WIV

Conference Papers Series
No. 14
World Improvised Verse Singing
Edited by Xabier Irujo
Center for Basque Studies Press

University of Nevada, Reno
Tis book was published with the generous support of
the Basque government
William A. Douglass Center for Basque Studies

Conference Papers Series, no. 14

Series Editor: Xabier Irujo
Center for Basque Studies
Reno, Nevada 89557
http://basque.unr.edu
Copyright © 2017 by Center for Basque Studies

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of
America.
Cover photo by Conny Beyreuther, courtesy of
Xenpelar Dokumentazio Zentroa
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Irujo Ametzaga, Xabier, editor.
Title: World improvised verse / edited by Xabier Irujo.
Description: Reno, Nevada : Center for Basque Studies Press,
University of
Nevada, Reno, [2017] | Series: Conference papers series ; no. 14 |
Includes bibliographical references.
Identifers: LCCN 2018037356 | ISBN 9781935709930 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Folk poetry. | Improvisation (Music)
Classifcation: LCC PN1341 .W74 2017 | DDC 808.1--dc23 LC
record available at https://na01.safelinks.protection.outlook.
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Contents
Foreword 7
1. What Is Oral about Poetry? 13

Ruth Finnegan
2. Te Songs Improvised by the Poets 31
of the Brazilian Northeast:
Tradition, Urbanization, Expansion,
Animation of a Territory
Rougier Tierry
3. A Bertso Home: Architectures 49
of the Word and Constrictions of Gender
Jone M. Hernández García
4. Crossroad: Tradition and Modernity 83
in the Improvised Song of
Catalan Countries
Josep Vicent Frechina
Photos from Bat Batean 107
5. Singing Improvised Verses 121
to Promote the Language in Schools:
Te Case of Catalonia
Albert Casals
6. El Punto: Forms of Transmission 139
in Cuba; Knowledge and Meanings
Connected with Everyday Practice
Patricia Tápanes Suárez
7. A Strategy to Produce Your Own 147
Cultural Ecosystem:
Te Case of Bertsolaritza
Harkaitz Zubiri, Xabier Aierdi,
and Alfredo Retortillo
8. Be there. Take the foor. 179
Say something:
Bertsolaritza Schools, Agency
and Language Use
Miren Artetxe Sarasola
9. Playing It by Ear: 211
An Introduction to Welsh
Strict Metre Poetry
Eurig Salisbury
About the Contributors 221

Foreword
Improvised Songs of the World
Knowing the person next to you is a beautiful way of

getting to know yourself. People who train in bert-
solaritza (improvised verse singing) learn that les-
son from an early age, because it is in talking to the
person next to you, in the dialectical process with
that person, that you defne your own discourse and
self-image. Te sparks generated of that friction
have kept bertsolaritza alive for successive genera-
tions in the Basque Country. Here in old Europe, in
the shores of this particular corner of the Cantabrian
Sea, we’ve been singing to the reality around us cen-
tury afer century.
Slowly, however, we looked up and realized that
we were not the only ones. Tat, throughout the
world, there were other languages, other sounds and
other bodies improvising and singing verses too.
And, with creativity as our guiding principle—those
sparks borne of the dialogue between our impro-
vised song and its neighbours—the relationship be-
tween us has only grown stronger. It was in the 90s
8 World Improvised Verse Singing
that we started travelling out of the Basque Country

and, also, inviting improvised verse singers, experts
and researchers from other countries to visit us. In
2015, however, we decided to go a step further in the
Mintzola Ahozko Lantegia (Mintzola Oral Literature
Workshop), hoisted by the success of Donostia 2016
European Capital of Culture: we set a triple initiative
in motion. In the Autumn of 2015 we organized a se-
ries of encounters in Leon and the Catalan territories
with improvised verse singers from the Catalan ter-
ritories, Galicia and the Canary Islands; in the spring
of 2016 we organized special sessions in the three
administrative territories that constitute the Basque
Country (the Northern Basque Country in France,
and the Basque Autonomous Community and
Navarre in Spain), inviting over improvised singers
who, like us, perform in minority languages such as
Kurdish, Sardinian and Catalan; and, fnally, in the
summer of 2016, we organized a series of confer-
ences in Donostia. Te conferences hosted two types
of content: in the evenings we organized artistic ses-
sions with improvised verse singers from Mexico,
Wales, Cuba, the Balearic Islands, the Catalan ter-
ritories and Cyprus, as well as the Basque Country.
In the mornings, on the other hand, we organized
academic sessions with experts and researchers from
all over the world. Te articles included in this book
are the product of those morning sessions, which, in
accordance with the themes of the conference, can
be divided into fve sections:
It is a uniquely human characteristic to endeav-
our to make poetry out of oral expression, to play
Improvised Songs of the World 9
around with the meaning of words, to pay attention

to the shadows words cast. It is natural for humans
to attempt to make sparks with our spoken endeav-
ours—in any language. Taking that essential aspect
of our nature as a starting point, Ruth Finnegan of-
fers us her ideas about the subject of oral poetry.
When Basque improvised verse singers started
developing relationships with other improvised verse
singers of the world, we realized that we were part of
an ecosystem, and that there were invisible threads
that bound improvisers from Mexico, Kurdistan,
Brazil and the Basque Country together, because we
all shared three characteristics: what we do is oral,
improvised and expressed through song. It is truly
incredible how humans, in so many disparate places
of the world, have come to contemplate reality in this
same oral, improvised way, through song. Although,
of course, each culture has shaped that core idea in a
particular way, established a particular relationship
with its audience, defned a set of social functions
and developed a particular range of characteristics.
In the second section of this book, and dealing with
the specifc shape each of this forms takes in the con-
text of their common ecosystem, Tierry Rougier,
Josep Vicent Frechina, Eurig Salisbury and Patricia
Tápanes ofer a range of descriptive analyses of the
improvised songs of Brazil, the Catalan territories,
Wales and Cuba.
Besides the common ecosystem the impro-
vised songs of the world share, each improvised
song system maintains its own specifc ecosys-
tem. Bertsolaritza, for example, is contained in the
ecosystem of cultural production created in Basque

and orally. In other words: the future of Bertsolaritza
is inextricably bound to the future of the Basque lan-
guage, euskara, and, at the same time, bertsolaritza
can be said to be an infuence in the preservation of
euskara. Tis relationship between improvised song
and minority language isn’t unique to the Basque
Country—and when I say minority I am not refer-
ring to the size of the language, but to the status of
languages that cannot realize their full potential be-
cause of their context and historic conficts. Miren
Artetxe and Albert Casals deal with this subject in
their articles.
Bertsolaritza has come a long way, both in the
creative sense and in the organizational sense, by
fnding a way of putting artists and infuencers on
the same path. Our existing projects for research,
promotion and transmission stem from that collab-
oration, and from the Documentation Centre that
feeds such projects. All these projects require a good
foundation and, at the same time, for the artists and
movements involved in the creation of Basque oral
culture to maintain an ability to build bridges and re-
inforce each others’ projects, so that each discipline
can create a lively and self-sustainable movement in
turn and, together, infuence society and strengthen,
enrich and breathe new life to the Basque oral tradi-
tion. One of the main purposes of Mintzola Ahozko
Lantegia is to have an infuence in these ecosystems.
Improvised song requires an audience; in Basque
we say plazakoa da, it belongs in the town square.
And the square is public: a social, political, economic
Improvised Songs of the World 11
and cultural context. To research bertsolaritza, there-

fore, doesn’t just imply to research cultural produc-
tion: in researching cultural production, research-
ers must perforce research its context. Bertsolaritza
is a door to understanding Basque culture and the
Basque Country, to the extent that each improvised
song is an opportunity to understand the context in
which it takes place. It could be said that bertsolar-
itza holds a miniature mirror to the Basque Country
of the twenty-frst century, and that, with the turn of
the century, new approaches and perspectives have
materialized in our midst. Te gender perspective is,
perhaps, what has caused the greatest shakeup in im-
provised verse making in the last few years, and Jone
Miren Hernandez investigates this in her article.
Bertsolaritza is a self-sustaining movement
these days: there is a cohesive, powerful movement
around the creation and the support of improvised
verse-making that organizes improvised verse sing-
ing sessions and hosts a dynamic network of impro-
vised verse schools in villages—which, among other
things, are essential for transmission. In 1987 the
Bertsozale Elkartea (the Association of Improvised
Verse Singing Afcionados) was created with the ob-
jective of preserving bertsolaritza and strengthening
and energizing this farreaching movement and, now-
adays, it is a strong structure made up of volunteers
and unpaid workers that work to maintain and pro-
mote research, transmission and preservation. And
there is also the Xenpelar Documentation Centre,
which was gifed to bertsolaritza. Tis wide-ranging
movement breathes new life into the bertsolaritza
ecosystem generation afer generation. And, in the

last section of this book, Xabier Aierdi, Harkaitz
Zubiri and Alfredo Retortillo investigate this process
of regeneration of the ecosystem from the perspec-
tive of bertsolaritza’s example.
Artists who travel the world’s squares and the
organized movements around them have to refect
on many aspects along their journeys. And it is al-
ways wonderful to share those refections with oth-
ers around us, because the frst essential step in this
improvised oral tradition is to listen to what the per-
son next to you has just sung, because your response
is going to evolve from that. Since we frst looked
up and started meeting up with improvised verse
singers from outside the Basque Country, we’ve had
news of more than one hundred improvised verse
singing events. We’ve taken experts from other
countries as travelling companions in this journey
and have been able to place most of them on the Map
of Cultures we are completing at the newly restored
Xenpelar Documentation Centre. Obviously, words
are changeable and adaptable work tools and, since
the improvised sung verse tradition has words at its
core and is also changeable, we’re going to have to
continuously feed and change that map. And in that
continuous process of change, we shall come to know
ourselves by getting to know the people next to us.
1
What Is Oral about Poetry?
Ruth Finnegan
To tackle this we need, obviously, to look to two as-

pects: “poetry” and “the oral,” which I will discuss in
turn while at the same time unable to avoid a certain
amount of overlap as I do so.
So let us then start from the question of “what is
poetry?”—not as simple as we might think.
Is this?
I long for you, as one
Whose dhow in summer winds
Is blown adrif and lost,
Longs for land, and fnds—
Again the compass tells—
A grey and empty sea.
Surely yes, this is a poem.
Yet it was not a set of words written and designed
for readers or learnt in school. It was made up by an
illiterate Somali lorry driver, then sung in scrufy
town taverns, or listened to with half-attention on
the radios carried by camel riders across remote
African deserts. It is an example of the Somali genre

called balwo,1 developed by the younger urban pop-
ulation in the mid-twentieth century. Tey were in-
tense love lyrics characterized by condensed imag-
ery and deep emotion and for a time the rage among
young men.
And of course it is not just in Somalia. From many
years back Africa has been the home of song. How
about the praise song, as stirring as many a biblical
psalm, for the great king Mutesa in nineteenth-cen-
tury Uganda?
Ty feet are hammers,
Son of the forest [i.e. like a lion];
Great is the fear of thee;
Great is thy wrath;
Great is thy peace;
Great is thy power.
(Chadwick and Chadwick 1940, 579)
In twentieth-century Africa too and up to today,
in plenty, we fnd unwritten songs of every kind, long
or short, high art or popular, with fxed wording or
extemporized, sung, danced or chanted. A lover in
Tanzania sings
My love is sof and tender,
My love Saada comforts me,
My love has a voice like a fne instrument of
music
(Tracey 1963, 20)
1. Described and illustrated in Andrzejewski ([1967] 2013).
What Is Oral about Poetry? 15
While a cheerful love song by a young man in

