Malacapayjpair

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/330962477
Teachers Performance in Relation to Pupils Academic

Achievement in Kabankalan City
Article in JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research · February 2019

DOI: 10.7719/jpair.v34i1.630
CITATION READS
1 16,010
1 author:
Marjon Malacapay
Central Philippines State University
4 PUBLICATIONS 21 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Marjon Malacapay on 14 October 2019.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor in Chief
José G. Vargas-Hernández, Ph.D.
University of Guadalajara, Mexico
Associate Editors:
Gul Muhammad Baloch, Ph.D
Taylor's University, Malaysia
Al-Assad Omar, Ph.D.

Dar Al Uloom University, Saudi Arabia
Jamilah Yusof, PhD

Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei
Editorial Consultant
Genaro V. Japos, Ph.D.
Philippine Association of Institutions for Research, Inc.
Philippines
Managing Editor
Irish Jane P. Balios
Executive Editor
Kaye Hazel A. Aunzo
AIMS AND SCOPE

The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research aims to publish new discoveries in the various
disciplines of knowledge which are contributed by member researchers.
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is an international peer reviewed, scientific, online,
indexed, cross-referenced and ISO Certified journal that provides a platform for global researchers
to publish their research findings for advocacy and utilization.
International Peer Reviewed Journal
Volume 33 • July 2018
Print ISSN 2012-3981 • Online ISSN 2244-0445
© 2018 by JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research

All rights reserved.
JPAIR is a joint publication of 124 colleges
and universities in the Philippines.
JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research
Table of Contents
1 Nurse Turnover: Implication on Health Care Delivery

Joyce C. Bisnar & Kathleya Grace N. Pegarro
DOI:
23 Oral Language Proficiency Level of International Business

Process Outsourcing Agents
Ramil S. Bulilan & Shaun James T. Ponte
DOI:
40 Presoaking Treatment of Soybean [Glycine max (L.)

Merrill] Seeds Using Fermented Plant Extracts and
Commercial Liquid Fertilizer
Reneliza D. Cejalvo & Maria Fatima O. Mercado
DOI:
57 Status of the Cultural Heritage Sites and Structures

in Camalig, Province of Albay, Philippines: Basis for
Sustainable Tourism Framework
Maria Luisa N. Gonzales
DOI:
72 Teachers Performance in Relation to Pupils Academic

Achievement in Kabankalan City
Marjon C. Malacapay
DOI:
vi
89 The Initiatives of Local Government

Units (LGUs) in Batangas on Climate Change
Jennifer G. Manalo
DOI:
107 Sexism in English Reference Books

Used by College Freshmen: Implications
for Gender Equality
Luisito P. Muncada
DOI:
121 Education, Second Courser, and non-College of Education

Graduate’s Performance in the Licensure
Examination for Teachers of JRMSU-TC SY 2013-2016
Dana Faye T. Salundaguit
DOI:
132 Martial Arts among the Bangsamoro Muslim: History,

Tradition, Culture, and Religion
Morad Sabdullah Umpa
DOI:
151 Travails of Vulnerable People in Accretion Site

of Tagum City
Roque N. Langcoy II
DOI:
vii
EDITORIAL POLICY
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is open to the global community of
scholars who wish to have their researches published in a peer-reviewed journal.
The journal is produced using a Quality Management System certified for ISO
9001:2008 by the Anglo Japanese American Registrars, Inc. To facilitate cross
referencing, linking and citation tracking, the journal adopts Digital Object
Identifier (DOI) for every article. Contributors can access the journal website at
www.philair.ph/publication.
Articles are contributed by member and non-member researchers of the
Philippine Association of Institutions for Research. The frequency of issue is
four times a year. The efficiency and effectiveness of the editorial review process
are critically dependent upon the actions of both the research authors and the
reviewers. An author accepts the responsibility of preparing the research paper
for evaluation by independent reviewers. The responsibility includes subjecting
the manuscript to evaluation by peers and revising it prior to submission. The
review process is not to be used as a means of obtaining feedback at early stages
of developing the research paper.
Policy on Retraction
Retraction is an act of the journal publisher to remove a published article
from the digital file due to post publication discovery of fraudulent claims by the
research, plagiarism or serious errors of methodology which escaped detection in
the quality assurance process. Complaints by third party researchers on any of
the grounds and validated by the editorial office trigger the retraction but only
after the writer has been notified and allowed to present his side in compliance
to due process.
Policy on Digital Preservation

Digital Preservation is the process of storing systematically electronic files
in multiple formats such as compact discs; cloud computing, Google drive,
email accounts, external hard drives, among others. This is to guarantee that in
conditions where the website crashes, there is natural calamity, fire and other man
made destructions, virus invasions, the files are preserved.
viii
Policy on Handling Complaints

If the Journal receives a complaint that any contribution to the Journal infringes
copyright or other intellectual property rights or contains material inaccuracies,
libelous materials or otherwise unlawful materials, the Journal will investigate
the complaint. Investigation may include a request that the parties involved
substantiate their claims. The Journal will make a good faith decision whether to
remove the allegedly wrongful material. A decision not to remove material should
represent the Journal’s belief that the complaint is without sufficient foundation,
or if well-founded, that a legal defense or exemption may apply, such as fair use
in the case of copyright infringement or truthfulness of a statement in the case
of libel. Journal should document its investigation and decision. If found guilty
after investigation, the article shall be subject to retraction policy.
Policy on Conflicts of Interest

The Journal will only publish articles after the author(s) have confirmed that
they have disclosed all potential conflicts of interest.
Publication Ethics and Publication Malpractice

The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is committed to uphold the highest
standards of publication ethics and takes all possible measures against any
publication malpractices. All authors submitting their works for publication
as original articles attest that the submitted works represent their authors’
contributions and have not been copied or plagiarized in whole or in part from
other works. The authors acknowledge that they have disclosed all and any actual
or potential conflicts of interest with their work or partial benefits associated with
it. In the same manner, the Journal is committed to objective and fair double-
blind peer-review of the submitted for publication works and to preventing any
actual or potential conflict of interests between the editorial and review personnel
and the reviewed material. Any departure from the above-defined rules should
be reported directly to the Editor-in-Chief who are unequivocally committed to
providing swift resolutions to any of such type of problems.
The Peer Review System

Definition. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting
an author’s scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are
experts in the same field. Peer review requires a community of experts in a given
(and often narrowly defined) field who are qualified and able to perform impartial
ix
review. Peer review refers to the work done during the screening of submitted
manuscripts and funding applications. This normative process encourages authors
to meet the accepted standards of their discipline and prevents the dissemination
of unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations and personal views. Peer
review increases the probability that weaknesses will be identified, and, with
advice and encouragement, fixed. For both grant-funding and publication in a
scholarly journal, it is also normally a requirement that the subject is both novel
and substantial.
Type. The double-blind review process is adopted for the journal. The
reviewer/s and the author/s do not know each other’s identity.
Recruiting Referees. The task of picking reviewers is the responsibility of

the editorial office. When a manuscript arrives, an editor solicits reviews from
scholars or other experts to referee the manuscript. In some cases, the authors
may suggest the referees’ names subject to the Editorial Office’s approval. The
referees must have an excellent track record as researchers in the field as evidenced
by researches published in refereed journals, research-related awards, and an
experience in peer review. Referees are not selected from among the author’s close
colleagues, students, or friends. Referees are to inform the editor of any conflict
of interests that may arise. The Editorial Board often invites research author to
name people whom they considered qualified to referee their work. The author’s
input in selecting referees is solicited because academic writing typically is very
specialized.
The identities of the referees selected by the Editorial Board are kept unknown
to research authors. However, the reviewer’s identity can be disclosed under
some special circumstances. Disclosure of Peer Review can be granted under
the following grounds: as evidence to prove that the published paper underwent
peer review as required by the university for ranking and financial incentives, for
regulatory bodies and as required by the Commission on Higher Education, and
for accreditation of academic programs. Request for peer review results shall be
made in writing.
Reviewers and editors are responsible for providing constructive and

prompt evaluation of submitted research papers based on the significance of their
contribution and on the rigors of analysis and presentation.
x
Peer Review Process. The Editorial Board sends advanced copies of an author’s
work to experts in the field (known as “referees” or“reviewers”) through e-mail
or a Web-based manuscript processing system. There are two or three referees for
a given article. Two are experts of the topic of research and one is an expert in
research and statistics who shall review the technical components of the research.
These referees return to the board the evaluation of the work that indicates the
observed weaknesses or problems along with suggestions for improvement. The
board then evaluates the referees’ comments and notes opinion of the manuscript
before passing the decision with the referees’ comments back to the author(s).
Criteria for Acceptance and Rejection. A manuscript is accepted when it
is (1) endorsed for publication by 2 or 3 referees, (2) the instructions of the
reviewers are substantially complied; (3) the manuscript passed the plagiarism
detection test with a score of at least 90 for originality; and, (4) the manuscript
obtained a score of 90 percent for grammarly software, otherwise the manuscript
is rejected. The referees’ evaluations include an explicit recommendation of what
to do with the manuscript, chosen from aoptions provided by the journal. Most
recommendations are along the following lines:
• Unconditional acceptance
• Acceptance with revision based on the referee’ recommendations
• Rejection with invitation to resubmit upon major revisions based on the
referees’ and editorial board’s recommendations
• Outright rejection
In situations where the referees disagree substantially about the quality of a

work, there are a number of strategies for reaching a decision. When the editor
receives very positive and very negative reviews for the same manuscript, the
board will solicit one or more additional reviews as a tie-breaker. In the case of
ties, the board may invite authors to reply to a referee’s criticisms and permit
a compelling rebuttal to break the tie. If the editor does not feel confident to
weigh the persuasiveness of a rebuttal, the board may solicit a response from
the referee who made the original criticism. In rare instances, the board will
convey communications back and forth between an author and a referee, in effect
allowing them to debate on a point. Even in such a case, however, the board
does not allow referees to confer with each other and the goal of the process
is explicitly not to reach a consensus or to convince anyone to change his/her
opinions.
xi
Comments
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research welcomes submission of comments on
previous articles. Comments on articles previously published in the journal will
generally be reviewed by two reviewers, usually an author of the original article
(to assist the editor in evaluating whether the submitted comment represents the
prior article’s accuracy) and an independent reviewer. If a comment is accepted
for publication, the original author will be invited to reply. All other editorial
requirements, as enumerated above, apply to proposed comments.
Technology-based Quality Assurance

English Writing Readability. Readability tests are designed to indicate
comprehension difficulty when reading a passage of contemporary academic
English. To guide teachers and researchers in the proper selection of articles
that suit the comprehension level of users, contributors are advised to use the
Flesch Kincaid readability test particularly the Flesch Reading Ease test. The
interpretation of the score is as follows:
Score Notes
90.0 – 100.00 Easily understandable by an average 11 year old student
60.0 – 70.0 Easily understandable by 13 to 15 year old students
0.0 – 30.0 Best understood by university graduates
Gunning Fog Index. Developed by Robert Gunning, an American

Businessman in 1952, Gunning Fog Index measures the readability of English
writing. The index estimates the years of formal education required to understand
the text on a first reading. A fog index of 12 requires a reading level of a US
high school senior (around 18 years old) or third year college / university in the
Philippines.
Plagiarism Detection. Contributors are advised to use software for plagiarism

detection to increase the manuscript’s chances of acceptance. The editorial office
uses licensed software to screen research articles of plagiarism. The standard set is
95 percent original to pass the plagiarism detection test.
Appropriateness of Citation Format. Contributors are advised to use the

citation format prescribed by the Harvard System.
xii
Word Count, Spelling and Grammar Checks. Contributors are encouraged

to perform word count for the abstract (200) and the full text (about 4000 to
6000). Spelling and grammar checks should be performed prior to submission.
The standard set is 90 percent to pass the Grammarly Software.
xiii
author guidelines
All journal contributors are required to follow the prescribed journal format
set by PAIR. Each element in the entire manuscript is presented in detail to ensure
that the authors can fully follow the procedure from manuscript preparation
down to its final revision.
Initial Submission
Articles (in Word format) should be submitted to [email protected] for
initial evaluation. After the first assessment and 1st Technology-Based Quality
Assurance (Grammarly Test, Plagiarism Test, Readability Test and Reference-
Checking), the editorial office shall inform the author whether his paper has been
accepted or rejected for publication in accordance to the qualifying standards set
by PAIR.
I. Qualifying Standards for Electronic Submission
A full manuscript should pass the following criteria:
Criterion 1: Scope, Newness and Relevance/Applicability to International

Community – 45%
• The scope (extent of what one intends to cover) of the study is wide-
ranging.
• The aspects of the paper such as, but not limited to, methods and results
are seemingly new.
• The entire paper is interesting to read by other nations.
• The research results have international character and applicability.
• The quality of academic writing reflects the nature and nuances of the
discipline.
• The quality of academic writing is graduate level.
Criterion 2: Results of Plagiarism, Grammar and Readability Check – 20%
• The manuscript obtains the minimum result: plagiarism detection – 95%;

grammar check – 90%.
xiv
Criterion 3: Quality of References – 20%
• Sources (journals, books, and other references) are traceable online unless
otherwise a justification is made.
• Journals are internationally refereed and indexed.
• Journals are not listed in Beall’s list of stand-alone journals and predatory
publishers.
• Articles on Wikipedia and gray literature (non-scientific sources) must be
avoided.
• Scientific sources cited were published preferably in Year 2010 onwards
unless otherwise a justification is given.
Criterion 4: Completeness of Parts – 15%
• Each part of the manuscript contains appropriate and sufficient substance.

• The paper demonstrates the following parts:
1. HEADING
Title
Name of the Author(s)
ORCID No.
Email Address
Affiliation
Address
2. ABSTRACT
3. KEYWORDS
4. INTRODUCTION
5. FRAMEWORK
6. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
7. MATERIALS AND METHODS (for experimental researches)
METHODOLOGY (for non-experimental researches)
8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
9. CONCLUSIONS
10. TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH
11. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
12. LITERATURE CITED
xv
Manuscript Formatting Guide
TITLE
• Boldface
• 12-15 characters
• Title by result (preferably)
• Catchy, interesting, relevant to international audience
• Language universally understandable
• Set the first letter of each key word in uppercase
For example,
Title by Scope: Categorizing Communication Strategies in the Oral

Expositions of Tourism Management Students (X)
Title by Result: Fillers, Mime and Self-Repetitions as Most Frequently Used

Communication Strategies in Oral Expositions (√)
HEADING
• Name of Author/s (First name, Middle Initial, Last Name)
• Boldface
• Sentence case
• ORCID No. (Register to orcid.org to obtain your orcid no.)
• Gmail address or webmail address (It is a policy of PAIR pursuant to our
ISO standards that no contributors shall use yahoomail)
• Affiliation (Institution or Organization)
• Address (City, Country e.g. Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines)
For example,
Rommel V. Tabula
http://orcid.org 0000-0003-2691-6749
[email protected]
Mariano Marcos State University
Batac City, Philippines
xvi
ABSTRACT
• Should contain 190 (minimum)- 210 (maximum) words
• The Abstract must contain five parts written in one paragraph: Introduction
to the topic, chief purpose/objective, method, results, and conclusion.
For example,
The van Hiele levels of thinking has five reasoning levels, namely, holistic,
analytic, abstract, deductive, and rigorous. This study aimed to determine
the effects of spatial activities to the students’ van Hiele Levels of thinking.
It evaluated the van Hiele levels of geometrical reasoning taking into
account the van Hiele level they reflected and their mathematical accuracy
after exposure to spatial activities. Pretest-posttest design was used in this
study. Sixty third-year high school students from five sections were the
subjects with 30 students each in the control and experimental groups.
The results revealed that only Level 1 in the post-test was significant.
As to the type of reply, the post-test results showed that the control
group acquired low acquisition to high acquisition in each level while
the experimental group had low acquisition to complete acquisition in
each level. Only Level 2 in the control group and Levels 3 and 4 in the
experimental group could predict Mathematics grade. The control group
had weaker reasoning capabilities in answering geometry problems; while
the experimental group increased their level of reasoning, and thus, were
able to answer geometry problems. This study concludes that the exposure
to spatial activities would enhance the levels of reasoning of the third-year
students in the study of geometry.
KEYWORDS
• Indicate the discipline of the study, concepts studied, research design/
process and setting of the study (city and country) as keywords.
• Set keywords in sentence case.
For example,
Keywords — Linguistics, communication strategies, descriptive design,

Batac City, Philippines
xvii
INTRODUCTION
The Introduction should contain:
First Section
• Global situational analysis of the problem supported by the
literature from different continents
Second Section
• Regional situational analysis supported by literature from the region of
the study. Researchers from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) such as Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam must
include literature from these countries to capture the ASEAN perspective
in the study.
Third Section
• Gap in the literature that the study intends to address
• Differentness of the study from other previous studies
• Compelling reasons of the writer for choosing the problem
FRAMEWORK
• (Optional for experimental researches)
• It should contain basic explication of the meaning of the variables of the
study.
• Present the framework in either schematic or textual form merging the
theories discussed in which the study was anchored.
• Remove diagram unless very essential.
• No framework is required (for experimental study).
OBJECTIVES
• State the OBJECTIVES of the study in paragraph form.
• Use objectives that show what the researcher shall do with the data and not
words to indicate what the researcher intends to do as a research process.
• Write the objectives in paragraph form setting one from the others by a
number in close parenthesis.
xviii
METHODOLOGY
For Pure Sciences:
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Research Design
Research Site
Participants
Instrumentation
• Construction, try-out, reliability and validity
Research Ethics Protocol
• Informed consent
• Clearance from the Ethics Review Board
• Gratuitous permit from a government agency for floral and faunal
studies
• Permit from the head of the indigenous peoples of the research sites
• Representative of animal welfare society for clinical studies involving
animals
Data Collection
Statistical Techniques
• No formulae needed
For Social Sciences:
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
Research Site
Participants
Instrumentation
• Construction, Try-out, Reliability and Validity
Research Ethics Protocol
• Informed consent
• Clearance from the Ethics Review Board
Data Collection
Statistical Techniques
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

• Sometimes termed DISCUSSION only for theoretical papers
xix
• Answers to objectives
• Highlight salient findings of the study supported by literature.
• Use keywords from objectives as side-head of the Results and Discussion.
• Intercontinental support of the data (in-text citation)
• Summary tables and significant results
• Validation of the theory used (integrated)
• Provide a critique on the methods and theories used in the last paragraph.
Important notes:
• Do not include the links in the body, use names of authors and/or agencies
instead
• Do not present the same data in both a Table and Figure - this is considered
redundant and a waste of space and energy. Decide which format best
shows the result and go with it.
• Do not report raw data values when they can be summarized as means,
percents, etc.
CONCLUSIONS
• In paragraph form, not broken down
• Highlight new discovery (if any) that you obtained only after completing
the study, something (not found in the literature) which contributes to
new knowledge.
• This section supports or negates previous conclusions, validates theory
used and/or generates new theory.
TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH
• Paragraph form, not broken down
• This part describes the various forms of popular and innovative media that
translate scientific information into ways that can be understood by users
of the research.
• This includes but not limited to: policy, song, dance, illustrational books,
drama, storytelling, brochures,posters,paintings, radio play and video
clips.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
• (Optional)
• Limited to funders of the research
xx
• Acknowledge service agencies that funded the study (required).

• Sources of data mined, e.g. WHO, UNESCO
LITERATURE CITED
No. of literatures cited:
• At least five from each continent
Quality:
• Use recent sources (at least from year 2010 onwards unless otherwise a
justification is given
Order:
• Arrange in alphabetical order
Inclusion:
• Include all the names of authors which are cited in the body of your paper
Spacing:
• Double space in between referenced literature items; single space in
between lines of each literature cited.
Referencing Styles:
• All references used in the manuscript should be traceable online.
• Authors are cautioned from using gray literature (any work that is NOT
scientifically peer reviewed and published in internationally indexed
research journals).
• Prefer references which have earned citations already.
• The count is provided at the lower left side of every title. On the lower
right is the word “cite”, click on this to get three options MLA, APA
and Chicago styles. Choose the appropriate style for your study. If you
decide to use MLA, then we prefer footnotes/endnotes. No reference list
is required if you have endnotes. Copy and paste the citation given, add
the URL of the source with the phrase retrieved on (date) from (URL).
Without URL, we choose to interpret the source as print only, and hence,
not traceable online.
• Include those works cited in the text. Each entry should contain all
information necessary or unambiguous identification of the published
xxi
work. Literature must be traceable online from peer-reviewed, indexed,

cross-referenced journals in reputable databases.
For example,
Bei, G. X. (2012). Effects of Immediate Repetition in L2 Speaking Tasks: A

Focused Study. English Language Teaching, 6(1), p11.
NOTE: Do not label this section “Bibliography”. A bibliography contains

references that you may have read but have not specifically cited in the text.
Bibliography sections are found in books and other literary writing, but not
scientific journal-style papers.
ADVISORY FOR LITERATURE CITED
1. Traceability refers to the verification by independent parties of the original

references using online technology through direct access to the website as
point of source.
2. When the literature cited is copied and searched in the google scholar,
the original source comes out either as full paper or abstract. The verifier
can check if the source is scientific or grey literature, if the interpretation
as written is true to the original intent, if the ideas used were accurately
taken, if the writer copy pasted the portion in the original material, and if
the writer plagiarized the source.
3. The URL of the online article as reference must be copied and pasted in
the end part of the reference with the words “retrieved on (date) from
(copy the URL)”. Without the URL the reference is understood as print
only and hence has inherent problem of poor traceability.
4. When the URL link is dead, the reference must be replaced.
5. Most URLs are long and cumbersome to attach and read. This must be
shortened by copying and searching for the URL short version in goo.
gl. Upon searching there for the short version, the computer asks you to
enter a number combination that is given in a box and entering it into a
designated box. The short version comes out and you will now replace the
long version with it.
6. In text citations can use et al when there are more than two authors. But
in the reference list, all authors must be listed since et al is never allowed.
xxii
This is because all authors need to earn the citation counts of their paper.
Citation count can not happen when other authors are omitted because
they are listed after the first author.
7. Print sources are accepted only when there are justifications made why
there are no online version, such as original documents which can not be
published for reason of confidentiality of content, the original material has
no online version yet, among other explanations. In which case, a scanned
copy if available should be attached to the article for validation during the
peer review process.
8. Missing info happens during the documentation of the reference. To avoid
this problem, the reference in the google scholar has three versions, MLA,
APA, CMS, you copy the version you choose after you click CITE in the
lower right portion of the reference title. Then, click the title to direct you
to the original source. Copy the URL as in #3 and find the short version
as in # 5.
9. Alphabetize the references. Do not segregate as books, periodicals, among
others.
10. Examine the final list if these references have intercontinental
representation. This is to avoid a limited point of view. Since journals
have global readership, references from various continents give a balanced
view and a global perspective to the article regardless of scope.
11. Search in the web what constitutes grey literature and check your
references for it. Replace grey literature.
12. Most importantly, obtain soft copies of all your references and test them
for plagiarism content using plagiarism detector software. Check the
portion you are using if it is not plagiarized. Plagiarism is genetically
transferred from one source to another and is not removed by mere
attribution of source. Replace sources with high plagiarism content. Using
a table, summarize plagiarism test results for all references implementing
a standard of 90 percent originality and less than 5 percent of plagiarism.
If you are using Turnitin, the standard is less than 10 percent of similarity.
xxiii
Vol. 34 · October 2018 JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is produced
Print ISSN 2012-3981 • Online ISSN 2244-0445 by PAIR, an ISO 9001:2008 QMS certified
DOI: by AJA Registrars, Inc.
Journal Impact: H Index = 3 from Publish or Perish
Nurse Turnover: Implication

on Health Care Delivery
JOYCE C. BISNAR
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3032-9582
[email protected]
Notre Dame University
Cotabato City Philippines
KATHLEYA GRACE N. PEGARRO

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2997-7929
[email protected]
Notre Dame University
Cotabato City
Originality: 100% • Grammar Check: 100% • Plagiarism: 0%
ABSTRACT
Nurse turnover is a major problem to all health care organizations because of

its strong effects on client outcomes, motivation to work, job dissatisfaction and
provision of quality patient care. The study aimed to determine the implication/
effects of nurse’s turnover on healthcare delivery. Mixed method and Descriptive
research design were employed, and the census was used in the selection of the
participants. A validated self- made questionnaire, focus group discussion and
key informant interview was utilized to gather the empirical data required. The
study revealed that there was a decrease nurse turnover rate in the government
hospital and an increase in private hospitals due to low salary, no/ less fringe
benefits, poor/no health insurance coverage, better benefits and compensation
package offered by other hospitals/countries and lower patient ratio. However,
with the increase or decrease in the turnover rate, health care delivery in relation
1
to the identified five (5) key areas of nurses’ responsibility are still affected due
to increased nurse-client ratio, interpersonal relationship, stressful environment
and attitudes of the millennial nurses. Further, the majority of the participants
are millennials and they outnumbered the generation X and baby boomers who
created a generation gap in terms of health care delivery. This shift in attitude
poses a great challenge for hospitals to retain millennials because they are growing
in numbers and are replacing baby boomers and generation X. Thus, hospitals
had to learn, adjust and develop management strategies to accommodate and
understand the unique style and attitudes of the millennials for retention.
Keywords - Nursing, nurse turnover, push and pull factor, descriptive design,
Cotabato City, Philippines.
INTRODUCTION
While nursing is one of the fastest growing profession (United States

Department of Labor, 2018), there is an alarmingly high rate of nurse turnover
and shortage. According to Yeates (2010), nurse shortages associated with
globalization had hugely increased the hiring, migration, and mobility of nurse
in all countries. Reports showed that nurse turnover had increased worldwide
to 17.2% in 2015 from 16.4% in 2014 (Solutions, 2016). Additionally, World
Health Organization (WHO) estimated a shortage of 4.3 million nurses
globally and will continue to worsen with projected deficits of about 57% from
2020 to 2025, Twigg and McCullough (2014). The 2017 RN Survey strongly
suggests generous change in the nursing workforce causes the workforce and
the progression of baby boomers retirement (AMN healthcare, 2017) resulting
to decreased performance in the workplace because skilled nurses and experts
are replaced with newbies, and inexperienced (Wieck and Moss, 2015) causing
nurse stressed, burned out, job dissatisfaction and turnover (McHugh and Ma,
2014)thus affecting quality healthcare delivery and adverse client outcomes,
Texas Health and Human Services (2012).
The increasing demand and shortage of nurses pushed developed and
high–income countries to do mass hiring of educated and well-trained nurses
from low and middle-income countries such as the Philippines which resulted
in the depletion of the country’s most experienced and well-qualified nurses,
(Dimaya, McEwen, Curry, and Bradley, 2012; Dywili, Bonner, & O’Brien,
2013). Further, push and pull factors such as low salaries, lack of benefits
package, high client-nurse ratios, lack of opportunities and professional growth,
2
and compensation package (Asegid, Belachew, and Yimam, 2014, McHugh

and Ma, 2014) influenced nurses to leave. Philippine Overseas Employment
Administration (POEA) reported that there is an increasing migration of nurses
every year from 15,655 in 2012 to 16,444 in 2013 and 19,815 in 2014. (Asian
Journal, 2016) Causing a significant problem to all healthcare organizations
because of its strong effects to client outcomes, motivation to work, job
dissatisfaction, and provision of quality patient care, (Roche, Duffield, Homer,
Buchan and Dimitrelis, 2014; Masselink & Lee, 2010). This global phenomenon
is an excellent challenge to all healthcare organization and solutions are essential
and critical to prevent the worsening of adverse health outcomes.
Nurses deliver health care services in many and varied settings armed with
competencies they developed from school and workplace guided by the Core
Competencies Standards for Nursing Practice (also known as the Key Areas of
Nurses Responsibility). This standard requires nurses to utilize their knowledge
and judgment to assess clients and family health needs, provide care and support
to manage their health. Several studies on the effects of nurse turnover is well
discussed and documented, however, it is focused more on its cost to health
care system without considering its impact on delivery of health care services in
terms of the five (5) critical areas of nurse’s responsibility on safe and quality care,
health education, communication, collaboration and teamwork, and records
management thus this study (Lazarte, 2016).
FRAMEWORK
Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of Needs (1970) is a motivational theory

composed of five classes of human needs depicted as hierarchical levels within
a pyramid in ascending order, which ranges from physiologic needs through
safety, belonging, and esteem, to self-actualization (Mathes, 1981). In this theory,
Maslow argued that lower level needs had to be satisfied before one can move on
the higher levels. As each lower-level need is satisfied, the person will aim to go
to the next higher demand until it is satisfied. Considering Maslow‘s hierarchy of
needs theory in relation to nurses turnover, one can assert that nurses need better
salaries, fringe benefits, insurance benefits, recognition, and good interpersonal
relationship with the members of the healthcare team for them to achieve self-
actualization needs.
The implication of this theory to the study is that, if nurse’s needs are met and
are satisfied with their work then they will be motivated to stay in the institution/
organization.
3
Another theory in relation to the study is Vroom`s Expectancy Motivation

Theory. His theory is based on the belief that an employees’ effort will lead to
performance and performance will lead to rewards (Vroom, 1964). The theory
emphasizes that employees will perform their best and put more effort into
their work equal to what they expect in return such as pay increase, recognition,
additional benefits and opportunities for promotion. If employees will not be
compensated and personal and professional growth opportunities will not be
provided in return for their hard work, they will put little effort and eventually
leave their work and look for new opportunities from other organization. Vroom’s
expectancy theory can also be associated with Maslow`s hierarchy of needs.
Maslow is used to describing which and what particular outcomes individuals
can be motivated and Vroom described whether individuals would act based on
their experience and expectations.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The following objectives have been framed to guide the research to (1)
determine the nurse’s turnover rate for the past five years, (2) determine the push
and pull of nurse turnover, (3) determine and analyze the implication of nurse’s
turnover on healthcare delivery in terms of (a) Safe and quality nursing care,
(b) Health education (c) Communication (d) Collaboration and Teamwork (e)
Records management and (4) find out the actions taken by the institutions in
addressing the implications of nurse turnover.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study employed a mixed method and descriptive research design as it
described, discussed and analyzed the push and pull factor of nurse turnover, its
implication on healthcare delivery. Further, the researchers determine the actions
and interventions taken by the institution to address the problems on the push
and pull factors of nurse and the implication on health care delivery.
Research Site
The study was conducted in Cotabato Regional and Medical Center and other
private Hospitals in Cotabato City such as Notre Dame Hospital and School of
Midwifery, Cotabato Puericulture Center and General Hospital Foundation Inc.
4
Cotabato Regional and Medical Center (CRMC) which is the only government-
owned Hospital in Cotabato City with 400-bed capacity whose vision and
mission is to be the center of excellence thru delivery of quality, affordable,
equitable and sustainable specialized health care services in partnership with all
stakeholders towards customer satisfaction. It is located in front of Mall of Alnor
along Sinsuat Avenue.
Notre Dame Hospital and School of Midwifery is a secondary hospital with
100-bed capacity located parallel to Cotabato Regional and Medical Center. It
is owned and managed by the Dominican sisters whose vision and mission are
to commit to compassionate human resource formation while pursuing effective
and efficient healthcare management.
While Cotabato Puericulture Center and General Hospital Foundation
Inc. were formerly known as Cotabato Puericulture Center and Maternity and
Children Hospital Inc.is a semi-private primary hospital with 30-bed capacity
and is located at the heart of the city, in front of Cotabato City Plaza.
Participants
The participants of the study are the 97 senior nurses and supervisors of
the General, Obstetrics-Gynecology, and Pediatric- Medicine who have been
working from the three (3) identified hospitals for more than two (2) years, 51
of which are from Hospital A, 30 from Hospital B and 16 from Hospital C
while Hospital D refused to participate in the study thus they are excluded. The
qualitative data was collected from the 23 senior nurses and supervisors through
focus group discussion and three chief nurses of the three (3) hospitals through
an interview.
Sampling Technique
Census was used in the selection of the participants. A total of 97 participants
including all senior nurses, supervisors and chief nurses who have been working
in the three (3) identified hospitals for 2 years or more participated in the study.
Fifty-one (51) are from Hospital A, thirty (30) from Hospital B and sixteen (16)
from Hospital C.
Instrumentation
The instruments used for data gathering is a self-made questionnaire checked
and validated by experts with a rating of 4.3 out of 5 points score which means
very good. The comments or suggestions to improve the paper were incorporated
5
into the instruments. The said questionnaire is composed of three (3) Parts.
Part I pertains to the demographic profile of the participants. Part II consisted
of the questions that determined the push and pull of nurse turnover and the
participants were asked to answer the questions using the following scale: 2-Yes;
1-No. Part III is composed of items that pertain to the implications of nurse
turnover on healthcare delivery. The data was collected through interview and
focus group discussion of senior nurses, and supervisors and Part IV seeks to find
out the actions/ interventions taken by the Institution in addressing the push and
pull factor of nurses’ turnover and the implication on health care delivery. It is
composed of questions which were answered by three chief nurses from the three
(3) selected hospitals as key informants.
Data Gathering Procedure

Initially, a survey was done to determine the number of senior nurses,
supervisors and chief nurses of the four (4) hospitals. Upon approval of the
study by the university research council, a letter of permission was submitted
to Hospitals A, B, C, and D administrators for the conduct of the research and
the researcher sought approval from the Research Ethics Board. Once approved,
the actual conduct of the study commenced with a letter of permission to
the participants stating the purpose and benefits of the study and their right
to refuse to participate once they feel that their right is violated. The validated
survey questionnaire was distributed and retrieved personally by the researcher
considering strict confidentiality and anonymity. The researchers did a one on
one interview to the three (3) chief nurses as key informants and focus group
discussion to the senior nurses and supervisors. The data gathered was tallied and
tabulated. Consultation with the statistician was made for the computation and
other statistical treatment needed for the interpretation and analysis of the data
collected.
Ethical Considerations
The participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and
was assured that the researcher would maintain the confidentiality and anonymity
of the data with the departments and their hospital of affiliation. The result of the
research was presented to the university the research panel, validators and public
without mentioning the hospital of affiliation instead a letter in the alphabet
such as ABC was designated as a representation of each hospital to ensure that
confidentiality is practiced and maintained. The chief nurses of the hospital and
participants were informed that they would be provided with a copy of the results
6
for their perusal and reference. The researchers obtained an Ethics Clearance
from the Ethics Review Committee and signed the informed consent from the
participants.
Statistical Analysis
The quantitative data gathered was tallied, tabulated and treated with
descriptive statistics. In depth analysis was done through the formulation
of themes and patterns for the qualitative data to validate and expound the
quantitative data gathered. Tallying, interpretation, and analysis of the data were
done with the help of the statistician. The qualitative data were transcribed,
analyzed, and integrated with the quantitative data.
Findings of this study are presented in a descriptive and tabular form,

analyzed and interpreted to answer the research objectives.
Data were gathered to determine the push and pull factors of nurse turnover;
it’s the implication on health care delivery and the actions or interventions taken
by the institution to address the implication of nurse turnover.
Nurse Turnover Rate for the Past 5 years

Figure 2 and 3 show the nurse turnover rate of the hospitals. Increase
in nurse turnover rate is significantly high with hospital B and decreasing in
hospital A.
Figure 2. Nurse Turnover Rate for the Past 5 years
7
Figure 3. Frequency Distribution of Nurse Turnover per Year

Profile of the Participants
The profile of the participants includes the age, gender, hospital of affiliation,
position, and the number of years working in the hospital.
Table 1 presents the demographic profile of the participants. In terms of age,
majority or 79. 4 % of them are millennials while only 6.2% are baby boomers
and out of the 97 nurse-participants, 67 or 69.1% of them are female while 30
or 30.9% are male. On hospital of affiliation, the majority of them came from
Hospital A (52.6%) which is a government hospital, followed by Hospital B
(30.9%) and Hospital C (16.5%), both are private hospitals. (79.4%) of the
participants are senior nurses while the rest are supervisors (20.6%). In terms
of the number of years working in the hospital, the majority of them have been
working for at least 3 – 6 years (54.6%) followed by 7 – 9 years of service (9.3%)
and those who have been there for 20 years and above (8.2%). Their mean
number of years working in the hospital is 7.35 or 7 years.
Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Respondents

Profile f %
Age
Millennials( 22-37 years old) 77 79.4
Generation X ( 38-53 years old) 14 14.4
Baby Boomers (54- 72 years old ) 6 6.2
Gender
Female 67 69.1
Male 30 30.9
8
Hospital of Affiliation
Hospital A 51 52.6
Hospital B 30 30.9
Hospital C 16 16.5
Position
Senior Nurse 77 79.4
Supervisor 20 20.6
Number of Years Working in the Hospital
2 years and below 2 2.1
3 – 6 years 53 54.6
7 – 9 years 9 9.3
10 – 12 years 6 6.2
13 – 15 years 6 6.2
16 – 19 years 4 4.1
20 years and above 8 8.2
Mean No. of Years Working in the Hospital: 7.35 or 7 years
Total 97 100.0
Table 2 presents the push and pull factors of nurse turnovers. The participants
were made to answer a yes or no questions to determine their reasons for
leaving/staying at their current workplace. In terms of the push factors, most of the
them stated that low salary (highest of 77.3%), non-competitive fringe benefits
(74.2%), no overtime (73.2%), poor/no health insurance coverage (72.2%), and
work overload, as well as stressful working environment (69.1%), were their top
reasons for leaving their current workplace. While majority answered no to no
hazard pay as a push factor (72.2%).
On the pull factors, most of the nurses stated that better benefits and
compensation package (highest of 79.4%), influence from peers and relatives
(72.2%), lower nurse-patient ratio (70.1%), chance to upgrade nursing skills
(61.9%) and higher salary (60.8%) were their top reasons of staying in their
current workplace.
9
Table 2. Push and Pull Factors of Nurse Turnover

Push and Pull Factors YES NO
Push Factors f % f %
1. Low Salary 75 77.3 22 22.7
2. No Overtime 71 73.2 26 26.8
3. Poor/ No health insurance coverage 70 72.2 27 27.8
4. Work Overload and stressful working environment 67 69.1 30 30.9
5. Slow Promotion 57 58.8 40 41.2
6. Limited opportunities for professional
60 61.9 37 38.1
development
7. Non-Competitive Fringe Benefits 72 74.2 25 25.8
8. Socio-economic Situation 62 63.9 35 36.1
9. No Hazard Pay 27 27.8 70 72.2
Pull Factors
1. Higher salary 59 60.8 38 39.2
2. Better benefits and compensation package 77 79.4 20 20.6
3. Lower nurse-patient ratio 68 70.1 29 29.9
4. More options in working hours 54 55.7 43 44.3
5. A chance to upgrade nursing skills 60 61.9 37 38.1
6. Opportunity for the family to migrate 48 49.5 49 50.5
7. Opportunity to travel and learn other cultures 55 56.7 42 43.3
8. Influence from peers and relatives 70 72.2 27 27.8
9. Advanced technology 58 59.8 39 40.2
10. Better socio-political and economic stability 53 54.6 44 45.4
Implications of Nurse Turnover on Health Care Delivery

In terms of the safe and quality nursing care, nurse turnovers would result
in less time spent to perform bedside care and basic nursing procedures (highest
of 67%), lack of focus on the demands or needs of patients and their family
members (59.8%) increased risk of nosocomial infections as well as delayed
discharges (both at 58.8%) and delayed nurse’s response to clients /watcher’s
call as well as increased client’s wait time for diagnostic tests/procedures (both
at 57.7%). However, the results reveal that nurse turnover would not result in
increased client’s complaints on nursing care provided (53.6%) and less/ no time
for nurses to detect complications (51.5%).
10
In terms of health education, nurse turnover would result in inadequate

individual client’s health education (highest of 55.7%), less time or no time to
provide specific group health education (54.6%) and insufficient time to give
health education to clients and family (50.5%).
In terms of communication and collaboration, nurse turnovers would result
in lack /no time for nurses communicate with the client and members of the
family (highest of 61.9%),and problems/ conditions are not addressed in a timely
manner as well as inadequate nurse’s education on how client’s and family will
take care of their illness or injury (both at 58.8%).
In terms of records management, nurse turnovers would result in failure of
the nurses to document some important client information as well as less or no
time to discuss clients’ condition with members of the health care team (highest
both at 59.8%) and mismanagement of nurses of client’s records. However, the
results reveal that nurse turnover would not result in increased risk for inaccurate
information (53.6%) and poor referral to members of the healthcare team
(50.5%).
Table 3. The Implication of Nurse Turnover on Health Care Delivery

