there was a
general consensus among political parties and the government to combat terrorism, Musharraf's
approach to the US-led war on terror faced conditional approval. The United States used the crisis
to bolster its influence in India-Pakistan diplomatic relations. Under pressure from the US and
Western media, Musharraf took actions such as outlawing eight terrorist groups, arresting over two
thousand individuals, and banning around six jihadist parties. In collaboration with the Bush
administration, Pakistan and India initiated comprehensive discussions to address various
concerns, especially the longstanding Kashmir dispute. The international media's attention to the
Kashmir issue was viewed positively by Pakistan, marking a significant development in regional
diplomatic relations.

(Javaid, 2014). Similarly, Pakistan's collaboration with the United States in the counterterrorism
efforts had significant security ramifications for the country. Various operations were conducted in
the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) to combat Al-Qaeda networks, extremism,
insurgencies, and militancy. These activities presented a substantial security challenge for the
government, leading to a surge in suicide assaults and bombings across the nation, resulting in
thousands of civilian casualties and extensive damage to public property. An observer noted that
the anticipated outcomes, still unrealized, reflect a hedging of bets amid concerns that the United
States might turn against Pakistan. (M. F. Khan & Khan, 2021). A stable political framework is
essential for the effective functioning of any democratic nation. However, the stability of Pakistan's
political system was significantly threatened following the 9/11 attacks, as Afghanistan became
embroiled in a terrorism-induced conflict. Pakistan's involvement in the war on terror since 2001
posed a risk to its political stability, with activists working to undermine the social, economic,
political, and religious foundations. The nation experienced numerous terrorist attacks at the
national level, further highlighting the challenges to maintaining a stable political environment in
the aftermath of 9/11. (Aziz & Shah, 2020). The aftermath of 9/11 witnessed a surge in political
violence in Pakistan, with terrorists targeting leaders from various political parties. Prominent
figures, including former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and former President General Pervez
Musharraf, faced direct threats. Karachi emerged as a focal point for political assassinations,
involving conflicts between Sunnis and the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM). Baluchistan
experienced a high incidence of killings and political kidnappings across different regions,
involving multiple factions. The escalation of political violence was starkly evident in 2013 when

25
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

nearly three hundred political leaders, activists, and workers fell victim to targeted assassinations
within a single year. This wave of violence significantly challenged the stability of Pakistan's
political landscape. (Khalid & Roy, 2016).

Perception Predicament: Pakistan's National Image Crisis Amidst the War on Terror

The current international standing of Pakistan is marred by the perception of being a

frontline state and a sanctuary for militants. The image of Pakistan witnessed a distressing decline
during the war on terror, impacting its economic potential as a tarnished reputation might not
attract substantial investments given its current notoriety on the global stage. The presence of Al-
Qaeda in Pakistan, according to Western perspectives, casts a shadow over the country's image.
Despite Pakistan's significant role in combating terrorism, it finds itself in a predicament where its
image contradicts its actual contributions. This study aims to delve into how Pakistan's role as a
frontline state is perceived globally and how it affects its standing as an ally in the fight against
terrorism. (Sultana & Khawaja Alqama, 2012). On the other hand, Pakistan had been chastised by
Western Media and lawmakers for doing nothing to stop the war on terror. According to the Dawn
newspaper, the then president of the United States of America Barack Obama can and should do
more to combat fear-mongering attacks as he had stated in one of his official speeches. According
to western media, the individual Pakistanis aided psychological oppressors, which is why they did
not support the role of Pakistan as a frontrunner in the battle against the terror (Munawar &
Mushtaq, 2016) As Pakistan solidified its role as a Western ally, internal strife and terror escalated
within the country. The military's engagement in the fight against terrorism has come under
scrutiny in the Western media, contributing to a narrative that places blame on Pakistan for the
fragile situation in Afghanistan. Present-day Pakistan grapples with numerous challenges
stemming from the repercussions of terrorism, presenting a complex scenario that warrants
thorough examination and understanding. This study aims to explore the multifaceted impacts of
Pakistan's alignment with the West on its internal dynamics, security apparatus, and the broader
regional context.