East Africa goes
All things in nature love one another.
Te lips love the teeth,
Te beard loves the chin,
And all the little ants go “brrr-r-r-r” together.
(Tracey 1963, 20)
Elsewhere too. From India the Gond lover’s
Looking, looking, my eyes broke open
I could not say a word and she has gone away
(Hivale and Elvin 1935)
or the Ancient Irish, translated as
My grief o’ the sea
How the waves of it roll
For they heave between us
And the love of my soul
(Hyde 1893, 2)
Are such songs ‘poetry’? When I embarked on
my Oral Literature in Africa away back in the 1960s
it was a question I had to face.
Te frst thing I learnt was that in Africa—oh
and everywhere, including at home (I remembered
the many songs of my native Ireland that I had not
really thought about before—there is great virtue in
starting from some “exotic” context where all seems
new and noteworthy before returning to study one’s
own, too familiar, culture) and, of course, in Basque
country too, most notably—I learnt that songs can

indeed be poems: words musicalised. I should not
have been surprised for was this not how poetry be-
gan? Do we (that is, students of English literature)
not speak of Elizabethan lyrics, frst sung, now stud-
ied as poetry? Or, perhaps less studied, but some-
times equally lovely, the words of hymns, Lieder or
pop songs?
So too with African songs. When I listen to the
sung words, there I fnd poetry. And all the better for
the combination too, the arts that ancient and medi-
aeval thinkers so rightly joined together in the con-
cept of musica—”sung words.” And if this is true of
them, as of African literature, so too, surely, of Native
American, or Indian, or Maori songs. Or Basque.
Sometimes these oral, unwritten, wordings seem
pretty unappealing it is true. At frst sight anyway.
Take the opening of a lament in Ghana
Grandsire Gyima with a slim but generous
arm . . .
How, well, unpoetic!
But the analysis in Nketia’s ground-breaking
Funeral Dirges of the Akan shows how each word had
poetic associations and imagery. Tey give the whole
an intense, emotional, metaphorical depth. I suspect
that someone unacquainted with English literature
would similarly fnd little poetic in Shakespeare’s
opening, full of “ordinary” words:
Like as the waves make towards the pebbled
shore
So do our minutes hasten towards their

end . . .
Or, perhaps my own (and others’) favourite
Shakespeare sonnet,
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
Tou art more lovely and more temperate.
For us, each word and its associations (I need not
spell them out I think) has poetic weight, it is even
more so when they are brought together in a metric
line. Is that depth of culturally-transmitted overtone
too not a characteristic of poetry? And in Ghana—or
anywhere—as in Europe?
And the sound. When I look at—or rather listen
to—the poems I encounter, whether in full collec-
tions, anthologies, gravestones or even written up on
the walls of toilets, or inside the carriages of London
underground trains—I have to read them aloud, at
least in my mind, before I can really feel them as po-
etry. Are you not the same?
Teir sound is so lovely. It is not just the metre or the
rhyme (“end assonance”), though those are ofen an
important feature of the words that make them not
just any old words. It is also the resonances ad as-
sonances within and between lines, fowing through
and bringing sound and sense into the heart.
We surely demand of poetry that it should have
something of this depth, of emotion, sound and
sense, qualities that draw us somehow into the eter-
nal, the universal. William Blake put it so perfect-
ly—“to see the world in a grain of sand. . . .” We fnd
this in Africa too, and literature, written or unwrit-

ten, past or present, throughout the world.
Tere is something about imagery too. Written
or unwritten the metaphorical depth of poetry takes
us beyond the here and now into a universality of
understanding—perhaps of a challenge of under-
standing, to, again, Blake’s “world in a grain of sand.”
Such imagery, mark you, such meaning can indeed
be expressed in writing—but it does not depend on
writing. It is as clear in oral verbal creations as in the
formulations by and for the literate.
Poetry too is surely characterized by a kind of in-
tensity, a densely wrought and felt clustered node of
emotion. Hard to defne, for it somehow involves all
our feelings and in a way has to be learnt and inter-
nalized, ofen only semi-consciously, alongside other
aspects of the culture—and indeed of the life of the
heart. It is conveyed, must be conveyed, with the
greatest immediacy by—again, sound, ofen though
not always musically marked too, as in hymns and
other sung lyrics. Let me recall too the great orato-
rios of the west that so miraculously combine word,
tune, and rhythm in their performances. Like other
true poetry they must be performed to live. Few are
equipped to grasp their full meaning from the score
alone any more than the silent reader of a printed
verse can grasp its import and, so deep too, its ambi-
guities. (Tink of the poems and poetic passages that
have meant the most to you—can you really fully feel
them without at least some acoustic resonance?).
Repetition too—the mark of music and its over-
lapping art of poetry. It can be repeated words or
lines, at least in their sound, their rhythm their echoic

resonances; of rhyme; of parallelism or alliteration.
Repetition, that is, of structure or of sound. Tink of
the parallelism (repeated but slightly altered echoing
and balance) so evident in the poetic passages of the
Bible
A day of darkness and of gloominess.
A day of clouds and of thick darkness,
(Te Bible, Joel 2.2)
Or the alliteration (consonant repetition—which
of course has to be sounded if, like most other features
of poetry, it is to work) well conveyed in Michael
Alexander’s alliterating translation of the picture of
the oral poet in the Old English poem of Beowulf,
one that needs to be read aloud, that is orally, for its
full poetic impact
Whose tongue gave gold to the language
Of the treasured repertory, wrought a new
lay
Made in the measure. Te man’s structure
found the phrase,
Framed rightly the deed of Beowulf
(Alexander 1966, 18)
So—music, sound, sense, imagery, sonic and
poetic associations, emotional intensity, repetition,
a sense of universality behind ofen quite ordinary
words: a path for living (afer all what are poems but
a mere collocation of words, words made deep and
rich as they are breathed and heard in artistry?). All
these things, for me, together make up what I would

call a poem. Ultimately, though, none of that is
enough. It does not need me to tell you that whether
in Spain, Africa or Elizabethan England a poem can
only live in the breathing of the individual soul, the
reader, above all the listener.
So, with these features, words, whether written or
not, extemporized or fxed, can be poetry—if we will
but listen. For—and here is the point—it must be
clear that none of this depends on writing. A poem
can live—in a sense must live—in its sonic qualities,
its performance: in short, its orality.
I learnt another lessons too from Oral Literature
in Africa and also, in a more immediate way, close to
home, in constructing my Poems from Black Inked
Pearl (please excuse me using my own work: it is
what I know it the best, also it so well illustrates the
issues I want to draw your attention to). What is “po-
etry” and what “prose”?
Tis posed a startling challenge. Surely extract-
ing the poems that studded my novel and setting
them in separate publications should be easy! Tey
were the bits characterized in the printed novel by
jagged right-hand edges as against the justifed even
print of the main story. But I already knew from my
work both on Oral Literature in Africa and, more di-
rectly, from Oral Poetry, that the western convention
for presenting poems in print is just that—a conven-
tion, and a limited culture-specifc one too, one that
understandably merely takes advantage of the avail-
able technology (print) but with nothing universal
about it. In other writing schemes (the Chinese of
Mayan for example, or the systems of ancient Greece

or Egypt) poems are presented diferently. Even in
our own the same poem can—and ofen has been—
equally be set with long lines or broken up as shorter
with or without stanza divisions, even without lines
at all so they look like—well, like prose.
I knew from my comparative reading about oral
forms in Africa, Native America and the South Pacifc
that in that context the distinction between “prose”
and “verse” is a slim one—a continuum rather than
a clear division, and that (so well pointed out by Dell
Hymes 1970) many texts presented as prose could
equally, or better, be set as verse. Indeed when I re-
read my novel again in what I now know is its full
form, that is, aloud—or similarly with other exam-
ples of what has been regarded as “poetic prose”
(think of James Joyce or Walt Whitman or Dylan
Tomas for instance, or the sonorous biblical “prose”
of John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress)—it ofen sounds
like poetry. Somehow, as with many African stories,
it has an inherent rhythm and resonance about it,
feeling almost like a kind of blank verse throughout.
So, depending how you defne “poetry,” the
printed format(s) you frst encounter can be a rough
initial guide but by no means an infallible one to hat
you might want to count poetry. Indeed now that I
re-read the novel, especially when I read it in its true
medium, that is, aloud, I fnd that it is all in a way
poetic in the senses indicated above, a point made
in several of its many reviews. I wrote it the way it
was given to me (from my unconscious? written by
another hand, perhaps a century, a millennium ago?
Who knows?) and it has turned out to be in a kind of