The Implication of Nurse Turnover
YES NO
on Health Care Delivery
Safe and Quality Nursing Care f % f %
1. less time spent to perform bedside care and basic
65 67.0 32 33.0
nursing procedures
2. increase/ risks in medication error 55 56.7 42 43.3
3. decrease efficiency and effectiveness of nursing care 51 52.6 46 47.4
4. delayed nurse’s response to clients /watcher’s call 56 57.7 41 42.3
5. increase the client’s complaints on nursing care
45 46.4 52 53.6
provided
6. increased risk of nosocomial infections 57 58.8 40 41.2
7. delayed discharges 57 58.8 40 41.2
8. increased client’s wait time for diagnostic tests/
56 57.7 41 42.3
procedures
9. lack of focus on the demands or needs of patients
and their family members 58 59.8 50 40.2
10. less/ no time for nurses to detect complications 47 48.5 39 51.5
11. increase the incidence of complications and/or
55 56.7 42 43.3
adverse events during the hospitalization
11
Health Education
12. insufficient time to give health education to clients
49 50.5 48 49.5
and family
13.. inadequate individual client’s health education 54 55.7 43 44.3
14. less time or no time to provide a specific group
53 54.6 44 45.4
health education
15. inadequate nurse’s education on how client’s and
57 58.8 40 41.2
the family will take care of their illness or injury
Communication, Teamwork and Collaboration
16. problems/ conditions are not addressed in a timely
57 58.8 40 41.2
manner
17. lack /no time for nurses communicate with the
60 61.9 37 38.1
client and members of the family
18. increase staff communication problem 49 50.5 49 50.5
19. failure of the nurses to communicate clients
56 57.7 41 42.3
condition to significant health team members
20. poor referral to members of the healthcare team 48 49.5 49 50.5
21. less or no time to discuss clients condition with
58 59.8 39 40.2
members of the health care team.
Records Management
22. mismanagement of nurses of client’s records 53 54.6 44 45.4
23. failure of the nurses to document some important
58 59.8 39 40.2
client information
24. increase risk for inaccurate information 45 46.4 52 53.6
QUALITATIVE DATA
Table 3 reveals the implication of nurse turnover on health care delivery.
The implication of nurse turnover on health care delivery was observed through
four domains namely the safe and quality nursing care, health education,
communication, teamwork and collaboration and records management.
Despite the decreasing nurse turnover rate in hospital A (government hospital),
still there occur issues, concerns and problems in health care delivery brought about
by the increasing nurse-client ratio which is 1:30-40. However, in Hospital B and
C, there was an increasing turnover rate especially in the last two years due to hiring
in the government hospital and to look for better directions in their careers and
opportunities abroad. Though they have a 1:10 to 1:12 nurse-patient ratio, they
still have problems in delivering quality health care brought about by the constant
change of nurses from highly experienced to no experience nurses.
12
The most common issues and concerns identified and it’s implication
on healthcare delivery discussed during the FGD, Key Informant Interview,
Validation and the result of the study revealed that, first, senior nurses and
supervisors verbalized 1:12 nurse-patient is not followed, problems such as
medication errors, no time for bedside care, documentation on the care given to
clients is lacking, health education is given in passing and nurses are focused on
paper works rather than client care. Additionally, the change in the curriculum to
K-12 program created a great impact on the development of student nurses’ skills
since they are not allowed to give intravenous medications thus affecting their
confidence in drug administration when they are hired as staff nurses resulting
to medication errors.
Second, newly hired nurses are hesitant and afraid to perform basic nursing
procedures because the clinical instructors handling them during their student
years are not aggressive in letting them perform procedures in their related
learning experience (RLE).
Third, relationship with co-nurses is affected especially when the nurse is lazy
and absents themselves during their scheduled shift.
Fourth, millennial nurse’s attitude and values towards work. They always
complain of easy fatigability, no/ lack self-confidence to perform procedures such
as administration of IV medication, no/ lack decision making, no command and
initiative at work, do not provide clients a thorough explanation on the procedures
they performed and medications they administer and lack / non provision of
tender loving care to clients which created a gap with generation x and baby
boomers. As verbalized by the senior nurses and nurse supervisors millennials
are not open to comments, suggestions and they hate to be reprimanded. Once
reprimanded, they take it personally and decides to leave work. In addition,
millennials do not want to stay in one place because they wanted to explore other
ventures to satisfy their curiosity.
Fifth, the orientation of new nurses and the transfer of areas of assignment
without orientation. As suggested by senior nurses, area orientation period should
be lengthened to 2 months to ensure that new nurses have learned and developed
their skills. Re-orientation should be done, when nurses are transferred to other
departments, although they are familiar with the routine activities, nurses need to
know and understand that each client have different needs and concerns and each
department has its own standard operating procedures to ensure the delivery of
quality health care services. Allowing them to adjust to the new environment will
boost their morale and confidence in doing their tasks resulting in job satisfaction
and good client outcomes.
13
To address the issues and concerns on the errors and committed mistakes,
the hospital has policies, guidelines and hospital protocols to hand to prevent
its occurrence and recurrence. The private hospitals (B and C) motivate nurses
to stay in the hospital by developing a good interpersonal relationship with the
nurses, giving them more options in terms of duty scheduling, increasing their
salaries and enhancing their benefits. If they cannot stay long, they are encouraged
to finish their contract before they leave and in return, they are given a certificate
of employment and recommendation to work in other hospitals or abroad.
While nursing continues to be one of the fastest growing professions, there is
an alarmingly high rate of nurse turnover and the increasing demand of nurses by
other institutions and countries is brought about by aging nursing workforce and
many baby boomers are nearing retirement (Haddad and Butler, 2018). In this
present study, the result revealed that most of the participants are millennials or
between the age of 22 to 37 years, have worked in the hospital for 3 to 6 years
and they outnumbered the generation X and baby boomers who have worked for
more than 15 years. Auerbach, Buerhaus, and Staiger (2017) presented that the
baby-boomer registered nurses (RNs), the largest segment of the RN workforce
from 1981 to 2012, are now retiring and the millennials who are entering the
nurse workforce has double the rate of the boomer, however, they rarely intend
to stay with one employer for their entire career or possibly even more than a few
years, Costanza, Badger, Fraser, Severt and Gade (2012). As agreed by Kovner,
Brewer, Fatehi & Jun (2014) about 17.5% of new nurses leave their first job
within one year of starting their careers.
On nurse turnover, there was an increased rate in private hospitals and a
decrease in government hospitals in the last three years. In contrast to these find-
ings, Chien and Yick (2016) stated that nurse turnover rate in private hospitals
are low or decrease because nurses are moderately stressed and satisfied with their
work environment and relationships. However, during the focus group discus-
sion and key informant interview the participants verbalized that nurses in pri-
vate hospitals experienced almost the same stress with those working in govern-
ment brought about by the constant changing of nurses. Nurses who are still on
the stage of learning and developing their skills are obliged to mentor the newly
hired nurses since experts and seasoned nurses left the hospitals. The difference
in salary and fringe benefits are the most common noticeable reasons why nurses
go and not stress. Although work overload and the stressful environment is one
of the top five push factors of nurse turnover, its impact is not as high as that of
low salary and no/fewer fringe benefits.
14
As agreed by Lorenzo, Galvez‐Tan, Icamina, & Javier (2013) push factors in-
clude low salary, no overtime or hazard pay, poor health insurance coverage, work
overload or the stressful working environment. Additionally, the World Health
Organization (2017) stated that nurses sought better wages, improved working
conditions and the higher standard of living not present in their native countries.
However, it has been observed that there is a different idea on the result of the
push and pulls factor. Lower salary is the number one push factor while a higher
wage is the fifth pull factor. Nevertheless, still, it is one of the five identified fac-
tors of `nurse turnover.
Nurse turnover as mentioned is a significant problem by all healthcare or-
ganization because of its adverse effects on quality healthcare delivery and client
outcomes. What is unique in this study is, it emphasizes and focuses more on
the impact of nurse turnover on the five (5) of the eleven (11) critical areas of
nurse’s responsibilities rather than the operational costs as other researches and
studies did. The five key areas of responsibilities identified are safe and quality
nursing care, health education, communication, teamwork and collaboration,
and records management.
On safe and quality nursing care, the study revealed that nurse turnover
resulted in less time spent to perform bedside care and necessary nursing proce-
dures, lack of focus on the demands or needs of clients and their family members,
delayed discharges, delayed nurse’s response to clients/watcher’s call, increased
client’s wait time for diagnostic tests/procedures and is agreed upon by the chief
nurses, supervisors and senior nurses during interview, focus group discussion.
Further, the interview revealed that staff nurses commonly committed medica-
tion errors in contrast to the result of the survey as the least problem for safe and
quality care. Bolandianbafghi, Salimi, Rassouli, Faraji, and Sarebanhassanbadin
(2017) accounted for medication Errors to stress, nurse’s burnout, and job dis-
satisfaction as a result of understaffing caused by the increase in nurse turnover.
Health education is essential in nursing for it will help improve the health
status of individual client and their family, especially in a culturally diverse com-
munity such as Cotabato City. Unfortunately, nurse turnover resulted in inad-
equate nurse’s education on how clients and family will take care of their illness
or injury, insufficient and insufficient time to give health education to individual
client and their family. These findings of the study are agreed and validated by
supervisors and senior nurses that ward nurses lack/no time to explain the im-
portance of nursing procedures performed. Although they feed client with little
information, it is not enough for clients to understand considering the cultural
15
diversity in the place. As Raingruber (2013) cited health education are activi-
ties that seek to inform individual client on the nature and causes of health and
illness, and it motivates them to accept behavioral change by influencing their
values, attitudes, and beliefs. Nevertheless, it did not materialize in the present
study.
Relative to health education, communication is an essential factor for the
success of the outcome of individualized client care. According to Kourkouta
and Papathanasiou (2014) and Vertino (2014), communication plays an essen-
tial role throughout the client’s healthcare experience, and great responsibility
falls on nurses. They must be able to relay information especially during periods
of intense stress. The problem in communication was seen in the present study,
nurses recognized the importance of communication but due to increased work-
load, they lack or no time to communicate with the clients and their family and
less or no time to discuss client’s condition thus problems are not appropriately
addressed. Increase staff communication problem was also mentioned during the
focus group discussion and validation, although it is the least identified prob-
lem in the survey. This problem is due to the attitude of the millennials such as
they are lazy to perform the task given to them because they quickly get tired,
stressed and burnout, no/ lack decision making, and initiative at work thus af-
fecting quality client care and satisfaction. Institute for Healthcare Communica-
tion (2011) and Nacioglu (2016) stated that the client’s perception of the quality
healthcare they received is highly dependent on the quality of interaction with
the healthcare team.
Collaboration and teamwork are noticeable in all hospitals. Participants ver-
balized that they seldom experienced problems regarding communication and
referral to other healthcare team members thus it is the least problem identified
in the survey. The healthcare team members are cooperatively working together,
using the proper referral system to formulate and carry out plans for client care,
(O’Daniel and Rosenstein, 2011).
As observed majority of local healthcare providers in the Philippines are still
using the paper-based records, which poses challenges for nurses because it does
not only affect their primary function to client care but also their ability to man-
age their task/work efficiently (Wood, 2015) With increased workload brought
about by nurse-client ratio, nurses fail to document some vital client information
and mismanaged client’s records. According to Luthuli and Kalusopa (2017),
Medical record mismanagement can result in delays in delivering necessary medi-
cal treatment and incorrect diagnosis. Although problem on misdiagnosis due
16
to records mismanagement was not experienced, still the hospitals are taking
significant steps to prevent its occurrence.
The hospitals motivated them through salary increase though it is not that
competitive with other institution, developing a good interpersonal relationship,
enhancing nurses’ benefits and more options regarding duty schedule to retain
nurses. The responses of the participants are agreed upon by that, improving the
work environment for nurses makes it easier for hospitals to reduce turnover and
retain them because a negative work environment may lead to job dissatisfaction
and nurse’s burnout which may have an adverse effect on client outcomes. Addi-
tionally, it may also result in more turnover as departments become understaffed
and more nurses will experience burnout (Nantsupawat, Kunaviktikul, Nantsu-
pawat, Wichaikhum, Thienthong, & Poghosyan, 2017 and Kerfoot, 2015).
More importantly, the hospital shifted from practical nursing to modified
primary nursing. This is done to enhance quality individualized client care. In
cases of errors, issues, and problems, it is easy for the nurse manager to identify
who is held accountable. According to Thompson (2018) the primary nurse de-
signs a complete care plan for every client under his care, thus the nurse is respon-
sible, and there no ambiguity about that is accountable for the client’s care plans.
However, Thompson (2018) stated that when hospitals try to implement
primary care nursing system without the necessary resources, they may not be
able to meet their expectations especially if the primary care nurse is given re-
sponsibility to a specific client and could not focus due to scheduling issues and
nurse-client ratio, this will compromise the therapeutic relationship with their
client. Due to the lack of workforce to do primary nursing, the hospitals in the
study modified the primary nursing by integrating and combining primary nurs-
ing along with practical nursing. Nurses are assigned to specific clients to perform
all necessary nursing procedures except for vital signs taking and monitoring,
measuring intake and output and documentation because it is done by nursing
aids and charge nurses respectively.
CONCLUSION
The findings of the study revealed that nurse turnover is continuously

increasing in private hospitals which are brought about by low salary, no/less
fringe benefits, poor / no health insurance coverage, no overtime pay, better
opportunities and compensation package offered by other hospitals and lower
nurse-client ratio as validated in the qualitative data gathered.
17
Further, the study found out that most of the participants are millennial
which resulted in generation gap with seasoned nurses thus affecting healthcare
delivery. This shift in attitude poses an excellent challenge for hospitals to retain
millennials because they are growing in numbers and are replacing baby boomers
and generation X.
Based on the result of the study, the researchers therefore conclude that
increased or decreased nurse turnover dramatically affects health care delivery
in terms of safe and quality nursing care, health education, communication,
teamwork and collaboration and records management which is brought about
by nurse-patient ratio, stressful environment, interpersonal relationships, nurses
attitude and experiences specifically of the millennials, school where they
graduated and their foundation during their school days.
Thus, it is essential for hospitals to learn, adjust and develop their management
strategies to accommodate and understand the unique style and attitudes of the
millennials to retain them and prepare them from novice to expert
The result of the study could be utilized or used as a reference for international
publications and other forms of information dissemination such as articles,
journals or newsletters. The persons or group of people who are significant in the
success in healthcare delivery might look into the result of the study and review
their policies that may address their problems regarding health care delivery,
strengthen and enhance existing systems that are most useful to improve better
and quality client outcomes.
LITERATURE CITED
AMN healthcare, (2017). Viewpoints on Leadership, Nursing shortages, and

their Profession. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/JgZGq7
Asegid, A., Belachew, T., &Yimam, E. (2014). Factors influencing job satisfac-
tion and anticipated turnover among nurses in Sidama zone public health
facilities, South Ethiopia. Nursing research and practice, 2014. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/909768
Asian Journal, (2016). More Filipino nurses seen working overseas. LA Asian
Journal. The Filipino-American Community Newspaper. Weekend Edition.
18
Volume 26. No.49,4 Sections,34 pages. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/

DctCPf
Auerbach, D. I., Buerhaus, P. I., & Staiger, D. O. (2017). Millennials almost twice
as likely to be registered nurses as baby boomers were. Health Affairs, 36(10),
1804-1807. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2017.0386
Bolandianbafghi, S., Salimi, T., Rassouli, M., Faraji, R., &Sarebanhassanabadi,

M. (2017). Correlation between medication errors with job satisfaction
and fatigue of nurses. Electronic physician, 9(8), 5142. Retrieved from
doi: 10.19082/5142
Costanza, D. P., Badger, J. M., Fraser, R. L., Severt, J. B., &Gade, P. A. (2012).
Generational differences in work-related attitudes: A meta-analysis. Journal
of Business and Psychology, 27(4), 375-394. Retrieved from DOI https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10869-012-9259-4
Dimaya, R. M., McEwen, M. K., Curry, L. A., & Bradley, E. H. (2012). Managing
health worker migration: a qualitative study of the Philippine response to
nurse brain drain. Human resources for health, 10(1), 47. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-4491-10-47
Dywili, S., Bonner, A. N. N., & O’BRIEN, L. O. U. I. S. E. (2013). Why

do nurses migrate?–a review of recent literature. Journal of nursing
management, 21(3), 511-520. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1365-2834.2011.01318.x
Chien, W. T., & Yick, S. Y. (2016). An investigation of nurses’ job satisfaction

in a private hospital and its correlates. The open nursing journal, 10, 99.
Retrieved from doi: 10.2174/1874434601610010099
Roche, M. A., Duffield, C. M., Homer, C., Buchan, J., &Dimitrelis, S. (2015).
The rate and cost of nurse turnover in Australia. Collegian, 22(4), 353-358.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colegn.2014.05.002
Haddad, L., and Butler, T. (2018).Nursing, Shortage. National Center for

Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493175/
19
Institute for Healthcare Communication, (2011). Impact of Communication in

Healthcare. Retrieved from https://healthcarecomm.org/about-us/impact-
of-communication-in-healthcare/
Kerfoot, K. (2015). Four measures that are key to retaining nurses. Hospital and
Health Networks, 5-6. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/aV3UyK
Kourkouta, L., &Papathanasiou, I. V. (2014). Communication in nursing

practice. Material socio-medica, 26(1), 65. Retrieved from doi: 10.5455/
msm.2014.26.65-67
Kovner, C. T., Brewer, C. S., Fatehi, F., & Jun, J. (2014). What does nurse turnover
rate mean and what is the rate?. Policy, Politics, & Nursing Practice, 15(3-4),
64-71. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1527154414547953
Lazarte, F. C. (2016). Core Competencies of Beginning Staff Nurses: A Basis

for Staff Development Training Program. Journal of Advanced Management
Science Vol, 4(2). Retrieved from doi: 10.12720/joams.4.2.98-105
Lorenzo, F. M. E., Galvez‐Tan, J., Icamina, K., & Javier, L. (2007). Nurse
migration from a source country perspective: Philippine country case
study. Health services research, 42(3p2), 1406-1418. Retrieved from https://
doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00716.x
Luthuli, L. P., &Kalusopa, T. (2017). The management of medical records in

the context of service delivery in the public sector in KwaZulu-Natal, South
Africa: the case of Ngwelezana hospital. South African Journal of Libraries
and Information Science, 83(2), 1-11. Retrieved from http://sajlis.journals.
ac.za doi:10.7553/83-2-1679
Masselink, L. E., & Lee, S. Y. D. (2010). Nurses, Inc.: expansion and

commercialization of nursing education in the Philippines. Social Science
& Medicine, 71(1), 166-172. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
socscimed.2009.11.043
Mathes, E. W. (1981). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a guide for living. Journal

of Humanistic Psychology, 21(4), 69-72. Retrieved from https://doi.
org/10.1177/002216788102100406
20
McHugh, M. D., & Ma, C. (2014). Wage, work environment, and staffing:
effects on nurse outcomes. Policy, Politics, & Nursing Practice, 15(3-4), 72-
80. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1527154414546868
Nacioglu, A. (2016). As a critical behavior to improve quality and patient safety

in health care: speaking up!. Safety in Health, 2(1), 10. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40886-016-0021-x
Nantsupawat, A., Kunaviktikul, W., Nantsupawat, R., Wichaikhum, O. A.,

Thienthong, H., & Poghosyan, L. (2017). Effects of nurse work environment
on job dissatisfaction, burnout, intention to leave. International nursing
review, 64(1), 91-98. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12342
Solutions, N. N. (2016). National healthcare retention & RN staffing report.

Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com.ph/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2
C5&q=Nursing+Solutions+Inc.+%282016%29.+2016+National+Healthca
re+Retention+%26+RN+Staffing++Report&btnG=
O’Daniel, M., & Rosenstein, A. H. (2008). Professional communication and

team collaboration. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/NaEX21
Philippine Overseas Employment Administration, (2010). Retrieved from http://

www.poea.gov.ph/html/statistics.html
Raingruber, B. (2013). Contemporary Health Promotion in Nursing

Practice, SecondEdition, Includes Navigate 2 Advantage Access. Jones
& Bartlett Learning. Retrieved from http://www.jblearning.com/
catalog/9781284094749/
Texas Health and Human Services, (2018). Texas Center for Nursing Workforce
Studies (TCNWS). Retrieved from http://www.dshs.texas.gov/chs/cnws/.
Thompson, Scott. (n.d.). Role of the Primary Nurse. Work - Chron.com. Retrieved
from http://work.chron.com/role-primary-nurse-15191.html
Twigg, D., & McCullough, K. (2014). Nurse retention: a review of strategies

to create and enhance positive practice environments in clinical
21
settings. International journal of nursing studies, 51(1), 85-92. Retrieved from

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2013.05.015
Vertino, K. A. (2014). Effective interpersonal communication: A practical guide

to improve your life. OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 19(3),
1-6. Retrieved from DOI: 10.3912/OJIN.Vol19No03Man01
United States Department of Labor, (2018). Fastest Growing Occupations.

Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/ooh/fastest-
growing.htm
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New york: John willey & sons. Inc.
VroomWork and Motivation1964. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/sM7cz8
World Health Organization, (2017). From Brain Drain to Brain Gain Migration
of Nursing and Midwifery Workforce in the State of Kerala. INDIA
COUNTRY CASE STUDY: KERALA. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/
MLrYVj
Wieck, L., & Moss, K. D. (2015). Managing the Intergenerational Nursing Team.
HCPro. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/L68BC2
Wood, C. (2017). The importance of good record-keeping for nurses. Nursing

Times. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/xdybC4
Yeates, N. (2010). The globalization of nurse migration: Policy issues and

responses. International Labour Review, 149(4), 423-440. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1564-913X.2010.00096.x
22
Oral Language Proficiency Level

of International Business Process
Outsourcing Agents
RAMIL S. BULILAN
http://orcid.org 0000-0001-5028-7570
[email protected]
Bohol Island State University
Clarin, Bohol, Philippines
SHAUN JAMES T. PONTE

[email protected]
Sykes Asia Inc.
Cebu City, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Oral English language proficiency is an important skill every call center

agent must possess. Towards this end, this study sampled 125 call center agents of
Sykes in Cebu City, Philippines primarily to determine their level of proficiency
in oral discourse. A descriptive-quantitative design was pursued wherein
respondents were assessed using the said industry’s standardized instrument that
measured on their pronunciation, stress, and intonation; language accuracy, and
vocabulary range; discourse and strategic competency; and, interactive fluency
and sociolinguistics. It also specifically sought answers on their gender, highest
educational attainment, school attended, and place of origin. We presumed
that their highest educational attainment and gender had influenced their oral
language proficiency level. Results revealed they were modest users which mean
23
that they are non-native-speaker-like agents. They have partial command of the
language. Statistical tests revealed no significant difference and relationship,
respectively, on respondents’ oral proficiency level in terms of their gender and
highest educational achievement. These imply that whether male or female, and
finished college or not, their oral proficiency level is not affected. In other words,
gender and college achievement are not the factors towards their oral proficiency
level. Nevertheless, call center agents of Sykes to need to improve their oral
language skills for them to retain employment.
Keywords — Language and Communication, Business Process Outsourcing,

descriptive design, Cebu City, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
The English language has a prominent standing in global communication.

Hence, both oral and written English skills are essential around the world.
However, for many, speaking English seems to be a very challenging task. Since
the aim of English education is not only to develop knowledge of grammar and
writing skills but also to teach oral English skills, this problem needs to be studied
to remedy the situation (Paakki, 2013).
Oral English proficiency is an essential skill every call center agent must
possess. This skill is indeed essential for effective communication. On his part,
Emanuel (2011) stressed that excellent oral and written communication and
interpersonal skills are among the foremost skill sets required for call center
agents. The ability to speak eloquently, and effectively has, for centuries, been
recognized as the hallmark of an educated person. They further claimed that
sufficient skill in communication had paved its way to becoming a passport to
success (Emanuel, 2011; Benaissi, 2008). Whether a professional, social, and
private individual, people are adjudged as to how well they master the skills of
communication in various aspects of their lives. Many competencies are measured
according to their abilities to express themselves in a clear and convincing way of
using the English language.
Various studies revealed that when students’ proficiency in the English
language is high, it will positively affect and improve their academic performance
(Wilson and Komba, 2012; Aina & Olanipekun 2013; Mahmud, 2014;
Olanipekun, Garuba, & Mohammed 2014; Martirosyan, Hwang, & Wanjohi
2015). Nevertheless, there was not enough literature which delved into the oral
24
language proficiency level among call center agents in the Philippines which
tried to correlate such language proficiency towards educational achievement and
gender. Thus, this study is in order and believes in contributing to the body of
knowledge.
The importance of English language for enhancing educational attainment
through improved communication ability can never be overemphasized, that
is why students with so much difficulty with their communication skill in the
English language may not function effectively, not only in English language but
their academic endeavor (Aina & Olanipekun 2013).
As a terminology, proficiency suggests variability, and it has traditionally been
related to measurement and testing in second language teaching and learning
(Llurda, 2000). As such, Hakuta, Butler & Witt (2000) insisted that oral English
proficiency is best checked through standardized proficiency tests.
Oral language is about communicating with other people who involves
a process of utilizing thinking, knowledge, and skills to speak and listen
effectively. As such, it is central to the lives of all people. As a process of verbally
transmitting information and ideas from one individual or group to another, oral
communication becomes a skill that must be mastered.
One of the few studies which have been conducted on the effect of gender
on the production of oral skills is that of Koosha, Ketabi, & Kassaian (2011).
In the same year 2011, a study conducted on whether gender plays a role in the
assessment of oral proficiency by Motallebzadeh, and Nematizadeh (2011), it was
found out that females did better in vocal performance than males; however, the
difference was not that significant.
Halpern (2004) provided ample evidence that different hormonal
configurations can partly explain the differences between male and female
cognitive functioning. The production of male sex hormones from early childhood
on in boys is assumed to be critical in this respect. As a result, masculinization
of behavior and cognition occurs; causing a variety of differences between
men and women in, for example, motor skills, spatial abilities, mathematical
aptitude, perception, and verbal abilities. Girls develop communicative skills at a
younger age than boys exhibiting larger vocabularies and using a more extensive
variety of sentences (Halpern, 2004). Furthermore, on gender, a 1998 Canadian
assessment of students’ speech communication skills showed that there were
many significant gender differences among individuals’ listening skills (Hunter,
Gambell, Randhawa, 2005). The study revealed that the vocal production of
males was consistently below than that of females (Koosha, Ketabi, & Kassaian,
25
2011). According to Claes (1999) “the evidence for inherent sex differences in
language is not convincing.”
In a study conducted by De Jong, Steinel, Florijn, Schoonen, & Hulstijn
(2012) he concluded that speaking proficiency is a matter of declarative knowledge,
a matter of processing instruction quickly, and a matter of pronunciation skills,
and that linguistic knowledge and processing skills deserve a prominent place in
any model of language proficiency.
One area in speaking which has shown to be quite challenging to master
completely is that of the pronunciation and intonation of the language (Koosha,
Ketabi, & Kassaian, 2011).
In the Arab region, although English is being taught for quite a number of
years, the results are nowhere near the expected outcomes; that is, young adults
are ill-equipped to use the language as fluently or efficiently as can be desired (Al-
Ahdal, Alfallaj, Al-Awaied, & Al-Hattami, 2014).
In the Philippines, the fact remains evident. However, employers still
turn away many of the younger applicants because their English skills are below
American standards despite the claiming the Philippines as being a country where
the English language is deeply entrenched in local culture (Hernandez, Greene,
Vaughn, Francis, & Grigorenko, 2015).
Thus, these reviews of the literature have triggered the researcher to conduct
the study which primarily aimed to determine the oral English proficiency level
of the Sykes Asia call center agents, and whether or not their gender and highest
educational attainment influence their oral proficiency.
FRAMEWORK
The present study is anchored on Hymes’ “Communicative Competence

Theory” in 1972. This great concept according to Hymes himself refers to
“one’s competence of language use appropriate to the other participants of the
communicative interaction and appropriate to the given social context and
situation.” Moreover, in Canale’s (1983) version of communicative competence,
he introduces it with four separate components – grammatical competence,
which is quite similar to that of Chomsky’s idea of competence; sociolinguistic
competence, which addresses the extent to which utterances are produced
and understood appropriately in different sociolinguistic context; discourse
competence, which is related to the correct organization of text following
the rules of cohesion, and coherence determined by the text itself and by its
26
particular genre; and strategic competence, which is restricted to what has come
to be known as communication strategies as opposed to learning strategies.
Four components of the said theory were the bases of the model framed by
Jane Lockwood (2012) in her Business Performance Language Assessment Scale
(BUPLAS) that she used in evaluating call center agents’ language proficiency
level. Sykes used this same instrument also to assess the language proficiency level
of the agents. In such a tool, it has four interrelated areas namely: pronunciation,
stress, and intonation, language and vocabulary range, discourse and strategic
competence, and interactive fluency & sociolinguistic competence.
This study determined the proficiency level of Sykes’ Call Center Agents in
Cebu City. Specifically, it 1) sought answers of the profile of the call center agent
regarding their gender, educational attainment, school attended, and place of
origin; 2) determined their oral English language proficiency level in the attributes
of pronunciation, stress and intonation; language accuracy, vocabulary range;
discourse and strategic competency; and interactive fluency and sociolinguistic;
3) determined the significant difference between the respondents’ oral language
proficiency level regarding their gender; and 4) determined the significant
relationship between the respondents’ oral language proficiency level towards
their highest educational attainment.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study made use of a quantitative-descriptive approach using a
correlational type of research undertaking to find out whether the demographic
characteristics of the respondents, such as gender, highest educational attainment,
school attended and place of origin, as independent variables are related to their
oral language proficiency level, as dependent variables. Furthermore, it used
convenience sampling in determining research respondents. Moreover, this study
had an ex-post data, meaning the data were taken from those agents who were
on their Language Certification Week. This means they already have undergone
Customer Service Training, Language Training, and Culture Training as well
as Product Training. They were waiting for their QA Certification. These date
were sought and accessed and with permission from Miss Venus S. Lim, SGA
27
Training Manager, and Mrs. Ma. Anna Kristina Villaba, Operations Director,
Sykes Asia Inc. These data were the assessment rates of 125 agents who were on
their probationary period.
Research Site
The study was conducted in Sykes, Asia, Inc. located at F. Cabahug Street,
Mabolo, and Cebu City, Philippines. Sykes Asia, Inc. is a foreign-owned, US-
based call center that operates in four different sites in the Philippines. It is the
first call center company to invest in the country in 1997, according to records
of the Board of Investment (BOI), besides support departments of multinational
companies relocated offshore to take advantage of lower costs.
It used the industry’s standardized tool in assessing their agent’s oral language
proficiency level courtesy of Jane Lockwood’s (2012) Business Performance
Language Assessment Scale (BUPLAS) model. Sykes used the said tool for quite
some time. The respondents are probationary employees and agents of the said
entity with four months and onward who are seeking regular employment.
Instrumentation
The assessment tool is made up of 4 interrelated attributes as evaluation areas
for the agents. These attributes include 1) pronunciation, stress & intonation
which pertains to the ability of the agent to use globally acceptable pronunciation
patterns for the work in a call center. This scale includes an assessment of
individual words, syllable stress, word stress, and intonation. This also covers
voice texture, clarity, volume, and speed. It is weighted 20%; 2) language
accuracy & vocabulary range which includes the ability of the agent to use a wide
range of language structures and vocabulary items accurately and appropriately.
If inaccurate, this band also assesses whether the agent is aware of the error/s
he is making and can reformulate correctly. It determines whether there are
stabilization problems and whether the agent has the ability to standardize or
simplify technical and account jargon in a way that can be readily understood
by the caller (20%); 3) discourse & strategic competency which refers to the
strength of the agent to understand the nature (CALL FLOW and MOVES)
of the spoken text he is participating in. This also pertains to the ability of the
agent to adequately take control (or respond) to the “moves” within the text,
and use appropriate connectors and signaling devices. This is also evidenced
by good caller control and time management of the call. It also covers the
ability of the agent to “repair” the discourse, e.g., the ability to recover from
misunderstandings, upset, confusion, etc. This also includes the ability of the
28
agent to construct clear, direct, and linear text that is easy for the listener to
understand reflecting that the speaker is “thinking in English” rather than in
Tagalog (30%); and 4) interactive fluency & sociolinguistic competency which
refers to the agent’s ability to understand and respond appropriately to the cultural
expectations (ethnic / company), the accent and the idiomatic language of the
caller. It also covers the interactional strategies in the exchange. e.g., turn-taking,
initiation, responding, apologizing, explaining, politeness markers, etc. Good
awareness of interactive fluency and sociolinguistic understanding is evidenced in
good customer relationship building in the call center industry (30%).
These attributes are rated with a raw score of 5-1 with each assigned
percentage. To wit: 5 as EXPERT USER (EU) or Native-like speaker. It is
TOEFL’s equivalent to 96-100%wherein the agent is described as having
full operational command of the language with only occasional unsystematic
inaccuracies and inappropriateness. The CSR can handle complex argumentation
and description thoroughly. The agent would perform at senior/middle
management level in a call center. The agent is in the very complex CSR level; 4
as VERY GOOD USER (VGU) or Near-native like a speaker. This is equivalent
to 86-95% where the agent has excellent operational command of the language
though with occasional minor inaccuracies. He/she generally handles complex
language well, understands, and can make detailed reasoning on complex and
demanding calls. The agent would perform well at middle management level,
QA, training and team leader, multiple CSR level; 3 as GOOD USER (GU)
or Non-native speaker with 76-85% wherein the agent generally has sufficient
command of the language despite some inaccuracies and misunderstandings.
He can use and understand reasonably moderately complex or routine language,
and handle calls in a satisfactory manner causing minimum frustration to the
caller. The agent will improve fast with support and CSR experience. He/she
is in the moderately complex/routine CSR level; 2 as a MODEST USER (MU)
or Non-native speaker, with 66-75%. Here the agent has partial command of
the language coping with overall meaning in most situations, though is likely
to make many mistakes. He should be able to handle essential communication
in everyday cases. He/she would perform at usual CSR level only; and one as
LIMITED USER (LU) with 0-65%. In this level, the agent’s basic competence
is limited to common questions. He has frequent problems with understanding
and expression. The agent is not able to use complex language. Communication
breakdowns frequently occur. He/she should be able to do routine processing
work.
29
The Respondents’ Profile

On Sex. By sex, we mean here both sexes, the male and female species.
This is taken into account on our presumption that male differs with that of
female abilities in their oral language proficiency as literature reviewed in this
study. The result showed that out of 125 respondents, females (70 or 56%) were
more than in number than males (55 or 44%). In short, most of the respondents
were female. This result is supported by the studies of Domingo-Cabarrubias, and
Belt, Richardson, and Webster (2002) where the majority of call center workers
were female. In the Philippines, almost sixty percent of workers in the call centers
are women (NSO-GDC). According to Cabrera-Balleza (2005), as cited by
Domingo-Cabarrubias, 2012, that BPO is presently the single largest technology
where mostly employed by women. Much more according to del Rosario,
“women are preferred more over men in the customer service representative task
in almost all the call centers in the Philippines.” Scientifically proven, women
generally possess a high tolerance to stress and soothing quality of voice although
married women show more seriousness at work than single women (See Table 1).
Table 1. Distribution of Respondents in terms of Gender N=125

Sex Frequency Percentage (%)
Male 55 44
Female 70 56
Total 125 100
On highest educational attainment. This refers to whether the respondents

were college graduate or college level. Results revealed that most of them (75
or 60%) completed their college degrees; while 50 or 40% were college level.
This outcome corroborated Melgar, Ofreneo, Kintanar, & Cand (2009) study
where seventy percent of the total respondents have graduated college studies.
However, in a survey conducted in Davao City by Castro, and Deluna (2013) on
the “factors affecting call center as a job preference among employees,” the result
showed that majority were college level at 51.3% and, only around 45% were
college graduate.