Unraveling the Psyche: Exploring the Psychological Impacts of the War on Terrorism

Widespread terrorism in Pakistan has deeply scarred a generation, causing psychological

trauma and frequent casualties. The global perception of the country has suffered, labeling it as
one of the most perilous nations. The constant fear of extremist threats has overshadowed public
engagements, leaving the populace traumatized and lives deeply impacted. People grapple with
adversity, intensifying a pervasive sense of despair in both social and private spheres. (Nizami et
al., 2018). Once vibrant communal spaces like markets, mosques, and parks in Pakistan have lost
their popularity due to security concerns. Despite the constitutional mandate, the government faces
challenges in fully protecting citizens' rights. Security issues have reshaped public life, prompting
individuals to limit their engagements in these traditionally communal areas. The decline of these
spaces mirrors the broader impact of the security situation on daily life and community interaction

26
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

in Pakistan.Furthermore, the media has played a crucial role in amplifying the negative perception
of persecution in Pakistan and worldwide, contributing to widespread anxiety, fear, and distress.
Emotions such as anger, discomfort, sadness, fatigue, and unhappiness have become prevalent
among the Pakistani populace, impacting individuals in their workplaces and relationships (Abbas
et al., 2020). Numerous terrorist attacks have eroded social responsibility and public cohesion,
with images of bomb explosions and internally displaced people in various camps saturating
television broadcasts and instilling fear. The scrutiny of families affected by these crimes has
heightened irritation and discomfort among citizens, leading to a reluctance to use public
transportation. Parents, concerned about the safety of their children in educational institutions
targeted by terrorist attacks, experience persistent worry until their children safely return home.
(Nizami et al., 2014). Furthermore, Pakistanis grapple with confusion and a sense of divisiveness,
expressing dissatisfaction with their services and leaders. The pervasive uncertainty has led to a
shift in traditional attitudes, fostering skepticism, haughtiness, and a loss of faith in the government
and state institutions. This erosion of trust impedes civic engagement, undermining public property
and the state. Unemployment, exacerbated by legal and administrative challenges such as the
energy crisis, serves as a catalyst for widespread dissent, as evidenced by numerous protests in the
public sphere (Kumar & Mandal, 2012). The economy and institutions of the country bear the
brunt of terrorist attacks, with established firms closing and professionals relocating operations
abroad due to the economic downturn, a primary driver of unemployment. Rising unemployment,
in turn, contributes significantly to the increasing number of people living in poverty. Moreover,
the absence of essential services fueled discontent among the populace, contributing to an upsurge
in criminal activities and influencing the social fabric of society. Individuals were reluctant to
fulfill their social and professional obligations due to the pervasive fear of terrorist attacks. The
healthcare profession suffered under terrorism's oppressive grip, with many people deprived of
access to medical facilities (Saigol, 2010). The public's fear escalated following suicide bombings
at Dera Ismail Khan's hospital, rendering them apprehensive about seeking medical treatment in
emergency rooms or other facilities. Other attacks, such as those on the Marriot Hotel in Islamabad,
the Sri Lankan cricket team in Lahore, and police training camps in Lahore and Islamabad, further
demoralized the nation. Numerous police officers and security forces lost their lives in these
terrorist attacks, reinforcing the citizens' sense of fear and tension. These situations have had a
profound impact on the mental, social, and emotional well-being of the Pakistani people.

War on Terror's Societal Impact: Unraveling the Threads of Fear, Fragmentation, and
Resilience in Pakistan

In 2009, Pakistan faced a surge in terrorist attacks, including a major assault on the General
Headquarters of the Pakistan Army. The Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa (KP) saw the tragic deaths of 54 political leaders, with FATA experiencing 560
attacks resulting in 645 fatalities and 1078 injuries. KP faced 1135 attacks, leading to 1440 deaths.
Nationally, there were 460 attacks causing 863 casualties. Beyond physical devastation, these
attacks had far-reaching negative consequences on politics, the economy, psychology, and society.

27
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

The destruction of property and infrastructure, coupled with the resultant economic slowdown, left
an indelible mark on Pakistan's trajectory. Notably, the economy remained three percent below the
national average due to the exigencies of counter-terrorism activities. Moreover, extensive counter-
insurgency campaigns further exacerbated the economic plight of FATA and KP during the
subsequent period from 2010 to 2011, as discerned from the research conducted by Farooq (2014).