blank verse where sound seems in a way as import-
ant as sense.2
Further, when I sent my manuscript to New York
for my lovely Garn Press publishers, I found that I
had sometimes hesitated as to how my words should
be set: as “prose” or as “verse”? In fact I must tell
you that at the last minute I changed some of what
I thought of as poems into a “prose” setting, think-
ing that too much verse-like text might be of-put-
ting. Te publishers, afer thinking about it, changed
them back! I in turn changed some of the Homeric-
type similes in the novel—intense, emotional, above
all deeply metaphorical—from the prose format in
the novel into poetic form for Poems from Black
Inked Pearl. Tis verse-prose continuum is apparent
above all in oral, unwritten, words. But it is visible
too through the fxed-like format of modern print.
Because of this prose-verse continuum3 I make no
apology for also including other passages in the po-
etry collection that were not, in the original novel,
set as verse. Tis applies particularly to the similes
I have just mentioned which, like the overt poems,
mark intensifed points in the narrative. Some are
Homer’s own in the sense of being taken from one
or other of the translations of those great epics the
Iliad and the Odyssey. Others are my own creation.
2. I would, for this reason, like one day to read Black Inked
Pearl in oral form, that is, as an audio book, perhaps, in the
way of many oral poets, embroider and vary a little as I go.
3. Elaborated further in Finnegan (1992).
Or rather—I believe that Homer delivered many dif-

ferent versions with subtly difering wording on the
many occasions of his performances and we only
have the text of one or at most two of these. Tese are
the beautiful, insightful, similes that he might have
delivered. I wonder sometimes whether in some
sense he actually did and somehow wished them to
be captured and disseminated in later centuries. If
so, here at last they are within the covers of the Black
Inked Pearl.
Let me now return to the question of what is oral
about poetry? Or rather, let me start from the (possi-
bly) rather simpler “How is poetry oral?”
So far I have laid the main stress on the sonic
quality of oral poetry (central in oral stories too in-
cidentally, the main theme of my study of Limba sto-
ry-telling (Finnegan 1967)). Tis is indeed a central
feature, something that scholars of the past were un-
derstandably less aware of but that now, with audio
recording, we can capture and analyze, so that now
the sonic features of oral poetry shout out at us. Tis
is right. But it is worth remembering too that per-
formance is also multi-sensory. Sight (especially in
gestures and kinesics generally, but also through cos-
tume, accouterments, settings), many dimensions of
sound (not just voice, fundamental as that ofen is,
and not just volume or dynamics), proxemics, some-
times too fragrance, touch, atmosphere.
Above all we need to recall the role of audiences
and their active participation and expectations.
Indeed it is the audience, not just the poet, who
know, and recognize with, yes, once-again-renewed
delight, the familiar themes and settings, and who

know well—even, at times, joyously welcome the
subversion of—the anticipated space (more, or less)
for the beauties of stability, of fuidity or of extempo-
rization. Even if below the level of explicit conscious-
ness, listeners are likely to be fully aware of, and ex-
pectant of, the generic conventions: of the expected
forms of repetition (in true poetry there is always, I
think, an element of this), of the anticipated rhyme
scheme—wait for it …—of the ending clausulae, of
the stanzaic structure, the intellectual twist or para-
dox at the end, and in some cases the music. Tink
of the wonderful extemporized decima genre where
both singer and hearers feel the anticipations almost
in their bodies. And the famous Basque extempo-
rized poetry about which I have ofen heard my dear
friend John Miles Foley talking so enthusiastically, I
won’t venture to try to present any, but sit back for
a moment those of you who know. I think you will
be hearing them in your bodies, your ears. Once we
have experienced it, the echoic resonances of poetry
remains with us.
So much for the oral qualities of unwritten po-
etry. But, our fnal question, starting from the other
end, can written poetry be “oral”? and if so in what
sense(s)?
I think I can be brief, for once we think it through
the answer is obvious. Among other things it is well
demonstrated in the ancient and mediaeval worlds
where, as was the norm for publication and dissem-
ination, “publication” essentially meant reading the
manuscript aloud to an audience. Now it may be
not just in (silent) print form but in the popularity

of broadcasts and audio books, in “the flm of the
book,” and in internet blogs and video trailers (all
of these sometimes, as I have found myself, as mov-
ing and meaningful as the printed texts themselves).4
So too in the many poetry-reading and—recital
groups with their thronged audiences that in the past
years (but maybe long before too) have sprung up
throughout the world, or the prolifc competitions in
the oral delivery of well known (written) poetry in
both schools and the adult world. Ten there is the
Victorian tradition, by no means totally absent in the
world today, of couples reading aloud to each other
at bedtime, and, everywhere, parents and teachers
introducing children to the joys of poetry through
their aloud-reading of nursery and other rhymes,
and playground children enjoying the beauties of
songs, chants and rhymes, captured in writing in-
deed (Opie and Opie 2001) but in their composition
and dissemination fully oral.
Let us however tackle the oral-ness of written
forms more directly by returning to our beautiful
Shakespeare poems. What about that most lovely
and unfading of love poems:
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
Tou art more lovely and more temperate.
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of
May,
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date.
4. https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=JxYo2bKbmJw ;
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=BtTqN-62PhE
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,

And ofen is his gold complexion dimmed;
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance, or nature’s changing course,
untrimmed;
But thy eternal summer shall not fade,
Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st,
Nor shall death brag thou wand’rest in his
shade,
When in eternal lines to Time thou grow’st.
So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
(Shakespeare Sonnet 18)
Can we grasp the full feeling, even the full mean-
ing, of that poem without hearing its rhythm, its as-
sonance, its rhyme system that we know through our
ears and anticipate as it comes full circle? In short, its
sound? Yes, the typographic convention that we see
has its message too—telling us among other things
that we must think of this bit of text as a poem, hear
it as such. Some poets too have entranced us with vi-
sual efects. I think for example of George Herbert’s
famous “Easter Wings” where the visible form re-
fects and intensifes the meaning:5
Lord, who createdst man in wealth and store,
Tough foolishly he lost the same,
Decaying more and more,
Till he became
5. For further examples of visual poetry see Finnegan (2013, chap-

ter 9).
Most poore:
With thee
O let me rise
As larks, harmoniously,
And sing this day thy victories:
Ten shall the fall further the fight in me.
My tender age in sorrow did beginne
And still with sicknesses and shame.
Tou didst so punish sinne,
Tat I became
Most thinne.
With thee
Let me combine,
And feel thy victorie:
For, if I imp my wing on thine,
Afiction shall advance the fight in me.
(Herbert, Te English Poems, ‘Easter wings’)
But even here sound surely remains the key and
universal poetic element.
I recall too the sonnet from which I took the title
of my novel, Black Inked Pear (the fnal line):
Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor
boundless sea,
But sad mortality o’er-sways their power,
How with this rage shall beauty hold a plea,
Whose action is no stronger than a fower?
O, how shall summer’s honey breath hold
out
Against the wreckful siege of battering days,
When rocks impregnable are not so stout,
Nor gates of steel so strong, but Time decays?

O fearful meditation! where, alack,
Shall Time’s best jewel from Time’s chest lie
hid?
Or what strong hand can hold his swif foot
back?
Or who his spoil of beauty can forbid?
O, none, unless this miracle have might,
Tat in black ink my love may still shine
bright.
(Shakespeare Sonnet 65)
Neither in the novel where it forms the opening
epigraph nor in this (written) paper can I convey this
poem—it must be read and heard aloud. Te heavy
sonorous beat of the opening line, conveying so well
the claim of permanence, the familiar and beautiful
structure and rhyme scheme when you wait for each
rhythmic beat and line end that, when they come,
sound so inevitable and right; and the battering
blunt sound of the “wreckful siege of battering days”
and strong “gates of steel.” Not apparent at frst but
beating through any efective reading are, too, the
thrusting labiovelar ‘b’ sounds or the stirring ‘r’s of
the octet—not rhyme exactly but vividly conveying
that assonant oral feel. Even the twist in the fnal
couplet with its shimmering sound system needs the
pause, the silence, the surprise in the reader’s voice
to give it its full miracle as we feel, see, hear, almost
touch the light-ful eternity of the black ink print and
the never to be extinguished “brightness” of that
love—so enduring that it touches even the novel that
has taken its name.

We have no doubt all encountered these and many
many other poems—in Spanish and Italian and Latin
too of course—in written form. But as with poetry
called oral do not they too need their aloud delivery?
Can you really read them I all seriousness without to
at least some degree hearing them? And does not po-
etry that has unquestionably come to us through the
written word—think of the Bible with its Psalms, its
poetic prose—grow and reach its full import—and
only then, when read aloud? Are they too not also
sonic, resonant, auditory products?
Poetry is indeed oral. It must be.
Enough said.
References
Alexander, Michael, trans. and ed. 1966. Te Earliest
English Poems. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Andrzejewski, Bronislav W. 2013. “Te Art of the
Miniature in Somali Poetry.” African Languages
Review 6 (1967): 5–16. Reprinted in B. W.
Andrzejewski, In Praise of Somali Literature.
Milton Keynes: Callender Press.
Chadwick, H. Munro, and N. Kershaw Chadwick,
eds. 1940. Te Growth of Literature. Vol. 3.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Finnegan, Ruth. 1967. Limba Stores and Story-Telling.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
———., ed. 1978. Te Penguin Book of Oral Poetry.
Harmondsworth: Penguin.
———. 2012. Oral Literature in Africa. 2nd ed.
Open Book.
———. 2013. Communicating: Te Multiple Modes

of Human Communication. 2nd ed. London:
Routledge.
———. 2015. Black Inked Pearl, A Girl’s Quest. New
York: Garn Press.
———. 2016. Poems from ‘Black Inked Pearl’. Milton
Keynes: Callender Press.
Herbet, George, Te English Poems [any edition].
Hivale, Shamrao, and Verrier Elvin. 1935. Songs of
the Forest: Te Folk Poetry of the Gonds. London:
Allen and Unwin.
Hyde, Douglas. 1893. Love Songs of Connacht.
Dublin: Gill and Son.
Hymes, Dell. 1970. “Tonkawa Poetics.” In Native
American Discourse: Poetics and Rhetoric, ed-
ited by Joel Sherzer and Anthony C. Woodbury.
Nketia, J. H. Kwabena. 1955. Funeral Dirges of the
Akan People. London: Achimota Publishers.
Opie, Iona, and Peter Opie. 2001. Te Lore and
Language of Schoolchildren. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Shakespeare, William. Sonnets [any edition].
Tracey, Hugh. 1963. “Behind the Lyrics.” African
Music 3, no. 2: 17–22.
2
Te Songs Improvised by the Poets of the
Brazilian Northeast: Tradition, Urbanization,
Expansion, and Animation of a Territory
Tierry Rougier
As a musician and an ethnologist, I teach at the