30
Table 2. Distribution of Respondents in terms of Highest Educational Attainment

N=125
Highest Educational Attainment Frequency Percentage (%)
College Level 50 40
College Graduate 75 60
Total 125 100
On school last attended. This demographic characteristic of respondents

refers to their school last attended before they were hired, whether such school is
public or private. The result would serve as the data bank for future researchers
of which the present researchers wanted to find out what type of school would
dominate in such a call center industry. Results unveiled that those who come
from private schools in the country outnumbered (84%) with those from public
higher institutions, with only 16%.
In Nigeria, most excelling students tend to emerge from the private school
in the modern academic dispensation with the paradox of whose teachers
developing from the public school in the old educational allocation (Oredein &
Oredein 2016).
Table 3. Distribution of Respondents in terms of School Last Attended N=125

School Last Attended Frequency Percentage (%)
Public 20 16
Private 105 84
Total 125 100
On the place of origin. This profile tracks the home addresses of the
respondents. This profile is presumed to be of influence to their oral English
proficiency level, taking into considerations of their geographical setting which
could affect their intonation, accents, diction, etc. The present study classified
the respondents as those coming from the three principal geographic divisions
of the country - Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. In this study, 72% came from
the Visayas region, 20% from Mindanao area, and only 8% from Luzon. This
is precisely because of the geographical location of the call center industry, the
Sykes, where it is located at the heart of the “Queen City of the South,” in Cebu
City as part of the Visayas region.
31
Table 4. Distribution of Respondents in terms of Place of Origin N=125

Place of Origin Frequency Percentage (%)
Luzon 10 8
Visayas 90 72
Mindanao 25 20
Total 125 100
On their oral proficiency level. This determines their oral proficiency level
in the use of the English language. Results showed that they were modest users
or non-native-speaker-like agents with an overall weighted mean of 2.70. This
result is interpreted as second from the lowest level of such English language
proficiency. This further means that the agent-respondents have partial command
of the language coping with whole meaning in most situations, though are likely
to make many mistakes. They can handle essential communication in routine
situations. They would perform at routine CSR level only. This result validates
the studies of Hernandez, Greene, Vaughn, Francis, & Grigorenko (2015) where
he claimed that in the Philippines, employers still turn away many of the youth
because their English skills are below par, despite the Philippines being a country
where the English language is deeply entrenched in the local culture.
Table 5. Oral Proficiency Level of Respondents N=125

Frequency Percentage Weighted
Oral Proficiency Level
(f ) (%) Raw score
EXPERT USER (EU) or Native-like speaker = 5 pts.
0 0 0
(96-100%)
VERY GOOD USER (VGU) or Near-native like speaker =
4 pts. (86-95%) 0 0 0
GOOD USER (GU) or Non-native speaker = 3 pts.
15 12 3.17
(76-85%)
MODEST USER (MU) or Non-native speaker = 2 pts.
105 84 2.67
(66-75%)
LIMITED USER (LU) = 1 pt. (0-65%) 5 4 1.95
Total/Overall weighted raw score 125 100.00 2.70
On their Proficiency Level Measured by the Four Attributes from the Tool.
Using the four attributes reflected in their assessment tool, results showed that
the respondents were modest users or non-native speakers, with an overall
weighted mean of 2.70. The same results revealed as with their oral English
32
language proficiency level, meaning the respondents have low performance in

all of the four attributes measured. Moreover, the respondents were noted here
to have much difficulty in their discourse and strategic competence area, which
means that they were weak in the following aspects: understanding the nature
of the spoken text they were participating in, using appropriate connectors and
signaling devices, maintaining good caller control and time management of the
call, having the ability to “repair” the discourse, e.g., the ability to recover from
misunderstandings, upset, confusion, etc. and having the ability to construct
clear, direct, and linear text that is easy for the listener to understand.
Those who were rated weak will be part of Training Needs Analysis
to come up with a training module or specific coaching tips. Then, an agent
who now has attended the Intervention Training is expected to improve his/
her score. Once he/she is cleared or has improved, with the recommendation of
the English Specialist, the agent now can proceed to take calls with minimum
to no observation. If, at any rate, the agent reverts to his/her old habits, another
set of call-listening and observation will be done using the scorecard. Also, the
observation period may last for 3 months or a quarter. This is what is called PIP
or Performance Improvement Plan. The agent and the Account will come up
with an agreement. The gist of the agreement is that termination of employment
will be reached if performance is not improved.
Table 6. Oral Proficiency Level Measured by four Attributes

Weighted
Four Attributes Proficiency Level/description
Raw score
Pronunciation, Stress &
2.78 Modest User/non-native speaker
Intonation (PSI )= 20%
Language Accuracy & Vocabulary
Range (LAVR) = 20%
Discourse & Strategic Competency
(DSC) = 30%
Interactive Fluency &
Sociolinguistic Competency 2.64 Modest User/non-native speaker
(IFSoC) = 30%
Overall weighted raw score 2.70 Modest User/non-native speaker
On the difference between the sex profile and oral English language
proficiency level. Tested hypothesis yielded no significant difference between
gender and proficiency level where the computed z-value of 0.05 is lesser than
33
the critical value of 1.96; thus, the null hypothesis is accepted, which means that
both genders have almost the same proficiency level, or gender is not much of
an issue towards their oral language proficiency level. The result validates the
study of Gorjian, Moosavian, and Shahramiri (2011), as cited by Koosha, Ketabi,
and Kassaian (2011), concerning “the effects of an oral summary of short stories
on male/female learners’ speaking proficiency,” where no significant difference
between the two genders was noted, although females slightly outperformed
males. In contrast of the same year, a study on whether gender plays a role in
the assessment of oral proficiency by Motallebzadeh, & Nematizadeh (2011), it
was found out that females did better in vocal performance than males; however,
the difference was not that significant. Furthermore, the oral production of men
was consistently below than that of females (Koosha, Ketabi, & Kassaian, 2011).
According to Claes (1999), the evidence for inherent sex differences in language
is not convincing. Table 7 follows.
Table 7. Difference between Respondents’ Oral Proficiency Level in terms of

Gender
Language Proficiency
Level Critical Significance
z-value Interpretation
Value Level
Male Female
2.69 2.71 0.05 1.96 0.05 Insignificant
On the relationship between highest educational attainment towards

oral English language proficiency level. The result showed that the correlation
coefficient of 0.176 is lesser than the p-value of 0.327. Again, the hypothesis tested
yielded negative correlation between the highest educational attainments towards
oral English language proficiency level; thus, the null hypothesis is also accepted,
which means that whether they have completed a college degree or not, this is not
a factor towards their oral language proficiency level. Most of the respondents’
verbal proficiency scores are the same whether they have finished college or college
level only. There is no significant relationship between respondents’ educational
attainment and language proficiency level (p-value>0.05).
According to Aina & Olanipekun (2013), students who have so much
difficulty with their communication skill in the English language may not
function effectively, not only in English language but in their academic and social
endeavor. Depicted herein is Table 8.
34
Table 8. The relationship between Respondents’ Highest Educational

Attainment and their Oral Proficiency Level
Correlation
Signifi-
coefficient () with
Variable cance p-value Interpretation Decision
Language
Level
Proficiency Level
Educational Accept
0.176 0.05 0.327 Insignificant
Attainment Ho
CONCLUSIONS
Indeed, there is not enough evidence to claim that there is a significant

difference between the proficiency level of male and female call center agents
in Cebu City. This means that the difference in their sex, male or female, has
nothing to do with their oral proficiency level. And since the correlation between
their highest educational attainment and their oral language proficiency level
showed an insignificant result, again, the researchers do not have enough reasons
to believe that their educational qualification has affected their oral proficiency
level. The data showed that college level and college graduate respondents are
nearly or approximately the same, whether they have finished a degree or not
and that their oral proficiency level was not affected by the result. Putting it
simply, whether male or female, finished a college degree or not, the level of oral
proficiency is not affected. Their low level of oral English language proficiency
might be attributed to some other factors such as places of origin and age of
which this present study fails to investigate, and thus recommended for future
researchers to delve into.
The results of the study serve as eye-openers for both private and public
higher institutions to continue giving more emphasis on the importance of
acquiring sufficient skill in communication as it is one indispensable tool for
success in such an industry and also in other academic and social endeavor (Aina
& Olanipekun 2013). Thus, in their continuous assessment of their students,
language teachers may use the language competence model of Canale (1983)
as this is also patterned by the survey tool in assessing call center agents in their
hiring, rehiring, and promotion at Sykes Call Center in Cebu city. Furthermore,
35
the study calls for the strengthening of academe-industry linkage so that students
with communication flaws who aspire to work in BPOs must be checked.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I acknowledge indebtedness to Mr. Shaun James T. Ponte, my co-researcher,

for his dynamism in helping this study realized, my dynamic and research-
oriented professor, D. Leo H. Aberion, for his persistent push to finish this
research endeavor; to the statistician, Mr. Romar B. Dinoy, for his elucidation
in matters of statistical treatment, analysis, and interpretation; Miss Venus S.
Lim, SGA Training Manager, and Mrs. Ma. Anna Kristina Villaba, Operations
Director, Sykes Asia Inc., for unveiling the results of the agents’ assessment; and
all those, who, in one way or another, have contributed to the realization of this
study. I also appreciate those big ideas from all authors whose work I have cited
herein.
LITERATURE CITED
Al-Ahdal, A. A. M. H., Alfallaj, F., Al-Awaied, S., & Al-Hattami, A. (2014).

A comparative study of proficiency in speaking and writing among EFL
learners in Saudi Arabia. American International Journal of Contemporary
Research, 4(2), 141-149. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/oCJA2n
Aina, J. K., & Olanipekun, S. S. (2013). Effect of English language on academic

performance in Physics and Computer Science among College of Education
students. American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and
Social Sciences, 4(2), 114-117. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/RvfNye
Cabrera-Balleza, M. (2005). Gendered, wired and globalized: Gender

and globalization issues in the new information and communication
technologies. Review of Women’s Studies, 15(2), 140-156. Retrieved from
https://goo.gl/nWruv1
Belt, V., Richardson, R., & Webster, J. (2002). Women, social skill and
interactive service work in telephone call centres. New technology, work and
employment, 17(1), 20-34. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-
005X.00091
36
Benaissi F. B. (2008). Attaining fluency in oral communication: The case of

students at DLU English Department. Arab World English Journal, 2015.
Retrieved from http://www.awej.org/index.php/theses-dissertations/608-
fawzia-bouhass-benaissi
Domingo-Cabarrubias, L. G. (2012). GENDER MATTERS IN THE CALL

CENTER INDUSTRY: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON THE
EFFECTS OF CALL CENTER WORK ON WOMEN. Review of Women’s
Studies, 21(2), 72-95. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/
download?doi=10.1.1.850.9167&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Castro, A. M., & Deluna Jr, R. (2013). Factors Affecting Call Center as a Job
Preference among Employees in Davao City. Retrieved from https://mpra.
ub.uni-muenchen.de/51678/
Claes, M. T. (1999). Women, men and management styles. International Labour

Review, 138(4), 431-446. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1564-
913X.1999.tb00396.x
Emanuel, R. (2011). Critical concerns for oral communication education in

Alabama and beyond. Education Research International, 2011. Retrieved
from doi:10.1155/2011/948138
Hakuta, K., Butler, Y. G., & Witt, D. (2000). How Long Does It Take
English Learners To Attain Proficiency?. Retrieved from https://eric.
ed.gov/?ID=ED443275
Halpern, D. F. (2004). A cognitive-process taxonomy for sex differences in

cognitive abilities. Current directions in psychological science, 13(4), 135-139.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00292.x
Hernandez, A. E., Greene, M. R., Vaughn, K. A., Francis, D. J., & Grigorenko,
E. L. (2015). Beyond the bilingual advantage: The potential role of genes
and environment on the development of cognitive control. Journal of
Neurolinguistics, 35, 109-119. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jneuroling.2015.04.002
37
Hunter, D., Gambell, T., & Randhawa, B. (2005). Gender gaps in group
listening and speaking: Issues in social constructivist approaches to teaching
and learning. Educational Review, 57(3), 329-355. Retrieved from https://
doi.org/10.1080/00131910500149416
De Jong, N. H., Steinel, M. P., Florijn, A. F., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2012).
Facets of speaking proficiency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34(1),
5-34. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263111000489
Koosha, B., Ketabi, S., & Kassaian, Z. (2011). The Effects of Self-esteem,
Age and Gender on the Speaking Skills of Intermediate University EFL
Learners. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 1(10). Retrieved from
doi:10.4304/tpls.1.10.1328-1337
Llurda, E. (2000). On competence, proficiency, and communicative language

ability. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10(1), 85-96. Retrieved
from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-4192.2000.tb00141.x
Lockwood, J. (2012). English language assessment for the Business Processing

Outsourcing (BPO) industry: Business needs meet communication
needs. English Language and Literature Studies, 2(4), 22. Retrieved from
https://goo.gl/jH2XXK
Mahmud, M. M. (2014). Communication aptitude and academic

success. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 134, 125-133. Retrieved
from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.230
Martirosyan, N. M., Hwang, E., & Wanjohi, R. (2015). Impact of English

proficiency on academic performance of international students. Journal
of International Students, 5(1), 60-71. Retrieved from https://eric.
ed.gov/?id=EJ1052835
Melgar, I. E., Ofreneo, M. A. P., Kintanar, N. S., & Cand, M. A. (2009).

Risk Behaviors for HIV/AIDS among Call Center Employees in the
Philippines. Manila: International Labour Organization Country Office for
the Philippines. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/HcjAh8
38
Motallebzadeh, K., & Nematizadeh, S. (2011). Does Gender Play a Role in

the Assessment of Oral Proficiency?. English Language Teaching, 4(4), 165.
https://goo.gl/xMSQuQ
Olanipekun, S. S., Garuba, I. A., & Mohammed, Y. K. (2014). The relationship

between students’ academic performance in General English and vocational
education courses. American Association for Science and Technology,
International Journal of Modern Education, 1, 84-88. Retrieved from http://
www.aascit.org/journal/ijmer
Oredein, O., & Oredein, F. F. U. O. (2016). Effects of school variables on student

academic performance in Calabar municipal area of Cross River State.
Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/effect-school-variables-
student-academic-performance-calabar-oredein/
Paakki, H. (2013). Difficulties in speaking English and perceptions of

accents: A comparative study of Finnish and Japanese adult learners of
English. Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Eastern Finland. Retrieved
from https://goo.gl/GoeVS1
Wilson, B., & Komba, S. C. (2012). The Link between English language
proficiency and academic performance: A pedagogical perspective
in Tanzanian secondary schools. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.
net/123456789/1147
39
Presoaking Treatment of Soybean

[Glycine max (L.) Merrill] Seeds Using
Fermented Plant Extracts and Commercial
Liquid Fertilizer
RENELIZA D. CEJALVO
http://orcid.org 0000-0002-3819-9268
[email protected]
University of the Philippines Los Baños
Laguna, Philippines
MARIA FATIMA O. MERCADO

[email protected]
University of the Philippines Los Baños
Laguna, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The yield of soybean in the Philippines is significantly low. Presoaking is

one of the seed priming techniques to improve seed quality. This study aimed
to determine the effects of selected fermented plant extracts and commercial
organic fertilizer on germination and vigor of soybean seeds. The seeds presoaked
in organic agriculture inputs such as ipil ipil FPJ (Fermented Plant Juice), squash
FFJ (Fermented Fruit Juice), commercial organic fertilizer (PSPLOF), and
water (control). The seeds were then subjected to seed quality tests to evaluate
germination and vigor. Ipil ipil FPJ and squash FFJ significantly improved the
percentage germination, first count, vigor index, seedling growth, and seedling
40
emergence. Commercial fertilizer showed poor results in seed germination and

vigor tests. Seeds soaked in water showed high percentage germination but
have poor vigor. Data were arranged in factorial in Completely Randomized
Design (CRD) and analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The initial
seed quality results revealed significantly poor germination and vigor. Therefore,
presoaking of soybean seeds in ipil ipil FPJ and squash FFJ is recommended to
improve the germination and vigor of soybean seeds. The results could be useful
to reduce the cost of soybean production and to enhance the yield of soybean.
Keywords — Agriculture, agronomy, soybean, seed germination, seed vigor,

seed priming, seed presoaking, Asia, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill)] is an annual legume that belongs to

Fabaceae family. United States of America (USA), Brazil, Argentina, China, and
India are the top producers wherein they comprise about 90% of global soybean
production (Dourado, Pascoal, Sakomura, Costa, & Biagiotti 2011). Due to
the high protein content and low price of the soybean meal, it is a significant
component of the livestock feed (Hartman, West, & Herman 2011). The crop is
also widely grown for its vegetable oil and for human food consumption that is
mostly in Asia. Some food uses of soybean include soya oil, soymilk, tofu, tokwa,
miso, edamame, and soy sauce.
Since the 1970s, soybean has the highest increase in an area of production
than any other major crop around the world due to increasing demand for meal
and oil (Hartman, West, & Herman 2011). However, the volume of production
of soybean in the Philippines is significantly low. According to the Bureau of
Plant Industry (BPI) in 2012, the Philippines’ area of production for soybean is
just around 1,000 ha. The Philippines highly depends on soybean importation
from USA, Brazil, Argentina, and China while the annual domestic needs
have reached up to 300,000 MT. According to United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service (2014), the Philippines are the
second largest importer of soybeans from the United States. In the country, about
70%-90% of domestic production and imports are for animal feed while the
remaining percentage is for human food consumption and other uses (Manuel,
Huelgas, & Espanto 1987).
41
There is a need to increase the germination percentage and vigor of soybean

since the demand for soybean would increase (Hartman, West, & Herman 2011).
Currently, the soybean in the country is primarily imported. In general, when the
germination rate of the crop would increase, then the seeding rate would decrease
which is favorable for the farmers. When the seed is vigorous, then the soybean
seeds can combat diseases such as fungi and bacteria and also insect pests that
injure the crop. Seed vigor would also determine if the seeds could withstand
stressful environmental conditions.
Presoaking is one of the solutions to improve the seed germination and vigor
of soybean. For the presoaking treatments, this experiment utilized inputs used
in Organic Agriculture. Organic Agriculture in the Philippines has been gaining
popularity and was officially recognized when the Republic Act No. 10068 or
the Organic Agriculture Act of 2010 was enacted into law. Many organizations
have sprouted gearing towards sustainable, organic, and ecological agriculture.
Farmers who practice organic agriculture are also utilizing the principles and
materials used in Korean Natural Farming (KNF) (Zamora and Calub 2016).
KNF was introduced to farmers through the extension work of non-government
organizations (NGOs) and State Universities and Colleges (SUCs). KNF
inputs include Fermented Plant Juice (FPJ), Fermented Fruit Juice (FFJ) and
other indigenous microorganisms. The fermented plant extracts can be used as
fertilizers, inducing hormones, prevention of pests and diseases, and increasing
plant vigor. They can also be good sources of nutrients that can boost crop
growth. In this study, the FPJ and FFJ will be used as presoaking treatments.
Besides, a liquid organic fertilizer product of a commercial organic enterprise that
is also made through fermentation will be used.
The general objective of the study was to determine the effects of selected fer-
mented plant extracts and a commercial liquid organic fertilizer on the germina-
tion and vigor of soybean (Glycine max) seeds. The specific objectives of the study
were (1) to evaluate the germination and vigor of soybean seeds presoaked in
different fermented plant extracts and liquid organic fertilizer; and (2) to identify
and compare which among the fermented plant extracts and the commercial
liquid organic fertilizer will improve the germination and vigor of soybean seeds;
42
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The experiment was laid out in factorial in a Completely Randomized
Design (CRD) with four replicates. The seeds per treatment have undergone
seed quality tests.
Research Site
The study was conducted in Seed Science and Technology Laboratory,
Institute of Crop Science (ICropS), College of Agriculture and Food Science
(CAFS), University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), College, Laguna. The
study was conducted from April to June 2017.
Data gathering and Procedure

Fermented fruit juice (FFJ) using squash (Cucurbita maxima) and a ferment-
ed plant juice (FPJ) using ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) leaves were prepared.
Squash fruit and ipil ipil leaves were obtained from a backyard farm in Calinog,
Iloilo. The plant materials were collected in the morning. Dirt from the plant
materials collected was removed by shaking and without using water. The fruits
and leaves were cut into small pieces of about four inches in width. Two kilo-
grams of the plant materials were mixed with one liter of molasses. Each mixture
was transferred to a plastic pail. The pails were covered with Manila paper and
tied securely. The combinations in the container were kept away from sunlight
undisturbed for seven days. The filtrate was strained into a plastic bottle using a
filter. Two tablespoons of FPJ or FFJ were diluted in one liter of purified water to
make 3% concentration of the solutions. The solutions served as the pre-soaking
treatments.
Commercial Liquid Organic Fertilizer

The liquid organic fertilizer commercially known as Power Solution Pre-
mium Liquid Organic Fertilizer (PSPLOF) was obtained from YCRF Enterprises
in Biñan, Laguna. ). PSPLOF is included in the official list of Third Party Certi-
fied Organic Operators in the Philippines (Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries
Standards (BAFS), 2017). Two tablespoons of the liquid fertilizer were diluted
in one liter of water and used as the presoaking treatment.
43
Presoaking Treatment
Soybean seeds (PSB Sy2) were obtained from Brown Gold Isabela Organic
Enterprises. The initial percentage germination and vigor were determined.
Soybean seeds were first washed in running water for 5-10 minutes to re-
move dirt and other contaminants. The seeds were then rinsed with distilled
water. Clean seeds were presoaked in different treatments at room temperature.
The seeds were immersed entirely in the following treatments: Water, FPJ (Ipil
ipil leaves), FFJ (Squash), and Liquid Organic Fertilizer. For each treatment, 600
soybean seeds were used (200 each for seed germination, vigor index, and seed-
ling emergence). After presoaking, the seeds were blot-dried with a clean paper
towel before performing seed quality evaluation.
Data collection
Percentage germination
For each treatment, 200 presoaked soybean seeds, divided into four repli-
cates were sown in moistened paper towels. The paper towels were kept moist
with an adequate amount of distilled water throughout the germination period.
The first count was done five days after sowing (DAS) while the final count was
done eight DAS. The percentage germination was determined using the formula:
Seed Vigor
First count. The first count was obtained by determining the total number of
germinated seeds on the standard germination set-up five DAS.
Vigor Index. The vigor index was determined through the speed of germina-
tion test. For each replicate, 50 seeds were sown on moist paper towels. Seedlings
with 2 mm radicle protrusion were considered germinated. The number of seed-
lings with 2mm radicle protrusion was counted daily from the day after planting
until the eighth day and was removed from the set-up. Summation of the germi-
nated seedlings over the nth number of the day was used to determine the speed
of germination or vigor index. The vigor index was computed using the formula:
Vigor index = (n/1) + (n/2) + (n/3) + … + (n/8)

Where n = number of germinated seedlings.
44
Seedling Growth Rate (Seedling Length, Root and Shoot Length, and Biomass).
Randomly selected seedlings from the standard germination test were used. From
the four replicates, ten (10) seedlings were selected for the test. The seedling
length, and the root and shoot length (cm) of the chosen seedlings were measured
using a ruler. The seedlings were oven-dried for 72 hours at 70°C. The oven-dried
seedlings were weighed to determine the dry weight in grams (g).
Seedling Emergence. Fifty (50) seeds were sown to test the seedling emer-
gence per replicate in unsterilized soil that was obtained from the ICropS, UPLB,
College, Laguna. The set-up was supplied with an adequate amount of water
throughout the experiment. The number of healthy seedlings that emerged was
counted on the eighth day after sowing. The seedling emergence percentage was
computed using the formula:
Data Analysis
The data was analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of STAR 2.0.1
software developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). The
mean comparison was interpreted using the Least Significant Difference (LSD).
Initial Seed Quality

Table 1 shows the initial seed quality of soybean, which included seed
germination and vigor. The initial percentage germination, vigor index, shoot
length, root length, seedling length, and seedling emergence were significantly
lower than the results of presoaked seeds in different treatments for the same
parameter. The standard germination percentage for soybean in generally higher
than 80% (Egli and TeKrony, 1995). The initial seedling biomass was higher
than the treated seeds.
45
Table 1. Initial Seed Quality of Soybean Seeds

Parameter Value
Percent germination 84%
Vigor Index 42.58
Shoot Length 7.51 cm
Root Length 5.97 cm
Seedling Length 13.48 cm
Seedling Biomass 0.61g
Seedling Emergence 72%
Germination Percentage
The results of the ANOVA showed that the presoaking treatments were
highly significantly different (Pr<0.01) from each other. There are various effects
to soybean seeds among presoaking treatments. Results shown in Table 2 implies
that ipil ipil FPJ, squash FFJ, and water treatments were effective in improving
the percent germination of soybean seeds, from an initial of 84% to 97%, 97%,
and 95%, respectively. Although ipil ipil FPJ showed the highest percentage
germination, it should be noted that this was not significantly different from
that of squash FFJ and water (control). The effect of commercial fertilizer was
comparable to the results of the initial percentage germination.
Table 2. Percentage Germination of Soybean Seeds Presoaked in Different

Presoaking Treatments.
Presoaking treatment Percentage germination (%)
Commercial Fertilizer 85 b
Ipil ipil FPJ 97 a
Squash FFJ 97 a
Water (Control) 95 a
Means with the same letter are not significantly different.
Seed Vigor
First count
The number of normal seedlings five DAS were counted, and the result
indicated the level of vigor of the seeds. The effect for the first count of soybean
seeds (Table 3) was observed to be the same as the results in germination set up.
46
Ipil ipil FPJ, squash FFJ, and water treatments showed significantly vigorous
seeds than commercial fertilizer, which is not significantly different with the
initial first count (Appendix 15).
At five DAS, there were no additional germinated seeds noted. Therefore,
the soybean seeds that were presoaked in different treatments germinated on
or before five DAS. Fungi affected most of the seeds that did not germinate
specifically in those treatments that have low percent germination.
Table 3. The First Count of Soybean Seeds Presoaked in Different Presoaking

Treatments.
Presoaking treatment Number of seeds germinated
Commercial Fertilizer 43 b
Ipil ipil 49 a
Squash 49 a
Water (Control) 47 a
Vigor Index
The ANOVA revealed a highly significant difference (Pr<0.01) for presoaking
treatments concerning the vigor index.
The vigor index was measured through the speed of germination test. The
vigor index of soybean seeds presoaked in different fermented extracts and
commercial liquid fertilizer is shown in Table 4. Presoaking in ipil ipil FPJ proved
to be most effective in increasing the vigor index. However, its result was not
significantly different with water (control). Commercial fertilizer constantly
showed poor performance.
Table 4. Vigor Index of Soybean Seeds Presoaked for 1 Hour and 12 Hours in
Different Fermented Extracts and Commercial Liquid Fertilizer.
Presoaking treatments Presoaking treatment means
Comm. Fert. 38.78 c

Ipil Ipil FPJ 46.54 a
Squash FFJ 44.22 b
Water (Control) 44.37 ab
47
Shoot Length
The ANOVA revealed that the presoaking treatments in shoot length have a
highly significant difference (Pr<0.01) from each other
Table 5 shows the shoot length of soybean seeds presoaked in different
presoaking treatments and commercial liquid fertilizer. The results of ipil ipil
FPJ and squash FFJ showed no significant difference with that of water (control).
Commercial fertilizer was observed to have the shortest shoot. The initial shoot
length is significantly lower than the shoot length of soybean seeds presoaked
in different presoaking treatments. Therefore, it is necessary to presoak soybean
seeds to promote shoot growth.
Table 5. Shoot Length of Soybean Seeds Presoaked in Different Presoaking

Treatments
Comm. Fert. 8.96 c
Squash FFJ 12.58 a
Water (Control) 11.90 b
Root Length
The results of the ANOVA reveal that presoaking treatments in root length
are highly significantly different (Pr<0.01). The root length of soybean seeds
presoaked in different presoaking treatments (Table 6) reveals that ipil ipil FPJ
has significantly longer root than all the other treatments followed by squash FFJ
and water, respectively. Commercial fertilizer was noted to inhibit root growth
substantially.
Table 6. Root Length (cm) of Soybean Seeds Presoaked in Different Presoaking

Treatments
Comm. Fert. 4.32 d
Squash FFJ 6.61 b
Water (Control) 5.60 c
48
Seedling Length
The ANOVA revealed a highly significant difference (Pr<0.01) for presoaking
treatments in seedling length. The comparisons of different presoaking treatment
mean in Table 7 show that ipil ipil FPJ and squash FFJ significantly improved
the seedling growth of soybean seeds compared to water (control) treatment and
the initial seedling length. Commercial fertilizer exhibited poor performance in
seedling length and showed seedling growth inhibition when compared to the
initial seedling length.
Table 7. Seedling Length (cm) of Soybean Seeds Presoaked in Different Presoaking

Treatments
Presoaking treatment Presoaking treatment means
Comm. Fert. 13.28 d
Squash FFJ 19.18 b
Seedling Biomass
There are highly significant differences (Pr<0.01) in seedling biomass for
different presoaking treatments. The results of the seedling biomass of soybean
seeds presoaked in different presoaking (Table 8) show that ipil ipil FPJ, and
squash FFJ significantly increased the seedling biomass of soybean compared to
water (control) treatment. Seeds presoaked in commercial fertilizer have more
massive seedling biomass than water (control), but the results between the two
treatments are not significantly different.
Table 8. Seedling biomass (g) of soybean seeds presoaked in different presoaking

treatments.
Presoaking treatment Presoaking treatment means
Comm. Fert. 0.54 bc
Squash FFJ 0.58 ab
49
The initial seedling biomass value is relatively high. The result for the initial
seedling biomass is not significantly different with ipil ipil FPJ and squash FFJ,
which have massive seedling biomass among the treatments.
Seedling Emergence
The ANOVA for the seedling emergence of soybean seeds reveals that
there is no significant difference in different presoaking treatments for seedling
emergence.
Table 9 shows the seedling emergence of soybean seeds presoaked in different
presoaking treatment. The different presoaking treatment showed almost no
significant differences. The initial seedling emergence percentage is significantly
lower than all the treatments. Therefore, to improve the seedling emergence
percentage, presoaking of seeds in fermented extracts is necessary.
Table 9. Seedling emergence (%) of soybean seeds presoaked in different

presoaking treatments.
Presoaking treatment Presoaking treatment mean
Comm. Fert. 91.75
Ipil Ipil FPJ 90.33
Squash FFJ 98.67
Water (Control) 80.63
Initial Seed Quality

The initial seed quality results for percentage germination, first count, vigor
index, seedling growth rate, and seedling biomass were significantly lower than
that of the treated seeds. The initial seedling biomass, however, was more massive
than the pre-soaked seeds. This could be the effect of the attached fungi and other
pathogens, which could have added weight to seedling biomass. It was observed
that the seeds that were not presoaked in any treatment were significantly
affected with fungi and other pathogens. The untreated soybean seeds showed
poor performance in germination and vigor. This infers that the seeds that have
not undergone presoaking will have a low percentage of surviving in the field
where the soil has harmful bacteria and fungi, the pH may be detrimental to the
plant, there are weeds to compete for nutrients, and other natural stresses that
can injure and affect the growth of the crop.
50
Presoaking Treatments
Ipil ipil FPJ significantly improved the performance of soybean seeds in
percentage germination. It also showed vigorous seeds in different vigor tests
such as first count, vigor index, seedling growth rate, and seedling emergence.
Based on the results from various parameters, it was usually on top among the
other treatments; therefore, ipil ipil FPJ was effective in enhancing the percentage
germination and vigor of soybean seeds.
The efficiency of ipil ipil FPJ can be attributed to the different nutrients,
vitamins, and microorganisms present in the fermented extract. Since ipil ipil
contains high nitrogen content, the protein contents of soybean seeds may
have been increased resulting in increased germination and vigor. This is on par
with the study of Warraich, Basra, Ahmad, Ahmed, & Aftab in 2002 on wheat
(Triticum aestivum) wherein seeds from plots that were fertilized with nitrogen
resulted in increased final germination percentage.
Seeds that were pre-soaked in ipil ipil FPJ may have absorbed water faster
during its germination resulting to significantly high first count and vigor index.
Hara and Toriyama (1998) observed that seed lot of rice (Oryza sativa) with a
higher amount of nitrogen applied showed faster water absorption, more rapid
seedling emergence and more uniform emergence than the seed lot with low
nitrogen content.
Seeds soaked in Ipil ipil FPJ were observed to have the best performance in
seedling growth rate test (shoot length, root length, seedling length, and seedling
biomass). Nitrogen that is abundant in ipil ipil is necessary to promote initial
growth in soybean (Ohyama et al., 2013). Other effects of the essential nutrients
present in ipil ipil FPJ may have interacted to produce positive results in seedling
growth. Also, application of nitrogen results in increased biomass yield and
protein yield (Blumenthal, Baltensperger, Cassman, Mason, & Pavlista 2008).
Ipil ipil FPJ, Squash FFJ, and commercial fertilizer significantly enhanced
the seedling emergence percentage of soybean seeds. These fermented treatments
contain Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and also essential nutrients. Hamed, Moustafa,
& Abdel-Aziz (2011) concluded that the LAB have growth promoting-effects.
Therefore, seeds presoaked in the fermented treatments were able to combat
fungi and bacteria, thus, resulted in successful and improved seedling emergence
compared to the initial seedling emergence value. Also, the enzymes for metabolic
processes may have been activated.
However, it was evident that ipil ipil FPJ has relatively lower seedling
emergence percentage than the other fermented extracts. Some emerged soybean
51
seedlings presoaked in ipil ipil FPJ may have been affected by pathogens present
in the unsterilized soil that resulted in decayed seedlings. Ohyama et al. (2013)
reported that too much nitrogen applied to plants could make them more
attracted to insects and diseases.
Squash FFJ
Squash FFJ was also effective in improving the performance of soybean seeds
in percentage germination, first count, vigor index, seedling growth rate, and
seedling emergence. Squash FFJ produced the most vigorous seeds in seedling
emergence test.
Squash FFJ was also a good source of essential nutrients that resulted in high
germination percentage and vigor of soybean seeds. Also, squash fruit has high
vitamin A and phosphorus (P) content. Provision of a more considerable amount
of P may have increased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) that triggered metabolic processes resulting in high percentage
germination and vigor. The results for squash FFJ are in agreement with the study
of Zeļonka et al. (2005) in which seed coating with phosphorus of spring barley
(Hordeum vulgare) resulted to higher germination percentage, greater chlorophyll
content in the shoots and increased physiological activity.
Seeds pre-soaked in squash FFJ showed good performance on seedling growth
rate test. The results were on par with the effect of phosphorus on shoot growth.
The findings were also supported by the study of Shah, Ara, & Shafi (2011)
on Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) seeds that were soaked to P solutions which
showed better seedling growth compared to seeds soaked in water. Inadequate P
can affect shoot and root growth negatively.
Commercial Fertilizer
Commercial fertilizer showed poor results that are significantly lower or
comparable with that of initial seed quality values in almost all of the parameters.
However, its result for seedling emergence was considerably higher than that of
control.
The commercial fertilizer is a mixture of water, molasses, sugar, fresh milk,
lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), oregano (Origanum vulgare), malunggay
(Moringa oleifera), garlic (Allium sativum), ginger (Zingiber officinale), chicken
manure, and mill ash. The ingredients as mentioned earlier may have exhibited
detrimental effects on soybean seeds resulting in poor performance.
The concentration of the commercial liquid fertilizer used in this experiment
52
may have been too high. Szopinska (2013) stated that high levels of lactic acid
that is present in commercial fertilizer could reduce the germination and vigor
of seeds. The concentration could have been moderated to achieve the optimum
potential of the commercial liquid fertilizer.
Water (Control) Treatment

Seeds that were presoaked in water significantly improved the percentage
germination compared to the initial seed quality values. Water treatment showed
a relatively weak result in seedling growth rate.
Seeds soaked in water may have imbibed adequate amount of water needed
for the seeds to germinate. The physiological process may have been triggered,
thereby, resulting in a high germination rate and vigor index. Also, there was no
possibility of allelopathic effects by water.
The seeds presoaked in water have no nutrients to acquire, therefore,
regarding seedling growth rate, seeds soaked in water showed relatively poor
performance compared to the fermented treatments and its performance in
percentage germination and vigor index. In contrast, seeds presoaked in the
fermented treatments have additional nutrients to absorb. Soybean seeds still
need additional nutrients during germination for greater yield. To promote
the initial growth of soybean, N is applied as a starter fertilizer (Ohyama et al.,
2013). Water treatment has significantly longer seedling than the initial seedling
length value but lower than the fermented treatments. Water may have supplied
the seeds with an adequate amount of moisture. However, it lacked nutrients
and other beneficial microorganisms that are present in fermented extracts. Seeds
presoaked in water have the lightest seedling biomass among the treatments.
Water treatment showed significantly low seedling emergence percentage.
Seeds soaked in water were not equipped with beneficial microorganisms to
combat the harmful pathogens present in the unsterilized soil. Also, there are no
essential nutrients supplied to the seeds to thrive and to grow vigorously in the
stressful environment.
CONCLUSION
Presoaking of soybean seeds was necessary to improve the germination and

vigor of soybean seeds. The result for the initial seed quality was significantly
lower than the treated seeds. The untreated seeds were more prone to pathogens
than the pre-soaked seeds.
53
Ipil ipil FPJ and squash FFJ significantly enhanced the germination and vigor
of soybean seeds. Therefore, it is recommended to use these fermented extracts as
presoaking treatments since they contain microorganisms and essential nutrients.
Commercial fertilizer did not improve the germination and vigor of soybean
seeds. The results for commercial fertilizer were either comparable to or lower than
that of the initial seed quality. There might be a need to adjust the concentration
of the commercial fertilizer when it is used for presoaking of soybean seeds.
Seeds soaked in water significantly improved the percentage germination
of soybean seeds. However, the seeds were not vigorous since they showed low
seedling growth and seedling emergence percentage.
This study recommends presoaking of soybean seeds in ipil ipil FPJ and
squash FFJ to improve the percentage germination and vigor of soybean seeds
significantly. However, further studies are necessary to determine the optimum
presoaking period and concentration of the fermented extracts. Also, the floating
seeds during the presoaking process should be removed and should not be
included in seed quality testing. An adequate amount of water should be supplied
in seedling emergence test. It would be better if the amount of water provided
for each treatment would be uniform. Further studies could also include NPK
analysis of the FPJ and FFJ.
The findings of this study may be translated to the farmers who engage in
Organic Farming and other farmers who opt to use less synthetic fertilizers. The
effect of fermented plant extracts on soybean may give an idea to the farmers on
what could be the effect to other crops that are related to soybean. Hence, wise
decision making that could lead to higher yields and profits can be attained. The
methodology of this study will also give an idea to the farmers and entrepreneurs
on how they can optimize the product for achieving their purpose.
LITERATURE CITED
Blumenthal, J. M., Baltensperger, D. D., Cassman, K. G., Mason, S. C., &

Pavlista, A. D. (2008). Importance and effect of nitrogen on crop quality
and health. In Nitrogen in the Environment (Second Edition) (pp. 51-70).
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374347-3.00003-2
54
[BAFS] Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards. 2017. Retrieved from:

http://www.bafps.da.gov.ph/images/OFFICIAL_LIST_Third-party_
Certified_Organic_Operators_as_of_23_Jan_2017.pdf
Dourado, L. R. B., Pascoal, L. A. F., Sakomura, N. K., Costa, F. G. P., & Biagiotti,
D. (2011). Soybeans (Glycine max) and soybean products in poultry and
swine nutrition. In Recent trends for enhancing the diversity and quality of
soybean products. InTech. https://goo.gl/tqaZm1
Egli, D. B., & TeKrony, D. M. (1995). Soybean seed germination, vigor and field
emergence. Seed Science and Technology (Switzerland). v. 23 (3). Retrieved
from https://goo.gl/pFFoa8
Hamed, H. A., Moustafa, Y. A., & Abdel-Aziz, S. M. (2011). In vivo efficacy

of lactic acid bacteria in biological control against Fusarium oxysporum for
protection of tomato plant. Life Science Journal, 8(4), 462-468. https://goo.
gl/axmHvW
Hara, Y., & Toriyama, K. (1998). Seed nitrogen accelerates the rates of
germination, emergence, and establishment of rice plants. Soil Science and
Plant Nutrition, 44(3), 359-366. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380768.1998.
10414457
Hartman, G. L., West, E. D., & Herman, T. K. (2011). Crops that feed the
World 2. Soybean—worldwide production, use, and constraints caused by
pathogens and pests. Food Security, 3(1), 5-17. https://goo.gl/2Lxb7i
Manuel, P. C., Huelgas, R. R., & Espanto, L. H. (1987). Adoption of Soybean in

Lupao, Nueva Ecija, the Philippines. https://goo.gl/5Q55qS
Ohyama, T., Minagawa, R., Ishikawa, S., Yamamoto, M., Hung, N. V. P., Ohtake,
N., ... & Takahashi, Y. (2013). Soybean seed production and nitrogen
nutrition. In A comprehensive survey of international soybean research-Genetics,
physiology, agronomy and nitrogen relationships. Intech. https://goo.gl/psQyE5
Shah, A. R., Ara, N., & Shafi, G. (2011). Seed priming with phosphorus increased
germination and yield of okra. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(16),
3859-3876. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR11.564
55
Szopinska, D. (2013). The effects of organic acids treatment on germination,

vigour and health of zinnia (Zinnia elegans Jacq.) seeds. Acta Scientiarum
Polonorum. Hortorum Cultus, 12(5). https://goo.gl/tHGBeJ
[USDA] United States Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service.