Educational Disruptions: Unraveling the Fallout of the War on Terror on Pakistan's

Learning Landscape

Education stands as a cornerstone for progress in any global context, yet it has been
disproportionately targeted by terrorist groups in Pakistan's Federally Administered Tribal Areas
(FATA) and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP). In 2018 alone, militants targeted 119 schools, resulting in
casualties among students and creating an environment of fear. Girls' schools, particularly in Swat,
were a specific focus for destruction. The attacks extended beyond infrastructure, encompassing
students, instructors, academics, and various education professionals, subjected to violence,
kidnapping, forced enlistment, disappearances, illegal detention, torture, and sexual abuse
(Khattak, 2018). The scope of destruction includes harm to educational structures, occupation of
buildings for military purposes, and violent disruptions to the educational process. While
immediate human and material costs are reported, the long-term consequences on the education
system in affected areas remain underexplored. This includes adverse effects on teacher
effectiveness, retention, and recruitment, as well as student attendance, attentiveness, and
academic achievement a fact that merits heightened attention in understanding the broader impact
of such attacks (F. Khan, 2019).

Sectarian Strife Within Borders: Unraveling the Threads of Intrastate Sectarianism and
Social Cohesion

Global terrorism and extremism, transcending borders and religions, violate human rights,
especially the right to life. The impact extends beyond individuals, threatening international peace,
security, and socio-economic conditions. Combating this menace requires comprehensive efforts
involving all segments of society. To enhance counterterrorism policies, addressing both structural
(push) and psychological (pull) factors contributing to violent extremism is crucial. These factors
collectively influence heightened sensitivity towards extremist behavior. (Social Cohesion to
Counter Terrorism, Violent Extremism, n.d.). Push factors for violent extremism include socio-
economic disparities, discrimination, poor governance, human rights issues, radicalization, and
delayed conflict resolution. Pull factors involve individual backgrounds, grievances, victimization,
foreign intervention, manipulation of beliefs, and differences in ideology, ethnicity, culture, and
politics. Recognizing their interconnectedness is crucial, as none can be addressed in isolation.
Policymakers need a comprehensive understanding of these root causes to formulate effective
counterinsurgency measures. In Pakistan, ethnic diversity has unfortunately led to division instead
of harmony. Pakistan is characterized by significant diversity in terms of ethnicity and religion.

28
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

Despite the constitutional principle of equality, there is a lack of adequate representation for all
ethnic and religious identities, giving rise to conflicts and a perception of societal imbalance.
Ethnicity has become a formidable challenge for Pakistan in the process of constructing a national
identity from a mosaic of regional languages and religious affiliations (Siddiqi, 2012). The
prevalence of ethnic tensions, coupled with the presence of various terrorist and militant groups,
contributes to a turbulent and complex security landscape within the country. These challenges not
only impact internal cohesion but also have implications for external relations, especially
concerning powerful regional actors.

CONCLUSION

The research paper concludes that the negative impact of terrorism in Pakistan goes beyond
direct harm to individuals, causing widespread unease due to frequent attacks in key cities. The
absence of foreign investment has increased unemployment, hampering economic growth. A
combination of factors, including terrorism, unemployment, poverty, and corruption, contributes
to a sense of helplessness and stress. The cumulative effects, including a significant brain drain,
are impacting Pakistan's development across various dimensions. With a substantial youth
population, addressing their unique needs in the prevailing environment dominated by terrorism is
urgently needed. The war on terror has fueled religious intolerance in Pakistan, leading to vigilante
justice and weaponization against perceived oppressors, including the military. Controversial
drone attacks and military operations have intensified discontent, with security forces diverted
from public security to political and governmental duties. With potential national force withdrawal
by 2025, there's an urgent need for a comprehensive strategy addressing terrorism's root causes.
The war has inflicted substantial suffering, impacting economic growth, human lives, and
infrastructure, tarnishing Pakistan's international image. Collaborative efforts involving political,
military, and religious leaders are crucial, along with building trust with neighboring nations to
effectively combat terrorism.