University of Bordeaux. With a particular interest in
Latin America, in 1992 I started to research the pop-
ular singers who improvise their songs. Tat took
me to the land of Nordeste, the northeastern region
of Brazil. Tere, I found amateurs involved in im-
provised poetry: the cantadores and their admirers,
gathered in nocturnal sessions called cantorias.
Te passion for the spoken word expressed in ac-
cordance with the rules of art is a cultural element
shared throughout Latin America. Singing poetry
and tournaments among poets are widely appreci-
ated. But in Nordeste, people give supreme impor-
tance to the total improvisation of sung verses. Tat
is the art of the repente (meaning “sudden”), a local
Te chapter is based on an ethnomusicological survey conducted
in Brazil by the association CORDAE (Centre Occitan de Recher-
che, de Documentation et d’Animation Ethnographiques), BP 40, 23
Grand rue de l’Horloge, 81170 Cordes-sur-ciel, France. Tel: (33) 05
56 62 19 17; email: [email protected]; website: www.talvera.org; di-
rector: Daniel Loddo.
tradition whose vivacity is remarkable. And today,

its actors are much more numerous than ever before.
Tey are called repentistas, cantadores, or vi-
oleiros: repentistas, because they always renew their
verses; cantadores, because they are popular artists
capable of singing any subject proposed by the pub-
lic; violeiros, because they play a viola, a kind of gui-
tar emblematic of their profession.
Urbanization boosted the evolution of the re-
pente tradition, which originally appeared in the
nineteenth century in Sertão, a semi-arid rural area
of inland Nordeste. Droughts caused periodic exo-
duses from this region and Nordestinos constituted
the main contingent of migrant workers throughout
Brazil. For the last half century, they have participated
in the industrialization and the construction of large
cities. Tis rural exodus has depopulated the Sertão,
whose itinerant poets of old were transformed into
emigrant poets, following their public toward the
cities and adapting their art to the modernity.
Urbanization requires social adjustment and
cultural adaptation. In the following chapter, I will
explain the tradition of the repente, the art of the
word, whose ethics is spontaneity and adaptation; I
will then go on to show how improvising poets have
conquered new production spaces, diversifying their
activities; and fnally, I will discuss the reason for the
development of a popular expression in cities where
cultural diversity and the pressure of modernity are
real-life: the improvisers practice a form of anima-
tion combining creation and mediation.
Improvised Songs of the Brazilian Northeast 33
Improvisation: A Mobile Tradition

Te emergence of improvised verse is stimulated
by the encounter between poets and admirers in a
night session. A protocol rules traditional singing:
two singers play the viola, sitting side by side at the
foot of some wall, in front of an audience that ofen
asks them for themes or styles. Te poems are always
produced by two authors alternating the verses. Te
poetic dialogue, its emulation, and some rules (for
example the obligation to retake in the frst line the
rhyme that the other has lef at the end of his verse,
a rhyme that cannot be predicted), everything guar-
antees the authenticity of improvisation. It is the
essential value, before any other formal criteria.
In this way, the repentistas are distinguished from
the other Nordeste poets, the coquistas. Te latter
play a pandeiro or drum and usually put together a
stanza mixing memorized elements and improvised
passages. In addition to this genre, known as coco
de embolada, there are other genres of oral poetry
that are more local, such as: the coco de roda, which
combines dance, percussion, a choir, and poetry in
the coastal zones; the maracatu rural, from Nazaré
da Mata in the State of Pernambuco, in which im-
provised verses alternate with very fast music; and
the aboio, linked to the breeding of cattle, whose
poets sing without accompaniment, and which has
some Arab or Turkish infuence. Compared to these
very varied genres, the repente is reputed to carry
the highest degree of poetic improvisation. I will
now characterize its music.
Te Music
Unlike the verses, the melody that sustains them is
not improvised. Te singers learn many traditional
tunes by ear, and they use one of these when singing,
with some personal variation. Tus, the melodies
evolve gradually. New tunes are also created by der-
ivation from the old ones. Te poet who opens the
song chooses from this vast repertoire the air that
seems most convenient to sustain the theme to be
developed. Te poet who responds to him must re-
peat this air, demonstrating a particular feeling. Tis
is the constant base of the poem. Certain tunes are
always associated with a peculiar poetic form, in-
cluding a certain refrain. Sometimes, the singer out-
lines the chosen tune by preluding it on his viola.
Te melodies are composed in order to sing a note
per syllable, except the last one that can be decorated
with vibrato or melisma. Tey are functional and de-
signed to be sung in a metrical poetry in which the
lines measure 7, 10, or 11 syllables. Te minor mode
is exceptional in melodies that have a strong modal
character. Te most frequent modes are our major
scale and alterations of this (the fourth degree of the
scale can be pitched a half up, or the seventh pitched
a half down, or a combination of both). Te notes
are ofen not sung in a temperate way. Tat means
there is a slight diference of tone between the sung
and the corresponding note in the playing of the vi-
ola, divided into twelve equal halves as in a guitar.
Tat is more noticeable when the singer comes from
a rural area, since urbanization tends to normalize
the modes. Whatever the case, the modes are very

variable, but the structure remains the same: the
tunes have to be a good support for the poetic forms,
which also sufer constant evolution.
Te viola playing is the indispensable element to
improvisation: the repentistas say that their inspi-
ration cannot do without the sound of the strings.
Tey carefully tune the two instruments, which
have between 7 and 10 metal strings, some double
or triple, grouped into 5 choirs. However, with the
exception of some prelude or counterpoint, the vi-
ola music is extremely monotonous. Te whole ses-
sion is accompanied by the strumming of fngers
on a single major chord, barely adorned with any
other notes. Te constant character of harmony and
rhythm is the unifying element; it allows the cre-
ation of the unpredictable by the improviser. At the
same time, he has to memorize some of what his
colleague has said, and think about what he is going
to say in the next stanza, put together in a few sec-
onds. Te instrument is the poet’s tool in the perfor-
mance, because its music reconciles attention and
concentration.
To illustrate that, I will talk about the songs that
are not improvised and that mark a pause in the pro-
tocol of the improvisation session. At some point, a
listener may request a composed song, which is usu-
ally nostalgic. It will be interpreted by one of the po-
ets who will then be accompanied with diverse har-
monies, as well as major and minors chords (three
to six chords for an ordinary song). In short: for a
well-known song, the versatility of chords; for the
suspense of the poetic tournament, the monolithic

character of harmony.
Te musical aspects are important for the listen-
ers, who have their preferences according to the vo-
cal, rhythmic, or scenic characteristics of the singer.
However, for a singer, these aspects are not crite-
ria determining his professional quality, which de-
pends only on his mastery of poetry and language.
Regarding the language, it is the Portuguese in use in
Brazil, with high demands on the richness of vocab-
ulary and the sound quality of the rhymes. Poets sing
according to the pronunciation of their region of or-
igin and can integrate regionalisms that are ofen in-
digenous words. But I am not aware of any impro-
viser producing poetry in any indigenous language
of Brazil. Now we must talk about poetry.
Te Poetry
Te singers perform their oral performances follow-
ing what they call modalities. Tat is the structure
that links text to music. Tey have almost ffy dif-
ferent modalities, which are in constant evolution:
some fall into disuse, new ones emerge, and they
are generally invented in anonymity. Te modality
determines the metric, the length of the verses, the
structure of the rhymes, and sometimes a refrain
or a forced melody. Te most used modality is the
sextilha, a six-line verse of seven syllables per line,
with a rhyme on the even lines. Te décima is also
widely used and considered a masterpiece in poetic
construction. Tere are two types of décima: one has
ten lines of seven syllables each line, while the other
has ten lines of ten. To build his verse, the improviser

has to fnd four diferent rhymes and organize them
according to a complex structure: ABBAACCDDC.
Tis is what Spaniards call the décima espinela, from
the name of Vicente Espinel, an Andalusian poet
of the sixteenth century. It is still in use in impro-
vised poetry by Chilean, Argentine, and Uruguayan
payadores, and by Cuban trovadores. Tat means it
is a poetic form common to Latin American coun-
tries. Here it is worth pointing out an important dis-
tinction: when in Spanish they count eight syllables
in a line, in Portuguese they count seven because
the syllables are counted only until the last stressed
one (which is necessarily followed by an unstressed
one, or a silence). Likewise, the decasilábicos lines of
Brazil correspond to the lines of eleven syllables of
the Spanish speakers.
Te décima ofen ends in a mote, a refrain of one
or two lines that someone proposes to the two poets
before they begin to improvise. One must memorize
the mote to develop its theme, reuse its rhymes in
lines 6, 7, and 8, and repeat it at the end of the verse.
Another modality with the same exigency is the ga-
lope, whose peculiarity is a line of eleven syllables.
It is used to sing bucolic themes. Other modalities
present diferent demands, when the two improvis-
ers must alternate the lines instead of the verses. For
example, in a modality called quadrão perguntado,
they must respond in a single line to what was asked
in the previous line. In the modalities o cantador de
você and gabinete, manwhile, the singers can show
their virtuosity by repeating a long refrain.
Te number of forms that can be heard during

a cantoria session has no equivalent in other genres
of oral poetry. To express themselves, poets undergo
a demanding tradition that they move forward, in-
venting new forms, with the goal of excellence. Tis
care for diversifcation, in addition to an aesthetic
particularity, is a test of fexibility for the cantador—a
thought capable of moving within any frame is also
capable of mobilizing in any circumstance. Tus the
critical spirit is trained, which is the cantador’s ethi-
cal requirement.
Te Topics
Tat ethic is revealed by listening to what is sung in
the sessions. What is said before the public and how
to say it is the major criterion for judging an improvi-
sation. Tis is termed oração, while the other formal
criteria are rima and métrica: a poet has to produce
regular lines, without breaking the rhythm; he also
has to fnd many good rhymes. In a session, the lis-
teners propose a subject, suggesting it aloud or by
writing it down on a piece of paper deposited on a
tray that also collects their contribution. In the same
way, a fan of poetry can propose a versifed topic that
will be the mote ending the stanzas. Te singers are
then obliged to satisfy the requests. Tey fulfll their
role as popular artists by staging the listeners’ lives.
Each session is an exchange time: ideas circulate and
feelings are shared. Tere is a permanent dialogue be-
tween the poets, and between them and their listen-
ers. Tus, the topics are always renewed, through the
public in the varied places that singers travel to.
Te subject feld is very wide. It embraces: the