(2014). Retrieved from https://www.fas.usda.gov/regions/philippines
Warraich, E. A., Basra, S. M. A., Ahmad, N., Ahmed, R., & Aftab, M. U. H. A.
M. M. A. D. (2002). Effect of nitrogen on grain quality and vigour in wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.). International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 4(4),
517-520. https://goo.gl/LGzPk2
Zamora, O. B., & Calub, B. M. (2016), Organic agriculture technologies and systems
developed and adapted by farmers in the Philippines. Philippines: Department
of Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural Research (DA-BAR) and University of
the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB). ISBN No. 978-971-0347-46-9
56
Status of the Cultural Heritage Sites

and Structures in Camalig, Province
of Albay, Philippines: Basis for Sustainable
Tourism Framework
MARIA LUISA N. GONZALES
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6316-9776
[email protected]
Bicol College
Daraga, Albay, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical artifacts, and intangible attributes

of a group or club that are inherited from past generations kept up in the present
and preserved for the welfare of future generations. It aimed to determine the
natural and human-made attractions, its status along preservations, promotions,
and Local Government unit contributions, the problems encountered and
solutions recommended. The study used the descriptive-correlational method
of research by employing questionnaires, interviews and documentation of
the structures and site to the 5 facilitators, 24 residents and 31 tourists in the
community with 60 respondents and used the frequency distributions, percent
count, weighted mean and the coefficient of concordance W. Data revealed that
the heritage sites and structures were in the form of Natural Attractions and
Man-Made attractions and presently considered much preserved, very much
promoted with LGU Contribution as much effect, while, there was no significant
57
agreement between the three groups of respondents along the status, and the null
hypothesis was rejected. The problems encountered were much pressing, and
solutions recommended as very much urgent. Thus, this research will provide to
the understanding of the factors associating to the sustainability of the Heritage
Site and Structure of a particular locality that can lead to goal fulfillment and,
subsequently, impact tourism choice.
Keywords — Social Science, Cultural Heritage Sites, Structures, descriptive-

correlational design, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Cultural heritage (Ashworth and Hartmann, 2005) is one of the most

important and ubiquitous tourism resources in the world, and heritage tourism
is one of the most famous forms of tourism today. To be considered as World
Heritage sites, criteria for the selection must have an “outstanding value” and
meet at least one among the criteria such as: human creative genius, interchange of
values, testimony to cultural tradition, significance in human history, traditional
human settlement, Heritage associated with events of universal significance,
natural phenomena or beauty, major stages of Earth’s history, significant
ecological and biological processes and significant natural habitat for biodiversity.
(National Geographic, 2015). Many places look to the built environment or
other types of heritage for their socioeconomic development through tourism.
Heritage (Welch, 2014) is the past made present. It is anything valued by
people today that was also appreciated by previous generations. It is also what
we have accepted as gifts from those who came before us, our inheritance of
land, language, ecosystems, knowledge, and culture. Every place has a heritage,
(Timothy, 2011) although not all heritage resources appeal to tourists, even if
they are essential to residents. The status of Cultural Heritage in Nepal, (Shailesh,
2001) has not been an easy year, since it witnessed much turmoil, suffering from
an absolute tragedy and also from the enormous political problem, is suffering in
these times. Every year Nepal is losing a significant portion of its incredibly rich
and diverse cultural heritage. The dangerous condition of the most important
sites - and countless equally precious places that are afforded far less protection
- give cause for grave worry. The dismantling and scarring of historical buildings
are regrettably common. Several important buildings and memorials that were
not under the aegis of the UNESCO World Heritage list have been dismantled
or destroyed through lack of care. In their stead, the desire to establish rapidly or
58
more all economically is creating an advanced design that is specially appointed

and clamorous, described by the inadequately built solid column structures that
are so harming to the material of the noteworthy territories - and an expanding
smudge upon the delightful Nepalese scene. Despite the fact that these dangers
to the nation’s social legacy are bound to private property, a significant number
of the loftier national destinations and landmarks are additionally in peril.
Uncontrolled new buildings and roads at many historical sites - yet in the midst
of some of the most significant ancient sites - are springing up rapidly. Nor
are some UNESCO listed sites left untouched by such developments. Factors
deteriorating the cultural heritage of a country day by day at a very high rate
were caused by the following: Carelessness of the people towards its harmful
effects, Ignorance of the people, Out of reach of concerned department, Various
international languages, especially English has influenced the Nepali language,
the influence of foreign culture among the youngsters, selfishness of the people,
which leads them to steal our valuable cultural assets of the country like idols,
artistic things, etc. They then sell it for a high price in a foreign country. This
makes the future generation unknown about our culture, and they will be forced
to visit international museums for the knowledge of our culture.
A culturally rich and diverse region in Southeast Asia that is counting
numerous sites classified by the UNESCO in the World Heritage of Humanity,
having notable sites like Angkor Wat in Cambodia or Ha Long Bay in Vietnam,
Southeast Asia is home to 37 beautiful places that stand out for their natural
or ethnic worth. More than 1000 historical and natural sites in the universe
have been registered in the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization - UNESCO, having 37 sites listed were submitted for review,
culture, histories, and landscapes in Southeast Asia and were acknowledged for
their unique value to humanity. Tourism industry professional, tourists, media,
artistic, cultural or scientific organizations and businesses of Southeast Asia to
name a few, the UNESCO World Heritage Sites represent the obvious, symbolic
importance of the cultural relevance of Southeast Asia. Titled UNESCO World
Heritage Sites in Southeast Asia were: 2 World Heritage Sites in Cambodia, 8
World Heritage Sites in Indonesia, 2 World Heritage Sites in Laos, 4 World
Heritage Sites in Malaysia, 1 World Heritage Site in Myanmar, 6 World Heritage
Sites in the Philippines, 1 World Heritage Site in Singapore, 5 World Heritage
Sites in Thailand, 8 World Heritage Sites in Vietnam.
In the Philippines, the Heritage Conservation Society (Montenegro, Filart
and Santos, 2013) on “preserving what is left” in an article by Rappler, pointed
out no less than ten (10) churches that were damaged during the quake. Among
59
them were Cebu’s Basilica Minore del Santo Niño, the oldest Roman Catholic
church in the country, and Bohol’s Church of San Pedro Apostol, the second
oldest in the province. Among them were Cebu’s Basilica Minore del Santo Niño,
the oldest Roman Catholic church in the country, and Bohol’s Church of San
Pedro Apostol, the second oldest in the province. Baybayon, Bautista, Mendez,
& Ticong study on “Loss Of Loboc’s Cultural Heritage Site: Impact and support
Assessment” on October 15, 2013, a magnitude 7.2 quake struck the Province
of Bohol, damaging more than 73,000 social organizations. Several damaged
structures were church and bell tower situated in the Municipality of Loboc,
Bohol, both of which are declared cultural heritage websites. The buildings were
privately owned properties by the Roman Catholic Church, but as declared
Heritage Sites, they are also under the supervision of the National Historical
Commission. This research tried to specify the steps considered in the rebuilding
and conservation of the damaged historical sites by the stakeholders and agencies
(LGU, Church and National Historical Commission). This intends to conclude
the impact of the damage to the municipality and its citizens. And lastly, it aspires
to make recommendations affecting the preservation or possible restoration of
the damaged sites. It disclosed that at the forefront of the efforts to conserve the
site is the National Historical Commission, with the assistance of parishioners
who headed sectoral groups exerting many attempts in advancing finances. With
its new tourism opportunities, the then tourism stagnation returned to its normal
levels. The negative impact of tourism and the economy is minimal. The National
Historical Commission (NHC) likewise indicated that it would be more practical
to rebuild and restore the old church rather than repair it due to safety and
cost concerns. The loss of the sites was especially demoralizing and dispiriting
to the inhabitants of Loboc. The results corroborated with Cruz (2017) Vigan’s
development framework were anchored on cultural heritage conservation leading
to people emancipation as local guardians of cultural heritage resulting to direct
and indirect economic benefits. If such frame can be duplicated in the revitalization
of Escolta, Manila, the Queen of Streets of Manila will rise back, pronouncing
once more that cultural heritage can be the driver of economic growth and that
cultural heritage conservation is not always an obstacle to urban growth in the
Philippines. Whilst, the study of Ayo (2015) along the cultural heritage sites all
over the City of Legazpi, looked into identifying the various historical landmarks,
plotted the actual sites, narrated the beginning, identification of the significant
and relevant details of historical landmarks, and developed a session plan reflecting
the integration of historical narratives in teaching history in grade 3. Data were
60
derived from secondary sources. The determinations of the study revealing that
the City of Legazpi, Philippines has eight (8) existing monuments symbolizing
the historical roots of the citizenry, such as the: (1) Battle of Legazpi Trylon, (2)
Jose Ignacio Paua, (3) Legazpi-Albay Gulf Landing, (4) Headless Monument,
(5) Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, (6) Penaranda Monument, (7) Liberty Bell and
(8) Simeon A. Ola. These gravestones are symbols either by a person whose
contribution in the throes and victory of the Legazpenos against the colonizers
or depiction of the past events with historical significance. Taking in the tangible
heritage, this served as reminders of the rich ancient past of both the masses and
places of the city. The identified historic landmarks are located in the center of
the City of Legazpi. The historical narratives include the significant chronological
events involving personages, places, and events which were deemed necessary in
the past of the City of Legazpi. The chronology of events as captured in narratives
are considered to be as critical instruments for the people of the present Legazpi
City know their roots more in-depth and better thus, creating an appreciation of
what and how to be a Legaspeňos.
As far as tourism is concerned, the researcher was challenged to (1) determine

the heritage sites, and structures in Camalig, Albay regarding natural attractions
and human-made attractions, (2) examine the present status of heritage sites
regarding preservations, promotions and LGU contributions, and (3) evaluate
the significant agreement on the rank order of the condition, the problems
encountered to consider a framework leading to sustainability, goal fulfillment,
and subsequently, impact tourism choice.
FRAMEWORK
In the contexture of sustainable development, stated in the work of Javier and

Elazigue (2011) that the local governments have a strong influence on the success
of its local tourism industry, and the safeguarding of its advantages. Supportable
the travel industry improvement alludes to the administration of all assets that
addresses the issues of vacationers and host districts while ensuring the open doors
for the future, so that financial, social and stylish needs can be satisfied, while
maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity
and life support systems (Tourism Act of 2009). This approach with the full
61
range of stakeholders and the community collaboration are vital in arranging and
basic leadership to decide the network’s long haul intrigue. On this premise, the
government can affect the neighborhood the travel industry and has an impact in
moderating the specific resource on which its future depends.
For organizational improvement, there must shed light in its directions.
So, for the municipality’s operations to be improved, its instructions must be
defined, documented, and communicated for its policies, standards, processes,
procedures, training, and tools to be utilized.
Operations framework is a philosophy and decision-making model intended
to provide a guide and develop expectations for how the Camalig, Albay will work
towards achieving its goals, and “relentlessly pursue municipal effectiveness.”
Based on the idea or article of Magloff (2018) this operational framework will
serve as a structure how the municipal government will govern and the hierarchy
of its division.
The operational plan does present highly detailed information specific to
direct people to perform the day-to-day tasks required in running the organization
at the (Isaac, 2018) municipal level, it constituted the stages such as plan,
decision-making, implementation (instrumentation), and feedback mechanism,
going to the Sustainability of the Heritage Sites and Structure of the municipality
of Camalig, will lead to goal fulfillment to ensure meaningful and satisfactory
tourist experience, effect political leadership and stakeholder engagement, and,
subsequently, impact tourism choice.
The concept of the flow to work effectively, beforehand planning is essential,
and it considers the 1) problem determination- a collaborative effort of the
different stakeholders (LGU, Tourism Officer, Community, and Stakeholders),
2) Municipal Capacity – this is responding to a tourism challenge by the
municipality into which several considerations must determine if a new plans
and programs will be adopted. This refers to the municipality to respond to the
requirements needed out of the ideas and programs. 3) Formulation of goals and
objectives – a general statement which will serve as a guide by the municipality
in considering the desired outcomes.
62
Figure 1. Municipal Framework
Decision making is the sine qua non to administer because a municipality

is a decision-making structure (Hoy and Miskel, 2001) Decisions are based on
the beliefs, values and previous experiences of individuals. Leaders must know
themselves, know why they choose particular paths, know whom to involve, and
know which specific decision-making model to use.
Decision making will be a collaborative effort by followers who deserve to
be involved, and that input and collaboration result in better decisions. And
decision making of the municipality is: 1) to Strategies – this includes the
different activities that will be used in order for the framework be expertly
formulated., Evaluation and selection of strategies - the significance of strategy
evaluation lies in its capacity to coordinate the task performed by managers,
groups, departments, etc., through control of performance (Juneja, 2018)
Strategies in the determination of the locality primarily must be anchored to
the desired outcome by the goal and objectives. 3) Implementation of the plan –
this is the detailed listing of activities, cost, expected difficulties, and schedules that
are required to achieve the objectives of the strategic plans (Business Dictionary).
63
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
A descriptive – correlational type of research was employed in this study as a
comprehensive and accurate medium for gathering information needed to come
up with an efficient outcome of the present study.
Research Site
In Camalig, one of the oldest-founded towns in Bicol Region is cabecera
or the mission outpost from which most mission settlements in Albay evolved.
In confirmation, Camalig is rich of heritage sites and structures with historical
significance and cultural value that bear a strong influence on Hispanic civilizations
located in the Pueblo or town center such as the old-century St. John the Baptist
Church, clusters of Spanish-American Colonial Houses. Languages spoken in
Camalig include East Miraya (Camaligueños), Bicol, Tagalog, and English.
Transit runs a major supporting part in the social and economic growth of a
neighborhood that supplies the means by which people and goods can circulate
to and from any direction. The local government unit is mandated under
Republic Act 7160 otherwise known as the Local Government Code of 1991 to
undertake measures to enhance its transportation system. The municipality of
Camalig possesses a transportation system which holds its present functional role,
particularly of economic evolution. According to the 2010 census, it contains a
population of 63,585 people in households. It has a total land area of 130.9
Square Kilometers. Camalig is politically subdivided into 50 barangays.
The municipality has distinct tourist attractions which draw a regular annual
number of day-visitors ranging from as low as 5,000 to a maximum of 50,000
day-visitors for each tourist attraction. These real tourist attractions were classified
as Natural and Man-Made attractions, a few of which are the Hoyop-Hoyopan
Cave in Barangay Cotmon, the Quituinan Hills World War II Japanese Camp
in Barangay Tinago and Ilawod all with minimal facilities for tourism activities.
Annually, 10,000 days-tourists coming from the different culinary schools
nationwide avails the Pinangat culinary demonstration and other product demos.
An estimate of 120,000 guests yearly dines in the different restaurants that offer
Camalig’s native cuisines. Camalig offers various tourism products such as
Cabecera de Camalig Heritage Tour Packages, Cave Hopping, Tunnel Hopping,
and Pinangat Culinary Product Demos. Tourists may enjoy several activities
such as spelunking, mountaineering, rock climbing, downhill biking, camping,
64
tunnel hopping, horseback riding, educational/familiarization tours, culinary

or cooking demos, product demos, the conduct of sports/recreational activities
and conduct of special events like the yearly Pinangat Festival. Also, there is an
increase annually on the establishment/development of tourism support facilities
such as restaurants, bars, transportation facilities, communications, medical, tour
operators, accommodations, souvenir shops, pasalubong center in the tourism
service area, the Poblacion.
Camalig was named by the Provincial Government of Albay as “THE
HERITAGE TOWN” for tourism enacted through the approval of Sangguniang
Panlalawigan Resolution number 0039-2014 and was awarded to the Municipal
Officials witnessed by Camaligueños on June 10, 2014.
Camalig as a heritage prosperous town and fast-growing tourist-friendly
destination proactively engaged in social and economic transformation prom-
ised to contribute 30,000 day-tourist arrivals annually in the province of Albay.
As such, vibrant tourism industry in Camalig will establish strong linkage
thus creates more job opportunities, entrepreneurship and better image of the
municipality compelled to the town’s tourism branding: The Heritage Town of
Albay!
Figure 2. Map of Camalig, Albay shows the Natural

and Man-made attractions
Participants
Sixty (60) respondents composed of 5 facilitators, 24 residents, and 31
tourists were identified and notified in Camalig, Albay, to shed light in the
inquiry, to justify the needed information about the research being conducted.
65
The participants were selected according to their participation in the research

study. As to the facilitators, they are the officers and staff of the LGU, residents
are those living nearby the sites and structures, and for the tour participants, they
are selected conveniently. The researcher before the study was conducted, seek the
approval of the respondents before the instruments were distributed.
Instrumentation
The instrument used in gathering the data underwent several revisions before
it finally undergoes a proposal. The researcher, distributed the questionnaire to the
facilitator/tour guide, residents and to the tourists, both local and international
who visited the heritage sites and structures. The frequency distributions,
percentage, weighted mean and Kendall coefficient of concordance W were
utilized to interpret the data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The heritage sites and structures in Camalig, Albay, considered as Natural

attraction and Man-made attraction. The municipality having this attraction must
be sustained to introduce changes or practices by the locals, the municipality and
the tourists who are visiting the locality. This study was supported by the Heritage
Theory to recommend holistic, integrated and multidisciplinary management of
resources to overcome the dichotomy of conservation and development.
For the Preservation and Promotion, St. John the Baptist Church, Ancestral
Houses, Quituinan Hills, World War II Japanese Tunnel and Hoyop-hoyopan
Cave was much preserved and very much promoted while LGU Contributions
as much effectiveness. However, the ancestral houses were only interpreted as
protected. This is because the ancestral homes were not open to the public/tourist
for viewing. According to McKercher (2002) finding ways to manage assets in
a genuinely sustainable manner is clearly in the best interests of the asset, those
who control it, and the potential uses for heritage, placing higher pressure on
tourism and Cultural Heritage Management (CHM stakeholders to collaborate
for their mutual benefit. Ultimately, the better understanding each has of the
other’s philosophical framework and requirements, the better the partnership will
be.
Table 3 reveals the significant agreement on the rank order of the Status
along preservations, promotions, and Local Government Unit noted that the
sum of the squared deviation ranged for preservation was 0.19, promotions
66
were 0.73 and 0.63 for LGU contributions. The coefficient of concordance W
for preservation was 0.19, promotions were 0.73, and for LGU contributions,
it was 0.63. The X2 was computed to determine the significance of agreement
along the status as evaluated by the group of respondents. The computed X2 for
preservations was 2.28 (p>0.05) for promotions resulted in 8.76 (p>0.05) and
for LGU contributions it resulted in 7.56 (p>0.05). Therefore, failed to reach
the tabular X2 value at 0.05 level of significance with their corresponding degree
of freedom, which means that the group of respondents does not significantly
agree about the status of the heritage sites and structures. These findings indicate
that for the three groups of respondents agreement on how the heritage sites and
structures will be preserved, promoted, and with LGU contributions is to initiate
spearheading the sustainability of Tourism activity in Camalig, which based from
R.A no. 9593, Section 3. Objectives J stating “Strengthen the role of tourism
councils and encourage the participation of non-government organizations
(NGOs), people’s organizations (POs) and the private sector in initiating
programs for tourism development and environmental protection.”
Based on Silberberg (1995) that Cultural tourism represents an area of
significant economic benefit to museums and heritage websites. Changing
economic challenges, do require the cultural and heritage facilities to conduct
studies to increase attendance and self-generated revenues and to curb operations
expenses. In so doing, the stakeholders must be looked carefully on their operating
policies and practices focusing on issues such as client service, partnerships, and
packaging opportunities and to be let out to entrepreneurial approaches while
continuing to carry on their heritage preservation and training mandates.
67
Table 1. The Significance of Agreement on the Rank of the Status along

Preservation, Promotions, and LGU Contributions
Indicator Preservations Promotions Lgu Contributions
Summation of Squared
Deviation from the Mean
Difference 0.19 0.73 0.63
No. of Groups 3 3 3
No. of Activities 5 5 5
Coefficient of
Concordance W 0.19 0.73 0.63
Computed X2 2.28 8.76 7.56
Degree of Freedom 5 5 5
Tab. X2 Value
0.05 11.07 11.07 11.07
0.025 12.83 12.83 12.83
0.01 15.09 15.09 15.09
0.005 16.75 16.75 16.75
The Significance of Not Significant Not Significant Not Significant

Agreement
Decision on H1 Rejected Rejected Rejected
The problems encountered by the respondents from the heritage sites and
structures and considered as much dangerous. Table 4 noted that all indicators
were interpreted as much serious showing a general average WX of 3.73. These
were presented according to highest to lowest, “Proper Waste Disposal“ (4.13),
followed by “Promotion” (3.97), “Lack of funds” (3.94), “Provision of foods”
(3.85), “Accessibility” (3.83), “Protection of area, and Safety and Security of
Tourist”(3.80), “Less entertainment and activities for tourist” (3.76), followed by
“Signage’s and Street Lights” (3.73), “Produces trash on the ground created by
tourist” (3.66), “Causes environmental pollutions”(3.66), while indicators being
interpreted as serious were “Destruction of Natural Resources” ,3.54, followed
by “Road Widening and Parking lots”, 3.47, and the least was “Produces noise”
with the average of 3.18. It shows that the majority of the problems encountered
by the respondents were Proper Waste Disposal. This may be because waste is an
indication of overconsumption and saturation of touring and that material is not
68
being disposed of properly and eventually, that can damage the environment.
The tourist ignorí neither signage. And promotion was considered a problem
due to lack of funds, based from the book by Mckercher and Du Cros (2012)
on “Cultural Tourism the Partnership Between Tourism and Cultural Heritage,
the failure to appreciate the nexus between cultural heritage management and
tourism results in the suboptimal delivery of cultural tourism products and the
continued unsustainable development of this sector. The failure to accept that
tourism is a legitimate user result in the inability to develop and present cultural
assets in a manner that is amenable to the needs of the tourist. The consequence
may mean lowered visitation levels and decreased satisfaction, threatening the
commercial viability of the asset. Worse still, the result may mean continued
high levels of visitation without signaling how the asset is to be used, resulting in
tourist defining the experience themselves, at the peril of the asset.
CONCLUSIONS
Camalig, Albay has such heritage sites and structures as natural and human-
made attractions that were considered as determinants of income generating
tourism activities by the municipality. The present status along preservations and
promotions were preserved and much preserved; in the sense that it was very
much promoted, adequately supervised by the Local Government Unit, which
the municipal tourism officer had given some attention as to how these attractions
will be polished according to the demand for tourist visiting the municipality.
Along with the status, the three groups of respondents should agree about their
assessment of the attractions, through the concerted effort of the authority. The
Proper Waste Disposal was not adequately managed by the people in charge of
the site and structures because disposal management system is not imminent. In
the end in view, a framework was devised based on the findings of the study that
will serve as a guide in the formulation of the strategies that will be utilized by
the municipality.
The study is best translated through benchmarking by the municipality

as to analyze the best practices from the other known tourist destination areas
so improvement is effected in the municipality and more so the translation of
the framework strategically to create a policy structure to guide the stakeholder.
69
And finally, this study is translated into a journal, newsletters, and an article for
publication to expand and be disseminated to tourism stakeholders for future
policy/strategic formulation.
LITERATURE CITED
Ashworth, G., & Hartmann, R. (2005). Horror and human tragedy revisited:
the management of sites of atrocities for tourism. Cognizant Communication
Corporation. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/KAzQsB
Ayo, Ruby Ann L. CITY OF LEGAZPI, PHILIPPINES: MAPPING ITS

TANGIBLE HISTORICAL ASSETS. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/nVc5az
Baybayon, A. N. R., Bautista, B. M. L., Mendez, M. L. F., & Ticong, F. B.

LOSS OF LOBOC’S CULTURAL HERITAGE SITE: IMPACT AND
SUPPORT ASSESSMENT. International Journal of Social Sciences and
Humanity Studies, 9(1), 1-10. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/GHKtHD
Cruz, G.R., (2017), The Cultural Heritage-Oriented Approach to Economic

Development in the Philippines: A Comparative Study of Vigan, Ilocos Sur
and Escolta, Manila. Arts and Culture: Heritage, Practices, and Futures.
Retrieved from https://goo.gl/2qahcj
Isaac, L., (2018). Purpose of an Operational Plan. Online Learning for Sports
Management. Retrieved from http://www.leoisaac.com/operations/top025.
htm
Javier, A. B., & Elazigue, D. B. (2011, March). Opportunities and challenges

in tourism development roles of local government units in the Philippines.
In Annual Conference of the Academic Network of Development Studie in
Asia (ANDA). Skills Development for New Dynamism in Asian Developing
Countries Under Globalization, Symposion Hall, Nagoya University Japan.
Magloff, L., (2018). What is Operational Framework in Business?. Chron.

Retrieved from https://smallbusiness.chron.com/operational-framework-
business-25852.html
70
McKercher, B., McKercher, R., & Du Cros, H. (2002). Cultural tourism: The
partnership between tourism and cultural heritage management. Routledge.
Retrieved from https://goo.gl/LW96gJ
Montenegro, K.D., Filart, J., & Santos C., (nd). Preserving what is left. The
Guidon. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/KhqKAF
National Geographic, (2015). National Geographic Partners, LLC. Retrieved

from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/legal/terms/
Republic Act No. 9593 otherwise known as Tourism Act of 2009, Its Implementing
Rules and Regulations http://www.tourism.gov.ph
Shailesh, P., (2004). The Status Of Cultural Heritage In Nepal. World Wide
Nepalese Students’ Organisation. Retrieved from http://literature.wnso.
org/2004/the_status_of_cultural_heritage_shailesh.htm
Silberberg, T. (1995). Cultural tourism and business opportunities for museums

and heritage sites. Tourism management, 16(5), 361-365. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(95)00039-Q
Timothy, D. J. (2011). Cultural heritage and tourism: An introduction (Vol. 4).

Channel View Publications. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/di3yzd
Welch, J. (2014). Cultural Heritage: What is it? Why is it important?-Fact Sheet.

Retrieved from https://goo.gl/GfrCam
71
Teachers Performance in Relation

to Pupils Academic Achievement
in Kabankalan City
MARJON C. MALACAPAY
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9564-1286
[email protected]
Central Philippines State University (CPSU)-Sipalay Campus
Sipalay City, Negros Occidental, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Teacher’s performance in relation to pupils’ academic achievement is a

quantitative type of research that utilized the descriptive-correlational design.
The study aimed to determine the relationship between teachers’ performance in
terms of teaching-learning process, pupils’ outcome, community involvement,
and professional growth to their pupils’ academic achievement. The researcher
distributed a two-part survey questionnaire to the teachers (n=117) covering
their demographic profile, and the four performance indicators, while only the
second part was distributed to the observers/raters. The researcher then utilized
descriptive and inferential statistics for data analysis. Young female teachers,
mostly Teacher-I, between a 1-5 year in service, receiving six to ten thousand
Pesos (P6,000-10,000) monthly net income and had 21-30 accumulated
training hours dominated the population. Also, findings showed that teachers
performed very satisfactory, but pupils only performed satisfactorily in terms of
academics. Moreover, the teaching-learning process and pupils’ outcome have
significant relationships on teachers’ length of service. A significant difference
72
was only found in rural and urban teachers’ community involvement. Lastly,
a significant relationship on pupils’ academic achievement was only found on
teachers’ community involvement. Therefore, among the performance indicators,
teachers’ community involvement solely affects pupils’ academic performance
but they least prioritize it.
Keywords — Basic education, teachers’ performance, academic achievement,

descriptive-correlational, Kabankalan City, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Performance Evaluation measures the progress of employees based on

job responsibilities. This is done to provide solutions for career advancement
(Sawchuk, 2015). In the academe, the best way to do this is to look at teachers’ on-
the-job performance since effective teachers produce better performing students
(Yoon, Duncan, Lee, Scarloss, & Shapley 2007, Cheruvalath, 2012; Education,
2018). In the study conducted by UNICEF on Eastern and Southern Africa
(ESA), they found out that teachers’ quality is low (Martin, 2018). In Lebanon,
50 percent of teachers are not qualified (Buckland, 2004) and in Nigeria, Ijov,
Hemen, Austin, and Akinyemi (2016) they recommended that schools should
employ competent and qualified teachers.
In the 2017 PISA result, a triennial international survey which evaluates
education systems worldwide revealed that Thailand and Indonesia’s educational
system continue to remain in the bottom while Singapore is in the lead (Sheng,
2017). Thai students’ low rank was due to Thai teachers’ higher-order thinking
questioning struggle and poor command of the English language. Indonesian
students, on the other hand, had a high number of low performers due to
teachers’ absenteeism (Sheany, 2017) while Singapore’s lead was due to the
country’s initiative known as C2015 which focuses on student’s disposition
development, confidence level, self-directed, and active citizen (Ministry of
Education Singapore, 2008a).
In the Philippines, numerous studies on teacher’s performance were
conducted. A 2015 study of Punongbayan, & Bauyon (2015) as an example,
assessed the instructional performance of one State University in the Philippines.
Findings showed that teachers performed very good as perceived by themselves
but only satisfactory according to their students. The study focused on tertiary
teachers only, and students and teachers themselves were the raters. If noticed,
73
this does not involve external raters such as parents. The researcher believed that
it is a must to conduct a study that correlates teachers’ performance and pupil’s
academic achievement because according to Mangiante (2011), teachers make a
difference in students’ academic growth.
FRAMEWORK
The study is in line to the Social Learning Theory of Bandura (1977) which
states that children learn as they observe other people. In school, teachers are
considered models from whom pupils learn.
The study determined the relationship between teachers’ performance and

pupils’ academic achievement. Specifically, it described teachers’: (1) demographic
profile as to age, sex, length of service, position, net income and training/
seminars attended; (2) level of teachers’ performance when grouped according
to teaching-learning process, pupils’ outcome, community involvement, and
professional growth and development; (3) level of pupils’ academic achievement;
(4) significant relationship between performance and demographic profile of
teacher-respondents; (5) significant difference between teachers’ performance
when categorize into rural and urban schools, and public and private schools; and
(6) significant relationship between teachers’ performance and pupils’ academic
achievement.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This quantitative type of research utilized the descriptive-correlational design
and employed the survey method to obtain information.
Participants
The 117 teachers specifically 36 came from rural, 59 from urban, and 22
from private schools identified handling grades 4 to 6 pupils became respondents.
They rated themselves, by 5 peers, 5 pupils, 5 parents, and 1 school head. A
total of 1,640 perceptions were gathered. Schools including the school heads,
teachers, pupils, and parents who refused to answer were not forced due to ethical
74
consideration. Rather, the researcher decided not to count them on the number
of respondents.
Instrumentation
The researcher utilized a 20-item self-made survey questionnaire patterned
from the Individual Performance Commitment and Review Form (IPCRF) and
Competency-based Performance Assessment Test (CB-PAST) of the Department
of Education and utilized the progress report card (Form 137) as the basis of
pupils’ academic achievement.
It also adopted the IPCRF rating scale and interpretation (4.500-5.000 –
Outstanding, 3.500-4.499- Very Satisfactory, 2.500-3.499- Satisfactory, 1.500-
2.499- Unsatisfactory, and below 1.499- Poor), and the grade bracketing and
interpretations from pupils’ report card 75 to 79 (Fairly Satisfactory), 80 to 84
(Satisfactory), 85 to 89 (Very Satisfactory), and 90 to 100(Outstanding).
The survey questionnaire was written in English and developed into a Likert-
type questionnaire. It was composed of 2 parts: Demographic profile and teachers’
performance indicators. The demographic profile includes the participant’s name,
school, type of school, age, sex, length of service, position, net income, relevant
training/seminars attended, and the general average of pupils on the subject/s
handled. The performance indicators were categorized into the teaching-learning
process, the pupil’s outcome, community involvement, and professional growth.
Validity and Reliability of the Research Instruments

The survey instrument scored excellent (4.74) after criterion validity and
very high (0.99) coefficient after administering reliability tests.
Data Gathering Procedure

The two-month data gathering started by sending letters to the Division
Superintendent, private school administrators, district supervisors, and principals
of Kabankalan City and last to the respondents.
Data Analyses Procedure

The data gathered were analyzed using frequency distribution and percentages
for teachers’ demographic profile, mean for pupil’s academic achievement, and
Pearson-product moment correlation and t-test for significant relationships and
difference between variables.
75
Demographic Profile of Elementary Teachers
Table 1. Age Distribution of Elementary Teachers in Frequency Counts and

Percentage
Age Rural Urban Private Total
(in years) F % f % f % F %
21-30 12 29 16 38 14 33 42 36
31-40 17 42 15 38 8 20 40 34
41-50 5 23 17 77 0 0 22 19
51-60 1 8 11 92 0 0 12 10
61 & above 0 0 1 100 0 0 1 1
Total 35 60 22 117 100
It shows that 36% of the respondents ages between 21 to 30 (R= 29%, U=

38%, P= 33%), 34% ages 31 to 40 (R=42%, U= 38%, P= 20%), 19% ages 41 to
50 (R= 23%, U= 17%, P= 0%), 10% ages 51 to 60 (R= 8%, U= 92%, P= 0%),
and only 1% ages 61 years and above (R= 0%, U= 100%, P= 0%).
Table 2. Sex Distribution of Elementary Teachers in Frequency Counts and

Percentage
Rural Urban Private Total
Sex
F % f % f % F %
Male 8 30 10 37 9 33 27 23
Female 27 30 50 56 13 14 90 77
Total 35 60 22 117 100
It shows that 77% (R=30%, U= 56%, P= 14%) of teachers, mostly from

urban schools, were female while 23% (R=30%, U= 37%, P= 33%) were male
teachers.
76
Table 3. Length of Service Distribution of Elementary Teachers in Frequency

Counts and Percentage
Length of Service
(in years)
F % f % F % F %
1-5 16 36 13 29 15 35 44 38
6-10 7 32 9 41 6 27 22 19
11-15 4 25 11 69 1 6 16 14
16-20 4 31 9 69 0 0 13 11
21-25 2 18 9 82 0 0 11 9
26-30 2 29 5 71 0 0 7 6
31 & above 1 25 4 75 0 0 5 3
Total 35 60 22 117 100
It shows that 38% (R= 36%, U= 29%, P= 35%) of teachers are 1-5 years in
service, 19% (R= 32%, U= 41%, P= 27%) are 6-10 years, 14% are 11-15 years,
11% (R= 31%, U= 69%, P= 0%) are 16-20 years, 9% (R= 18%, U= 82%, P=
0%) are 21-25 years, 6% (R= 29%, U= 71%, P= 7%) are 26-30 years and 3%
(R= 25%, U= 75%, P= 0%) are 31 years and above in service.
Table 4. Position Distribution of Elementary Teachers in Frequency Counts and

Percentage
Position
F % f % f % f %
Teacher I 30 38 28 35 22 27 80 68
Teacher II 1 11 8 72 0 0 9 8
Teacher III 1 7 14 93 0 0 15 13
Master Teacher I 3 27 8 73 0 0 11 9
Master Teacher II 0 0 2 100 0 0 2 2
Total 35 60 22 117 100
It shows that 68% (R=38%, U= 35%, P= 27%) are Teacher I, 13% (R=7%,
U= 93%, P= 0%) are Teacher III, 9% (R= 27%, U= 73%, P= 0%) are Master
Teacher I, 8% (R= 11%, U= 72%, P= 0%) are Teacher II, and 2% (R= 0%, U=
100%, P= 0%) are Master Teacher II.
77
Table 5. Net Income Distribution of Elementary Teachers in Frequency Counts

and Percentage
Net Income Rural Urban Private Total
(in thousands) f % F % F % F %
1-5 3 23 9 69 1 8 13 10
6-10 6 18 15 45 12 37 33 28
11-15 9 31 12 41 8 28 29 25
16-20 13 45 15 52 1 3 29 25
21-25 4 40 6 60 0 0 10 9
26-30 0 0 2 100 0 0 2 2
31-35 0 0 1 100 0 0 1 1
Total 35 60 22 117 100
It shows that 28% (R= 18%, U= 45%, P= 37%) of teachers have a 6-10
thousand pesos monthly net income, 25% (R= 31%, U= 41%, P= 28%) has an
11-15 thousand pesos, 25% (R= 45%, U= 52%, P= 3%) has a 16-20 thousand
pesos, 9% (R= 40%, U= 60%, P= 0%) has a 21-25 thousand pesos, 2% (R= 0%,
U= 100%, P= 0%) has a 26-30 thousand pesos, and 1% (R= 0%, U= 100%, P=
0%) of them has a monthly net income of 31-35 thousand pesos.
Table 6. Training Hours Distribution of Elementary Teachers in Frequency

Counts and Percentage
Training Rural Urban Private Total
Hours f % f % F % f %
1-10 0 0 12 63 7 37 19 16
11-20 10 36 9 32 9 32 28 24
21-30 5 17 20 66 5 17 30 25
31-40 5 42 6 50 1 8 12 10
41-50 7 54 6 46 0 0 13 11
51-60 5 60 4 40 0 0 9 9
61 & above 3 50 3 50 0 0 6 5
Total 35 60 22 117 100
78
It shows that 25% (R= 17%, U= 66%, P= 17%) of them spent an

accumulated 21-30 hours training, 24% (R= 36%, U= 32%, P= 32%) spent 11-
20 hours, 16% (R= 0%, U= 63%, P= 37%) spent 1-10 hours, 11% (R= 54%, U=
46%, P= 0%) spent 41-50 hours, 9% (R= 60%, U= 40%, P= 0%) spent 51-60
hours training, and 5% (R= 50%, U= 50%, P= 0%) spent an accumulated 61
and above hours of training.
Table 7. Mean of the performance level of private, rural, and urban teachers
Pupils Community
Teaching-learning Professional As a
School Outcome Involvement
Process (TLP) Growth (PG) Whole
(PO) (CI)
Private 4.51 4.58 4.36 4.54 4.5
Rural 4.51 4.59 4.65 4.58 4.58
Urban 4.38 4.39 4.3 4.4 4.37
Total 4.44 4.49 4.42 4.48 4.46
Having a grand mean of 4.58, rural school teachers lead by outstandingly

performing in four indicators (TLP= 4.51, PO= 4.59, CI= 4.65, PG= 4.58),
followed by private school teachers (4.5) with three outstanding performances
(TLP= 4.51, PO= 4.58, CI= 4.36, PG= 4.54) except for community (very
satisfactory), and last is an urban school which with a 4.37 mean and performed
very satisfactorily (TLP= 4.51, PO= 4.58, CI= 4.36, PG= 4.54). Noticeably
pupils’ outcome was teachers’ top priority (PO= 4.49, PG= 4.48, TLP= 4.41,
CI= 4.42) while community involvement was their least priority.
Table 8. Mean of Pupils Academic Performance Level

Academic Performance Mean Interpretation
Private 2.60 Satisfactory
Rural 2.57 Satisfactory
Urban 2.44 Satisfactory
Grand Mean 2.51 Satisfactory
It shows that pupils perform satisfactorily (2.51) in their academics wherein

private school pupils lead at 2.60 means, followed by rural (2.57), and urban
pupils (2.44) respectively.
79
Table 9. The Relationship Between the Teachers’ Performance and Age

Teaching-
Pupils Community Professional
learning As a Whole
Outcome Involvement Growth
Process
Corr. Coef. 0.087 0.136 0.006 0.054 0.068
p-value 0.351 0.144 0.948 0.567 0.468
Accept
Decision Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho
Ho
Interpretation ns ns ns ns ns
Legend: ns - Not Significant
Utilizing Pearson-product moment correlation, teachers’ performance in

teaching-learning process (corr. Coef. = .087, p-value = .351), pupils’ outcome
(corr. Coef. = .136, p-value = .144), community involvement (corr. Coef. = .006,
p-value = .948), and professional growth (corr. Coef. = .054, p-value = .567) have
no significant relationship on age. As a whole, teachers’ age and performance has
no significant relationship (corr. Coef. = .068, p-value = .468).
It implies that age is just a number. Being old or young does not guarantee
high performance.
Age effects are small and non-linear, therefore, most likely, an inverted
U-shaped relationship exists between age and job performance (Rad, 2014;
Hedge & Borman 2012).
Table 10. The Difference Between the Teachers’ Performance in Terms of Sex
Performance Indicators t-test result p-value Decision Interpretation
Teaching-learning Process 0.397 0.692 Accept Ho Not Significant
Pupils Outcome 0.972 0.333 Accept Ho Not Significant
Community Involvement 1.089 0.278 Accept Ho Not Significant
Professional Growth 1.026 0.307 Accept Ho Not Significant
As a Whole 0.959 0.34 Accept Ho Not Significant
Utilizing the t-test, teachers’ performance in teaching-learning process (t -

test = .397, p-value = .692), pupils’ outcome (t - test = .972, p-value = .333),
community involvement (t - test = 1.089, p-value = .278), and professional
growth (t - test = 1.026, p-value = .307) have no significant difference towards
sex. As a whole, teachers’ sex and performance has no significant difference (t -
test = .959, p-value = .34).
80
It implies that one’s sex is not superior to the other.