29
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

REFERENCES

Abbas, A., Baloch, J., & Khoso, P. A. (2020). Global War on Terrorism, Its Effects on Pakistan.
Progressive Research Journal of Arts & Humanities (PRJAH), 2(1), 95–106.
Acharya, A. (2007). State sovereignty after 9/11: Disorganised hypocrisy. Political Studies, 55(2),
274–296.
Ahmad, M. (2010). Implications of the War On Terror for Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Journal
of Critical Globalisation Studies, 3.
Ahmer, M. (2011). The Impact of the War Against Terror on Pakistan. Journal of South Asian and
Middle Eastern Studies, 35(1), 63–79.
Ali, A. (2010). The economic cost of terrorism. Strategic Studies, 30(1/2), 157–170.
Amin, M., & Naseer, R. (2013). Pakistan-US mistrust and regional security challenges in South
Asia: A prolonged indecisive, futile war seeks an end. Margalla Papers, 17(1), 153–176.
Arshad, A. (2010). The economic cost of terrorism: A case study of Pakistan. Strategic Studies,
30(1 and 2).
Aziz, T., & Shah, A. S. (2020). The Impact of War on Terror on Pakistan’s Sovereignty after 9/11.
Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS), 40(1).
Bano, G., & Khan, N. U. (2020). Terrorism and Pakistan Stock Exchange: Evidence from the war
on Terror'. Pakistan Journal of Criminology, 12(2), 19–33.
Brzezinski, Z. (2007). Terrorized by ‘war on terror.’ Washington Post, 25, 2007.
Bush, G. W. (2021). 9/11 Address to the Nation. In Finding Freedom (pp. 145–155). Routledge.
Croft, S. (2006). Culture, crisis, and America's war on terror. Cambridge University Press.
Demir, M., & Guler, A. (2021). The effects of the 9/11 terrorist attacks on suicide terrorism.
Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 1–18.
Durrani, M. (2022). The Imperial Optic: Mapping the Impact of the Global War on Terror on
Higher Education in the US and Pakistan. Transforming Anthropology, 30(1), 66–79.
Fair, C. C. (2012). Pakistan in 2011: Ten Years of the "war on terror." Asian Survey, 52(1), 100–
113.
Farooq, M. (2014). Impact of terrorism on foreign direct investment and key indicators of
development in Pakistan. City University Research Journal, 4(1).
Howell, S., Jamal, A., & team, D. A. A. study. (2009). The aftermath of the 9/11 attacks.
Citizenship and Crisis: Arab Detroit After, 9(11), 69–100.
Javaid, U. (2014). Reviewing security in South Asia. Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan,
51(2), 1–18.
Javaid, U. (2020). Partnership in War on Terror and Mounting Militant Extremism in Pakistan.
South Asian Studies, 26(2).
Katz, M. N. (2016). Pakistan and the ‘War on Terror.’ In 9/11 Ten Years After (pp. 117–128).
Routledge.
Kayani, S. A. (2011). The global war on terror: The cost Pakistan is paying. Margalla Papers, 15(2),

30
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

1–16.
Khalid, I., & Roy, M. I. (2016). Pakistan's military operations: The counter-terrorism strategy
(2001-2013) prospects and implications. Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan,
53(2).
Khan, A., Bibi, S., Lyu, J., Raza, A., Hayat, H., & Meo, M. S. (2020). Unraveling the nexuses of
tourism, terrorism, and well-being: Evidence from Pakistan. Journal of Hospitality &
Tourism Research, 44(6), 974–1001.
Khan, F. (2019). Exploring the effect of terrorism on education sector: A case study of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan. City University Research Journal, 9(2).
Khan, H. (2013). Pakistan's Contribution to the global war on terror after 9/11. IPRI Journal, 13(1),
37–56.
Khan, M. F., & Khan, M. A. (2021). CAUSES AND IMPACTS OF TERRORISM IN SWAT
VALLEY (2007-2017). Pakistan Journal of International Affairs, 4(1).
Khan, M. T. (2013). The social, political and economic effects of the war on terror: Pakistan 2009
To 2011. ISSRA Papers, 5(1), 65–90.
Khan, M. Z. (2017). Pakistan’s foreign policy towards Afghanistan since Operation Freedom
Sentinel: An overview. Margalla Papers, 21(1).
Khan, R. E. A., & Rasheed, M. K. (2016). The political economy of tourism in Pakistan: The role
of terrorism and infrastructure development. Asian Development Policy Review, 4(2), 42–
50.
Khattak, S. S. G. (2018). The War on Terror is a War on Women: The Impact of Terrorism and
Counter-Terrorism on Women's Education in Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan).
Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(6), 157–177.
Kumar, U., & Mandal, M. K. (2012). Countering Terrorism: Psychosocial Strategies. SAGE
Publishing India.
Munawar, C. S., & Mushtaq, M. (2016). War on Terror and Challenges to the National Sovereignty
of Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS), 36(1), 39–48.
Mustafa, G., Imran, M., Ismail, M., & Arslan, M. (2020). Terrorism and War on Terror in South
Asia: A Threat to National Sovereignty of Pakistan. Journal of the Research Society of
Pakistan, 57(2), 107.
Nazir, P. (2010). War on Terror in Pakistan and Afghanistan: Discursive and political contestations.
Critical Studies on Terrorism, 3(1), 63–81.
Nizami, A. T., Hassan, T. M., Yasir, S., Rana, M. H., & Minhas, F. A. (2018). Terrorism in Pakistan:
The psychosocial context and why it matters. BJPsych International, 15(1), 20–22.
Nizami, A. T., Rana, M. H., Hassan, T. M., & Minhas, F. A. (2014). Terrorism in Pakistan: A
behavioral sciences perspective. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 32(3), 335–346.
O'Connell, M. E. (2005). When is a War Not a War-the Myth of the Global War on Terror? ILSA
J. Int’l & Comp. L., 12, 535.
Qadir, A., & Alasuutari, P. (2013). Taming terror: Domestication of the war on terror in the Pakistan
media. Asian Journal of Communication, 23(6), 575–589.
Qadri, M. A., & Khan, M. J. A. (2019). Impact of War on Terror in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and