poetic art itself, singing about the value of poets and
the grief of those who have lef us; fun themes, with
the most appreciated being that of a challenge among
singers; love, whether happy or unhappy; bucolic
subjects; existential or philosophical themes; those
that we can term ethical, moralistic, or edifying; and,
lastly, social and political issues. A repentista must
know how to sing about any subject. Tat is possi-
ble by the preparation of improvisers. Tey refrain
from using verses from memory, but learn many
words to enrich their imagination. Tey read books,
dictionaries, newspapers, and the Internet, listen to
radio and watch television, and especially attend the
performances of other repentistas. Of necessity, they
learn about current social, political, and newsworthy
events because they have to comment such matters.
Tey are the scholars of popular culture.
Teir knowledge legitimizes their satirical role. At
a playful level, they can exchange insults in the canto-
ria, which is a theater of rivalry. From a moral point of
view, they have complete freedom of speech to speak
about power and denounce its abuses and imperfec-
tions, in harsh words. Te listeners take advantage of
that to propose the most pulsating subjects that the
singers will treat with critical spirit. On several occa-
sions I came across the opinion that, “the singers say
what the people would say if they could.” Many poets
consider themselves defenders of the people, at the
forefront of social concerns. Many conceive of their
art as a popular education movement and cantorias
as a moment of emancipation of the spirits.
A Conquering Movement: New Production

Spaces, New Actors
Tis description of the cantoria was based on a tradi-
tional encounter performed pé de parede (at the foot
of a wall), because they are usually organized in a
private house for some party, or in bar or restaurant
so as to share the benefts between patron and sing-
ers. However, any description would be very incom-
plete without mentioning new production spaces.
Since 1950, contests have been organized by cultural
associations in which poets and fans act to promote
their art. Tese events take place in prestigious places
of culture such as theatres, welcoming hundreds of
people—a larger audience than in family, private, or
country sessions. Contests are competitions between
duos: two collaborating singers stand on the stage
for a thirty-minute presentation, the viola slung over
their shoulders, next to a jury that sets the issues and
grades the duo, only according to the three criteria of
rima, métrica, and oração. Facing the stage, specta-
tors encourage their favorites. Te winners win tro-
phies, cachet, and increased fame in the repente com-
munity, which is highly competitive. Te contests are
very successful, with at least one taking place every
week in some Brazilian city. Tus, there are frequent
opportunities to bring diferent titles into play. Tese
competitions, invented by the singers, contribute to
promoting their art and professionalizing them—
nowadays, cachet payment tends to replace the col-
lection on the tray, and contracts are substituted for
oral commitments. Tradition evolves in this way,
thanks to the rivalry between poets who invent un-

precedented circumstances to improvise in.
Tis occurs on radio programs devoted to im-
provisation, produced and animated by the po-
ets. During the broadcast, they promote upcoming
events and improvise, despite the physical absence of
the public, which instead sends in requests by phone
or mail. In the areas most afected by the rural exo-
dus, broadcasting is a regular occasion to listen to
repentistas. Several have learned the basics of their
art in this way, before frequenting their frst sessions.
Since the late twentieth century and the develop-
ment of tourism on the coast, beaches are a new space
for more humble poets. Without any specifc requests,
they sing a few stanzas addressing the tourists. Tey
are criticized by their more famous colleagues for
walking away from tradition: they sing by day and do
not satisfy any specifc public demands. In these cir-
cumstances, in contrast to traditional sessions, there
is little interaction because on the beach they merely
beg for money. But what are known as ”beach po-
ets” have introduced an unprecedented form of
improvisation in new and inauspicious spaces. And
in that way, these poetas de praia contribute to the
expansion and visibility of their practice. It is also
worth mentioning recent festivals in public squares,
which take place in a context of amplifed music and
eclectic programming. Tere, the singers have the
opportunity to sing to thousands of people.
Such diversifcation on the part of the actors
typically appears afer an opening opportunity.
About forty years ago, female poets emerged in an
exclusively male professional environment. Te evo-

lution toward the mix of social practices in Brazil
was used by these women to speak up in common.
Tey equal their male counterparts in terms of ar-
tistic ability and critical spirit, and conform to their
vocation as a popular poet commenting on any
topic. But it has not been easy for these women to
emancipate themselves from the reserved attitude
traditionally assigned to them. Tat may explain the
small number of active women poets today. On the
other hand, the audiences are fully mixed; there are
women passionate about the poetry that accompany
the poets on their tours or do not miss a contest.
However, during my research I have met only two
female poets: they were witness to the difculty that
exists in overcoming the prejudices, and were proud
of the current evolution.
Record production is an important aspect of the
activity of today’s singers, who use their CDs like
a business card to look for contracts. Te recorded
material is oral work of a diferent nature because
it is difcult to improvise in a studio, without any
inspiration stimulated by requests of listeners. Tis
is, then, not repente, but rather an elaborate form of
sung poetry. Instead of writing the poems, the au-
thors repeat them until they reach what they feel is
the best expression. Topics are chosen by the consti-
tuted duo and alternate with composite songs. Like
a written published poem, a CD leaves a trail, un-
like the evanescence of an authentically improvised
verse. Fans use this medium to hear sung poetry and
compensate for the scarcity of events where they live.
As a result, it is estimated nowadays that there

are thousands of these singers and that they far out-
number their predecessors. Te dynamism of the
tradition accompanies a remarkable qualitative evo-
lution: most cantadores of old were illiterate, lived
in precarious conditions, and cared little for musi-
cal, scenic, or corporate criteria—a fact that does
not minimize in any way their quality as great poets
whose memory remains alive in the tradition. Te
epigones work to rise socially, studying, promoting
good quality shows, and organizing their profession
through associations, hand in hand with other de-
fenders of popular culture.
Te activism of the cantadores and their admir-
ers, associated in the coproduction of contexts in or-
der to fulfll and perpetuate the repente, leads to an
appropriation of the spaces in which they take the
foor to mobilize consciences.
Mobility, Urbanization, and Expansion:
Animation of a Territory
Without stopping, the cantadores go to meet new
audiences that are also very mobile due to the char-
acteristic emigration of the northeastern region.
Te climate of the semiarid Sertão, alternating a
dry barren season and another favorable to crops,
causes seasonal migrations. Tere are also exoduses
due to exceptional droughts. Tere are other demo-
graphic, economic, and political reasons for this ex-
odus: the Nordeste has the worst social indexes in
the country, and a negative migration balance com-
pared to all other regions. Groups of Nordestinos
have participated in the exploitation of rubber trees

in Amazonia, in the industrialization of the south of
the country, and in the construction of its capitals,
particularly in São Paulo, the largest city in South
America. Tey followed the general patterns of ur-
banization, a major phenomenon of the last half
century: in 1960, when the new futuristic capital
Brasilia was built, for one Brazilian living in the city,
four were living in the countryside. A few years ago
the proportion was reversed. Tat led to a huge rural
exodus in the Sertão, the birthplace of the tradition.
Te cantadores always moved a lot, on foot or
even horseback in the case of the oldest ones that I
have interviewed, who were born during World War
I. Nowadays, the mobility of the present ones is in-
creasing due to sociodemographic transformations.
By necessity, they have followed their public, and for
the most part have become urbanized. Tey have
taken advantage of modern means of transport, com-
munication, and information; they have conquered
the new spaces of expression already mentioned;
raised their educational level and their knowledge
of the world; and have had to attend to more diver-
sifed requests from listeners confronting the reality
of modernity. Tese new conditions of production
have stimulated the cantadores, since the capacity to
adapt is the source of an improviser’s ability.
In a favorable context of rapid transformations,
the poets say that they are experiencing a wonderful
evolution, being more educated and organized than
before. Tousands of poets today live from their
popular art within the confnes of the vast space of
Brazil, wherever they can magnify the Portuguese

language in their poems, and wherever emigrants
feel the need to organize a session in which the cul-
ture of the northeastern terroir will be sung.
Te social dynamics shown by the poets have no
equivalent in other genres of oral poetry in Brazil.
According to my hypothesis, these genres do not
give as much importance to improvisation, that is, its
actors reiterate the forms instead of recreating them,
and therefore do not encourage the necessary adap-
tations to the tradition.
In my research I became interested in other cat-
egories of popular poets. For example, by way of
comparison, the coquistas testify that their number
is declining, with less and less opportunities to sing.
Yet they sing coco, a funnier genre than the repente,
and one characterized by a fast tempo, catchy cho-
ruses, and entertaining street shows. In their duels,
coquistas use a coarse language that is much appre-
ciated and in the embolada, they exchange insults.
But they improvise only partially, memorizing pica-
resque verses that skillfully adapt to the context and
the reactions of the public. Ofen, they act as a way
of animating open spaces (streets, squares, fairs),
which are not conducive to commenting on serious
topics. Te listeners do not participate in the sub-
ject because coquistas do not take orders. Tey de-
liver little informative or critical content, unlike that
heard in cantorias.
Te two genres share some similarities: in both
cases, it is poetry sung in a popular context. But
they difer in terms of meaning. When there is more
improvisation, a space can be created in which free

and profound words can be exchanged. Tat is typ-
ical of the repentistas. I have shown that mobility of
thinking is related to spatial mobility. It is also re-
lated to the desire for social transformation that a
repentista possesses, wanting to be a spokesman for
his Brazilian people.
In conclusion, the songs improvisers animate
with represent a territory in which they divulge cul-
tural elements typical of the region in which their
art appeared. However, this territory in which today
they are updating the tradition is limitless, due to the
expansion of the repente by following the roads of
northeastern emigration. Improvisers are mediators
who promote adaptation strategies. Tey constantly
produce and transform the elements of the culture of
the people who listen to them.
Bibliography
Loddo, Daniel. 1998. “Cururu e Siriri, chants et mu-
sique des fêtes religieuses du Mato Grosso.” In
Musiques d’Amérique Latine. Actes du colloque
des 19 et 20 octobre 1996 a Cordes (Tarn). Cordes:
CORDAE/LaTalvera.
Loddo, Daniel, and Tierry Rougier. “Cantadores du
Nordeste du Brésil: un art en devenir.” In L’art des
chansonniers: actes du colloque de Gaillac des 28,
29, 30 novembre 2003. Toulouse: Conservatoire
Occitan, Centre des Musiques et Danses
Traditionnelles Toulouse-Midi-Pyrénées.
Rougier, Tierry. 2006. “Les cantadores, poètes im-
provisateurs de la cantoria: une tradition en
mouvement dans le Nordeste brésilien.” PhD