The findings of this study also agree with the assertion of Azim, Haque, and
Chowdhury (2013) that performance has no meaningful association between
genders.
Table 11. Exhibited the Relationship Between Teachers’ Performance and Length
of Service
Length Teaching-learn- Pupils Community Professional
As a Whole
of Service ing Process Outcome Involvement Growth
Corr. Coef. 0.239** 0.238** 0.18 0.157 0.206*
p-value 0.01 0.01 0.052 0.091 0.026
Decision Reject Ho Reject Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho Reject Ho
Not Not
Interpretation Significant Significant Significant
Significant Significant
Utilizing Pearson-product moment correlation, teachers’ performance in

teaching-learning process (Corr. Coef. = .239**, p-value = .01), and pupils’
outcome (Corr. Coef. = .238**, p-value = .333) reject the hypothesis which
shows a significant relationship on their length of service. While performance
in community involvement (corr. Coef. = .18, p-value = .052), and professional
growth (corr. Coef. = .157, p-value = .091) have no significant relationship. As a
whole, teachers’ length of service and performance has a significant relationship
(corr. Coef. = .206*, p-value = .026).
It implies that a seasoned or a new entrant teacher may have an equal
teaching performance and productivity.
Wayne and Youngs (2003) also asserted positive effects of experience on
teacher’s quality as they became more dedicated and devoted to the service. By
virtue of their length of time and stay in the teaching service, they acquire more
experiences.
Table 12. The Relationship Between Teachers’ Performance and Position

Teaching-learning Pupils Community Professional
Position As a Whole
Process Outcome Involvement Growth
Corr. Coef. 0.071 0.134 0.098 0.141 0.148
p-value 0.445 0.149 0.294 0.13 0.112
Decision Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho
Not Not Not Not
Interpretation Not Significant
significant Significant Significant Significant
81
Utilizing the Pearson-product moment correlation, teachers’ performance

in teaching-learning process (corr. Coef. = .71, p-value = .445), pupils’ outcome
(corr. Coef. = .134 p-value = .149), community involvement (corr. Coef. = .098,
p-value = .294), and professional growth (corr. Coef. = .141, p-value = .13) have
no significant relationship towards position. As a whole, teachers’ performance
and position has no significant relationship (corr. Coef. = .148, p-value = .112).
It implies that employees’ position either high or low does not define their
performance productivity.
Job performance only determines the organizational performance rather
than job titles (position) which therefore displayed a weak connection (Bakotić,
2016).
Table 13. The relationship between teachers’ performance and net income.
Teaching- Community Professional
Income Pupils Outcome
learning Process Involvement Growth
Corr. Coef. 0.057 0.013 0.038 0.089
p-value 0.545 0.893 0.682 0.341
Decision Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho
Utilizing Pearson-product moment correlation, teachers’ performance on

teaching-learning process (corr. Coef. = .057, p-value = .545), pupils’ outcome
(corr. Coef. = .013 p-value = .893), community involvement (corr. Coef. = .038,
p-value = .682), and professional growth (corr. Coef. = .089, p-value = .341)
have no significant relationship on their net income. As a whole, with a .048
correlation coefficient and a p-value of .605, net income has no significance on
teachers’ performance.
It implies that teachers net income either high or average does not define
their performance productivity.
Quality of work is due to the effect of intrinsic motivation of employees
according to Gunawan and Amalia (2015).
Table 14. The Relationship between Teachers’ Performance and Training

Teaching-learning Community Professional
Training Hours Pupils Outcome
Process Involvement Growth
Corr. Coef. 0.174 0.264** 0.005 0.152
p-value 0.061 0.004 0.961 0.101
Decision Accept Ho Reject Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho
Interpretation Not Significant Significant Not Significant Not Significant
82
Utilizing the Pearson-product moment correlation, teachers’ performance

on teaching-learning process (corr. Coef. = .174, p-value = .061), community
involvement (corr. Coef. = .005, p-value = .961), and professional growth (corr.
Coef. = .152, p-value = .101) shows no significant relationship on training hours.
Hence, a significant relationship between teachers’ training hours and pupils’
outcome was elucidated (corr. Coef. = .264, p-value = .00). As a whole, the length
of training hours spent has no significant relationship on teachers’ performance
(Corr. Coef. = .113, p-value = .153).
It implies that teachers who had spent more training hours than others do
not guarantee excellent teaching performance.
Teacher’s training generally has little influence on productivity only that it
adds effectiveness to their teaching (Harris, 2011).
Table 15. The Performance Difference between Rural and Urban Public-School
Teachers
Teachers’ Performance
Test Result p-value Decision Interpretation
Indicators
Pupils’ Outcome 2.164 0.12 Accept Ho Not Significant
Community Involvement 4.32 0.016 Reject Ho Significant
The result on the table shows that teaching-learning process (t-test = 1.099,
p-value = .337), pupils’ outcome (t-test = 2.164, p-value = .120), and professional
growth (t-test = 1.575, p-value = .212) showed no significant difference but had a
significant difference in terms of community involvement (t-test = 4.320, p-value
= .016). As a whole, evidently, with a 2.351 t-test result and a p-value of .100,
research showed that urban teacher has no significant difference on rural school
teachers.
It implies that the topographical assignment does not influence one’s
performance.
In the study of Mahmood, Nudrat, and Asdaque (2011) entitled Comparative
Analysis on Job Performance and Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers in
Urban and Rural Schools; they also found no significant difference between
school locations and performance.
83
Table 16. The Difference Between The Teachers’ Performance as to Public and
Private Schools.
Teachers’ Performance
Test Result p-value Decision Interpretation
Indicators
Pupils’ Outcome 0.976 0.331 Accept Ho Not Significant
Community Involvement 0.48 0.632 Accept Ho Not Significant
The result on the table shows the teaching-learning process (t-test = .724,
p-value = .470), pupils’ outcome (t-test = .976, p-value = .331), community
involvement (t-test = .480, p-value = .632) and professional growth (t-test = .575,
p-value = .566) showed no significant difference. This further implied that as a
whole, evidently, with a 0.441 t-test result and a p-value of .660, research showed
no significant difference between the performance of teachers in public or private
schools.
It implies that a state (public) school teacher or private school teacher are the
same in terms of teaching performance is the concern.
The result is in contrast to the findings of Bassey, Bisong, Isangedighi, and
Ubi (2011) that teachers in private schools are superior to their counterparts in
public schools in teaching as well as in formative and summative evaluation.
Table 17. The Relationship between Teachers’ Performance and Pupils’ Academic
Achievement.
Teachers’ Performance Corr. Coef. p-value Decision Interpretation
Teaching-learning process 0.11 0.236 Accept Ho Not Significant
Pupils Outcome 0.146 0.116 Accept Ho Not Significant
Community Involvement 0.205* 0.026 Reject Ho Significant
84
Table shows the relationship between teachers’ performance and pupils’

academic achievement through Pearson-product moment correlation. The result
on the teaching-learning process (Corr. Coef. = .11, p-value = .236), pupils’
outcome (Corr. Coef. = .146, p-value = .116), and professional growth (Corr.
Coef. = .139, p-value = .134) showed no significant relationship, but showed
a significant relationship between teacher’s community involvement (Corr.
Coef. = .205, p-value = .026) on pupils’ academic achievement. Furthermore,
accepting the hypothesis, as a whole, having a 0.156 correlation coefficient and a
0.094 p-value, no significant relationship was found between the performance of
teachers and pupils’ academic achievement.
It implies that the overall performance of a teacher may not directly show on
their pupils’ academic achievement.
Buddin and Zamarro (2010) also asserted that teachers are important
determinants of student’s achievement, but there was no direct connection
between the traditionally assumed measures of teacher effectiveness and student
achievement over time.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, teachers’ age is just a number, one’s sex is not superior to the
other, seasoned and new entrants may have the same performance level, small
net income does not associate low performance, and long training hours may not
guarantee a performing teacher. Furthermore, teachers’ topographical assignment
does not make one better than the other or vice-versa. It also does not make any
difference towards instructional delivery, assessment pedagogy, and continuous
professional development. Teachers from rural, urban, and private schools only
differ, and most of them overlooked the important contribution of community
involvement and even became their least priority based on the result of this study,
it is the only performance indicator that certainly affects the performance of the
pupils.
The result of this study may be translated by school administrators into an

action plan regarding strengthening their policy towards a teacher-community
relationship. It may also be used as the basis of crafting a strategic plan by
capacitating/enhancing teachers’ community involvement.
85
LITERATURE CITED
Azim, M. T., Haque, M. M., & Chowdhury, R. A. (2013). Gender, marital status
and job satisfaction an empirical study. International Review of Management
and Business Research, 2(2), 488. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/8gXDv7
Bakotić, D. (2016). Relationship between job satisfaction and organisational

performance. Economic research-Ekonomska istraživanja, 29(1), 118-130.
Retrieve from https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2016.1163946
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Oxford, England: Prentice-Hall.
Bassey, P. U., Bisong, N., Isangedighi, A. J., & Ubi, I. O. (2011). Job Performance
Effectiveness: A Comparison of Teachers in Public and Private Schools in
Cross River State–Nigeria. Lwati: A Journal of Contemporary Research, 8(2).
Retrieved from https://goo.gl/uh3qjG
Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind,
experience and school. Washington, DC: Commission on Behavioral and
Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Retrieved from
https://goo.gl/ehELvP
Buckland, P. (2004). Reshaping the future: Education and post-conflict reconstruction.

The World Bank. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/WyYZ1q
Buddin, R., & Zamarro, G. (2010). What Teacher Characteristics Affect Student
Achievement? Retrieved from https://goo.gl/ayRq2z
Cheruvalath, R. (2012). Academic failure of first-year engineering and

technological students in India and assessment of motivation factors–a case
study. Educational Research and Evaluation, 18(3), 283-297. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2012.669192
Education, R. (2012). Teachers matter: Understanding teachers’ impact on

student achievement. Santa Monica, CA: Author. Retrieved from https://
goo.gl/8tRhHx
86
Gunawan, H., & Amalia, R. (2015). Wages and Employees Performance: The
Quality of Work Life as Moderator. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/1h4bP4
Harris, D. N., & Sass, T. R. (2011). Teacher training, teacher quality and student
achievement. Journal of public economics, 95(7-8), 798-812. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.11.009
Hedge, J. W., & Borman, W. C. (Eds.). (2012). The Oxford handbook of work and
aging. Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/vxC56k
Ijov, M. T., Hemen, M. T., Austin, A. O., & Akinyemi, M. A. (2016). Human
resource management and teachers’ job performance in secondary schools
in North West senatorial district of Benue State, Nigeria. Journal of Teacher
Perspective, 10(2). Retrieved from https://goo.gl/owF6YW
Mahmood, A., Nudrat, S., & Asdaque, M. M. (2011). Job satisfaction of

secondary school teachers: A comparative analysis of gender, urban and
rural schools. Asian Social Science, 7(8), 203. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/
JXuSZF
Mangiante, E. M. S. (2011). Teachers matter: Measures of teacher effectiveness

in low-income minority schools. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and
Accountability, 23(1), 41-63. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11092-010-9107-x
Martin, J. Putting the spotlight on teacher performance. Retrieved from https://

goo.gl/4JucAy
Punongbayan, E. J., & Bauyon, S. M. (2015). Instructional Performance

of Teacher Education Faculty Members in One State University in the
Philippines. Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 3(5). Retrieved
from https://goo.gl/AkPywy
Sawchuk, S. (2015). Teacher evaluation: An issue overview. Education Week, 35(3),

1-6. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/8ek9tf
87
Sheany (2017). Investing in Teachers Crucial to Improve Education in Indonesia:

World Bank. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/NhfFse
Sheng, L. J. (2017). PISA results: The challenging road forward for weaker
ASEAN countries. The HEAD Foundation. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/
V2w9YG
Wayne, A. J., & Youngs, P. (2003). Teacher characteristics and student

achievement gains: A review. Review of Educational research, 73(1), 89-122.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543073001089
Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W. Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. L. (2007).
Reviewing the Evidence on How Teacher Professional Development Affects
Student Achievement. Issues & Answers. REL 2007-No. 033. Regional
Educational Laboratory Southwest (NJ1). Retrieved from https://goo.
gl/2o4HQk
88
The Initiatives of Local Government

Units (LGUs) in Batangas
on Climate Change
JENNIFER G. MANALO
http://orcid.org0000-0003-1585-0051
[email protected]
Batangas State University
Rizal Avenue, Batangas City, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The local government units in the Philippines are at the forefront of disaster
management including responding to the impacts of climate change. With the
necessity to address this problem, this study aimed to determine the initiatives
of the local government units (LGUs) in Batangas on climate change. The study
made use of descriptive research which involved quantitative and qualitative
methods in gathering data. Research triangulation was used. The subjects of the
study were the Disaster Risk Reduction Management and planning officers of
three component cities and twenty-seven municipalities of Batangas. Frequency
counts, percentages, and average weighted mean were used in the statistical
analysis of data. Results of the study revealed that LGUs in Batangas comply
with the provisions of Republic Act No. 10121, otherwise known as Philippine
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010. LGUs to organize
disaster risk reduction and management councils at the local level. Likewise, cities
and municipalities of Batangas implement policies through local ordinances to
adopt and strengthen RA 9003. They are implementing initiatives that encourage
businesses to promote climate-smart services and practices. Assessment of farming
89
practices, extension services and linkages with GOs, NGOs and other agencies in
the implementation of climate change initiatives needs to be improved.
Keywords - Social Science, climate change, triangular approach, Batangas

City, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Climate change is a crucial issue that must be addressed within the global
and local context. It is a serious (Jiang et al., 2014), urgent global priority (Papa,
2015), and is one of the most difficult challenges facing the world caused by
human activities on earth (Yahaya & Nwabuogo, 2016). The atmosphere’s surface
temperature (Merchant et al. (2013) environmental conditions in the Arctic
region have changed rapidly (Zábori et al., 2013) and the ocean is becoming
increasingly warmer, and the sea level has risen (Hughes, 2014), and the amount
of ice on the earth is decreasing over the oceans Binti Sa’adin, Kaewunruen, &
Jaroszweski, (2016). The earth warming was due to the increasing concentration
of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere (Sa’adin, 2016), which destroys
the environment and makes it unhealthy for living beings (Yahaya & Nwabuogo,
(2016). Large areas of cooling have been observed in the Southern Ocean during
the past few decades, whereas West Antarctica and several sub-Antarctic islands
have warmed more rapidly than other parts of this continent (Chambers et
al. 2013). Its impact worsens and contributes to food shortage, infrastructure
damage and degradation of the natural resources upon which livelihoods are
based.
The Philippines like any other developing countries in the world is highly
vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change because it is located in the
Pacific typhoon belt thus, exposed to climate-related risks such as tropical cyclones,
drought, flood and climate variability (Yumul, Cruz, Servando, & Dimalanta,
(2011). According to the study of the United Nations University’s Institute for
Environment and Human Security and the German Alliance Development
Works, Philippines ranks third in the list of countries most vulnerable to climate
change with 24.32 percent disaster risk. Typhoon Sendong (Washi) in 2011 and
Yolanda (Haiyan) in 2013 which landed in the Philippines caused tremendous
damage to infrastructure and loss of lives mainly due to the storm surge and
strong winds (Lapidez, Tablazon, Dasallas, Gonzalo , Cabacaba, Ramos , Suarez
, Santiago , Lagmay, and Malano, 2018) and left Tacloban City and other
90
municipalities in the region entirely devastated. Vietnam’s surface heat is predicted

to rise between 1 °C and 2 °C by 2050 because of climate change (Akpalu, Arndt,
& Matshe, 2015). Extreme weather has affected railway operations and safety,
including fatalities, injuries and property damage in Malaysia (Sa’adin, 2016).
On 19 May 2016 temperatures exceeded 50 ◦C in a region on the India–Pakistan
border. Excessive temperature can injure human health, resulting in heat cramps,
exhaustion, and severe heat strokes (Oldenborgh et al., 2018). By 2020, between
75 and 250 million people in Africa are projected to be exposed to greater water
quantity challenges due to the effects of climate change (Ojomo, Elliott, Amjad,
& Bartram, 2015). These were the grave indication of how extreme weather
conditions have become more frequent and more intense due to climate change.
Some programs and policies have been made and implemented, and yet
property losses and casualties are increasing. Efforts to avoid substantial losses are
unsuccessful and could not cope with the intensifying climate change impacts.
The local government units in the Philippines are at the forefront of disaster
management including responding to the impacts of climate change in their
respective localities. However, many of the local government units are not aware
of the climate change phenomenon and can’t assist and respond to the affected
communities on the actual event. Their knowledge and awareness of impending
disasters, their impacts, their mitigation, preparedness, and adaptation is lacking
(Piracha, Tariq, 2015). Adaptation strategies and alternative policy options
that have been recommended to the LGU’s have not yet been institutionalized.
The local leaders are critical actors in drafting, implementing, and evaluating
development programs that address adverse problems of climate change both
strategic and short-term considerations of local government units. However,
their perceptions of necessity and urgency are grounded in how much they
know about the issue and concern. It is crucial that current and future decision
makers are knowledgeable about climate change and its effects to achieve
effective adaptation and mitigation (Ojomo, Elliott, Amjad, & Bartram, 2015).
Much has been written on climate change but there is still limited literature
and investigation on the initiatives of the local government units to combat the
problems on climate change. This study would be beneficial to other locality to
enlighten them formulate and adopt their climate change initiatives applicable to
their community thereby enhance local climate change adaptation and improve
safety and well-being among the population.
91
The study determines the initiatives of the local government units (LGUs)
in Batangas on climate change specifically along policy framework, knowledge
and capacity development, health and social protection and agriculture and
fisheries. It further investigates the problems encountered by the LGUs in
the implementation of identified initiatives with the end view of proposing
development initiatives on climate change for LGUs in Batangas.
FRAMEWORK
Climate change adaptation requires reshaping and redesigning of developing

social and economic practices to respond effectively to anticipate environmental
changes. Likewise, disaster risk reduction seeks to influence development decision-
making and protect development aspirations from envisioned environment relate
to risk. This research work was anchored on the National Framework Strategy
on Climate Change (2010-2022) and Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction (2015-2030). The study was focused on climate change initiatives
relative to the policy framework, knowledge and capacity development, health
and social protection and agriculture and fisheries. The researcher believes
that these are vital components for the local government units in dealing with
problems of climate change. The national framework strategy on climate change
envisions a climate risk-resilient Philippines with healthy, safety and self-reliant
communities. It recognizes the roles of agencies and their respective mandates
as provided by the law as well as the local governments as front-liners in
addressing climate change. The framework also recognizes the value of forming
multi-stakeholder participation and partnership in climate change initiatives
including the civil society, private sector, and local governments, especially with
indigenous peoples and other marginalized groups most vulnerable to climate
change impacts. The national framework was formulated within the context of
the country’s sustainable development goals/institutional factors that affect the
country’s ability to respond to climate change. As climate change has myriad
impacts in all sectors of the society and the economy adaptation measures will
require resources and the cooperation of all sectors. Further, it was focused on
cross-cutting strategies: capacity development; knowledge management; IEC
and advocacy; gender mainstreaming, research and development and technology
transfer.
92
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction was the first major
agreement of the post-2015 development agenda and an international document
which was adopted by UN in March 2015 at the World Conference on Disaster
Risk Reduction held in Sendai, Japan and was endorsed by the UN Assembly
in June 2015. The Sendai Framework is a fifteen-year voluntary, non-binding
agreement which offers four priorities for activities such as understanding the
risk; strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk; investing
in disaster risk reduction for resilience, and enhancing disaster preparedness for
effective response. In achieving the goal of the framework, several targets have
been identified: substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, reduce
the number of affected globally, reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to
global gross domestic product, reduces damages in infrastructure and disruption
of basic services, health and educational facilities and increase availability and
access to multi-hazard system and enhance international cooperation.
These two frameworks serve as the inspiration of the researcher to the present
study since they are both focused on taking proactive measures towards reducing
risks and adapting instead of simply responding to the events. They both aimed
at reducing people’s vulnerability to hazards by improving methods to anticipate,
resist, cope with, and recover from their impact and seek to rebuild resilience in
the context of sustainable development. With similar aims and mutual benefits,
the researcher recommended development initiatives for LGUs in Batangas to
enhance climate change resilience and reduce the risks; thus, cooperation and
collaboration of all the stakeholders in the community is needed to make it fully
realized.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study made use of the descriptive research which involved quantitative
and qualitative methods for gathering data. Research triangulation was used.
The use of triangulation as a method facilitate the integration of qualitative and
quantitative findings, help researchers to clarify their theoretical propositions
and the basis of their results thus offer a better understanding and empirical
findings (Östlund, Kidd, Wengström, & Rowa-Dewar, 2011). Data were made
available through a survey questionnaire, documentary analysis and interview.
Questionnaires were answered according to the priority of concern by using
pre-determined sets of questions with pre-defined ranges of answers as to avoid
93
conflicting series of response. Informed consent was sought during the conduct
of research. Further, the respondents of the study were assured of the strictest
confidentiality of the data provided and that it will only be used for the purpose
of conducting the study.
Participants
The subjects of the study were the heads of the city and local Disaster Risk
Reduction Management Office and Planning Officer of the three component cities
and twenty-seven municipalities of Batangas. Frequency counts, percentages, and
average weighted mean were used in the statistical analysis of the data.
Instrumentation
The survey questionnaire was the major instrument used in gathering
necessary data. It composed of two parts. The first part covered the climate change
initiatives of the local government units along policy framework, knowledge and
capacity development, health and social protection and agriculture and fisheries.
The last part delved on the problems encountered by LGUs in the implementation
of climate change initiatives. The survey questionnaire was presented to experts
for validation; the dry run was administered to test the validity of the instrument.
The questionnaire was set for reliability testing using Cronbach alpha Test. The
result revealed that it contained high internal efficiency level of 0.871 which
was interpreted as reliable and the options are appropriate for utilization. An
interview was also conducted to substantiate the discussion and to validate the
data gathered from the questionnaire. Accomplishment reports, plan of activities,
policies, and ordinances relative to climate change initiatives were also analyzed.
The responses were tallied, scored and tabulated for statistical treatment. The
following continuum was employed to describe the weighted mean verbally:
Options Range Verbal Description

4 3.50 – 4.49 Very Highly Evident/Very Serious
3 2.50 – 3.39 Highly Evident/ Serious
2 1.50 – 2.49 Moderately Evident/Moderately Serious
1 1.00 – 1.49 Not Evident/Not Serious
94
Initiatives of Local Government Units in Batangas on Climate

Along Policy Framework
The Planning and Development Officers and Disaster Risk Reduction
Management Officers revealed that it was highly evident that the LGUs in
Batangas implemented policies and local ordinances to adopt RA 9729 otherwise
known as Climate Change Act of 2009 with a weighted mean of 3.35. The
LGUs conducted activities which include tree planting, mangrove rehabilitation,
use of solar panels and other energy saving devices among government offices
and bring your bayong (BYOB) campaign which aimed to reduce the use of
plastic. Mangroves provide important ecosystem services. This affirmed by the
study of Abbas, S., Qamer, Hussain, Saleem, & Nitin, (2011) who stressed that
mangroves provide nursery habitat for marine fish including coastal stabilization.
On the other hand, entering into Memorandum of Agreement/Memorandum of
Understanding with GOs and NGOs for climate change adaptation and disaster
risk reduction rated as moderately evident with the lowest weighted mean of
2.43. Uneke, Ezeoha, Uro-Chukwu, Ezeonu, Igboji (2018) in their study
suggested that there is a need to strengthen institutions and mechanisms that can
more systematically promote interactions between researchers, policy-makers and
other stakeholders and recognize the value of coming together for a symbiotic
relationship.
To help farmers increase their agricultural production in times of drought
and flood caused by extreme weather conditions, policies on the provision of
drought and flood resistant seeds and fertilizer rated very highly evident with a
weighted mean of 3.59. Agricultural crop productions are vulnerable to climate
change. Most of the time, crops are being damaged by the strong typhoon and
during drought. This was reinforced by the study of De-Graft, & Kweku, (2012)
who stressed that climate change tends to have negative effects on crop yield
through its influence on crop production. Meanwhile, policies establishing
linkages and networking to conduct research studies on agricultural technologies
that are climate change resilient rated moderately evident with the weighted
mean of 2.33.
The respondents indicated that it was moderately evident that the LGUs
formulated and implemented ordinances creating the Comprehensive Land Use
Plan (CLUP) for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction with a
weighted mean of 2.47. The LGUs created an appropriations act for budget
95
allocation for the activities, programs and projects for climate change adaptation
in all barangays obtained the lowest weighted mean of 2.25. Climate Change
Act of 2009 provides for the mainstreaming of climate change into government
policy formulation and the establishment of a framework strategy and programs
on climate change.
The Planning and Development and DRRM officers disclosed that it was very
highly evident that the LGUs implemented NO smoking policy in government
offices and public places which garnered a weighted mean of 3.83. On the other
hand, policies on the construction of the green building and climate-smart
practices shown in weighted wean of 2.33 interpreted as moderately evident.
The respondents revealed that it was very highly evident that the LUGs
in Batangas comply with the provisions of the Republic Act No. 10121,
otherwise known as Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act
of 2010 requiring local government units to organize disaster risk reduction
and management councils at the local level with a weighted mean of 3.85. The
conduct of training and educating the different committee on pre-disaster phase
and during disaster phase to respond and reduce disaster risks obtained the lowest
weighted mean of 2.32.
Along Knowledge and Capacity Development

Results of the study showed that regarding knowledge and capacity
development the LGUs initiatives were rated by the respondents moderately
evident as reflected in the average weighted mean of 2.43. As assessed by the
disaster risk reduction officers and planning development officers in reference to
conducting comprehensive strategies for broadest education of all sectors in the
community, collaboration with the schools in the integration of climate change
adaptation and disaster risk reduction in elementary, secondary and tertiary
curriculum rated moderately evident as expressed in average weighted mean of
2.47. Distribution of pamphlets and brochures on climate change and disaster
risk reduction were also conducted. On the other hand, collaboration with local
media for publication of articles, discussion and education on climate change and
disaster risk reduction were perceived to be the least implemented development
with the lowest weighted mean of 2.35. Effective risk management depends on
the informed participation of all stakeholders. This was supported by the study
of Almario-Desoloc (2014) who stressed that mobilization of people through
seminars and training raised the awareness of action during and after a calamity.
To educate the vulnerable community on the impact of climate change,
96
the conduct of training, seminars, and workshops rated by the respondents

moderately evident as expressed in a weighted mean of 2.28. Educating the
about climate change is very important not only to raise their awareness but to
enable them to respond to the disasters brought by climate change. This was in
congruence with the study of Vicerra, Salvador, & Capili, (2018) who said that
knowledge on disaster preparedness boosts confidence and preparedness, but it
also conditions people on how to act and what to do if ever such an unfortunate
event strikes. The respondents confirmed that disaster preparedness and training
program such as earthquake flood, tsunami and landslide evacuation drills were
rated moderately evident among the initiatives of LGUs with the second highest
weighted mean of 2.25. However, the conduct of climate change awareness
month and slogan, poster, and essay making contest were rated 2.32 interpreted
as moderately evident. Results of the study revealed that the LGUs in Batangas
are exploring different avenues to educate people about climate change.
On the other hand, of the different development initiatives implemented
by the LGUs in Batangas on the provision of early warning devices in vulnerable
areas, installation of rain gauge and storm signal alert were rated highly evident
as observed in a weighted mean of 3.47. It has to be noted that this equipment is
being installed within the nation by the Department of Science and Technology as
one of their projects. On the other hand, the conduct of orientation and workshop
on family disaster preparedness obtained the lowest initiatives implemented by
the LGUs with the weighted mean of 2.37 interpreted as moderately evident.
Climate change is a complex issue that needs to be cascaded and understood
down to the community level. Public awareness, active community participation,
and strong political will of the local leaders can create enhanced resilience of
the stakeholders and reduced cost and magnitude of climate change impacts to
especially those in vulnerable sectors.
The LGU disclosed it was highly evident that LGUs in Batangas have
formulated GIS mapping on flood-prone areas, landslide-prone areas and tsunami
and sea level rise prone areas, shown in the weighted mean of 3.46. Provision
of GIS mapping on landslide-prone areas, flood-prone areas and tsunami and
sea level rise prone areas is essential to reduce possible casualties during the
occurrence of strong typhoons that may cause flood, landslide or sea level rise.
Along with Health and Social Protections

To promote health and social protection of the vulnerable sectors to climate
change sensitive diseases, the respondents remarkably revealed that the conduct of
97
medical missions and consultations was very highly evident among the initiatives
of the LGUs with a weighted mean of 3.72. However, provision of health care
card and medical assistance was rated highly evident among the initiatives of the
LGUs which obtained a weighted mean of 3.48. Climate change is adversely
affecting human health. Frequent extreme weather events mean more potential
deaths and injuries for those in the vulnerable sectors. This was supported by the
study of Swaminathan, Lucas, Harley, & McMichael, (2014) who emphasized
that climate change sensitive exposures and conditions will subtly impair aspects
of the human immune response, thereby altering the distribution of vulnerability
within populations—particularly for children—to infection and disease.
To provide social protection to the communities located in the hazard-prone
areas the planning development officers revealed that provision of contingency
planning was highly evident with a weighted mean of 3.48. This is to ensure the
safety of the people affected by the calamities. On the other hand, they gave the
lowest rating that LGUs built evacuation centers shown in a weighted mean of
2.43 described as moderately evident.
The respondents indicated that it was highly evident that the LGUs
conducted clean-up drive activities to safeguard the health and lives of the people
in vulnerable communities to climate change with a weighted mean of 3.48. This
includes “Linis Kanal at Ilog” campaign and coastal clean-up. It has to be noted
that canals are the breeding ground of mosquitoes and other disease-causing
organisms. Maintaining the cleanliness of the canal could prevent the spread of
diseases such as dengue, leptospirosis and the like. This was affirmed by the study
of De Vries, Visser, Nagel, Goris, Hartskeerl, & Grobusch, (2014) who asserted
that leptospirosis is one of the health problems affecting Filipinos especially
during the rainy season that causes death if not properly treated. However, the
respondent gave the lowest rating that the LGUs conducted feeding programs
and medical missions as shown in the weighted mean of 3.41 which is interpreted
as highly evident. In general, the initiatives of the LGUs in Batangas along health
and social protection was rated highly evident with a composite mean of 3.33.
Along Agriculture and Fisheries

The respondents indicated that it was very highly evident the LGUs provided
livelihood program to farmers and fishers which are climate change resilient which
obtained in a composite mean of 3.53. Agriculture remains to be an important
activity of the population in Batangas. Palay, coffee, sugar cane, pepper, banana,
corn, coconut and vegetables were the main crops in the province. Climate
98
change may worsen its impact (Thomson, Alderman, Tuck, & Hobday, (2015)
on agricultural production. The farmers feel the above impacts because those can
lead to a decrease in production which was affirmed by Sumastuti, (2015) who
claimed that climate change and the global warming like changes in the pattern
and distribution of the rainfall could lead to a decrease in production even in the
crop failure. Remarkably noted by the respondents, that it was highly evident
that the LGUs conducted training and seminars to local farmers and fishers on
sustainable livelihood programs with a weighted mean of 3.83. On the other
hand, the respondents gave the lowest rating on collaboration with the various
institutions to conduct research and climate change technologies on agriculture
and fisheries with a weighted mean of 2.41.
Problems Encountered by the Local Government Units in the Implementation

of Initiatives on Climate Change
Results of the study show that the local government officials encountered
serious problems in the implementation of the development initiatives on climate
change. This was shown by the overall weighted mean value of 3.32.
Inadequate knowledge of the community on how to cope with climate
change adaptation and disaster risk management was the most serious problem
encountered by the government officials followed by the limited participation
of the community on climate change adaptation and mitigation programs
and activities. Average weighted mean values of 3.49 and 3.47 were computed
respectively, descriptively rated as serious problems.
Poor extension services, limited information dissemination and campaign
material on climate change, and limited training and seminars conducted relative
to climate change were also found a serious problem in the implementation of
climate change development initiatives by the government officials.
Lack of local policies and ordinances relative to climate change adaptation
and disaster risk reduction was also a serious problem encountered by government
officials. Likewise, limited partnerships to government and non-government
institutions for the implementation of climate change development initiatives
was also a serious problem encountered by the government officials in the
implementation of climate change development initiatives. On the other hand,
lack of budget allocation and support from the government was a moderately
serious problem.
Results of the study show that there is a need to improve extension services
and linkages or partnership with GOs, NGOs and other agencies officials in
99
the implementation of climate change development initiatives. Likewise, local

legislatures should formulate laws and ordinances on climate change to implement
the different enacted laws on climate change.
Development Initiatives for Local Government Units (LGUs) in Batangas on

Climate Change
The development initiatives are proposed to respond to the challenges
that humanity is facing nowadays brought by massive climate change. This
development initiative will help address the problems and impacts of climate
change which may contribute to food shortages, infrastructure damage and the
degradation of natural resources upon which livelihoods are based.
Education, Information, and Communication (EIC). Education,
information, and communication (IEC) action can lead to better-informed
decision sand enlightened choices concerning climate change. Information,
education, and communication (EIC) combine strategies, approaches, and
methods that enable individuals, families, groups, organizations and, communities
to play active roles in climate change adaptation. Embodied in EIC is the process
of learning that empowers people to make decisions, elucidate perceptions of
climate change held by the general public and create an understanding of the
factors responsible for climate change to promote behavioral change at the
individual/household level.
Channels might include interpersonal communication (such as individual
discussions, or group discussions and community meetings) or mass media
communication (such as radio, television and other forms of one-way
communication, such as brochures, leaflets and posters, visual and audiovisual
presentations and some forms of electronic communication).
Comprehensive Land Use Plan and Risk Mapping

Another proposed addition to the EIC is the Comprehensive Land Use
Planning and Risk Mapping. CLUP is the long-term physical plan that allocates
land to specific uses taking into account the best use of land after analysis of
competing uses, locational strengths, and environmental constraints. The
Comprehensive land use planning is an integral instrument for local government
units to effectively address existing risks, and avoid the creation of new risks
to people, assets, and economic activities by rationalizing distribution and
development of settlements, and the utilization and management of natural
resources.
100
Collaboration and Networking

Collaboration and linkages to strengthen efforts to combat climate change are
necessary. Linkages and collaboration with other agencies should be strengthened
not only in the conduct of activities promoting risk reduction and climate change
mitigation but also in the conduct of researches. This would bring local leaders,
researchers, academicians, industry representatives and other GO, and NGOs to
advance and mainstream climate change adaptation. This could be done through
the MOA and MOU.
The researcher strongly believes that collaboration and networking is one of
the best ways to share best practices, raise finances and develop technologies solve
problems relative to climate change.
Organization of Disaster Risk Reduction Management Team and Rescue

Squad
Alongside with the developed plan and framework, there is a need for the
local leaders to organize disaster risk reduction management team and rescue
squad. The team shall facilitate and oversee the implementation of the climate
change initiatives and DRRM activities in their community specifically on
preparedness and response. Active participation and involvement of various
stakeholders could safeguard lives in vulnerable areas and avoid damages to
properties and infrastructures.
CONCLUSIONS
Climate change impact on the environment can lead to severe damage to

agriculture, destruction of property and infrastructure and loss of lives. It is
a global phenomenon which calls for everybody’s attention and collaboration
from various agencies around the globe and the local government as they are the
critical actors in responding to the impact of climate change and natural disasters.
The LGUs in Batangas implemented various initiatives to combat its adverse
impact along policy framework, knowledge and capacity development, health
and social protection and agriculture and fisheries. The initiative among local
leaders specifically in Batangas on climate change is a good indication that they
are extremely aware of its adverse effects. There is growing evidence that the
community could benefit from the creation and implementation of localized
climate change policies and indigenous activities. Institutionalizing and localizing
climate change policies and activities could increase the knowledge of the
101
community, encourage the involvement of all stakeholders, reinforce agriculture

and business and improve human health. Addressing their encountered serious
problems in the implementation of climate change initiatives would give way in
developing more better guidelines and legal frameworks. This study has provided
a substantial contribution to the local government units to mitigate the problems
of climate change. Putting an end to human activity contributing to the climate
change will need a strong political will thus, employing a variety of significant
measures like the formulation of policies, strictly monitoring and implementation
of the law, education of the community, and support from various agencies are
needed. This could serve as valuable input the local planners and policymakers
in enhancing environmental program policies based on the current strategies
adopted by the government to mitigate the impacts of climate change.
It is, therefore, important for all local government units to institutionalized
various environmental policies and strictly implement the same to address the
issues and problems encountered on climate change.
The findings of this study could be translated through journal article for
international publications, brochures, manuals, leaflets, newsletters, social media
and other information devices for education and information diffusion to enable
revisit the local government policies and programs on climate change. This could
be further translated by authorities into comprehensive policies and ordinances
to provide better elucidations and long-term programs to address problems on
climate change.
LITERATURE CITED
Abbas, S., Qamer, F. M., Hussain, N., Saleem, R., & Nitin, K. T. (2011,
September). National level assessment of mangrove forest cover in Pakistan.
In Workshop Proceedings: Earth Observation for Terrestrial Ecosystem (pp. 187-
192). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com.ph/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=
0%2C5&q=Abbas%2C+S.%2C+Qamer%2C+F.+M.%2C+Hussain%2C+
N.%2C+Saleem%2C+R.%2C+%26+Nitin%2C+K.+T.+%282011%2C+S
eptember%29.+National+level+assessment+of+mangrove+forest+cover+in+
Pakistan.+In+Workshop+Proceedings%3A+Earth+Observation+for+Terrest
rial+Ecosystem+%28pp.+187-192&btnG=
102
Akpalu, W., Arndt, C., & Matshe, I. (2015). Introduction to the special issue
on the economics of climate change impacts on developing countries:
Selected studies on Sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia. Retrieved from
doi:10.3390/su70912122
De-Graft, A. H., & Kweku, K. C. (2012). The effects of climatic variables

and crop area on maize yield and variability in Ghana. Russian Journal of
Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences, 10(10). Retrieved from https://
scholar.google.com.ph/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=De-Graft%2C+
A.+H.%2C+%26+Kweku%2C+K.+C.+%282012%29.+The+effects+of+cli
matic+variables+and+crop+area+on+maize+yield+and+variability+in+Ghan
a.+Russian+Journal+of+Agricultural+and+Socio-Economic+Sciences%2C+
10%2810%29&btnG=
Chambers, L. E., Altwegg, R., Barbraud, C., Barnard, P., Beaumont, L. J.,
Crawford, R. J., ... & Morellato, P. C. (2013). Phenological changes in
the southern hemisphere. PloS one, 8(10), e75514. Retrieved from https://
scholar.google.com.ph/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Chambers%2C
+L.+et.+al.+%282013%29.+Phenological+Changes+in+Southern+Hemisp
here&btnG=
Uneke CJ, Ezeoha AE, Uro-Chukwu HC, Ezeonu CT, Igbojif J. (2018). Promoting
researchers and policymakers collaboration in evidence-informed policy-
making in Nigeria: outcome of a two-way secondment model between
university and health ministry. Int J Health Policy Manag.7(6):522–531.
doi:10.15171/ijhpm.2017.123
Almario-Desoloc, M. S. (2014). Women empowerment and climate change

adaptation in Northern Quezon. Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary
Research| Vol, 2(4). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com.ph/
scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Almario-Desoloc%2C+M.+S.+%28201
4%29.+Women+empowerment+and+climate+change+adaptation+in+Nort
hern+Quezon.+Asia+Pacific+Journal+of+Multidisciplinary+Research%7C+
Vol%2C+2%284%29.+&btnG=
De Vries, S. G., Visser, B. J., Nagel, I. M., Goris, M. G., Hartskeerl, R. A., &
Grobusch, M. P. (2014). Leptospirosis in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic
103
review. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 28, 47-64. Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com.ph/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=De+Vries
%2C+S.+et.+al.+%282014%29.+Leptospirosis+in+Sub-Saharan+Africa%3
A+a+systematic+review&btnG=
Hughes, S. (2013). Justice in urban climate change adaptation: criteria and

application to Delhi. Ecology and society, 18(4). Retrieved from https://
scholar.google.com.ph/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Hughes%2C
+S.+%282013%29.+Justice+in+urban+climate+change+adaptation%3A
+criteria+and+application+to+Delhi.+Ecology+and+society%2C+18%2-
84%29&btnG=
Jiang, Q. O., Tang, C., Ma, E., Yuan, Y., & Zhang, W. (2014). Variations of near
surface energy balance caused by land cover changes in the semiarid grassland
area of China. Advances in Meteorology, 2014. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.
org/10.1155/2014/894147
Lapidez, J.P., Tablazon, J.,Dasallas, L., Gonzalo, L.A., Cabacaba, K.M.A., Ramos,
M.M.A., Suarez, J.K., Santiago, J.,Lagmay, F., and Malano, V. (2015).
Identification of storm surge vulnerable areas in the Philippines through the
simulation of Typhoon Haiyan-induced storm surge levels over historical
storm tracks. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 15, 1473–1481.
Papa, R. (2015). Editorial Preface. Cities, Energy and Climate Change. Tema.
Journal of Land Use, Mobility and Environment, 8(1), 3-4. Retrieved from
https://scholar.google.com.ph/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Papa%2
C+R.+%282015%29.+Editorial+Preface.+Cities%2C+Energy+and+Clima
te+Change.+Tema.+Journal+of+Land+Use%2C+Mobility+and+Environme
nt%2C+8%281%29%2C+3-4&btnG=
Merchant, C. J., Matthiesen, S., Rayner, N. A., Remedios, J. J., Jones, P. D.,
Olesen, F., ... & Guillevic, P. C. (2013). The surface temperatures of Earth:
steps towards integrated understanding of variability and change. Geoscientific
Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems, 2(2), 305-321. Retrieved from
DOI: 10.5194/gi-2-305-2013
104
Vicerra, P. M. M., Salvador, J. M. G., & Capili, Y. M. V. (2018). Disaster Preparedness