31
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

Beyond.
Rabbi, F. (2012). War against Terrorism and its Repercussions for Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of
History and Culture, 33(2), 71–90.
Raza, S. A., Chawla, M. I., Magsi, A. A., Mujahid, A. B., Arshad, F., & Khan, N. (n.d.). War on
Terror and its Impacts on Pakistani Society.
Raza, S. A., & Jawaid, S. T. (2013). Terrorism and tourism: A conjunction and ramification in
Pakistan. Economic Modelling, 33, 65–70.
Saigol, R. (2010). Radicalization of state and society in Pakistan. Heinrich Boll Stiftung Pakistan.
Shah, M. N. (2020). Evolution of sectarianism in Pakistan: A threat to the state and society. South
Asian Studies, 29(2).
Siddiqa, A. (2011). Pakistan’s counterterrorism strategy: Separating friends from enemies. The
Washington Quarterly, 34(1), 149–162.
Siddiqi, F. H. (2012). Security Dynamics in Pakistani Balochistan: Religious Activism and Ethnic
Conflict in the War on Terror. Asian Affairs: An American Review, 39(3), 157–175.
Social cohesion to counter-terrorism, violent extremism. (n.d.). Retrieved June 22, 2022, from
https://tribune.com.pk/story/2301040/social-cohesion-to-counter-terrorism-violent-
extremism
Sultana, S., & Khawaja Alqama, S. (2012). Pakistan: The Critical Battlefield of War on Terrorism.
Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS), 32(1).
Tellis, A. J. (2008). Pakistan and the War on Terror. Conflicted Goals, Compromised Performance.
Washington, DC (et al.): Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 10.
Umbreen, J. (2011). War on terror: Pakistanâ€TM s apprehensions. African Journal of Political
Science and International Relations, 5(3), 125–131.
Zakaria, M., Jun, W., & Ahmed, H. (2019). Effect of terrorism on economic growth in Pakistan:
An empirical analysis. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 32(1), 1794–1812.
Zaman, M. Q. (1998). Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi ‘i and Sunni identities.
Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), 689–716.

Ahmed, Z. S., & Khan, Z. (2016). Direct and indirect impacts of terrorism on youth in Pakistan.
Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan, 53(1).
Abbasi, N. M. (2013). Impact of terrorism on Pakistan. Strategic Studies, 33(2), 33-68.
Ahmed, Z. S., & Zahoor, M. (2020). Impacts of the 'war on terror on the (de-) humanization of
Christians in Pakistan: a critical discourse analysis of media reporting. Islam and Christian–
Muslim Relations, 31(1), 85-103.
Iqbal, Z., & Lodhi, S. (2014). Extremist and religious violence: An economic overview of Pakistan.
International Journal of Research in Applied, Natural and Social Sciences (IMPACT:
IJRANSS), 2, 195-212.
Kayani, S. A. (2011). The global war on terror: the cost Pakistan is paying. Margalla Papers, 15(2),
1-16.
Khan, M. T. (2013). The social, political and economic effects of the war on terror: Pakistan 2009

32
 Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 7, Issue 1 (2024) War on Terror Impacts on Social Fabric: Intra- …

To 2011. ISSRA Papers, 5(1), 65-90.

Khan, H. (2013). Pakistan's Contribution to the global war on terror after 9/11. IPRI Journal, 13(1),
37-56.
Riedel, B. (2008). Pakistan and terror: The eye of the storm. The ANNALS of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, 618(1), 31-45.

33