diss., University of Bordeaux 2.
Discography
Repentistas nordestinos—troubadours actuels du
Nordeste du Brésil. 2006. 2 CDs with an illustrated
booklet edited by Daniel Loddo and Tierry
Rougier. Cordes: CORDAE / La Talvera.
Payadores de Chile—Poètes improvisateurs du Chili.
2010. 2 CDs with illustrated booklet. Translation
of poems and interviews and presentation text by
Tierry Rougier. Langon: Daquí, label des Nuits
Atypiques.
3
A Bertso Home: Architectures of
the Word and Constrictions of
Gender
Jone M. Hernández García
One would assume there have always been women

bertsolariak. Why not? Tey were already noted in
the frst document making any reference to bertso-
laritza: a document that mentioned profazadorak
(to some extent, the forerunners of bertsolariak),
the protagonists of a foru (charter) established by
the Provincial Council of Bizkaia in the ffeenth
century, even if it was to ban their occupation. Te
document describes those women in the following
way (Larrañaga 1995, 18): “and about women who
are known to be brazen and unruly in their neigh-
borhoods and compose verses and cantos in an in-
fammatory libelous way.”
Te reasons for this prohibition are unknown,
with only the odd hypothesis in this regard. Tus,
Joxe Azurmendi (1990) links both the ban and the
progressive disappearance of these women that fol-
lowed to the Council of Trent (1545–1563). Whether
this was an infuencing factor or not, it is true that
from that moment on women were less involved in
bertsolaritza. Whether in the form of some names

and surnames, or just names, there only exist traces of
women (for example, the bertso prompter Irigaineko
dama, “the lady of Irigain”).1 On the contrary, in re-
cent decades—during the age of contemporary bert-
solaritza—the profles of numerous women bertso-
lariak have been much more prominent, as have the
difculties they face when it comes to appearing in
public. Specifcally, in recent years several of them
have refected on the obstacles they face, and one
could already say that we are on the way to estab-
lishing an analysis of bertsolaritza undertaken from
a gender perspective.
To pinpoint the beginnings of this process at
some point, I would locate it in 1995 with the pub-
lication of “Emakumeak Plazara” in a monographic
edition of the journal Bertsolari (no. 17). Tat edition
discussed women bertsolariak in the past, but also
women in bertsolaritza in the 1990s and, looking to-
ward the future, the emerging young women bert-
solariak. Tere, too, as well as bertsolariak, women
theme-prompters, judges, presenters, bertso session
organizers, and researchers were front and center.
Tat monograph revealed a new reality while raising
1. Carmen Larrañaga has been a pioneer in her works col-
lecting the names of women bertsolariak. Her trajectory has
been refected in several publications (1994, 1995, 1997).
Nowadays, more scholars are following in the footsteps of Lar-
rañaga. Te Bertsozale Elkartea (Association of the Friends of
Bertsolaritza) gives information about this on one of its web-
pages: http://www.bertsozale.eus/eu/generoa. Tere one can
fnd information about women bertsolariak and works about
women bertsolariak.
A Bertso Home 51
several questions, doubts, and lines of inquiry for the

future.
Tereafer, in the years that followed, further re-
fections, testimonies, and debates emerged, always
focusing on women bertsolariak and their reality
and experiences.2 In this regard, and by means of a
very brief summary, one could say that the aim of
these works has been to examine and reveal the in-
fuence that the gender system and gender roles have
had and continue to have in bertsolaritza. Linked
to that goal one should underscore the fact that the
elements and phenomena detected by that analysis
are similar to those found in other social models. As
one woman bertsolari told me:3 “In the fnal analysis,
in bertsolaritza you see the same thing as in other
social spheres . . . You speak with any woman and,
whether a housewife, a bertsolari, or a police ofcer,
we fnd the same problem . . . or a professor, we come
across exactly the same problem.” And several peo-
ple have reported the same situation, some of them
academics, but in the main bertsolariak themselves.
Taking those studies and refections into ac-
count, one could say that the analyses have mainly
detected the infuence of the gender system in the
following spheres: (1) in the history of bertsolaritza,
2. Tere is information about this trajectory at the afore-

mentioned website of the Bertsozale Elkartea (http://www.
bertsozale.eus/eu/generoa/dokumentazioa), with this section
including diferent materials about bertsolaritza and gender.
Moreover, it also includes many interesting references about
gender and feminism (accessed July 3, 2016).
3. Interview conducted on December 1, 2009.
in which women are clearly invisible; (2) in the im-

balances and reproduction of gender roles between
women and men that occur in the transmission of
bertsolaritza; (3) in the diferences one notes in the
professional careers of female and male bertsolariak;
(4) in bertso-related initiatives and in the participa-
tion of men and women in these; (5) on stage, when
creating bertsoak, in the gender inertias, behaviors,
or practices that take place; and (6) in general, in the
existing prejudices about bertsolaritza in society as a
whole as well as among bertsolariak and bertsolar-
itza afcionados.
It has been said that bertsolaritza is a refection of
society and, inevitably, as in society as a whole, the
gender system (that is, according to Raewyn Connell,
work, power, and cathexis; see Connell in Del Valle
2002) would be located at the core of its organiza-
tion. Connell’s work demonstrates, with absolute
clarity, the deep roots this system possesses as well
as just how difcult and even impossible it can be to
extract them. With this in mind, it is perhaps rash to
think that any achievements made by women bert-
solariak are signs of society having achieved equal-
ity. Likewise, one could say that such achievements
are not sufcient enough to think that equality has at
least been reached within the sphere of bertsolaritza.
On the contrary, any interpretation and evaluation
of those achievements calls for special attention and
extreme prudence. Moreover, I would say that time
(a historical perspective) is needed in order to be able
to see how the current situation will evolve in the
future. As noted above, it is worth being absolutely
A Bertso Home 53
clear about the fact that discussion of women bert-

solariak only really began at the outset of the twen-
ty-frst century.
Tus, while women bertsolariak make some
progress and as long as studies follow up on avenues
that have already been opened up, I will be involved
in the new opportunities we should be exploring.
Although I believe we need to delve further into
the approaches, theories, and perspectives that have
been advanced to date, it seems to me that the com-
plexity of the contemporary situation obliges us to
explore new proposals. Tat is, precisely, the chief
goal of this chapter: namely, without ignoring the
new avenues that have been explored, to also exam-
ine new theoretical perspectives and approaches, at a
time when equality has become more fuid than ever,
with the aim of exposing the boundaries that still ex-
ist nowadays.
Te chapter takes into account the bertsolari
and the audience in particular, transforming the
relationship or link between them into an area of
consideration. Starting from that relationship, the
focus is also placed on the bertso because that link
is refected in the bertso itself, it being both the con-
text and the outcome of the relationship between
transmitter and listener. Lastly, the nature and
meaning of the bertsoak and the bertso structures
will be examined, because I believe that the main
boundaries bertsolaritza has today, from the gen-
der perspective, are to be found there somewhere.
Terefore, as well as highlighting several key con-
cepts linked to the bertso—for example, ellipsis and
metonymy alongside John Foley’s “traditional refer-

entiality” (Foley 1991)—the opportunity they give
one to encourage a feminist interpretation will be
highlighted.
Tereafer, there will be a brief discussion of the
audience and the bertsolari. Ten several elements
that are helpful when it comes to representing the
link between the two will be presented. Finally, tak-
ing into account these elements, there will be a dis-
cussion about the opportunities that emerge from
studying bertsolaritza from a feminist theoretical
perspective. Te latter would be a provisional exer-
cise based on the hypotheses that have emerged on
the way to amassing the empirical work.
On the Relationship between the Bertsolari and
the Audience
As noted earlier, to date when studying the infu-
ence gender has had in bertsolaritza there has been a
special focus on elements linked to the social struc-
ture, or the tradition of bertsolaritza, or the way in
which it is carried out. Tese considerations attach
important nuances to the wide-ranging or general
studies on bertsolaritza: when women bertsolariak
refect on this, they add a dimension linked to life
experiences to the previously formulated analyses,
but above all that of being a woman has been the
main topic of discussion because in many cases this
has been a refection of what happens in society as
a whole. From that point of view, what is missing is
an analysis from within the bertso logic itself, start-
ing from the particular nature or idiosyncrasy of the
A Bertso Home 55
bertso and the context/situation it creates. Carmen

Larrañaga (1994) most successfully approaches this
kind of research because her works are primarily
focused on the characteristics of bertsolaritza, the
bertso, and the bertsolari.
Nevertheless, acknowledging defciencies does
not mean questioning the productive research un-
dertaken to date. Tanks to this work, the introduc-
tion and difusion of the gender perspective is now
revealing diferent previously hidden situations and
realities. Te Bertsozale Elkartea itself is also being
helpful in this regard, through its eforts to promote
more equal practices.4 Just as one hears in several
other social spheres, so in bertsolaritza circles too
there have been calls to look at the reality from a
feminist perspective.
Still, in a society living in the illusion of equality
perhaps it is not enough nowadays to adopt a femi-
nist perspective. One would think that for someone
who is completely blind such a perspective would
not be sufcient to correct the incapacity. In the
same vein, and given that we are now considering
4. Trough diferent initiatives, in recent years the situation

of women, the subject of gender, feminism, and so on have
been topics of debate in the feld of bertsolaritza. Conferences,
lectures, training sessions, and other kinds of activities have
been organized in order to publicize the concern of women
bertsolariak, and in general, to refect on equality; in short,
to promote equality. Worth mention is the “Gender group,” a
working group created within the Bertsozale Elkartea itself in
2008. Within this group women and men bertsolaritza afcio-
nados promote the study, debate, and discussion of equality.
vision, it seems appropriate to recall what John