Knowledge and Action: Population Development Perspective. Asia Pacific
Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 6(1). Retrieved from https://scholar.
google.com.ph/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Miguel%2C+P.+et.al.+
%282011%29.+Disaster+Preparedness+Knowledge+and+Action+Populatio
n+Development+++++++Perspective+.+6+%281%29+103-109&btnG=
Oldenborgh, G. J. V., Philip, S., Kew, S., Weele, M. V., Uhe, P., Otto, F., ... &
AchutaRao, K. (2018). Extreme heat in India and anthropogenic climate
change. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 18(1), 365-381. Retrieved
from https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-365-2018
Ojomo, E., Elliott, M., Amjad, U., & Bartram, J. (2015). Climate Change
Preparedness: A Knowledge and Attitudes Study in Southern Nigeria. 2(4),
435-448.
Piracha, A., Tariq, M.C.,(2015). Better Awareness for Better Natural Hazards
Preparedness in Pakistan. Jurnal Alam Bina. 2(4).
Östlund, U., Kidd, L., Wengström, Y., & Rowa-Dewar, N. (2011). Combining
qualitative and quantitative research within mixed method research designs:
a methodological review. International journal of nursing studies, 48(3), 369-
383. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.10.005
Binti Sa’adin, S. L., Kaewunruen, S., & Jaroszweski, D. (2016). Risks of

climate change with respect to the Singapore-Malaysia high speed rail
system. Climate, 4(4), 65. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/
cli4040065
Sumastuti, E. (2015 Jurnal Ekonomi Pembangunan: Kajian Masalah Ekonomi

dan Pembangunan, 16(2), 131-145. Retrieved from DOI: https://doi.
org/10.23917/jep.v16i2.1458
Swaminathan, A., Lucas, R. M., Harley, D., & McMichael, A. J. (2014). Will
Global Climate Change Alter Fundamental Human Immune Reactivity:
Implications for Child Health?. Children, 1(3), 403-423. Retrieved from
doi:10.3390/children1030403
105
Thomson, R. B., Alderman, R. L., Tuck, G. N., & Hobday, A. J. (2015). Effects
of climate change and fisheries bycatch on shy albatross (Thalassarche cauta)
in southern Australia. PloS one, 10(6), e0127006. Retrieved from https://
doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127006
Yahaya, O., & Nwabuogo, O. E. (2016). Renewable Energy Deployment

as Climate Change Mitigation in Nigeria. Global Journal of Human-
Social Science Research. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com.ph/
scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Yahaya%2C+O.%2C+%26+Nwabu
ogo%2C+O.+E.+%282016%29.+Renewable+Energy+Deployment+as+
Climate+Change+Mitigation+in+Nigeria.+Global+Journal+of+Human-
Social+Science+Research.&btnG=
Yumul, Jr, G. P., Cruz, N. A., Servando, N. T., & Dimalanta, C. B. (2011).
Extreme weather events and related disasters in the Philippines, 2004–08: a
sign of what climate change will mean? Disasters, 35(2), 362-382. Retrieved
from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2010.01216.x
Zábori, J., Krejci, R., Ström, J., Vaattovaara, P., Ekman, A. M. L., Salter, M. E. ...
& Nilsson, E. D. (2013). Comparison between summertime and wintertime
Arctic Ocean primary marine aerosol properties. Atmospheric Chemistry and
Physics, 13(9), 4783-4799. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-4783-2013
106
Sexism in English Reference Books

Used by College Freshmen: Implications
for Gender Equality
LUISITO P. MUNCADA
http://orcid.org 0000-0001-5929-3811
[email protected]
University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
Laoang, Northern Samar, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Sexist words in the books showed an unfair treatment of the female gender.
The generic term, man, refers not only to a male person but also to denote
humanity. The personal pronoun is used to refer to a hypothetical person in
general and accepted in Filipino society. This research is a qualitative study that
used content analysis to interpret the data. Sexism was found evident in English
references. It is recommended that the sentences containing sexist language be
taken out of the 12 books dissected for political correctness to make them gender
fair. The textbook Board should be aware of RA 7192 (DepEd, GAD program)
and CHED Memo No. 1, s. 2015, they should be gender sensitive. Policymakers
should be mindful of the dynamism of language, and its importance in education
must be more responsive to the needs of the time through quality language and
gender sensitive. Publishers are cautioned to exact gender-fair language from
their clients so that both sexes get equal treatment in publication. Students
should be alerted to sexist language, and teachers should teach gender sensitivity,
even only as incidental teaching. English reference books used by the college
freshmen should be reviewed, and those who found out to be sexist should be
substituted with gender-fair ones.
107
Keywords - English, sexism, mixed methods, content analysis, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Sexist language is the language that expresses bias in favor of one sex and
thus treats the other sex in a discriminatory manner. In most cases, preference
is in favor of men. Language is parallel to that of attitude in the community. In
the olden times, women stayed at home and performed some domestic works
which manifested that they were backgrounders, server and generally submissive
to men; while men were regarded as the center both family and society. In a
world, for a long time, women have been looked on as “the weaker sex” in
society. Even in a biblical world where the claim is that “everyone is created
equal,” discrimination against women exists. Language is one area that reflects
this social fact. However, because of the greater status-consciousness, the feminist
movement worked to reduce sexual discrimination and sex-role stereotyping.
This led to some conscious attempts to influence and use language and linguistic
behavior. The problem is that the language among the present generation has
been carried out over the years.
Sexist language has been deﬁned as ‘‘words, phrases, and expressions that
unnecessarily differentiate between females and males or exclude, trivialize, or
diminish either gender’’ (Parks and Roberton, 1998). Theoretically, the sexist
language could have deleterious effects on either women or men, but empirical
evidence in American society strongly suggests that the preponderance of negative
results accrue to women. Concern about the negative effects of sexist language is
grounded in the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity, which suggests an
afﬁnity between language and culture (Cameron, 1985; Carroll, 1956; Simpson,
1993; Thorne, Kramarae, and Henley, 1983).
While Bongcac (2003) conducted a study on the gendering of speech
and thought and presentation of Ninotchka Rosca’s “Twice Blessed: a Stylistic
Analysis” which shows how stylistic analysis selected features of language could
reveal the subtle ways of presenting speech and thought presentation styles or
modes and showed how a continuum existed with each point marked in precise
linguistic terms which allowed a clear measure of such feature as the degree of
character’s independence from the author’s viewpoint, the nature of authorial
intrusion, kind of fusion between author and character, as well as deviation from
or adherence to presentational norms and description of reader positioning.
Bacarro’s (2001) study investigated changes in the children’s choice of toys from
108
gender-biased to non-gender-biased choice employing an intervention approach,

and as a subsidiary, whether or not there is an existence of gender-biased
practices among teachers in the kindergarten classes of Silliman University Early
Childhood School. The writer’s intervention approach included non-gendered-
biased stories and song presentation of sets of biased toys as appropriate toys
for everyone regardless of their sex, resource persons portraying non-gendered
biased activities. Atanga’s (2007) study focused on gendered discourse in the
Cameroonian parliament which looks on the discussion and question-and-
answer sessions in the parliament. The study aimed to examine the amount of
male and female talk and gender distribution of topics as well as how female,
and male parliamentarians were addressed by looking in depth at the available
traditional and modern discourse articulated and how these were legitimated
through different discursive strategies. Critical discourse analyses showed that
traditional gendered discourse tended to construct men and women in gender-
differentiated ways, legitimated discoursal in ways which included social, cultural,
and institutional discourse as well as for maintenance of the status quo more
widely. Language like other forms of social interaction has to be appropriate in
use. In different communities, children’s and adult’s speech, men’s and women’s
language, differ. Language does not only have to be appropriated to the individual
addressed, but it also needs to be suitable for particular occasions and situations.
In other words, language varies not only according to the social characteristics
of the speakers, social class, ethnic group, age, and sex but also according to
the social context in which it is used. The same speaker uses different language
register and styles in a different situation for different purposes. In society, men are
considered superior individuals: their physical appearances, judgment principles,
and activities are viewed as fully representative of all humans, male and female.
This view can make women invisible in language or altogether exclude them.
It can also lead to their portrayal as deviations from the ‘male human’ norm.
Women’s linguistic status is often dependent on or derives from, that which is
represented as autonomous. By relegating women to a dependent, subordinate
position, even in language use, the portrayal of women and men as equal human
beings is prevented (Lei, 2006). Pimentel (2006) stressed that one essential
human right is the right to education and education must be instrumental to the
fulfillment of one’s maximum potential as a person; hence, education must cater
to the need not only of the society but to the individuals who are the lifeblood
of humanity. An education that liberates individuals from the baggage of gender
equality has a higher chance of creating a society that is fair and just. As protected
109
by the Philippines Constitution, gender equality must be present in all aspects of

human development.
As enshrined in the United Nations Development Program (2018) Goals,
women continue to experience discrimination and violence in every part of the
world, and gender equality is not only a fundamental human right but a necessary
foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world.
According to United Nations Secretary-General Antonio Guterres, gender
equality at the United Nations is imperative, and giving importance of women
in decision-making increases effectiveness and productivity thus bringing new
outlooks and solutions to the table, unlocks greater resources, and strengths
efforts across all the three pillars of our work.
In the book titled Gender-Fair Language: A Primer, Dr. Judy M. Taguiwalo,
the Director of UP Center for Women’s Studies stated that as early as 2001,
then Bayan Muna Partylist Representative Liza Masa filed a resolution banning
the use of “sexist language in all official communication and documents of the
House of Representatives” (Kintanar 2014). With the increasing issues on sexism
and gender equality in the field of education, particularly in the higher education
institutions, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) issued the CHED
Memo No. 1 series of 2015 on Establishing the Policies and Guidelines of Gender
and Development in the Commission on Higher Education and Higher Education
Institutions (HEIs). This Part IV, Rule No. I, Section 1 of the memorandum
states that the CHED and HEIs shall ensure that gender stereotypes and images
in educational materials and curricula are adequately and appropriately revised.
The gender-sensitive language shall be used at all times. Capacity-building on
gender and development, peace and human rights, education for teachers, and
all those involved in the education sector shall be pursued toward this end.
Partnerships between and among players of the education sector, including the
private sector, churches, and faith groups shall be encouraged (CHED Memo
No. 1, s. 2015). The Department of Education Gender and Development
Program through Republic Act 7192 in education, nontraditional livelihood,
and occupation; nonsexist schooling in textbooks, teacher training, and training
scholarship; participation of women in science and technology and women’s
career opportunities in the bureaucracy (Pimentel 2006). In like manner, the
content of reference books transmits messages to readers about society, about
children, and about what adults are supposed to do, whether directly or indirectly
or even subliminally. Textbooks and reference books shape role expectations and
further contribute to the institutionalization of sexism.
110
Sexism is discrimination by gender. While it is primarily women who are

affected by sexism, it can be used to discriminate against either men or women.
The language reflects and reinforces the values of society. The English language has
developed in a male-dominated, male-centered society. If one examines carefully
how she or he expresses himself or herself, she or he will see how male-centered
the language is. For example, “the man we want for the job,” may be changed to
“maintenance staff.” The terms Miss and Mrs. Indicate the sex and marital status
of the person while the term Mr. indicates maleness only. It is a tad unfair to
specify the marital status of women but not of men. The parallel term for Mr. is
Miss, and instead of Mrs., here is Ms. These examples would draw attention to
the sexist nature of language and provide ways to change it. On this background,
the problems of making students realize that there is such a thing as politically
correct language use is investigated in this paper. Towards this end, the words/
expressions reflecting sexism used by the writers of different English reference
books will be reviewed, analyzed, and be substituted with gender-fair ones.
FRAMEWORK
The interest of this study is sexism in the language in reference books in

English. As such, the researcher studied the books for the politically incorrect
language they contain. The sexist language was analyzed to suggest gender-
neutral terms.
In analyzing sexist language, the researcher was guided by Lakoff’s and
Fishman’s “dominance theory” which stipulates, that changing in language
utterance to both men and women signifies of male superiority and female
subservience. O’Barr and Atkins “powerless language” was also made as a basis
for analysis.
The words/expressions reflecting sexism were analyzed according to Lakoff’s
and Fisherman’s “dominance theory” and O’Barr and Atkins “powerless language.”
From these, the researcher’s ways of improving the language data were identified
and implications for gender-fair language and culture were drawn.
111
The main purpose of this study is to find out if the sexist language is found in
English reference books used by the freshman college students of the University
of Eastern Philippines, Northern Samar so that in the teaching process, it can be
rectified. Specifically, it aimed to (1) determine the sexist words/expressions found
in English reference books used by freshman students, (2) identify these sexist
words or expressions; (3) categorize which of the following classifications do the
words or expressions reflecting sexism fall; (a) generic term, (b) use of personal
pronoun, (c) saying and expression, (d) terms of address, (e) job titles, (f ) biased
and stereotypes assumptions, (g) patronizing and demeaning expressions, (h)
sex-role stereotyping, (i) reference guide, and others; (4) establish the treatment
of men and women that can be gleaned from the sexist words/expressions; (5)
identify how this sexist language can be corrected; (6) ascertain the implications
that can be drawn from the use of sexist words/ expressions in these English
reference books as regards; (a) gender equality and (b) culture.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study was conducted in the three campuses of the University of Eastern
Philippines, Northern Samar. This research is a mixed method, both quantitative
112
and qualitative using content analysis to be able to focus on the words or

expressions reflecting sexism as found in the English reference books used by
college freshmen of the University of Eastern Philippines. The researcher asked
permission from the heads of offices of the three campuses to conduct the study.
This was done through a letter to the University President and the Executive
Directors of the external campuses. Upon approval, the researcher asked
permission from the librarian the books needed for the study. The study carefully
analyzed the words/ expressions based on their context of use. The sexist words
or expressions obtained from the reference were listed down by categories and
analyzed by using Lakoff’s and Fishman dominance approach and O’Barr and
Atkins’ powerless language” theories. Implications for making these expressions
politically correct were drawn, and suggestions were offered.
Research Site
This study was conducted in the three campuses of the University of Eastern
Philippines. The main campus, in Catarman, and the two satellite campuses are
in the municipalities of Laoang and Catubig in the province of Northern Samar.
Instrumentation
There were no instruments used in the study. However, the researcher used
guidelines for equal treatment of the sexes culled from McGraw Hill Book
Company Publications. The guidelines were designed to make authors aware of
how males and female have been stereotyped in publication. This is also used to
show the role that language has played in reinforcing inequality and to indicate
positive approaches toward providing a fair, accurate and balanced treatment of
both sexes in the publications.
Procedure
The researcher asked the English instructors/ professors what reference books
they used in teaching English to first-year college students. These were listed
down and pored over in detail to find out if the books contained sexist words or
expressions. All books which were found to have sexist words/expression were
the object of content analysis. In looking for the sexist language under study, the
following steps were undertaken:
a. Reading the English reference books used by college freshmen.
b. Listing sexist words/expressions in context.
c. Identifying the functions and categories of these expressions.
113
d. Determining how men and women are treated based on the use of the
words/expressions.
e. Finding out how gender equality may be reflected in the sexist use of the
words/expressions.
f. Drawing implications for gender equality and culture.
The Researcher used some guidelines for equal treatment of the sexes in
McGraw-Hill Book Company Publications. After the classification of the words/
expressions, the content of their use was analyzed as to the treatment of men and
women based on the words; /expressions. Implications for gender equality and
culture were drawn. Frequency counts and percentages were used in recording
the sexist words/expressions. The researcher tallied the sexist words/expressions
found in each reference books, determined the total number as they appeared in
the reference books and percentages were determined.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
This study investigated sexism in English reference books used by College

freshmen at the University of Eastern Philippines. It listed down the sexist words/
expressions and classified them as to generic terms, use of personal pronoun,
saying and expressions, terms of address, job titles, biased and stereotyped
assumptions, sex roles stereotyping, reference guide and others. The treatment
of men and women from sexist words/expressions was also looked into using
Lakoff’s and Fishman dominants approached and O’Barr’s and Atkin’s powerless
language. Corrections of sexist language were suggested, and implications for
gender equality and culture were drawn.
The research is qualitative; it used content analysis of the sexist language
found in English language reference books. Frequency counts and percentage
were used to get which sexist words/expressions in the reference books were most
used.
Twelve English reference books were read and from them were listed down
the sentence, paragraphs which content sexist words/expressions. Only the
sentences/paragraphs that sexist content language was taken and included in the
analysis. These expressions were examined for their treatment of men and women.
Categories and functions, gender and culture implications and suggestions for
correction were presented.
The study revealed that the books which had the most sexist words/
expressions were communication skills I and Study and Thinking Skills by
114
Esther Baraceros which contend 250 sexist words/expressions followed by Study

and Thinking Skills by Constancia M. Mazon with 117 words/expressions,
College English for Today Book II by Jovita N. Fernando with 99 sexist words/
expressions, Developmental Reading by Araceli Villamen et al., with 83 sexes
words/expressions, English Skills for College Freshmen by Perla M. Villanueva
with 39 sexes words/expressions, Better English for College by Josephine Serrano
with 32 sexes language, Effective Study of English Skills by Tizon (2017) with
29 sexes words/expressions Study Skills in English for a Changing World by
Magelende Flores with 23 sexes words/expressions, English Plus: Enhancing
our Basic Grammar by Maria Carina Dichoso with 20 sexes words/expressions,
New Perspectives in English Two by Jovita N. Fernando with 11 sexes words/
expressions, Business English Correspondence by Aquino, Callang, Bas, & Capili
(2000) with 8 sexes words/expressions and Basic Communication and Thinking
Skills by Tizon (2017) with 5 sexes words/expressions. The study showed that
the maturity of the sexist words/expression belongs to the categories of a generic
term, use of the generic personal pronoun, saying and expressions and reference
guide. Man was the generic term commonly used in the sentences. Personal
pronoun such as he, his, himself, her, she was also present. Other classifications
of sexist words/expressions were reference guides such as chairman, congressman,
and policeman. In general, there were 716 sexist words/expressions found in
the 12 reference books used by College Freshmen in the University of Eastern
Philippines existing. This was in conformity with the study of Wijetunga (2015)
of the Department of Language Studies, The Open University of Sri Lanka
which stated that the ESL textbooks of grades 9, 10 and 11 were found to be
sexist in their use of language, thus promoting prejudices against females and
contributing to causing a broader rift in the already existent gender disparity
of the Sri Lankan society. This was also confirmed by the study of Tao (2008)
that the (EFL English as a Foreign Language) textbooks have found out there
exists sexism or gender inequality in the Chinese high school EFL textbooks.
An article published by UNESCO for International Women’s Day Celebration
also confirmed this study and stated that gender bias is rampant in textbooks
in multiple countries, researchers argue. In the study of Benavot & Jere (2016)
found out that sexism is prevalent in textbooks throughout the world, with many
portraying girls and women in submissive household roles.
As regards the treatment of men and women, according to language use,
the majority of the sexist words/expressions referred to the male gender. Only
a few sexist/expressions treated showed powerlessness by the O’Barr and Atkins
categorization. This is confirmed by the study of Pattalung (2008) that the most
115
significant problem areas regarding sexist language are words that indicate that
men are the standard by which people are to be judged and words that indicate
that women are somehow different from men when doing the same things. Lili
and Zhenzhou (2002) and Ansary and Babaii (2003) found out that occupations
for men are abundant and varied in current language textbooks. The study of
Thomson (2002) also confirmed this finding and states that it is clear that there
is a variance by gender in common English language usage. This can lead to
sex bias, even in EFL teaching materials. Whereas the materials examined had
minimal sex bias, the goal must be to attempt gender neutrality.
CONCLUSION
Sexist words/expressions are found in English reference books. This implies

that the book writers are not gendered sensitive, they are not conscious of
political correctness in language, thus missing on the opportunity to include
it as a necessary element in teaching correctness in language use. Book users
themselves, either as teachers or students seemed not to care about this aspect,
or they may not be particular with gender fair terms. It could be inferred further
that although they know gender agreement in sentence structure, they are not
sensitive to the fair treatment of both sexes.
The use of sexist words/. Expressions such as a generic pronoun referred
to genderless antecedents. The generic term man in sayings and expressions
were used, and there seemed to be no attempt to use gender fair terms, an
unconscious carryover of what has always been used and never questioned.
That the reference books were not gendered fair implied that the book writers
were not gendered sensitive. It could be inferred further that if the books were
made gender fair, a sense of personal worth, dignity, and respect for the rights
of all people would be fostered among the book users. Male dominance in a
society which contributed to the rise of sexist words/expressions may be lessened
through gender-fair language which looks at both sexes on equal footing. Sexist
language fosters the idea that men are superior to women’ an unfair treatment of
the female members of society. Sexist words/expressions in the reference books
promote marginalization of women who are regarded as lesser human beings,
acting only as a backgrounder to men. Thus, to avoid this, there is a need to teach
the politically correct language.
116
The findings of this study could be used as an additional input in classroom

instructions not only in language classes but also in other disciplines. The sexist
words found in the different books could be substituted with politically correct
one and may be adapted into a more compact form like brochures or guides
to be distributed to language classes as instructional materials. Further, the said
brochures or guides may also be used by the different offices to make them aware
the political correctness of language bearing in mind the different situations
concerning gender and culture, thus fostering equality and reinforcing positive
approaches toward providing a fair, accurate, and balanced treatment of both
sexes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The researcher acknowledges the Almighty God for giving him wisdom
and determination in accomplishing this research. With affection and gratitude
expresses his deep appreciation to the people whose wisdom and untiring support
gave him the courage to finish this research.
LITERATURE CITED
Ansary, H., & Babaii, E. (2003). Subliminal Sexism in EFL/ESL text bias. Asian
EFL Journal, 5(1), 5-31. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/i9VTgR
Aquino, F. Callang, C., Bas, H., & Capili, C., (2000). Business English
Correspondence. NBS.
Atanga, L. (2007). Gendered Discourses in the Cameroonian Parliament (Doctoral

dissertation, Lancaster University). Retrieved from https://goo.gl/WBpRii
Bacarro, P. (2001). “Non-Gendered-Biased Intervention Approach and

Kindergarten Children’s Choice of Toys at the Silliman University Early
Childhood School,” Unpublished Thesis, University of the Philippines.
Retrieved from http://koha.nlp.gov.ph/cgi-bin/koha/opac-ISBDdetail.
pl?bib=87658
117
Baraceros, E. (2000). Communication Skills Ii’2000 Ed. Rex Bookstore, Inc.

Retrieved from https://goo.gl/dMaHYK
Tizon, M. (2017). Reading Comprehension Ability of Grade VI Pupils of

Kinangay Sur Elementary School. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/drNaFc
Benavot, A. and Jere, C. (2016). How Children around the World learn to be
Sexist. UNESCO article for International Women’s Day. Retrieved from
https://goo.gl/VHePk2
Bongcac, R. A. (2003). The Gendering of Speech and Thought Presentation

in NinotchkaRoscas Twice Blessed: A Stylistic Analysis. Unpublished
Dissertation, Philippine Normal University. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/
CYjNvo
Dichoso, M. C., (1999). English Plus: Enhancing Our Basic Grammar.

Academic Pub.Corp. Retrieved from http://koha.nlp.gov.ph/cgi-bin/koha/
opac-ISBDdetail.pl?bib=113210
Fernando, J. (1988). New Perspectives in English Two. Rex Book Store. Retrieved
from https://goo.gl/YaFoZF
Flores, M. (2001). Study Skills in English for a Changing World. Rex Book
Store, First Edition.
Lakoff, R., & Lakoff, R. T. (2004). Language and woman’s place: Text and
commentaries (Vol. 3). Oxford University Press, USA. Retrieved from https://
goo.gl/EtS7PX
Lei, X. (2006). Sexism in language. Journal of Language and Linguistics, 5(1), 87-
94. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/1M81gZ
Lili, G., & Zhenzhou, Z. (2002). Children, gender, and language teaching
materials. Chinese Education & Society, 35(5), 34-52. Retrieved from https://
goo.gl/jFv6mC
Mazon, C. (1999). Study and Thinking Skills. St. Agustine Pub. Inc., Manila.
118
O’Barr, W. M., & Atkins, B. K. (1980). “Women’s language” or” powerless

language”?. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/Vb6Ptc
Parks, J. B., & Roberton, M. A. (2000). Development and validation of an instrument

to measure attitudes toward sexist/nonsexist language. Sex Roles, 42(5-6),
415-438. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007002422225
Pattalung, P. N. (2008). An analysis of sexist language in ESL textbooks by Thai

authors used in Thailand. The University of North Texas. Retrieved from
https://goo.gl/Vh6wgQ
Pimentel, M. (2006) “Creating a Gender Fair Learning Environment for Basic

Education.” The Philippine Journal of Education.
Serrano, J. & Bello, E. (1998). Better English for College, Phoenix Publishing
House Inc. Quezon City.
Tao, B. (2008). Identifying and Combating Sexism in EFL Textbooks--With a

Case Study into China. Online Submission. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/
YSy4GA
Thomson, S. (2002). Perceptions of Gender Difference: An analysis of an EFL

textbook. The University of Birmingham. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/
mrFzRz
Kintanar, T. (2014). Gender-Fair Language: A Primer. UP Center for Women’s

Studies, University of the Philippines. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/bbf1vP
Wijetunga, L. M. S. (2015). Sexism in Textbooks: A Case Study of G.C.E. O/

LTEXTBOOKS. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/CgNHvc
Villanueva, P., (1989). English Skills for College Freshmen. Katha Pub. Inc.
Retrieved from http://koha.nlp.gov.ph/cgi-bin/koha/opac-ISBDdetail.
pl?bib=655520
United Nations, (nd) Retrieved on July 2, 2018, from https://www.un.org/

sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality/.
119
United Nations Development Program, (2018). Retrieved from http://www.

undp.org/content/undp/en/home/gender-equality.htm
CHED Memo No. 1 series of 2015. Retrieved from http://ched.gov.ph/cmo-

1-s-2015/
120
Education, Second Courser,

and non-College of Education Graduate’s
Performance in the Licensure
Examination for Teachers
of JRMSU-TC SY 2013-2016
DANA FAYE T. SALUNDAGUIT
http://orcid.prg/0000-0003-2239-5472
[email protected]
Jose Rizal Memorial State University - Tampilisan Campus
Znac, Tampilisan Zamboanga del Norte
ABSTRACT
Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) is a standardized examination

given to qualified graduates who wish to engage in the teaching profession in
both elementary and secondary level. The examination is administered by the
Professional Regulatory Commission twice in a year and set the passing percentage
to 75%. The study employed a descriptive method of research in determining
the LET performances of Education and non-Education graduates of Jose Rizal
Memorial State University-Tampilisan Campus (JRMSU-TC). LET results
coming from the Professional Regulatory Commission (PRC) were considered
as the main data of the study. The present study considered 281 Elementary
Education takers broken down into 168 BEED graduates and 113 non Education
graduates, and 235 Secondary Education takers classified according to 75 BSED
graduates, 127 Professional Education Certificate (PEC) graduates, and 33 non-
College of Education (CED) graduates. The statistical measures used in the study
121
were frequency count and percentage. The salient features were as follows: The
Bachelor of Elementary Education (BEED) first takers performed well in the LET
but combining their results with the repeaters, and non-education graduates,
results barely surpass the national passing percentage. In the case of the Bachelor
of Secondary Education (BSED), overall results indicated low performance in
the LET or below the national passing percentage. Based on the findings of the
study it was recommended to review the policies of the College of Education
particularly on the entry and retention policies, faculty commitment, and the
conduct of review classes and mock board.
Keywords — Licensure Examination for Teachers, Education Graduates,

non-Education Graduates, second course, Descriptive Design, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
For teachers to be globally competitive, one must be highly prepared for

the global qualification. As reiterated by the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED) in 2012, schools must help to build a quality nation and contribute to
its global competitiveness (Adeyemo, 2015). This mandate includes the need for
the higher education system to produce graduates with analytical and problem-
solving skills, among others and to align the Philippine Educational system to
the rest of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) which requires
competent, highly qualified, and dedicated teachers. The state recognized the
vital role of teachers in nation-building and development through responsible
and literate citizen (sec. 2 Art. 1, of RA 7836). Furthermore, Teacher quality is
one of the goals of the national education systems worldwide and one proposed
measure of teacher quality, is teacher licensing, also known as certification, it is
an increasingly global component of national education systems and pre-service
teacher education around the world (Wiseman and Al-bakr, 2013).
Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) is a standardized examination
given twice in a year which requires an examinee to attain an average rating
of not less than 75% and must have no rating of lower than 50% in any area
covered. Similarly, in most states in the United States, teachers are awarded an
initial teaching certificate after they have completed the course requirements of
their teacher education program and have successfully passed the state teacher-
licensing exam. England, on the other hand, is the only country other than
the United States that requires a licensure examination in addition to the
122
examinations given by the teacher education institution (Wang, Coleman, Coley,

& Phelps, 2003). There are lots of reasons why teachers need to be certified one
of which is salary like in Indonesia wherein the teachers are to become certified
in exchange for a doubling of their salary, another reason is for better student
performance, unfortunately, research from the US using large-scale, longitudinal
data is virtually unanimous in its failure to find an association between teacher
certification and student performance (Pugatch, T. 2017).
Jose Rizal Memorial State University-Tampilisan Campus (JRMSU-TC) is
one of the five campuses of Jose Rizal Memorial State University System. The
campus offered Education courses since 1997 and produced its pioneering group
of graduates last 2001 and up to the present. Out of the dismay of the faculty
and staff of the College regarding the recent results of the LET, this study was
conceptualized primarily because of the downward trend performance of the
LET that used to be high in the previous years. It is also the findings of the
Commission of Higher Education (CHED) who declared that for the most
recent years, there had been reports about the deteriorating quality of teacher
education graduates as reflected in the PRC-LET results. These also prompted
lots of studies about Licensure Examination particularly on the causes and factors
affecting its deterioration. The present study would like to find out the cause of
the downtrend performance of the PRC-LET results of the institution however, it
will only concentrate on the rating of those non education graduates who happen
to qualify to take the LET by taking the Professional Education Certificate (PEC)
or the second courser, and the qualified education graduates from other colleges.
It is assumed that their ratings as incorporated in the College of Education LET
results causes the decline of the overall results.
FRAMEWORK
The study is anchored primarily on two theories that are formulated based
on the study conducted by Faltado (2014), namely the Holistic TEI Theory and
the Three-Tiered Theory on LET Performance Enhancement with corresponding
theory modeling. The Holistic TEI theory states that in order for a teacher
education institution to perform better in the licensure examination, it must have
a holistic package. This means that teacher education institutions must improve
and further enhance its status with respect to admission and retention policy,
curriculum and instruction, faculty competence, research and extension, physical
plant and facilities, administration and school culture. The second theory is the
123
Three-Tiered Theory on LET Performance Enhancement which states that the

performance in the Licensure Examination for Teachers is predicted by three
aspects, the admission and retention policy, curriculum and instruction and
faculty competence.
The Conceptual Framework of the study below shows that the variables are
interrelated, the first frame as the independent variable consisting of the LET
takers classified as Education graduates, non-education graduates, and the second
coursers as it is directly related to the second frame which is the dependent
variable containing their passing percentage in the LET.
The researcher aimed to: (1) Describe the LET passing performance of
BEED first takers and repeaters including the LET passing Performance of the
Elementary Education graduates, non-College of Education (CED) graduates,
against the National Passing Percentage, (2) Determine the LET passing
performance of the BSED first takers and repeaters including the LET passing
Performance of the Secondary Education graduates, Second courser and non-
CED graduates against the National Passing Percentage.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study employed a descriptive method of research. Descriptive method
was employed because the present study aimed to describe the performance of
graduates in the Licensure Examination for Teachers from SY 2013-2016.
124
Research Site
The study was conducted at Jose Rizal Memorial State University-Tampilisan
Campus. The school was established on December 16, 1958, as Zamboanga
del Norte Agricultural College with a total land reserved of 2,300 hectares.
JRMSU-TC started offering Bachelor of Elementary Education and Bachelor of
Elementary Education in 1997 up to the present, but prior to this, the institution
had an existing education program under the College of Agriculture labeled as
non-CED students. The school is located in the western part of Mindanao and
around 155 km from Dipolog City, the capital of the province and one of the six
(6) campuses of the JRMSU system.
Participants
The respondents of the study were the 281 Elementary Education takers
broken down into 168 BEED graduates and 113 non Education graduates, and
the 235 Secondary Education takers classified according to 75 BSED graduates,
127 Professional Education Certificate (PEC) graduates, and 33 non-College of
Education (CED) graduates.
Instrumentation
The study utilized the scores of takers coming from the Professional
Regulatory Commission (PRC) from the school year 2013 to 2016.
A. BEED (Education), non-CED graduates and National Passing Percentage
Graph 1. LET Passing Performance of BEED graduates

as to First Takers and Repeaters
125
The graph showed a huge disparity between the first takers and repeaters
particularly in January 2014 (First taker 75%, Repeaters 12.50%), August 2014
(First taker 36%, zero percent Repeaters), March 2015 (First taker 66.67%,
Repeaters 17.86%), and September 2015 (First taker 4667%, Repeaters 8.33%).
The results indicated that first takers made a remarkable rating in the LET;
however, the repeaters pulled down their results. The result of the study agrees
with the claim of Figuerres (2013) which she expounded that fresh graduates of
the teacher education programs tend to perform higher in the LET than those
who took the LET at the later examination schedule. Also, it fits with the findings
of Antiolo (2017) stating therein that the first takers had much higher passing
percentage than the repeaters.
Graph 2. LET Passing Performance of BEED and non-CED

graduates against the National Passing Percentage.
The graph showed a comparison between the BEED passing percentages,

non-CED graduates passing percentages as against the national passing
percentage. Results indicate that combining the passing percentages of BEED
first and repeaters still exceeded the national passing percentage in most number
of school years (Jan 2014 with 33.33% against 27.78%, Aug 2014 33.33%
against 29.89%, Sept 2015 with 35.71% against 27.42%, and March 2016 with
38.71% against 35.43%) covered in the present study. The result is related to
the study conducted by Figuerres (2013) on board examinees of University of
Northern Philippines which she found that institutional passing rate was higher
than the national passing rate of L.E.T elementary. However, in the case of
non-CED graduates’ takers, their passing percentage only exceeded the national
passing in March 2013 having 50% passing percentage against 42.46% national
passing.
126
Graph 3. LET Institutional Passing Performance of BEED

against the National Passing Percentage
The graph showed the institutional passing percentage of JRMSU-TC against

the National passing percentage. The result indicates that the BEED takers were
pulled down because of the non-CED graduate takers. It is a clear indication
that only in March 2013 wherein the BEED takers exceeded the national passing
with 43.24% against 42.46%. Unlike, in the case of the University of Northern
Philippines which indicated their performance in the Licensure Examination for
Teachers, in both courses (Elementary and Secondary) have been consistently
higher than the national passing rates (Figuerres, 2010)
B. BSED (Education), Second Courser (PEC), Non-CED graduates and

National Passing Percentage
Graph 4. LET Passing Performance of BSED graduates

as to first Takers and Repeaters
The graph shows the passing percentage of BSED first takers and repeaters
covering the school year 2013-2016. The result indicates a dismal performance
of the repeaters when compared to the first takers in SY September 2015 with
66.67% against 0%, Aug. 2014 with 57.14% against 9.09%, January 2014
127
(33.33% against 0%), and March 2013 (66.67% against 33.33%). Results imply
that repeaters affected the performance of the first takers when their passing
percentage was combined. The result of the study was attested by Antiolo (2017)
who confirmed that it was a common observation among TEI’s that repeaters
pull down the Institutional Passing Percentage (IPP) in LET. First takers got
higher chances of passing LET than the repeaters.
Graph 5. The BSED, second courser, Non-CED graduates

and National Passing Percentage
The graph indicates the passing percentage of BSED, second courser, non-
CED graduate takers and the national passing percentage. Results revealed the
low performance of the BSED having only March 2016 (36.36% against 35.42)
and March 2013 (41.67% against 39.61%) passing percentage higher than the
national passing percentage. The result further revealed a very low performance
of the second courser, and non-CED graduate takers, thus making the overall
performance very low as compared to the national passing percentage. The
same result was revealed by Rabanal (2011) who found out that the teacher
education graduate respondents failed to achieve the passing rate in the Licensure
Examination for Teachers.
128
Graph 6. The Institutional and National Passing Percentage
The graph shows a very low passing performance of the BSED takers when
compared to the National passing percentages covering the SY 2013 to 2016. The
result is very much evident that the CED should make plans and interventions
to uplift the passing percentage of the BSED takers. The result is inconsistent
with the result of Antiojo (2017) which revealed that the institutions’ passing
percentage in terms of a number of passers, on the average, is above the LET
National Passing Percentage for both the secondary and elementary education
graduates.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings of the study it is concluded that the BEED and BSED
first takers perform better than the repeaters. The BEED takers perform better
than non-CED graduate takers surpassing the national passing percentages in the
following school years: March 2016, Sept. 2015, Aug 2014, and Jan 2014, while
BSED results are greatly affected by the second courser, and non- CED graduate
results and finally, BEED and BSED overall results are low compared to the
national passing percentage.
The findings of this research study can be translated into formulating

review materials or workbook focused on the Professional Education and
general education topics that will be disseminated and published to help
education student-graduates pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET).
Furthermore, this also leads to the formulation of a more strict policy in the entry
and retention policy to secure the graduates in passing the LET.
129
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of the study it is highly recommended that for the
College of Education students the entry/retention policy of the college shall be
strictly followed and monitored by the chairpersons and Dean, the attendance
to the review class must be monitored and checked, students found to have 20%
absent from the required number of hours must be dropped from the pre-board
subject, result from the mock board examination shall be considered as one of
the factors in allowing the students to take the board examination, it is therefore
to be presented in the academic council for Board of Regent’s approval, and
lastly faculty commitment shall be encouraged so that class observation must
be frequently done for monitoring to improve the academic performance of the
College of Education students.
LITERATURE CITED
Adeyemo, K. S. (2015). Regulatory and skills requirements for higher education

in the Philippines. Industry and Higher Education, 29(2), 89-92. Retrieved
from https://doi.org/10.5367/ihe.2015.0249
Antiojo, L. P. (2017). Performance of Education Graduates in the Licensure

Examination for Teachers (LET). PEOPLE: International Journal of Social
Sciences, 3(2). https://dx.doi.org/10.20319/pijss.2017.32.13631384
Esmeralda, A.B., Espinosa, J.P. (2015). Teacher Education Graduates’

Performance as Predictor of Licensure Examination for Teachers Results.
DOI: 10.7719/jpair.v21i1.330
Faltado, R. E. (2014). Correlates of performance in the licensure examination

of selected public and private teacher education institutions. International
Journal of Education and Research, 2(8), 167-176. Retrieved from https://
goo.gl/pjKgbk
Figuerres O. B. (2010). An Analysis of the Performance of UNP in the Licensure

Examination for Teachers, 2001-2010 Retrieved from https://ejournals.ph/
article.php?id=3219
130
Figuerres, O. B. (2013). An analysis of the performance of the University of

Northern Philippines in the Licensure Examination for Teachers. IAMURE
International Journal of Education, 6(1), 1-1. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/
idh2DH
Pugatch, T. (2017). Is teacher certification an effective tool for developing

countries?. IZA World of Labor. Retrieved from 10.15185/izawol.349
Rabanal, G.C. (2016). Academic achievement and LET performance of the

bachelor of elementary education graduates, University of Northern
Philippines. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 6(6),
455-461. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/vvQwzo
Wang, A. H., Coleman, A. B., Coley, R. J., & Phelps, R. P. (2003). Preparing
Teachers around the World. Policy Information Report. Retrieved from
https://goo.gl/14iim2
Wiseman, A. W., & Al-bakr, F. (2013). The elusiveness of teacher quality: A

comparative analysis of teacher certification and student achievement in
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Prospects, 43(3), 289-309.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-013-9272-z
131
Martial Arts among the

Bangsamoro Muslim: History,
Tradition, Culture, and Religion
MORAD SABDULLAH UMPA
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4230-5331
[email protected]
Mindanao State University
Marawi City 9700
Philippines
Originality:95% • Grammar Check: 100% • Plagiarism: 5%
ABSTRACT

In Islām, there are four fundamental factors of social development and change
– personality, tradition, accident, and people. The Qur’an says: “Verily never will
God change the condition of a people until they change it themselves [with their
souls]. (Q-13:11). Therefore, the researcher’s aim is assessing the integration of
Islāmic values in the teaching of martial arts in the youth for them be good
followers of Islām thru inculcation in their minds and their behavior the real
sense of a true Muslim. Essentially, this study is descriptive, which aimed mainly
to serve as an exposition on the Religion, Traditional Culture, and History of
the Muslims in the Philippines and their implication relevance to martial arts.
The various data collected through in-depth study, interview and observation
showed that Islām prepares people to be a fruitful citizen in the society. It also
aimed for the total development of man not only in the religious aspect. Thus,
Martial arts play a vital role in Islām not just as a means of self-defense, but as
132
a system of ethics. Man and fighting are by nature intimately related; in fact,
history shows that they are inseparable. Locally, the Bangsamoro has a very rich
historical foundation in martial arts that is directly derivable from the roots of
Islāmic propagation. And as man became civilized, hand-to-hand fighting also
became specialized and humanized and, gradually. Thus, the term martial art is
recognized today as a specialized field of knowledge which should be inculcated
together with education for the total development of the new generations leading
to a society imbued with rich morality.
Keywords — Martial Arts, History, Tradition, Culture, Religion, Total

development of man, Morality.
INTRODUCTION
The history of martial arts is as old as the history of the human race. It is the
history concerning not only of the whole strategy of war science but the history
of the development of man’s instinct for survival. Because ever since man has
thought of protecting himself from the dangers around him, he has tried to find
out the devices to make himself stronger and mightier.
Along with these centuries-old martial arts, history is that of Islām. The latter
is not only a religion; it is a way of life. It is an all-embracing system of life that
covers all aspects of human existence, including martial arts. Islām is not just
spiritual, it calls for action. So the Muslim must implement Allāh’s vicegerency
on them on earth, but they cannot do it with just prayer and supplication. They
must seek the way, method or manner by which that trusteeship of the earth to
them by God [Allāh] can be implemented.
The Bangsamoro, in general, are dominantly [if not natural] martial artist
people because their religion and culture, even if not intended, have martial arts
functions and values; in fact, their religion exhorts them to learn the martial
arts, and most of their traditional lifeways, games, music, dances, some beliefs,
and practices would enhance if not develop a martial capacity. Moreover, while
resisting foreign domination for more than three centuries, they have acquired
strong martial tradition from the best martial arts/civilized fighting school ever,
the school of experience. (Alilaya, 1973)
To clarify this concept, the life of the Prophet Muhammad [peace and
blessings be upon him] is a very good proof. He was born an orphan. He was
a portrait of hardship, but the rigors of life only molded him into a strong and
133
consummate person. He was so trustworthy that even the people who hated
him to the bone did not dare call him a liar. He was so mighty that he was the
complete master of himself. Muhammad was the paramount exemplar of civilized
or humanized fighting. He demonstrated throughout his life the perfect fusion of
love, composure, and tranquility of mind while fighting; he was arguably the best
embodiment of an ideal frame of mind in the oriental martial arts. (An-Nadawi,
1993).
The success of Muhammad was the triumph of righteousness. His formula
for reform, his maxim for justice, his guiding star in life, and his might that
would prevail over all odds were “lā ilāha illa Allāh” [there is no God but Allāh].
The Prophet had never gone to formal schooling, but he was a consummate
embodiment of theory and action in his time, because he possessed the basics
of all knowledge and skills: physical capability, mental and spiritual stability,
sincerity, self-contentment, patience, concentration, good manners, and right
conduct; he had eliminated the “sins of the heart” and the “vices of the tongue”
(Al-Ghazzali, 1278 AH).
FRAMEWORK
A common saying in martial arts is trained both “internal and external.”

The training involving the eyes, arms, feet, body, and stances refers to external
training, while internal training involves the mind, heart, breathing, strength,
and spirit. The latter is where the Islāmic teachings mainly find its relativity, while
the history of Islām is to the former.
The following are the basic component of Martial Arts: discipline, stances,
application, and weapons. Then, meditation can be used to develop focus, mental
clarity and act as the basis for training. In many martial arts systems, meditation
is considered to be an important component of basic training (Ahsan, 1971).
These learning areas of martial focus on the development of responsible and
worthy home membership. It provides activities that emphasize the development
of desirable work attitudes, basic work skills, and habits and the production of
useful articles through learning situations relevant to everyday chores at home,
school, and community.
Then in Islam, we have Islāmic education command not to forget to train
the body, mind, and heart in pursuit of attaining even the least level of Prophet
Muhammad’s embodiment of a developed human being. Thus, during the lifetime
of Caliph ‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb ordered that children be taught swimming,
horse-riding, military arts. (El Kardani, 1989).
134
Finally, comes the Bangsamoro people who were mainly, if not all, subscribers
of Islām having a very rich foundation in martial arts as evidenced by the historical
records of their struggle.
This study aimed to describe the Bangsamoro martial arts and to evaluate the
ancient Bangsamoro traditional culture, with a view of examining and analyzing
the validity of the integration of Islāmic Values in the teaching of martial arts,
so that the young generation can learn the teachings of Islām not only through
enrolling in the ‘Arabic schools, but, instead, they can acquire the needed
education in the Western-oriented medium of instruction as well. In essence,
the purpose of this study was to look at different aspects of how we regard the
mind and body relationship in the martial arts, how we develop this relationship,
how we can feed back what we have learned into the training and our daily lives?
Which are all for the objective of reaching total development of man.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study utilized the descriptive and/or qualitative research design.
The method was used to gather necessary data including textual information,
interview, and observation of various techniques used in martial arts. The purpose
is (i) to gather data martial arts in Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, (ii)
to collect various techniques and tactics of the Bangsamoro martial arts, (iii)
to get relevant information about history, tradition, culture, and religion of the
Bangsamoro martial arts.
Research Site
Initially, this study began upon the queries which the World Organizer of
Martial Arts (WOMA) regarding the Bangsamoro Martial Arts presented to the
researcher. After accumulation of resources to answer them, he was offered to
enroll in their educational institution and therein he realized this research thru
the means of an online medium.
As broad as the topic seems, the study was heavily centered in Lanao del Sur
of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). This for without a
doubt is because ARMM is the home of the Bangsamoro which they defended
valiantly and successfully from the years of invasion from different oppressors.
135
Participants
For being a Muslim scholar and a martial artist at the same time, the researcher
was ecstatic for the fruition of this study as he was able to get in contact with the
variety of styles in the field of self-defense.
Presently, there are about over 50 clubs in the whole province of Lanao del
Sur who were part of the WOMA – ARMM. Although mainly dominated by
Meranaos, the said organization has masters and disciples who are Maguindanaon,
Tausug, Kalagan and other Muslim dominated tribes in the Philippines that were
brought together and united under the name of Martial Arts and Islām.
Among the participants also were prominent ulamā and traditional leaders of
the Bangsamoro people, specifically that of Meranaos. The researcher interacted
with them for the enrichment of the historical texts found by the former in the
books and journals of some of the libraries situated in Lanao del Sur.
Instrumentation
The data gathering for this study was done through an in-depth study and
reading of available literature including internet references; utilizing existing
records as the major tool, and direct personal interviews with selected informants
who are expert in the problem.
The main instrument used was a set of questionnaires. Before the
questionnaire was distributed to the respondents of the participating clubs, a
letter of permission was sent. When permission was granted, a collection of data
was started immediately. Letter of request for the instructors to patiently answer
the questions was distributed along with the questionnaires. The researcher
personally delivered the questionnaires to the respondents in their respective
clubs.
Islām in the Philippines

The periods following the demise of the Prophet Muhammad led to the ex-
pansion of Islām to Europe, Africa, and Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia, Islām
was spread throughout the world by three methods. First, is thru the Muslim
traders in the course of their commerce; second, thru learned men who set out
from India and ‘Arabia to preach and deliver the message of Islām; and lastly, thru
holy war. (Alilaya, 1973)
Islām first obtained a firm footing in Southeast Asia in North Sumatra via the
trade route from India and the west. Being the main trading center of the area,
136
Malacca became the great stronghold of the faith, from where it spread out. Islām
influence then intensified and reached as far as ancient Malaysia which in turn
would expand in the yet to be found in the Philippines (Cesar, 1973).
In the early 14th century, the strength of the Sulu sultānate was enhanced by
Malay leaders who helped the natives in developing politically, economically, and
religiously. Rajah Baguinda is one of those Sumatran princes that came to the
Philippines in 1390 together with a group of learned men in Islām.
Islām taught the natives the concept of monotheism. This enlightened them
on the absolute oneness of God and emphasized to them the quality of an Islāmic
Nation [ummah] described by the Holy Qur’ān, as a single nation [Q-21:92].
This concept refers to the fraternal bond binding them all as a single body em-
phasizing the importance of brotherhood kinship in Islām. Their adherence to
the Islāmic faith changed the destiny of their fragmented society to a Single Na-
tion, the Islāmic Ummah.
Before the arrival of foreign colonizers to the Philippines, Muslims enjoyed
full independence as they already had a well-organized form of government, the
sultānate, which attained various achievements at the height of its power. The
sultān served as both political and religious leaders, protector and defender of
Islām, following the Islāmic political system of no separation between church and
state. As a religious leader, the sultān was called Shadow of God in the earth [zil-
lullahi fil ardh], based on the Islāmic political point a view that man, particularly
a leader, is the vicegerent of God.
Bangsamoro
Bangsamoro is literally translated into “moro nation.” Almost all Moro lives
in Mindanao and other parts of the southern Philippines. For this, Mindanao is
considered the homeland of the Moro people.
With the coming of the Spaniards and the American, the Bangsamoro de-
clined. Both colonial powers incorporated the independent Bangsa Islām into the
Philippines state, reducing the power of the sultān, especially during the Ameri-
can regime.
Muslims had successfully resisted the Spanish colonizers, especially in the
Mindanao region, but it cost them a lot. Those natives who settled in Luzon and
Visayas fell to the hands of the Spaniards after few attempts of resistance; the
Muslim continued to defend their Nation, People, and Religion (Cesar, 1973).
Spain made use of different propaganda to win the war and name-calling
is one of them. The Muslims of Mindanao were branded with the name Moros,
137
which is primarily negative. They were used synonymously with terms such as
pirates, barbarians, juramentados, and others.
However, Muslims in the Philippines have used since then the term Moro
as the rallying point for the unification of the different native communities that
adheres to the teachings of Islām. Using the important principle of brotherhood
in Islām, those different tribes were consolidated into one body or nation that
would amplify their strength and force against any entity that tries to put them
under foreign sovereignty.
Starting from the Spanish colonization up until the American regime even
to this very moment, Moros have remained faithful to Islām. When there is im-
minent danger of foreign invasion, the Muslims resorts to Jihād to defend their
faith. This deepening Islāmic awareness has become the mobilizing factor that
fuses the different Moro tribes into a single nation as part of the Islāmic universal
concept of Ummah Islāmiyyah.
The right to self-determination is the right of peoples everywhere to deter-
mine their political status freely and to pursue their economic, social and cul-
tural development freely. The right to self-determination has political, economic,
social and cultural aspects. For the right to be fully effective, the realization of
the political, economic, social and cultural sovereignty of peoples is crucial. Self-
determination is a continuing process where people continue to make choices to
achieve human security and to fulfill human needs. (Lingga, 2007)
As early as the middle part of the 15th century, the Bangsamoro people are
already experienced in statehood and governance. There were already states and
governments having diplomatic and trade relations with other countries like
China in Sulu, Tawi-Tawi and the islands of Basilan and Palawan by the time the
Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Philippines, the Muslims of Mindanao, had
already established their own.
This goes to show that Islām stands on record as the first political institution,
the first institutional religion, the first educational system and the first civiliza-
tion in the Philippines and that its economy was far advanced than those of the
other indigenous communities. But before the Bangsamoro could fully grow into
full nation-statehood, a series of foreign colonial interventions came their way.
The Bangsamoro region is what is known popularly as the home of the Mus-
lim Filipinos. This land includes the provinces of Basilan, Cotabato, Davao del
Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Palawan, Sarangani, South
Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, Zamboanga del Sur, and Zambo-
anga Sibugay. The cities of Cotabato, Dapitan, Dipolog, General Santos, Iligan,
138
Marawi, Pagadian, Isabela, Puerto Princesa, and Zamboanga are also included in
part.
The Martial Arts

The word martial means “to do with war” and martial arts are ways of
fighting and training to fight. Some of the first martial arts were designed to kill
or harm opponents. Others were invented to help people defend themselves from
attackers. This is called self-defense.
Man and fighting are by nature intimately related; in fact, history shows that
they are inseparable. Scholars in martial arts have advanced that hand-to-hand
fighting is as old as the human species, and its early form was crude and savage.
But as man became civilized, hand-to-hand fighting also became specialized and
humanized and, gradually, more sophisticated and involved into what is now
known as the “martial arts.” With advancement in civilization, man has devised
ways and means to facilitate his activities, invented tools to make work easier
and developed more advanced skills in barehand fighting and weaponry. Thus, in
the modern world, the term martial art is used to mean civilized special skills in
barehand fighting and/or weaponry.
The martial art is one of the products of civilization. Thus, the martial arts
is a “beautiful’ way of fighting; it is civilized fighting; a harmonious blending of
scientific or highly effective fighting skills with good manners and right conduct,
through a civilized [philosophical, religious, ideological] martial way (Alilaya,
1973). The martial arts, therefore, are inseparable from the values of discipline,
willpower, humility, cleanliness, and sincerity. In their highest forms, the martial
arts involve love, composure, and tranquility of mind while in the state of
fighting. The martial arts is one of the manifestations of the degree of physical
and spiritual refinement a person has attained.
Initially, after man had experienced the bitterness of fighting and wars or
any event that involved violent struggle, the effort to tame or educate his natural
tendency to fight could have been suppressive, as perhaps exemplified by the
Biblical commandment “Thou shall not kill,” revealed unto Prophet Moses more
than three thousand years ago. But when humanity realized that it was impractical
to altogether eliminate the instinct of man to fight, it approved of the tendency of
individuals or group of individuals to prepare for situations that called for attack
and defense. Thus the beginning of the science of civilized warfare or military
arts.
As humanity advanced in time and developed in civilization, religious and
philosophical concepts were eventually adopted as controlling parameters of the
139
martial psyche of man. Oriental scholars agree that the earliest of these controls
was set [accidentally] by the Indian Buddhist monk named Boddhidharma.
In the Middle East, we can single out a few: Moses, David, Solomon, and
even the famous warriors trained by the Bani Makhzūm of the Quraysh ‘Arabs,
the Zoroastrianism devoted rulers of the Sassanids in Persia. In the seventh
century A.D., the Muslims believe that the best among the best embodiments of
spiritual stability, warfare, religiosity, and leadership has appeared in the person
of Prophet Muhammad (This belief is further strengthened by Michael Hart’s
The One Hundred, a list of one Hundred most influential people in the history
of mankind; Muhammad ranked first.). But almost six centuries after the first
patriarch of Buddhism, Shakyamuni Buddha, and about five centuries before
Buddhism’s 28th patriarch, Boddhidharma, the paramount example of “non-
violent resistance” [probably, the most ideal form of civilized or humanized
fighting –compare this also with aikido’s “non-violent” approaches to combat]
was seen in the person of Jesus. Boddhidharma, Jesus, Muhammad, and virtually
all the prominent martial artists in the Orient, have a common denominator
[although they differ in degrees]: religiosity, spiritual stability, and physical
capability. (Alilaya, 1973)
In a similar light, the obligatory five times daily [salāt] ritual prayer help
stimulate the soul and the body which greatly aids in trying to achieve such
profound wisdom which clearly emphasized by perfecting and conditioning
the body and obtaining a high level of fitness. Then follows the ritual duty of
pilgrimage [hajj], demanding a great deal of physical and mental effort. Indeed,
Islām mandates harmony of “A sound mind in the sound body.”
Bangsamoro martial arts refers to the meeting of ancient and newer fighting
methods devised in the Philippines, the most popular of which is known as Arnis.
This was initially realized as the Filipino people developed battle skills being a
direct result of their ever-changing circumstances. They learned out of necessity
how to prioritize, allocate and utilize common resources in combative situations.
They have been heavily influenced by the phenomenon of the cultural and
linguistic mixture. Some of the specific mechanisms responsible for this are wars,
political and social systems, technology, trade, and practicality. The native tribes
focused on combat with sticks, knives, swords, spears, and bows and arrows,
while practicing unarmed combat forms.
Originally, kuntaw traces its roots back 1500 years to ancient China. Trading
ships between the Philippines and Indonesia are presumed to have introduced
Chinese Kun-Tao, kun means fist and tao: a way of; thus kuntao signifies a way of
140
the Fist. The Muslims adopted it and made Kuntaw a secretive art taught to the
Bangsamoro people and thus kuntaw can be traced back to the southern Filipino
island of Mindanao which is predominantly Muslim. Kuntaw has incorporated
techniques from silat, and some forms even changed their name from kuntaw to
silat. Styles which combine both kuntaw and silat together are sometimes called
kuntaw silat. (Alilaya, 1973)
In the 15th century, silat was used extensively to keep treason and colonialism
at bay. The one who practices silat begins and ends his practice by submitting to
Allāh. He worships and fears none but Allāh the Most Glorious One. Therefore,
the pesilat has never been the aggressor but merely a defender. As the pesilat
matures, his exercises are no longer physical but more spiritual and metaphysical.
And ultimately, the Bangsamoro of the Southern Philippines was in fact never
subjugated by the Spaniards and the Americans using only with their bladed tools
out of scarce and more natural resources.
Martial arts originating from the Far East is impressed with deep mystical
and spiritual foundations coupled with the doctrines and philosophical beliefs of
Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Islām. Islām aroused the appetite of its
followers to practice and excel in Wu Shu [military arts in Chinese], as a sacred
practice. This is reflected in a famous Islāmic proverb; some consider it a saying of
the Prophet Muhammad, inspiring Muslims to “Seek knowledge, even in China.”
During the “Battle of Trench” in 625 CE, the Prophet showed an example
of how this principle is applied. He adopted a stratagem put forward by Salmān
al-Fārisi, to defend Madīnah by constructing a defensive trench surrounding the
city. Such a plan was totally unknown to the ‘Arabs but was commonly used by
the Sasanids in Persia. (An-Nadawi, 1993)
In 651 CE during the Tang Dynasty, a delegation was sent to China by
Caliph ‘Uthmān Ibn ‘Affān [644-656 CE] from Madīnah, led by Sa’d ibn Abī
Waqqās, from Banī Zuhrah, the clan of Āminah daughter of Wahb, mother of
the Prophet Muhammad, who arrived at the port of Guangzhai to deliver the
peaceful message of Islām. Sa’d was one of the most courageous warriors and
commanders. He was known as one of the best archers in history. Accordingly,
he never missed his target. Before Sa’d journeyed to China, he had engaged in
many battles along with many prominent Companions like Alī bin Abī Tālib,
a skilfull swordsman, who was honored with a famous sabre “Dzul Fiqar,” by
the Prophet who exclaimed: “No sword can match Dzul Fiqar, and no young
warrior can compare to Alī. Alī was honored with the title “Asad Allāh” [The
Lion of God] for demonstrating exceptional bravery in his courageous fighting
141
skills and his spectacular swordsmanship. His mastery in swordsmanship gained

him popularity and a tremendous influence on the Muslim Ummah [nation].
Starting from Morocco to North-Western China, early Muslims practiced what
was called as the art of stick fighting of Alī’ or known more popularly as “Alī’s
stick.” (Khamouch, 2007).
A frame of mind involved in martial arts is known with various names: wu-
shin [“nothingness” or “no-mind-ness”] in Chinese kung fu [gung fu]; “fighting
without fighting” in jeet-kune-do; “Prajna Immovable” in Japanese swordsmanship;
“mind like the moon reflected in still water” in karate; “love” or “harmony with
the universal ki [life force]’ in aikido; “lā hawla wa lā quwwata illa billah” [there
is no Way and Power except Allāh’s] in Islāmic silat, and may be known as “daa
kandowadowa” [literally, no hesitation] in the fighting psychology of the Muslims
in the Philippines. It requires the absence of fear, anger, hatred, jealousy, lust,
envy, covetousness, pride [arrogance], and vanity in one who is fighting. (Alilaya,
1973)
A classic example in Islāmic history of one whose appropriate frame of mind
has spilled out in combat. During a lull in the Battle of Uhud [March 22, 625],
there was one Quraysh who has been harboring a pledge to kill the Prophet
because of the humiliation of his son in the Battle of Badr, one year and a week
earlier. The man, named Ubayy bin Khalaf, mounted on a large and powerful
horse, rushed out to challenge the Prophet for single combat.
“Ubayy Ibn Khalaf was approaching the Prophet on his horse. He saw the
Companions move out of the way. He saw the Prophet waiting for him, and
grudgingly he admired the man he had seen out to kill. The Prophet was wearing
two coats of mail. He wore a chain helmet, the side-flaps of which covered his
cheeks. His sword rested in its sheath, tucked into a leather belt, and in his right
hand, he held his spear. Ubayy noticed the powerful, broad strong enough to
break a spear in two. The Prophet looked at magnificent sight.” (Ibn Hisham,
1995)
The fact that the Prophet Muhammad was one of the strongest Muslims
during his time was not popularly known even among Muslims. He was only
mentioned always as being the mastermind, but there were very little records
shows his valor and strength in the field of battle. His great strength together
with the fact of his being divinely selected makes him a formable opponent he
would probe to anybody. However, as Ubayy was had just killed a Muslim, his
spirits were high and he was undaunted by the Prophet’s presence. (Akram, 2009)
“As Ubayy reached the Prophet, he pulled up his horse. He was in no hurry.
Not for a moment doubting that Muhammad would await his attack, he took
142
his own time overdrawing his sword. And then suddenly it was too late, for the
Prophet raised his spear and struck at the upper part of Ubayy’s chest. Ubayy tried
to duck but was not quick enough. The spear struck him on the right shoulder,
near the base of the neck. It was mind wound but Ubayy fell off his horse, and in
the fall broke a rib. Before the Prophet could strike again, Ubayy had risen and
turned tail, running screaming towards his comrades. They stopped him and
asked how he had fared, to which Ubayy replied in a trembling voice, “By Allāh,
Muhammad has killed me.” (Ibn Hisham, 1995)
The lā hawla wa lā Quwwata illa bilLāh [“there is no Way and Power except
Allah’s], is a couple of steps higher than “no-mind-ness” or full determination.
It is “oneness” [in the sense of being vicegerent] with the Maker/Source of all
Material and Spiritual existence; it uses ihklās [intuitive sincerity/innocence/non-
dualism/way of nature [sunnatullah] -“no-mind-ness” and focused thought are
just portions of these- to attain a level where one can spontaneously actualize or
“physically manifest” the power of Allāh. In effect, an attacker or an adversary
actually goes against nature [and who could stand against nature?] or against the
Maker/Source of nature, thus causing either gradual or instant destruction to
himself. (Alilaya, 1973)
Every human being needs martial arts or civilized fighting for this reason:
Chances to be attacked and the necessity threat for defense are indelible from
worldly existence. Thus to neglect the cultivation of martial arts [or civilized
fighting] is either to remain abject to violent oppression, injustice, and chaos
or follow the ways of barbarism-the excessive and unjustified use of force-in
defending oneself. In either case, life becomes miserable.
The Moro Wars

For more than three centuries of resistance to foreign intruders, the Muslims
in the Philippines have accumulated rich traditions in martial. Since 1521 when
Lapu-lapu [who is believed to be a Muslim] brought Ferdinand Magellan his
knees in the battle of Limasawa, through the carnage of Lamitan, Balangingi
Island, Marawi, Bud Dajo, Bud Bagsak, up to the present century, the Muslims
in the Philippines have been fighting the metamorphic forces of colonialism and
imperialism. Thus they have acquired legacy in fighting from the best martial art
school throughout history, the school of experience. But unlike the barbarians
who have developed crude and savage ways of fighting from their harsh ecology
and unrefined ways, the Muslims in the Philippines have been refined by their
Islāmic culture. (Alilaya, 1973)
143
The numerous expeditions of the Spaniards supported by the conquered

natives to the Muslim lands in the Philippines, the frequent raids of the Muslims
on places already controlled by the Spaniards and the Muslims from about
the coming of Legaspi in 1565 to the last days of Spanish dominations in the
Philippines, have been lumped together by some historian under the heading
“Moro Wars.” The Moro Wars, in addition to their being deadly and devastating,
were encounters of agility, power, endurance, timing, courage, determination,
patience, organization and skills in hand-to-hand combat. In these contests for
supremacy, both the Spaniards and the Muslims did really win and lose. The
Muslims were able to preserve their way of life at the expense of peace and lagging
behind in virtually all aspects of modern development; while the Spaniards were
able to demonstrate their “crusading spirit” at the expense of spoiling their gains
in the Visayas and Luzon.
Moro Fighting and the Martial Arts

It is a historical fact that the Muslims were influenced by the culture of
the great Hindu-Malayan empires of Sri Vijayan [7th-14th century A.D.] and
Madjapahit [13th- 16th century A.D.] Sri Vijayan and Madjapahit Malays
according to reports were skilled warriors, farmers, and seamen. (Inosanto, 1982)
The Ternatans and Borneans, who may have already received training in martial
art of silat which is believed to be developed in the state of Malacca as early as the
eleventh century A.D. (Mustaffa, Ahmad, & Wong 1978), were closely related to
the royal families of Sulu and Maguindanao, and were having strong trade and
cultural interactions long before the coming of the Spaniards to the Philippines.
The Spaniards could be threatened by the martial arts sophistications of the
Muslims in the Philippines from their interactions with the Ternatans; in fact, one
of the reasons of the Spaniards’ mercenary expedition to Maguindanao in 1521
was to drive away the Ternatans who have knowledge in warfare (Majul, 1973)
which, by this time, was virtually in the form of martial arts. By implication,
the Chinese who have studied and developed their martial arts for more than
4,000 years (Ming and Kung, 1985) particularly in the art of chi kung [internal
kung fu], must have a significant contribution to the fighting, the capacity of
the Muslims. It was learned from Chinese sources that as early as the last quarter
of the thirteenth century, the Suluans and the Chinese were already having a
progressive trade. Often times, the Suluans would detain some Chinese, for fear
of not coming back to trade again, until the latter’s trading vessels would call back
to Sulu (Majul, 1973). Chances were high that these detained Chinese belong
144
to the elite, and hence, would be possessed with training in martial arts as it is
an integral part of their norms. Moreover, there was an exodus of Chinese to the
Philippine islands, possibly via Sulu during the height of the Manchu invasion of
China in the 12th century A.D. (Inosanto, 1982).
Perhaps, more important than their learning from other peoples who have a
rich heritage in martial arts was their accumulated practical learning synthesized
from centuries of fighting invaders. Along with this belief, the author propounds
that the martial skill of the Muslims was continuously honed by their resistance
to foreign invaders while they hold fast to their way of life and their religion of
Islām.
Spirituality and Fighting

Among the Oriental martial artists, it is an undisputed fact that the highest
stage in the cultivation of fighting skill could only be attained after the physical
techniques are fused with spirituality. This could not be surprising to those who
have some degree of intimacy with the martial arts, because fighting cannot be
really effectively performed with mere muscles; it should have appropriate courage
and concentration, things which can be only obtained in abundance, from
most religions and/or philosophical concepts. In Southeast Asia, for example,
it has been an open secret that accomplished practitioners and masters Moro,
Malaysian, and Indonesian martial arts [silat] are deeply spiritual. (Inosanto,
1982)
But this is not exclusive to the Orientals. A glean from the religious history of
the Middle East can show that the fusion of spirituality, fighting, and extraordinary
endurance was attained by the Semitic prophets: Moses, David, Solomon, Jesus,
and Muhammad. A reading on the scriptures of Judaism, Christianity, and Islām
will inform us of the defeat of the Pharaoh and his mighty army by Prophet Moses
and the Israelites, the slaying of Goliath by David, the superhuman endurance
of Jesus during his death march to Calvary, the decisive defeat of the more than
one thousand-man well-equipped army of the Quraysh ‘Arabs in the “Battle of
Badr” by just a little over three hundred ill-equipped Muslims. But perhaps, the
most extraordinary example of the fusion between spirituality and fighting was
demonstrated by Prophet David when ‘he slew the Syrians of seven thousand
men which fought in chariots and forty thousand footmen, and killed Shophach
the captain of the host’... Divine intervention was a determining factor of this
event, but the point is that these people had demonstrated uncommon courage,
determination and psycho-physical stability which were undoubtfully derived
from their being religious. (Alilaya, 1973)
145
The Muslims, aside from their Prophet Muhammad, had also known other
fine embodiments of fighting and spirituality, a few of them: Hamzah, the “Lion
of Allāh”; Alī, ‘Umar, Ibn Al’ās, Khālid Ibn al-Walīd, the “Sword of Allāh” and
Salāhuddin al-Ayyobī [Saladdin], the conqueror of the Mongols.
Self-control is the best measure of spirituality in martial arts, and the Muslims
believe that an exemplar of this was demonstrated by Prophet Muhammad when
the about 10,000 strong Muslim armies triumphantly entered Makkah in the 10th
of Ramadhān in the 8th year of Hijrah. (An-Nadawi, 1993) In spite the strength
at his disposal, he freely forgave the Makkans; the people who had caused untold
miseries on him and the early Muslims. This was also described by Lyn-Pole in
this manner; “The day of Muhammad’s greatest triumph was also his grandest
victory over himself.”
In the “Middle Ages,” Christian Europe has also known the fine embodiments
of physical skill in combat and the psychological stability derived from the
religion of Christianity through the knights of the crusades.
In the Orient, it is believed that the Kshatriya [warrior class] of India, the
shaolin warrior monks of China and the “night warriors” of medieval Japan [not
the ones we see in the movies], the hwarang do of the Silla dynasty in Korea,
and the elite warriors of the Hindu-Malayan empire of Sri-Vijaya were also
“spiritualized.” In the Southern Philippines, during the later half of the nineteenth
century [decline of the sultānates], another fine embodiment of religion and
physical skills in combat had emerged; the early sabīrs.
Distinct from all other world religions, Islām exhorts its believer to learn and
cultivate the martial arts to be used only in the Way of Allāh [jihād fī sabīlillāh].
The religion itself is inseparable from martial arts; most of its religious rituals,
even if not intended, have martial art functions and values. These functions and
values, largely in terms of mental and psychological stability.
When Islām reached the Philippines, it brought with it an indelible agent
of purification and liberation. The paganistic culture of the people which came
into contact with Islām was educated and, gradually, its harām [prohibited]
aspects were eliminated and supplanted with Islāmic values. The long process of
Islāmization, which was believed by scholars to have begun with the existence of
the first Muslim settlement or community in Sulu sometime in the last quarter
of the thirteenth century or even earlier [about two hundred ninety years before
Miguel Lopez de Legaspi reached, in 1565, a part of the territory now claimed by
the Philippine state], resulted in the physical, moral and spiritual transformation
of the Muslims as an independent people in the Ummah Islāmiyyah [Islāmic
146
community] in the Malay world. (Majul, 1973) This event explains why they
fought and died for their Islāmic ideology during the period of colonialism in
their homeland.
Islām and the Martial Arts

The word ‘Islām’ is derived from the ‘Arabic root ‘silm’ which means, among
other things, peace, purity, submission to the Will of God and obedience to
His Laws. (Abdalati, 1975) However, Islām is not only a religion but a way of
life [dīn] built upon its principles. Islām is the “all-pervasive law which governs
all that comprise the universe, which regulates all that is in the heavens and the
earth, from the tiniest speck of dust to the magnificent galaxy”(Dimaro, 1989),
it governs all aspects of human existence; politics, law, economics, the sciences,
military actions and all other human endeavors, including martial arts.
Islām, the way of life of Muslims must be observed in all daily activities,
ranging from the simplest personal purification to having an interrelationship
with other people. Obedience to divine guidance is obligatory to every Muslim
because it is the only valid basis of judging the value of human action. As a book
of divine guidance, the Qur’ān was revealed as a criterion of right and wrong. And
Allāh promises that whosoever follow His guidance, “there shall be no fear come
upon them neither shall they grieve.” (Q-3:4)
The Islāmic belief system is anchored on the belief that God is the Creator,
sustainer and Sovereign Lord of the whole creation. Everything originates from
God and everyone is responsible to Him. Man, being God’s vicegerent [khalīfah]
on earth is accountable to all his actions. If he does well, he will be rewarded; if he
does evil he will be meted the corresponding punishment. Among the meanings
of what Allāh has said in the Holy Qur’ān: “whose doeth good an atom’s weight will
see it then, and whoso doeth evil an atom’s weight will see it then.” (Holy Qur’ān,
99:7/8) The Prophet has said in this manner: “Every one of you is a guardian and
everyone will be asked about his subjects.” (Al-Bukhari, 1981)
Muslims who are true to their religion must be efficient workers for “Allāh
likes those who perform their duty into perfection” as the Prophet said. In fact, it is
the consensus of Muslim scholars that the proper performance of Islāmic rituals
as prayer [salāt] and fasting [saum] is already training for discipline and efficiency.
Islāmic Prayer and Basic Principles of Martial Arts

Worship [ibādāt] is the essence of all Islāmic activities including learning the
martial arts. Prayer in Islām is the chief of all worships because it is the best way
of instilling a consciousness of Allāh.
147
The objective of martial arts is humanized ways of self-defense through a

system of mental and physical training. For the Muslim, prayer should be the
backbone of that training. However, unlike the hard school of martial art, and
the strenuous movements in Western athletics, the self-defense training in Islāmic
prayer is not apparent to one who is used to irreplaceable waste of energy and
development of bodily organs. A Muslim who is sufficiently trained in the correct
performance of Islāmic prayer provides protection against mental and physical
stress. A Muslim considers it as the ultimate cure to all forms of human ailment.
(Alilaya, 1973)
In the performance of Islāmic prayer, the physical actions are slow and
not forceful. The movements are parallel to the movements in the soft school
of martial arts where energy is conserved rather than wasted. Practitioners of
the soft school concentrate on breathing flow, control and circulation of their
internal body energy rather than giving attention to the activity of their muscles.
Similarly, in spite of the movements, while praying, a Muslim can focus all his
actions, thinking, and feeling to the presence of Allāh. At the time of fighting,
tremendous energy of the Muslim, most probably accumulated and conserved in
prayers and other religious devotions is released, proof, which explains why in the
pious act of jihād fī sabīlillah, they can conquer odds.
CONCLUSIONS
In the light of the important findings of the study, the researcher formulates
the theory that, generally, the Bangsamoro are martial. This could be inspired by
at least one of the following: their religion, their culture and traditional lifeways;
their historical experiences; and, their legacy from other peoples who have a rich
heritage in martial arts –the Chinese, Malays, and Indians. From this theory,
three corollaries could be derived: One, in general, the psyche of the Bangsamoro
is religiously and patriotically martial. This could probably help explain why their
religion, history, and traditions must be heavily considered in dealing with them.
Two, the resistance of the Bangsamoro which lasted for more than three centuries
against the Spanish menace was also made possible by their capacity in fighting.
Dr. Majul argued that political organization that was relatively more advanced
than those of the other inhabitants of the country, and the natural tendency of
the Muslims to resist any form of outside dominations, galvanized by their will to
defend their way of life, were responsible for the people’s remarkable resistance to
more than three centuries of Spanish menace. While that leaves virtually no room
148
for argument, it must be further said that without the inherent capacity of the
Muslims to fight, such a feat is not likely possible; any tendency to resist colonial
domination in the era of colonialism also depends on the capacity to fight.
This research was translated into Meranao dialect and debuted as a book
in the Meranao vernacular. Its first copies were given to the public for free as
customarily observed by the researcher. The researcher also intends to publish
the book in the English language. The book format of this research was mainly
a historical manuscript with diagrams serving as manual to those who want to
learn the martial art style of the researcher, Taekwondo, in their own. This would
be a huge contributor to the attainment of the totality of man’s development.
LITERATURE CITED
Abdalati, H. (1975). Islām in Focus. Maryland; International Graphics Printing

Services.
Ahsan, M. (1971). Islām: Faith and practice. Chesterfield: Derbyshire Print.
Akram, A. I. (2009). SWORD OF ALLAH: Khalid Bin Al-Waleed His Life &
Campaigns. Adam Publishers. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/Y7YK7W
Alilaya, A. I. (1973). The Martial Arts and the Muslims in the Philippines.
Mindanao Islamics Journal (vol. 4, no. 1)
Al-Ghazzali, Abu Hamid Mohammad Ibn Mohammad. Ihya Ulum Addin. Al-
Mat’baatul Misriyyah. 1278 AH.
An-Nadawi, Abul Hasan Ali. Siratu Khatamin Nabiyyin. Mawsuat ar-Risalah,

Bierut 1993.
Cesar, A. M. (1973). Muslims in the Philippines. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/

X8F2vz
Dimaro, M.L. (1989). State and Government: An Islamic Perspective. Mindanao

Islamic Journal (vol. 2, no. 1).
149
El Kardani, Muhammad Fathi (1898). The Philosophy of Physical Education

in Islam: Islam Today. Journal of the Islamic Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (ISESCO). July 1989
Ibn Hisham, Abi Muhammad Abdul Malik, Siratun Nabawiyyah. Darus Sahabah
Litturas, 1995.
Inosanto, D. (1982). Absorb what is useful. Know Now Publishing Company.