Berger observed a few decade ago: “the way we see
things is afected by what we know or what we be-
lieve” (Berger 1972, 8). More than forty years later,
those words continue to be as suggestive as they were
at the time and if we look closely at Berger’s argu-
ment, we realize that we should rethink/redirect the
line of inquiry. Te implications of that are many
and multifaceted, but I would like to highlight two
from among all these.
On the one hand, the observation itself is trans-
formed into a subject of examination rather than
those that have been typically observed (women and
the condition of women): the origins of that obser-
vation, its base, and the elements that make up that
observation. On the other, and linked to the former,
would be the metaphoric example of the work of an
underwater diver: because we should better compre-
hend the base structure, tools, or mechanisms—lo-
calized and within each expression—that ensure the
reproduction of elements. Applying this problem to
bertsolaritza, I would say that two or three principal
questions surface: frst, from where does the audi-
ence watch/listen? How and where does the audience
position itself in the face of the bertsolari’s activity?
Second, how do the bertso and the bertsolari re-
spond to those foresights? To what extent does the
bertso—not just its contents, but also its features, its
structures—help (or not) that observation? Finally,
there could also be a third important question: where
does the bertsolari position her/himself in the face of
all this?
A Bertso Home 57
So far, although there is just a hypothesis in re-

sponse to these questions, I would like to explain
and extend it in this chapter, even fully aware that
the empirical or ethnographic dimensions need to
be worked on.
By way of a starting point in this argument, one
should say that two perspectives intersect: on the
one hand, that of the bertso and the bertsolari; and
on the other, that of spectators or the audience. Both
are necessary to produce bertsolaritza, therefore in
order to understand the hierarchy or lack of parity
orchestrated by the gender system we should pay at-
tention to both: we should examine and understand
both and, along with that, the logic between both
of them; because all those elements take part in the
process of making up a bertso session.
Te following is clear: a bertso is the glue between
the bertsolari and the audience, the link between the
two of them, the space in which they come together,
a meeting point.
Te Bertso as a Communicative Framework
In order to describe what a bertso is, a technical def-
nition can be used: “Te bertso consists of a sung,
rhymed and measured discourse” (Egaña in Garzia,
Sarasua, and Egaña 2001, 83). But when discussing
bertsolariza, it is clear that a bertso is much more
than that. Diferent defnitions have been and will be
made in relation to the bertso that surpass technical
areas, but among all of them, I concur with that of
Joseba Zulaika, who states that (1988, 213): “making
[a] bertso creates a frame in which communication
other than ordinary conversation is permitted.”

Pursuing this idea more deeply, Zulaika (ibid.) says
that bertsoak are a useful means of expressing mes-
sages that are not or do not usually need to be ex-
pressed (because they are “taken as given”) in ev-
eryday life, in the day-to-day grind (such as “We are
Basques,” “We all belong to the same country,” and
so on). Along the same lines, we should add that a
bertso creates a special forum or discursive space in
order to difuse messages about what is appropriate
in a community. In fact, the linguistic skills of bert-
solariak give them legitimacy to address the whole
community and to speak about that community’s
identity. One ofen hears the comment that the bert-
solari is the voice of the people, but the bertsolari is
nothing without the bertso.
For that reason it would be interesting to know,
within this communication space, forum, or word
structure, where does the nature of the bertso, the
structure of the bertso, and, in the fnal analysis, its
strength come from? How does the bertso function?
Tese are inescapable questions because, as well as
the discourses and arguments articulated by bertso-
lariak, the structure and form those contents take on
are key in order to understand the successful con-
nection they achieve with the community.
Te Bertso and Group Identity, Form, and Group
Sociology
One of the main reasons for the persuasiveness of
Zulaika’s view would be the relationship of the logic
within the bertso with Basque culture, and especially
A Bertso Home 59
with its causal connections. As Manuel Lekuona

(1978) himself states, in bertsoak threads are cre-
ated via images. It makes no sense to ask what the
relationship is between two images that appear in
a bertso. Te thread (those images) is to be found
in the wording itself. Tose images may be images
connected to group identity or individual identity;
nothing else is needed, not any logical consequences
or any political or historical treatise: “‘Why’ they are
related is ‘because’ they are part of the same strophe”
(Zulaika 1988, 209).
Within this logic images are trapped within the
structure of the bertso, and melodies and rhymes
facilitate their relationship. At that moment a trope
(metaphor, metonymy, or synecdoche) is created. In
this process, too, ellipsis is a fundamental element
because it structures the breaks that occur within the
discourse. Te thread or the argument is constructed
through images and it is important, therefore, that
those images are precise and visual. Ellipsis estab-
lishes a kind of causality. In Zulaika’s words (1988,
219), “Te expressive power lies precisely in the dis-
continuity of the images, in their not being linked in
a causal process, in the elliptical yet metaphorically
successful connection of images belonging to difer-
ent domains of experience. Causality here is ellipsis.”
Ellipsis, then, becomes the essence of the bertso
because it is constituted around the bertso itself. In
this same vein one could say that in the bertso silence
(that which is not said) is as important as the word.
However, one must not forget that on the other
side of the bertso there is the audience or the listeners.
How do they receive the bertso? How do they ap-

propriate it? How do they interpret it? We know less
about that and in order to complete the studies done
to date, it would be necessary to embrace that ap-
proach as well.
Te Bertso (Word) as a Symbol, Transformed into a
Social Link
If there is one point of reference in studies of oral
traditions it is John Foley. Tanks to him, diferent
directions in the study of orality have been opened
up and expanded in recent decades. One of those
would be that involving “receptionalist” perspec-
tives. In this case, a preoccupation with or interest in
orality is located in the listening or receiving process,
transforming the listener into the protagonist.
Foley attempts to develop in the feld of orality the
perspective Wolfgang Iser applied to literature (Iser
1978 in Foley 1991). In both cases the main idea is
the following: in an oral and a written text the activity
would be divided up, with the author, the text, and the
listener (or reader) all being participants. Following
Iser’s ideas, the work of art itself would be located be-
tween the text (or the oral production) and the read-
ers (or listeners). In this way, a work of art could never
be something fxed and nor could the receiver (Foley
1991, 39–40). Both Iser and Foley underscore the ac-
tive nature of receivers at all times: “we are urged to
leave behind the conception of the literary work as ob-
ject and to recognize our own complicity in bringing
artistic ‘objects’ to life” (Foley 1991, 40). In the same
vein, Foley raises the notion of the “implied reader.”
A Bertso Home 61
Tis active attitude oversees a special task,

namely, flling in the “gaps” that texts or works of art
have. As both Foley and Iser say, those gaps should
not be conceived as “mistakes.” On the contrary, in
their opinion they ofer a means of cultivating and
developing readers’ or receivers’ imagination (Foley
1991, 41). Tat, ultimately, would alleviate the text
(whether written or oral), increasing its interest. In
this approach Foley raises a fundamental nuance:
in his opinion, in the feld of orality tradition would
play an important role in that active attitude on the
part of the audience (Foley 1991, 45): “we may say
that all members of the audience interpret the text
according to a shared body of knowledge that is their
inheritance.”
Terefore, within this active attitude, by means of
tradition—or to use Foley’s expression, “traditional
referentiality,” which would be a key term—previously
created texts and “performances” are brought up-to-
date, becoming part of the textual or oral production
that is on the point of being created: “Traditional ref-
erentiality, then, entails the invoking of a context that
is enormously larger and more echoic than the text
of work itself, that brings the lifeblood of generations
of poems and performances to the individual perfor-
mance or text” (Foley 1991, 7).
Foley emphasizes the importance of the tradi-
tional referentiality concept in the oral tradition,
highlighting the prominence not just of the text but
also of the context in the creative and difusive pro-
cess. He speaks about an “unspoken” context that
goes beyond the words of the text (Foley 1991). In
Foley’s opinion, those elements that remain con-

cealed exist long before any specifc oral production
(a bertso sung by a bertsolari in a specifc event)
is created or appears, and it is those that impart a
traditional touch to the production. Te artist will
achieve a more complete piece when they use/insert
those elements, because the text, as well as incor-
porating “superfcial” components, also takes into
account tradition. As Foley says, in that connection
that emerges with those elements beyond the text
one can fnd the support and the method that the
oral tradition uses to channel meaning, those that
would facilitate the exchange between artist and au-
dience. Foley also terms this “metonymy,” the accu-
mulated knowledge and experience gathered by tra-
dition, which constitutes production (the text and so
on) (Quick 2011).
As is well-known, in the case of metonymy one
piece represents the whole, imparted by tradition
and making use of “what is known and what does
not appear.” I am referring here to the non-material
heritage, that which is accumulated in silence, that
which is transmitted in silence, and that which re-
mains invisible. Te oral tradition, however, draws
from that source and reveals what is there, if we
know how to hear it. Mikel Azurmendi (1993) also
addresses metonymy—that which would take the
form of metaphor—in his research on orality, be-
cause in his opinion they are necessary elements in
the socialization process: “[the everyday bread and
butter of any society] are those things that inform
in human action, allowing men to become men,
A Bertso Home 63
women to become women, and for babies, young

people, adults, and the elderly to be true model hu-
mans” (Azurmendi 1993, 125).
Azurmendi’s words are especially interesting be-
cause he applies Foley’s approach to Basque culture,
to Basque orality, and to Basque tradition. Tey draw
attention to metonymy and, in general, the impor-
tance of the trope and the word. Not just any word;
but the measured word, the direct word, the mean-
ingful word, the word that is the measure of human-
ity, and, in traditional culture, the word that is the
measure of men: as an old Basque proverb states,
(Azurmendi 1993, 232), “idia adarretik, gizona hitze-
tik” ([you can catch hold of] an ox by its horns and a
man by his words).
For me, the works of Zulaika, Foley, and
Azurmendi are central, primarily because they es-
tablish—each from the perspective of their own dis-
cipline, personal interests, and research methods—a
means by which to represent the bertso as a symbolic
link between language and society. Within this link
three diferent but related meanings that have thus
far been explained can be highlighted. Let us recall
them.
First, the bertso establishes a (special) commu-
nicative feld that facilitates nontypical communi-
cation practices. Second, in formal (or technical)
terms the bertso has a structure or an architecture
that intersects with a sociological group (with a
community in the anthropological sense). Tird, the
bertso is transformed into a symbol insofar as it cre-
ates, recreates, and expresses a social link. Te word
constitutes a group, taking on a magic nature that