Retrieved from https://goo.gl/4GvewP
Khamouch, Master Muhammad. (2007) 1001 Years of Missing Martial Arts.

Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. Retrieved from https://
goo.gl/C1TNUc
Lingga, A. S. M. (2007). SELF-DETERMINATION AND PEACE IN

MINDANAO. Internet: http://www. yonip. com/main/articles/Self-
determination% 20and% 20Peace% 20in, 20. Retrieved from https://goo.
gl/XMgdHk
Mustaffa, K., Ahmad, K., & Wong, K. K. (1978). Silat melayu the malay art
of attack and defence/Ku Ahmad Bin Ku Mustaffa, Wong Kiew Kit. Oxford
University. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/mJYtXw
150
Travails of Vulnerable People

in Accretion Site of Tagum City
ROQUE N. LANGCOY II
htt://orcrid.org/0000-0001-6580-0218
[email protected]
Davao Oriental State College of Science and Technology
San Isidro Extension Campus,
Davao Oriental, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The effort of the local government to answer the call for modernity and
globalization in their respective locality gains investors’ and capitalists’ interest.
It turns vast of lands into plantations (banana, palm oil, and pineapple) and
subsequently changes the life of the people. The study aimed to explore the
following: determine the demographic profile of the settlers in accretion site, and
design an enhancement program. The study used an in-depth interview using a
semi-structured questionnaire to gather data, using descriptive survey aided with
researcher-made questionnaire employed to all 43 family settlers in accretion
site. Results showed that most of the respondents are Christians, married, less
educated, doing menial jobs to support their family and children, and have
experienced colds, cough, fever, skin diseases, and dehydration. Moreover, the
family respondents significantly showed interest in participating livelihood
programs, to know about the prevention of communicable diseases, birth control,
and raising children with good nutrition. This investigation concludes therefore
that people become vulnerable in places where development happened due to less
151
educational attainment, and they move to dangerous places to feed and earn a
living for their families and children. But if given the chance people are willing to
engage in activities that would help elevate their economic condition.
Keywords — Social Science, Vulnerable People, include accretion site

Descriptive survey, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
The movement of globalization has adversely affected human activity like

livelihood, education, health, communication, and culture. Countries have
several issuances, and acumen favorable to international standard has put into law
to get greater heights in attracting global market and in protecting the economic
stability of a country. Many vulnerable individuals have lost jobs, livelihood and
identify in embracing globalization. Kiggundu (2002) stipulated that vulnerable
countries on globalization contribute the highest number of immigrants and
refugees; hence, human and intellectual capital moves out due to an unsafe
environment. Africa, Russia, and the Middle East suffer from a brain drain in
favor of Western Europe, USA, Canada, and Australia. Furthermore, culture and
spirituality are important ingredients on the implementation of globalization
with established mechanism and traditions of valuing diverse population. A
multicultural country without established standard cannot exist in globalization.
In Asia, Frenckel and Kuruvilla (2002) reported that the uneven level status
of Employment Relation (ER) could be a potential cause of troubles in the
implementation of a borderless market of employment. It is evident in the nation’s
economic strategy, the intensity of globalization, government responsiveness to
workers’ expectations, labor market features and union strength. The following
countries exhibited different ER patterns: India is regulated protected, China is
constrained competitive, Philippine is deregulated competitive and Malaysia is
protective competitive.
The impact of globalization in the Philippines, using the data on aggregate
and sub-industry level of manufacturing is very much positive. It displayed an
increasing openness of economy due to ratio’s increase in export and import
over the years. Added to the feature is the increase of female participation in
employment (Orbita, 2002). In Mindanao, Medina (2015) revealed that Tagum
City leads in Local Sustainability Development Index (LSDI) regarding social
impact among the six cities in Southern Mindanao. These include health and
152
nutrition, and quality education. It also showed enough score on economic

(puberty reduction and infrastructure services) and ecological (forest protection
and solid waste management) indicators.
Vulnerable communities and groups are given assistance through different
approaches, but among them, increasing literacy is found to be more efficacious
in Tagum City. The Palengkeskwela or school in the market program is for out of
school youth to learn values education and health awareness campaigns, financial
literacy and management, and peace education. The said program garnered an
award as a hall of fame in the National Literacy and bronze medal under the King
Sejong Prize of UNESCO for 2011.
The LGU is always doing everything to answering the need of the community.
Most often the intervention activities are on skills acquisition, empowerment and
lifelong learning skills. However, in job market, those who obtain a degree gets
hired, but those who have no education were displaced in their territory and
live a nomadic life. In the accretion site of Pandapan, Tagum City is one of the
destinations of this group coming from the nearby municipalities and provinces.
The area is an accretion quarry, and as the years go by, the number of settlers is
increasing; hence, the researcher conducted an assessment. The objectives of the
study are to draw the family demographic profile of the respondents, evaluate
the livelihood activity, health and common illness they experience, and design an
enhancement program.
FRAMEWORK
This study utilizes the Community Development Framework (CDF) which

proven successful in uplifting the lives of the poor and vulnerable groups in
several communities. It always aims at providing programs or activities to alleviate
the problematic condition of the community based on the current experiences,
resources and favored undertakings of the community members. The principles
of community development lolled in the foundation of shaping the future by
connected efforts and getting pair-share of responsibility among individual
community members, organisations, and government institutions.
In Ottawa, Canada, CDF is used in identifying local community issues and
strengths, deciding on the changes the community wants to make and set goals
and in building on neighborhood strengths, and developing skills and support
to make the changes happen. Added to this the State of Western Australia
also adopted CDF with the following priorities: safeguarding, developing and
153
transmitting Noongar culture, providing capacity building and leadership,

housing, youth, health and education for five years (Noongar Negotiation Team
and the South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council, 2013). Furthermore,
according to Greater Shepparton City Council (2010), CDF is implemented in
their community program with the following focus: people, place, participation,
and partnership. Nevertheless in the Philippines, Luna (2009), strongly suggests
that CDF is utilized as an approach to reducing risk among flash-flood affected
families in Albay, whereas; Yap and Cabalfin (2008) stipulated that governments
have to prioritize the social services like education, health, and sanitation in
developing better communities.
METHODOLOGY
The study employed the descriptive survey method of research which is de-
signed to gather data and information necessary to the study. This method was
used to describe the community as the target of the inquiry. The researcher ex-
plores the experiences of the community in accretion site of Pandapan, Tagum
City.
The conduct of the survey lasted for 6 months. Interviews and collection
of the data were in the month of January to March 2013. The study used an
in-depth interview using a semi-structured questionnaire to gather data needed
for the study. Its method emulated that of the study conducted by Bartilet, and
Estoque (2007), and Retome, Estrella, Sarvida, Yaoyao, Garcia, and Granada
(2012).
The instrument has three parts. The first part asked about the family demo-
graphic profile of the settlers with three item questions. The second part inquired
about the livelihood of the respondents with three-item questions and the third
part inquiries about the health-related experiences in the previous year.
All head of the families residing in the community of accretion site of Tagum
City participated in this probe, which totaled to 43 families; four of which are
headed by single parents. The majority of the respondents are members of the
Indigenous People (IPs) and are Christian. Most of them are coming from Laak,
Compostela Valley, a municipality in the next province about 85 km in the
distance from Tagum City.
The activity of the study started with asking permission to conduct the
research in the site from the Department of Interior and Local Government
(DILG), Tagum City, as well as to the Chieftain of Pandapan. Upon approval,
154
the researcher personally asked permission to each settler’s head of the family that
they will be included as informants. They gave their verbal consent after being
provided with adequate information. Data were tabulated and organized using
frequency and percentage. Moreover, enhancement program was formulated
based on the collected information.
All participants provided the written informed consent before questionnaires
were administered to them. As for the illiterate informants, they verbally
bestowed consent right after a substantial orientation and after some clarification
of concerns regarding the study.
The information gathered in the conduct of the study was treated properly,
organized and transliterated. The following are the results of the investigation.
Parents in Education. Results of the study revealed that of the husbands
(29 or 70.73%) and wives (33 or 80.49%) have reached elementary level. None
of them has finished college but two husbands reached college and one wife
reached vocational education. It is noted that seven (17.07%) husbands and five
(12.20%) wives have no education at all. They cannot even recognize letters or
numbers.
All countries over the world keep on targeting of 100% literacy rate but
sad to note that there are communities whose member have not able to step
in school for formal education. Results of the study have affirmed the report
of Hall and Patrinos (2004) that the school participation of minority groups
all over the world is quite minimal. In India, almost 60% of non–Scheduled
Tribes attended secondary level, only 40% of the scheduled tribes do a gap that
has held pretty constantly since 1945. In Africa and Taiwan, some women have
not attended schooling than men, and it is increasing. According to Malin, &
Maidment (2003), the factors on education participation among vulnerable
people include the standard of living, health, housing, and employment. These
factors continuously dominate to impede personal growth and life improvement
aligned with education. Dhir, (2015) conveyed that many vulnerable groups
are engaging in trades with outsiders, working as laborers in some commercial
agricultural industries with a very minimal salary, while fighting for instances
of discrimination, lack of education and opportunity. They are being hired to a
company and not given a chance to be promoted because of the level of education
they have.
155
Number of Children. In terms of the number of children, it was discovered

most of the family has two children (10 or 24.39%) and second highest with one
child (9 or 21.95%) followed by three children with 7 (17.07%) while only one
family who has 1 (2.44%) child. Furthermore, the average number of children
the 41 families was 3.15. It also shows that all families who settle in the accretion
site have offspring. Furthermore, the age of 126 children age reached over 20
years old. Most of the children lie within the age of above 20 years old with
16.67% followed by age range of 5 – 6 and 7- 8 years old both with 18 or
14.29% and by age ranged 3 – 4 years old with 14 or 11.11%.
On the other hand, the lowest in the age range of 17-20 years old. Results
of the study exhibit that the concentration of children is within the age range of
1 – 10 years old. From one year onward an increasing number of children as the
age go up is so obvious.
For the settlers of the accretion site, children are treasures for the couple.
The number of children a family has, the more advantage they will get; hence
it will help the family to earn a living, defend the family on any dispute and
maintain the respectable name of parents. Among them, family planning is not
into practice. Some of these settlers get married or get a partner as young as 14
years old and have delivered a baby with the same age. Accordingly, the settlers
of the accretion site also enunciated that having children today is very expensive
even if babies will be feed on rice porridge.
The outcome of the study aligns with the report of Patrinos, & Psacharopoulos
(1996) stated that indigenous people are among the vulnerable group, but they
treat their children as wealth and source of happiness. It shows that the age
structure of children is significant in doing livelihood activities. Human Rights
and Equal Opportunity Commission (2007) added that the Aboriginal people
have a strong extended family value system. Children in the communities are
also the concern of the extended family and not only by the biological parents.
Moreover, they are after with raising, nurturing, educating, and training the
children. Cuizon (2007) even reported that the Sama tribe of the Philippines
raised children and taught them that there is one creator who protects the
environment. This group also believes of not owning property but instead sharing
of food, resources and services were among the practices.
Children Education Level. Another result of the study underscores that
most of the children have no education with 43 or 34.13%; followed by grade
1 – 2 with 36 or 28.57%, while the highest stage is the only high school with 1
or 0.79% followed by high school level 1 – 2 with 2 or 1.59%. Although there
156
were a lot of children ages 16 years old and above, only three have experienced
high school education. Another point is that there are 43 children who don’t
have the education, yet only 23 are under 6 years old. Despite the national and
international awards garnered by Tagum City on literacy, this small community
had disclosed the majority of children do not have a formal education yet.
Community member informants also underscored that most of their children
had stopped schooling even at the lower grade level. Hence, in times of no
planting and harvesting of bamboos or every end of the harvest season, they need
to move to other places to earn a living bringing their whole family and children.
This situation causes attrition of children in school. Furthermore, children are
requested to help their parents in doing livelihood activities as early as eight years
old.
This fact corroborates to the report of Patrinos & Psacharopoulo (2001) that
among vulnerable people having a greater number of younger siblings implies
more age-grade distortion and a higher probability for child labor. This practice is
evident until now, both for practical reason and traditional credence. De Felício,
Terra, and Zoghbi (2012) also stated that children who live with their parents,
with a small family and enjoying better socioeconomic status are performing
better in school compared to disadvantaged children. Moreover, mothers’ level of
education determines also the performance of children in school.
In addition to that, Verola (2009) reported that in 1970s vulnerable children
including IP students had shown major deficiencies in the reading, mathematics,
and language among the elementary graduates in the Philippines. Moreover, this
poor performance reflected in the 2007-2008 National Achievement Test (NAT)
result of Compostela Valley IP schools. Also, in 2010’s NAT result for Grade Six
in which most schools including IP schools did not reach 75%. These students
often leave school due to poor academic performance, bullying and familial
obligations.
Although, this accretion site in Tagum City have shown data of none access
to education the Philippine government millennium goal was set to eliminate
illiteracy by providing Filipino greater access to education with the program
Education For All (EFA). Several legal bases were implemented to support this
goal. It started with the 1987 constitutions which assure equal opportunity for
all Filipino learners. The RA 10533 known as enhanced basic education program
which defines the current K to 12 program of DepEd which also allows five years
old as the entrant student in kindergarten.
157
Several modalities adopted to attract participation of children include the

4Ps program of Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD),
which gives Php 300 educational assistance for a maximum of three children, and
PHP 500 health grant per household, and DepEd (2016) has awarded voucher
privilege for those students who will enroll in private institution in Grade 11 and
12 levels. The government also provided options such as Out of School Youth
(OSY), Alternative Learning System (ALS) under Executive order no. 356, and
Formal Curriculum for Indigenous People (IPs) through RA no. 8371. There are
government scholarships in the tertiary level which can be availed by the poor but
deserving students (like the RA 10648) for top graduates of high school who wish
to enroll in SUC and RA 10687 (UniFast) a comprehensive and unified student
assistance system for tertiary education. The Philippine government never stops
in providing support and bringing children into school.
Source of income. Results of the survey revealed that the majority of husband
respondents (37 or 90.24%) are engaged in cutting and planting bamboos,
and most wives (46.34) assist with their husband in the bamboo plantation.
Aside from working in the bamboo plantation husband displayed also working
as a habal-habal driver and as a laborer in the factory, banana plantation, and
construction and animal raising both with 11 or 26.83%. Moreover, wives also
work helping their husband.
Most of the households (husbands and wives) are working with two or more
blue collars jobs with menial pay. The majority of the wives perform an economic
role in helping their husbands at the same time performing reproductive and
familial obligations. As the mothers go to work, she is bringing her small
toddlers. Children are introduced to work at a very young age but absent in
formal schooling. This scenario is one of the pictures why the cycle of illiteracy
goes on and on. This information somehow corroborates with the women in
Equador as articulated by de Marco, Larrauri, Neira, and Montiel, (2016) that it
is customary that peasant women submit to their husband or to a male member
of the family in using economic resources of the family. These women also have
engaged menial work to gain personal funds while in education, labor, rights
and health services equal rights are afforded to them. Gaps occur only in areas of
specific needs and transportation.
Nevertheless, the turning of lands from the forest into plantations of banana,
palm oil, Falcata trees and pineapple in Laak municipality (where they are from)
and the lack of opportunity to be hired in companies due to no education have
compelled these people to settle on the site temporarily. The settlers stay on the
158
site and engage in bamboo planting and other menial jobs for factories found
in nearby areas of accretion site since they lack the opportunity to be hired in
companies and the turning of lands from. About three years ago there are five
households, but now the considerable rate of the population can be observed in
the accretion site.
This picture is part of the big collage of Lumads and indigenous people
in the Philippines. Several Government programs and laws are not religiously
implemented. Some of these programs are the National Integrated Protected Area
System (NIPAS), Mining Act of 1995, IPRA, and Integrated Forest Management
Agreement (IFMA). Government agencies like DENR, NCIP and the local
bureaucrats serve as implementers of such policies of a development program.
Mining activities, operations of logging companies, banana plantations, palm
oil plantations, sugarcane and rubber plantations, and conversion of land for
infrastructure projects and tourism have affected the vast of the land of the
Lumads and indigenous people.
Furthermore, these households have the same circumstances with displaced
native people in Malaysia particularly in Kampung Selingkong, and Kampung
Meranti due to the development of their home place. The conversion of forest
to agricultural land and logging activities until 2000 has brought alternation of
their livelihood (Harun et al., 2010). In Borneo, the expansion of the logging
industry into the interior of the island has similarly destroyed traditional life
patterns. These activities have changed the farming system and have lowered the
value of farmer services (Rainforest Conservation Fund, 2011).
More so, Devitt, Tsey, & Hall (2001) declared that education is the factor
associated with the current problems of establishing stable work. Hence, those
who obtain long-term and full-time employment are those who finished their
education from primary to a college degree as one of the major requirement.
Monthly Income. The monthly income of the community members of the
settlers of the accretion site, Barangay Pandapan, Tagum City is also exposed in
this study. Results of the study displayed that a considerable number of family
declared a monthly income of one thousand pesos with 18 or 43.90% and
followed by income 1,001 – 2,500 pesos with 14 or 34.15%. Only two families
declared earning above 7,500 pesos.
Results of the study revealed a very minimal family monthly income of
households of settlers of accretion site. Indeed, these families experience hardship
in their lives. Such hardship also contributed to the poor participation rate of
the children to school. With the small amount they earn every month they just
159
prioritized the rice or corn grits, while viand comes in veggies grown from their
backyard, dried fish and bagoong were among others. Family entertainment is in
the form of viewing television with neighbors and playing basketball during spare
time. They even consider going to the city as already a luxury since the fare is 15
pesos from a habal-habal (single bicycle motor).
Serińo (2014) reported total inequality in Eastern Visayas. Wage income is
prevalent in the Philippines. The spike in income from agriculture sector reduces
inequality while the increase in wage income will tend to exacerbate inequality.
While in other parts of the world, vulnerable people have seemed to be the losing
group especially those who are engaged in agriculture. Plant (2002) described
Mexico disparity in income among households showed indigenous more than
three times than non-indigenous households. Incomes of indigenous come
mostly from planting and wage of contractual jobs. While in Vietnam, Hall
& Patrinos, (2012) stated that the social and economic situation of vulnerable
ethnic minorities has improved over the last decade, but the standard of living is
still low. These people engaged in agricultural but paid less during the selling of
their produce.
Livelihood Activity Choices. When the family respondents were asked if
what livelihood activity they wanted to learn, family respondents asserted that
they wanted to learn animal raising, food preservation and other livelihood
activities.
The respondents chose animal raising with 34 (79.07%) for chicken
raising, 29 (67.44%) for hog raising and 23 (53.49%) for goat raising. For
food preservation, the following are the responses of the family respondents:
sardines with 20 (46.51), chorizo with 19 (44.19%), tocino with 12 (27.91%),
candy making with 2 (4.65%) and pickles with 1 (2.33). For other activities the
borloloy making ranked highest with 13 or 30.23%, followed by farming with
11 or 25.58%, manicure, and pedicure with 8 or 18.60% and sawing with 2 or
4.65%.
The high response has shown the interest of the tribe to acquire skills that
will help them succeed in their quest of uplifting their financial capability
through raising of animals and their prior knowledge in doing this activity.
Food preservation, on the other hand, also showed comparable votes along with
farming, pedicure, manicure and borloloy making.
The responses of the households in accretion site have given an impression
that they long to improve their current economic condition by empowering
themselves with the skills and knowledge in raising animals, food preservation,
160
farming and other livelihood activities. This response is aligned with the report
of Carino (2011) stated the involvement of vulnerable people in natural resource
management differs considerably around the globe and invariably involves
compound interactions. Aside from chicken raising as the most in-demand
choice, they engage in a mix of production systems including farming, settled
agriculture, hunting and gathering, livestock raising, fishing and production and
trade in local handicrafts.
Involvement of local people is necessary for establishing sustainability,
Aryal and Subedi (2011) suggested this on musk deer farming in Nepal, while
Bebbington and Bury (2010) found out to be effective in the mining industry;
addressing disagreement, adoption of water monitoring, environmental zoning
and proper planning on land use. Albeit, Vińas, Pre, Hungria, Cruz, Alinsunurin,
Salazar, E. & League (2016) concluded that an extension program would succeed
when it is framed with the community development of the place. It would help the
beneficiaries and will influence livelihood development positively. Furthermore,
Herera (2010) declared that extension programs that are socially responsive and
sincere in addressing the needs of the community create a positive impact on the
lives of the beneficiaries over time.
In conclusion, Shaw and Kristjanson (2014) stated that building of capacity
and resilience to people who are agriculture oriented is necessary using the
inclusive strategies in implementing livelihood and capability program. It
will allow reaching the most vulnerable group of the vulnerable, women, rural
farmers, and indigenous people. In addition, it will provide a vast range of
learning opportunities from technology transfer, the greater understanding of
the program and its limit.
Common Illnesses. Results of the investigation have revealed the number
of household members who experienced illnesses in accretion site of Tagum City.
Most of the families encountered 5-6 diseases in the previous year with 13 families
or 30.23%, followed by 3-4 with 27.91% and the lowest frequency is above eight
times with 2 or 4.65%. Furthermore, almost all families have experienced cold
with 42 or 97.67%, cough with 41 or 95.35%, and fever with 40 or 93.02,
skin diseases with 27 or 62.79% and LBM with 26 or 60.67%. Despite the
effort of the Local Government Unit (LGU) to address the health issues of the
residents of the city, the household settlers of the accretion site remain to confine
their ill members in their homes. That is why the household in the accretion site
still experienced these common even though health workers of Barangay have
constantly implemented programs of the city.
161
Results of the study showed that the experiences of the household settlers of
accretion site of Tagum City have similar experiences with the aboriginal people
of Australia. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2010) stated that aboriginal
people are vulnerable to experience ill health than any other group living in
Australia. The following were health issues confronting them. This include diet,
diseases like cardiovascular disease, diabetes and high blood pressure, stress,
drugs, alcohol and poor children’s health. Sunday & Eyles (2001) added smoking
obesity as the leading contributors to the mortality rate. Added to this, Ring
(2003) pronounced that the said people are susceptible to experience different
contagious and none communicable diseases. Hence, this group strongly rely on
traditional indigenous health practice rather than going to a hospital for proper
wellness.
In Africa, particularly in Zambia, Anyangwe, Mtonga, and Chirwa (2006)
reported that from the year 1990 to 2003 people who move from rural to cities
have experience improvement on mortality rates of the infant in varying ages.
It is due to the efforts to campaign measles immunization and with the support
of partner agencies of the government. Owusu-Ansah, Tagbor, & Togbe (2016)
added that the majority of those who moved from Ghana and West African sub-
region to slum cities have not visited health facility and missed membership on
national health insurance. They experience malaria, dehydration, mental illness,
HIV and convulsion due to poor sanitation.
Yielded result of the study is not similar to the experience of the Ata-
Manobo in the study of Gracey & King (2003. The beliefs, customs and cultural
pattern distinct on their own have held them not to practice the latest knowledge
on managing illnesses. Health workers rarely reached them. Thus, they could
not avail the services offered by the government such as social privileges, and
economic services as compared with their other counterparts.
Health Issues. Respondents shared that they would like to experience
seminars regarding health issues. Results of the study revealed the following:
prevention of communicable diseases with 38 or 88.37%, child rearing with
25 or 58.14%, youth nutrition with 24 or 55.81 and birth control with 12 or
27.91. In the results of the study, it only showed that the tribe longs to empower
themselves with the knowledge of preventing, handling and curing illnesses.
Knowledge in nurturing children, and birth control were some things they would
have in training.
Unlike in over 80% of the world’s indigenous peoples live in Asia, Latin
America, and Africa, their health status or access to health services is not
162
given proper attention as stated by Stephens (2005). Vulnerable as they are,

access to health care is also poor for the group of people. It is often partly
due to their physical isolation and cultural belief. The World Bank (2011) in
India and Vietnam, where poverty reduction achievements have been sizeable,
vulnerable people are less likely to be covered by health programs or received
vital vaccinations against tuberculosis, diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus, measles, and
polio. Smith (2003) and Gracey and King (2003) added that the cause of poor
health of vulnerable people is highly affected by their living condition, spiritual,
emotional, mental disconnectedness, and racism.
Table 1. The Enhancement Program

Program Activities Expected Outcome
A. Adopt 1. Establishing of a Functional
Establishment of a functional school
an Early School Building
building
Education
and 2. Training of Early
Functional Three to five community members trained
Childhood Teacher to teach Early childhood Education
School
2. Involve Pre-Service Community early childhood education
Teachers and Faculty in students were diagnosed and improved
Monitoring and Evaluation competencies in reading and numeracy
through enhancement activities
1. Training in on Animal
raising: hog, chicken and goat • Alleviate the poor economic condition
of the community members for about
2. Training on Food 10-15% increase in their income,
Preservation: Sardines, Tocino
and Chorizo • All community members families
engaged in animals raising,
B. Livelihood
Program 3. Training in Borloloy (Fancy • About 5-10 families ventured in food
accessories) making preservation business, about 3-5
engaged and earned in Cosmetology,
and
4. Training in Hair cutting,
Manicure and Pedicure • Three family beneficiaries enjoyed goat
5. Goat dispersal dispersal project.
163
C. Health 1. Medical Mission All community members (100%) family

and beneficiaries improved health conditions
Nutrition and had access to medical services.
Program
2. Feeding Reduced the number of wasted children
for 50 to 70 %.
3. Information dissemination
on Prevention of Decreased occurrence of common
Communicable Diseases, illnesses for about 70 to 80% in the
Children Nutrition, Child community.
Raising and birth Control
CONCLUSIONS
The Tagum City accretion site is occupied by vulnerable people who are
less educated, no permanent job, most of them are Christian and belongs to
Indigenous Peoples (IPs). This picture defines the vulnerable people movement
in the places where development happened. Vulnerable people always fall short
on the requirements set by the companies in hiring personnel for the workforce
they need in their operation. As a result, they migrated to places where they can
earn and feed their families and most of the time landed dangerous sites like the
accretion of Tagum City. However, this scenario is an opportunity which can
be used as avenue to extend expertise for learning institutions or serve as the
springboard in improving social services by the government agencies.
The findings of this investigation could be translated into an extension

project which can be collaborated by different stakeholders. The data and
the enhancement program can be offered to the University of Southeastern
Philippines (USeP) and to the Tagum City Local Government Unit (LGU), USeP
officials can use the results in forging an extension project in support to its degree
program offering and take the lead in finding partners in the implementation
of the proposed enhancement program for early education, livelihood activities,
and health and nutrition program. The Tagum City LGU can also the data as
a springboard in providing social services and helping alleviate the problematic
economic, education and health condition of the accretion vulnerable settlers.
164
LITERATURE CITED
Anyangwe, S. C., Mtonga, C., & Chirwa, B. (2006). Health inequities,

environmental insecurity and the attainment of the millennium development
goals in sub-Saharan Africa: the case study of Zambia. International journal
of environmental research and public health, 3(3), 217-227. Retrieved on
April 5, 2017, from doi:10.3390/ijerph2006030026
Aryal, A., & Subedi, A. (2011). THE CONSERVATION AND

POTENTIAL HABITAT OF THE HIMALAYAN MUSK DEER,
MOSCHUS CHRYSOGASTER, IN THE PROTECTED AREAS OF
NEPAL. International Journal of Conservation Science, 2(2). Retrieved on
May 22, 2017, from https://goo.gl/GI5sxJ
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2010) Aboriginal children’s health issues.

Retrieved on July 11, 2011, from https://goo.gl/AeBKy4
Bartilet, J., & Estoque, R. S. (2007). Gender Sensitivity of Freshman Students

of TIP Manila for SY 2006-2007: Inputs for Intervention Program
Development. TIP Research Journal Manila, 4(1), 1-1. Retrieved on March
19, 2017, from https://goo.gl/JBgoz8
Bebbington, A. J., & Bury, J. T. (2010). Mining, institutions and sustainability:

disagreements and challenges. Anthropologica, 28(28), 53-84. Retrieved on
May 22, 2017, from https://goo.gl/2hYfv7
Yap, J. T., & Cabalfin, M. R. (2008). Sustainable Development Framework for

Local Governance (No. 2008-33). PIDS Discussion Paper Series. Retrieved
July 5, 2017 from https://goo.gl/AYrxpY
Carino, J. (2011). Poverty and well-being. State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples,
13-49. Retrieved May 05, 2016 from https://doi.org/10.18356/e92ca6a3-
en
Cuizon, R. O. (2007). Community-based forest management policy and the

cultural practices of the Sama tribe. Liceo Journal of Higher Education
Research, 5(1). Retrieved from doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/ljher.v5i1.9
165
Felício, F. D., Terra, R., & Zoghbi, A. C. (2012). The effects of early childhood
education on literacy scores using data from a new Brazilian assessment
tool. Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo), 42(1), 97-128. Retrieved April 5,
2017 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0101-41612012000100004
DepEd (2016). DepEd to re-open application for Senior HS Voucher Program.

Retrieved May 20, 2017 from http://www.deped.gov.ph/k-to-12/senior-
high-school/voucher-program/
Devitt, J., Tsey, K., & Hall, G. (2001). An introduction to the social determinants
of health in relation to the Northern Territory Indigenous population (pp. 9-19).
Darwin: Cooperative Research Centre for Aboriginal and Tropical Health.
Retrieved May 02, 2016 from https://goo.gl/7rPfSG
Dhir, R. K. (2015). Indigenous peoples in the world of work in Asia and the Pacific:
A status report. ILO. Retrieved May 05, 2016 from https://goo.gl/sgPkbB
Sunday, J., & Eyles, J. (2001). Managing and treating risk and uncertainty for
health: a case study of diabetes among First Nation’s people in Ontario,
Canada. Social science & medicine, 52(4), 635-650. Retrieved May 04, 2016
from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00166-0
Gracey J. H. & King, G. D. (2003). The Burden of Disease and Injury in

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples 2003, Brisbane: University of
Queensland Journal. Retrieved May 05, 2016 from https://goo.gl/LJlQvg
Greater Shepparton City Council (2010). Greater Shepparton Community

Development Framework. Retrieved on July 5, 2017 from https://goo.gl/
MNsR4d
Hall, G., & Patrinos, H. A. (Eds.). (2004). Indigenous peoples, poverty and human
development in Latin America: 1994-2004. The World Bank. Retrieved on
May 02, 2016 from https://goo.gl/fGzxJS
Hall, G. H., & Patrinos, H. A. (Eds.). (2012). Indigenous peoples, poverty, and
development. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved on May 02, 2016 from
https://goo.gl/HTRzC4
166
Malin, M., & Maidment, D. (2003). Education, Indigenous survival and well-
being: Emerging ideas and programs. The Australian Journal of Indigenous
Education, 32, 85-100. Retrieved on May 02, 2016 from https://doi.
org/10.1017/S1326011100003859
Harun, R., Sulong, A., Wai, Y. H., Ismail, T. H., Yusoff, M. K., Manaf, L. A., &
Juahir, H. (2010). Impacts of forest changes on indigenous people livelihood
in Pekan District, Pahang. Environment Asia, 3, 156-159. Retrieved from
http://hdl.handle.net/10535/7043
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (2007). Bringing them

home. Retrieved on May 03, 2016 from https://www.humanrights.gov.au/
bringing-them-home-community-guide-2007-update
Kiggundu, M. N. (2002). Managing globalization in developing countries and

transition economies: Building capacities for a changing world. Greenwood
Publishing Group. Retrieved January 13, 2017 from https://goo.gl/oE3oMR
Luna, E. M. (2009). Community development as an approach to reducing risks

among flashflood-affected families in Albay, Philippines. Retrieved July 5,
2017 from https://goo.gl/oCKFJH
Medina, M. A. P. (2015). A proposed local sustainable development index: An

application to cities of Davao Region, Philippines. J Environ Occup Sci, 4(2),
107. Retrieved on January 20, 2017 from https://goo.gl/71hAxX
Noongar Negotiation Team and the South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council
(2013). Community Development Framework. Retrieved July 5, 2017 from
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/56cac409d51cd4381775480d/t/56d
64004d210b83d83a25cbd/1456881670177/Annexure+T+Community+D
evelopment+Framework.pdf
Ottawa (nd). About Community Development Framework. Retrieved July 5,

2017 from http://cdfcdc.ca/about-us/
Owusu-Ansah, F. E., Tagbor, H., & Togbe, M. A. (2016). Access to health in city
slum dwellers: The case of Sodom and Gomorrah in Accra, Ghana. African
journal of primary health care & family medicine, 8(1), 1-7. Retrieved April
4, 2017 from http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v8i1.822
Patrinos, H. A., & Psacharopoulos, G. (1996). Socioeconomic and ethnic

determinants of age-grade distortion in Bolivian and Guatemalan
primary schools. International Journal of Educational Development, 16(1),
3-14. Retrieved May 03, 2016 from https://doi.org/10.1016/0738-
0593(94)00043-X
Plant, R. (2002). Indigenous peoples/ethnic minorities and poverty reduction:

Regional report. Retrieved May 04, 2016 from https://goo.gl/uyohKd
Rainforest Conservation Fund (2011). Disruption of culture and livelihood of

indigenous peoples. Retrieved May 05, 2016 from https://goo.gl/WRa3bE
Republic Act No. 10533 (2012). An Act Enhancing the Philippine Basic
Education System by Strengthening Its Curriculum and Increasing the
Number of Years for Basic Education, Appropriating Funds Therefor and For
Other Purposes. Retrieved May 10, 2017 from https://www.officialgazette.
gov.ph/2013/05/15/republic-act-no-10533/
Republic Act No. 8371 (1997). An Act to Recognize, Protect and Promote the
Rights of Indigenous Cultural Communities/Indigenous People, Creating
a national Commission of Indigenous People, Establishing implementing
mechanisms, Appropriating Funds Therefor, and For Other Purposes.
Retrieved May 10, 2017 from https://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/
ra1997/ra_8371_1997.html
Republic Act No. 10648 (2014). An Act Providing Scholarship Grants to Top
Graduates of All Public High Schools in State Universities and Colleges
and Appropriating Funds Therefor. Retrieved May 10, 2017 from http://
lawlibrary.chanrobles.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&
id=85250:republicact-10648&catid=2179&Itemid=738
168
Republic Act No. 10687 (2015). An Act Providing for Comprehensive and
Unified Student Financial Assistance System for Tertiary Education
(UniFAST), thereby Rationalizing access thereto, Appropriating Funds
therefor and other Purposes. Retrieved May 10, 2017 from https://www.
officialgazette.gov.ph/2015/10/15/republic-act-no-10687/
Retome, V. G., Estrella, N. C., Sarvida, A., Yaoyao, I., Garcia, G. C., & Granada,
D. (2012). Instructional Assessment of Technology and Livelihood Education
(TLE) Program. JPAIR, 83. Retrieved March 19, 2017 from https://goo.gl/
yBfkSs
Shaw, A., & Kristjanson, P. (2014). A catalyst toward sustainability? Exploring

social learning and social differentiation approaches with the agricultural
poor. Sustainability, 6(5), 2685-2717. Retrieved May 22, 2017 from
doi:10.3390/su6052685
Smith, G. H. (2003). Indigenous struggle for the transformation of education

and schooling. Transforming Institutions: Reclaiming Education and Schooling
for Indigenous Peoples, 1-14. Retrieved May 05, 2016 from https://goo.gl/
GPyNsP
Stephens, C., Nettleton, C., Porter, J., Willis, R., & Clark, S. (2005). Indigenous
peoples’ health—why are they behind everyone, everywhere?. The
Lancet, 366(9479), 10-13. Retrieved on May 06, 2016 from https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66801-8
PRE, R. B., HUNGRIA, N. B., CRUZ, F. M. D., ALINSUNURIN,

R. P., SALAZAR, E., LEAGUE, R. A. S., & VINAS, N. J. (2016).
Impact of Extension Programs of Pamantasan ng Cabuyao on its
Beneficiaries. Interdisciplinary Research Journal, 1(1), 1-1. Retrieved from
https://goo.gl/ypxxAz
World Bank (2011).Journal on the Indigenous peoples still among the poorest of
the poor. Retrieved June 12, 2011 from https://goo.gl/G4ZVK5
169
Multidisciplinary Research
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is published four times a year by

Philippine Association of Institutions for Research (PAIR).
Send inquiries to:

[email protected]
[email protected]
Articles may be research manuscripts and notes on original and applied

research, research reviews and notes on issues, problems and discoveries of
interest to researchers and stakeholders.
All papers undergo double-blind review. The Editorial Board makes

the final decision on the acceptability of a manuscript after reviewing the
compliance of the researcher to the instructions of the peer reviewers.
The editorial policy is published in this issue and can be accessed

through the journal website at www.philair.ph/publication.
View publication stats

Malacapayjpair

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Malacapayjpair

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Malacapayjpair

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Teachers Performance in Relation to Pupils Academic

Article in JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research · February 2019

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Al-Assad Omar, Ph.D.

Jamilah Yusof, PhD

AIMS AND SCOPE

Print ISSN 2012-3981 • Online ISSN 2244-0445

© 2018 by JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research

1 Nurse Turnover: Implication on Health Care Delivery

23 Oral Language Proficiency Level of International Business

40 Presoaking Treatment of Soybean [Glycine max (L.)

57 Status of the Cultural Heritage Sites and Structures

72 Teachers Performance in Relation to Pupils Academic

89 The Initiatives of Local Government

107 Sexism in English Reference Books

121 Education, Second Courser, and non-College of Education

132 Martial Arts among the Bangsamoro Muslim: History,

151 Travails of Vulnerable People in Accretion Site

Policy on Digital Preservation

Policy on Handling Complaints

Policy on Conflicts of Interest

Publication Ethics and Publication Malpractice

The Peer Review System

Recruiting Referees. The task of picking reviewers is the responsibility of

Reviewers and editors are responsible for providing constructive and

In situations where the referees disagree substantially about the quality of a

Technology-based Quality Assurance

Gunning Fog Index. Developed by Robert Gunning, an American

Plagiarism Detection. Contributors are advised to use software for plagiarism

Appropriateness of Citation Format. Contributors are advised to use the

Word Count, Spelling and Grammar Checks. Contributors are encouraged

I. Qualifying Standards for Electronic Submission

A full manuscript should pass the following criteria:

Criterion 1: Scope, Newness and Relevance/Applicability to International

Criterion 2: Results of Plagiarism, Grammar and Readability Check – 20%

• The manuscript obtains the minimum result: plagiarism detection – 95%;

Criterion 3: Quality of References – 20%

Criterion 4: Completeness of Parts – 15%

• Each part of the manuscript contains appropriate and sufficient substance.

Manuscript Formatting Guide

Title by Scope: Categorizing Communication Strategies in the Oral

Title by Result: Fillers, Mime and Self-Repetitions as Most Frequently Used

Keywords — Linguistics, communication strategies, descriptive design,

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For Social Sciences:

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

• Acknowledge service agencies that funded the study (required).

work. Literature must be traceable online from peer-reviewed, indexed,

Bei, G. X. (2012). Effects of Immediate Repetition in L2 Speaking Tasks: A

NOTE: Do not label this section “Bibliography”. A bibliography contains

ADVISORY FOR LITERATURE CITED

1. Traceability refers to the verification by independent parties of the original

Nurse Turnover: Implication

KATHLEYA GRACE N. PEGARRO

Originality: 100% • Grammar Check: 100% • Plagiarism: 0%

Nurse turnover is a major problem to all health care organizations because of

While nursing is one of the fastest growing profession (United States

and compensation package (Asegid, Belachew, and Yimam, 2014, McHugh