could be defned as mana (Crépeau 1993 in Surrallés
2003, 776).5
In sum, this would be the fundamental architec-
ture of bertsolaritza, a home furnished by the word.
Yet if we understand the bertso this way, how would
we interpret it from the perspective of gender? What
infuence does the gender system have in the com-
municative feld that the bertso represents? What of
that infuence in its identity-based nature? And in its
symbolic nature?
Architectures of the Word and Constrictions of
Gender
As stated, the bertso creates a special feld of com-
munication. In Zulaika’s opinion, things that are
not typical in everyday life, in the routine of day-to-
day life—because they are taken as given, as under-
stood—are said in bertsoak. On the other hand, in
that feld the bertsolari will have the opportunity to
speak to the community, to direct her or his mes-
sages to the community, to speak about the commu-
nity, and, ofen, will also get permission to speak on
behalf of the community.
As can be seen, the bertsolari possesses exten-
sive authority and, in practice, is the chief overseer
of this space. Tey will feel a great responsibility as
well as tension. Bertsolariak need an audience but, at
5. Te concept of mana is very deep-rooted in the tradition

of social anthropology. Briefy, mana refers to power, efective-
ness, and prestige, but always linked in some way to magic,
religion, or beliefs.
A Bertso Home 65
the same time, cannot get involved too much in the

audience. Tey are also artists who need to nurture
their self in order to facilitate the creative process.
Tis is how one bertsolari put it to me in an inter-
view: “You sing to an audience, you can’t escape from
that . . . [but I must] connect with myself, with my
body, with my emotions, feelings.”6
Te engineering work bertsolaritza demands is
made up of three pillars. First: technique (melody,
rhyme, and so on); second, discourse or content; and
third, being positioned on a stage and in a relation-
ship with an audience: “how you are with your body
and your emotions at that moment, on stage . . . and
how you manage that.”
Te topic of preparation and training has ofen
been cited when discussing the diferences between
girls and boys or women and men who are bertso-
lariak. While there have been diferent refections
on this, generally speaking the following ideas are
highlighted: on the one hand, when children, adoles-
cents, or young adults go to bertso school,7 they al-
ready bring with them the consequences of receiving
diferent and diferentiating socialization processes.
Te starting point for girls and boys, when it comes
to training in and performing bertsolaritza, is difer-
ent. Tere have been multiple references to this in
recent years. By way of example, Nagore Soroa ob-
serves the following (Gaztelumendi 2010):
6. Interview conducted on May 6, 2016.

7. A school or academy, normally at the municipal level, in
which children, young people, and adults learn how to do
bertsolaritza.
Boys, for example, are not too bothered about

appearing foolish. Tey are quite comfort-
able, most of them, in front of people . . . A
boy is almost certain he’ll get some applause
and he’ll take risks. A girl, however, if you ap-
pear in front of people, I think, most at least,
don’t feel very comfortable. Tey’ll feel pres-
sure: “what should I say, what are people ex-
pecting of me,” and she’s not used to that en-
vironment, she’s not used to starting a bertso
and, if she makes a mistake, saying to herself
“it doesn’t matter,” if people laugh at her, “it
doesn’t matter.” She doesn’t usually appear in
front of people very willingly.
Girls and boys are socialized to embrace
diferent attitudes, behaviors, and tasks in life
and that is obvious when they begin moving
in the feld of bertsolaritza (and to some extent
in other kinds of activities that are developed
or take place in front of people). Nevertheless,
whatever the difculties, girls—or some girls
at least—carry on and enter into a training
process. And what happens in that process?
We should probably know more about this or
in a little more depth but, even though only by
way of a hypothesis, I would say that in that
engineering work brought on by bertsolaritza,
girls and boys can be fairly equal at the tech-
nical and discursive level. But another thing
altogether is the attitude, preparation, skills,
and so on of some as opposed to others when
it comes to those obligations, to working the
A Bertso Home 67
stage, and relating to the audience.

It is no coincidence that, during the cur-
rent school year (2015–2016), in the newly
established empowerment workshops spe-
cifcally aimed at women, the latter has been
the most developed feld (appearing on stage,
relating to the audience). Predictably. Once
again we are speaking about the need to un-
derstand more deeply that relationship be-
tween audience and bertsolari.
In his aforementioned work, Berger (1972) writes
about the prevailing representation of women in the
feld of fne arts and explains perfectly the role im-
posed on women by the gender system (power) and
the goal of this (assuring women’s subordination).
Trough gender socialization, women—for being
women—are trained to look at others (linked to the
concern for and looking afer others, and other kinds
of services); and also to be looked at by others (in
this case, above all, as objects, linked to their bodies,
beauty, and sexuality); never to speak, to give their
opinion, to take their own decisions, and to argue
their positions. As Carmen Larrañaga contends,
“femininity, or what is exhorted of it, is sustained by
negation and absence” (Larrañaga 1994, 42).
Negation and absence, but silence as well. Even
more so in bertsolaritza. Te bertsolari Maialen
Lujanbio addressed this already ten years ago in an
interview on Euskal Telebista (the Basque public
television channel):8 “Let’s say you’re sixteen. A girl,
8. Te interview appeared in an episode of the bertsolaritza

a woman, who goes out in public. How much conf-

dence does that girl have in her word, in the impor-
tance her word may have? What happens if no one’s
interested in her word? I think we disregard our own
word and the value of our word.”
Playing with the word, on stage, before an audi-
ence, women bertsolariak have called into question
the role (invisibility, silence) they were assigned his-
torically by the gender system. And not just that. Tey
are breaking with the norm, but in doing so they are
also questioning the identity of the other, in this case
male identity, for in our society the basic norm and
fact of the matter is that there are two genders and
two identities, female and male, which defne each
other in opposition to one another. Larrañaga cap-
tures this perfectly (1994, 43):
It is not easy for women to fnd a warm welcome
in bertsolaritza. All the more so not because they
break with the norm, as Zulaika suggests—which
undoubtedly they do—but because their presence
chips away at the cement on which our most solid
identity rests. Knowing how to be a man and not a
woman, that is the diference that is of prime im-
portance, and that which determines in the male his
masculinity, which is cultivated not by [masculinity]
show Hitzetik Hortzera, broadcast on May 8, 2005. Tat ep-
isode was titled “Bertsolaritza and women.” A transcription
of the show—which featured, besides Lujanbio, many other
bertsolariak, most of them women—can be found on the web-
site of the Bertsozale Elkartea: http://www.bertsozale.eus/eu/
generoa/dokumentazioa/artikuluak/2005-05-08%20Bertso-
laritza%20eta%20emakumea%20-%20Hitzetik%20Hortzera.
pdf (accessed July 3, 2016).
A Bertso Home 69
itself but instead in opposition to femininity, resist-

ing it.
Following the argument of the anthropologist
Mary Douglas (1991) we may think that, when bert-
solariak comment on or joke about women’s femi-
ninity in bertso sessions, it is a way of establishing
symbolic boundaries in a quest to protect their own
masculinity. And through such a strategy women
and women bertsolariak are reminded over and over
again where their place is: they have been taught to
be looked at, not at all to shif the gaze to their inner
selves and from there express themselves; they have
been raised to nourish others (the people around
them, relatives, and so on) emotionally or with emo-
tions, but without being encouraged to be emotional
(or at least too emotional).
Women bertsolariak, their bodies, their clothes
(miniskirts, heels, and so on) chip away at the order
of the masculinized domain. Tis being the case, in
the desire to confrm the symbolic boundaries be-
tween masculinity and femininity, sometimes fem-
ininity is over-emphasized by playing with simple
images, views, or expectations connected to women,
in other words with stereotypes. Other times, mas-
culinity, its features, and its obligations will be high-
lighted, again in the desire to establish frmly its dif-
ferences with women or femininity.
Following the theory of James Fernandez,
Zulaika (2008, 241) says: “in the appropriate cultural
context anyone can become a lion, a cow, or an oc-
topus.” Tis is in some way fulflled in bertsolaritza
because as the bertsolari Andoni Egaña observes in
Asier Altuna’s 2011 documentary on bertsolaritza, in

one bertso session he can be Obama, an old bicycle,
an elver fsherman, an Athletic Bilbao soccer player,
or a scorned lover. And the audience goes along with
it because it is involved with the bertsolari.
Understanding its qualitative and subjective na-
ture, how is it that bertsoak and that nontypical feld
of communication established by bertsoak cannot
erase the dichotomy between women and men?
“If there is no diference, there is no unity,” con-
tends Larrañaga (1994, 43). If there are no diferences,
where is masculinity? Where is femininity? From
where do one and the other draw their strength?
Larrañaga herself explains that the diferences based
on sex are unquestionably rooted in our culture. In
the eyes of society this would appear undeniable.
Another thing is the cracks that feminism and other
kinds of critical ideologies have introduced into that
frmly held view. Indeed, and especially in recent
decades, new arguments and models have been put
forward to understand, represent, develop, and cre-
ate identity, as stated, from the perspective of many
diferent feminist currents and positions.
All of this would lead us to refect on the role dif-
ferences play in the process of creating and develop-
ing identity, an interesting challenge but one that, for
now, must be put to one side.
Whatever the case, turning once more to the is-
sue of identity in bertsolaritza, we should bear in
mind—as noted earlier—that Lekuona (1978) and,
especially, Zulaika (1988) see a parallel or link be-
tween the form (structure) of bertsolaritza and group
A Bertso Home 71
dynamics/identity. Others, meanwhile, also note this

link in similar traditions, rituals, or celebrations in
other contexts. Alexandre Surrallés, for example, af-
ter examining the views of several experts who work
on Amazonia, observes the following: “most earlier
and more recent studies agree on the existence of a
link between these forms (forms of ceremonial di-
alogue) and the sociology of the group expressing
them” (Surrallés 2003, 776).
In order to apply these ideas to our case, I will
return to Zulaika’s theory in order to recall that the
word needs ellipsis to make up a bertso, because the
links and complementariness between them impart it
with power and strength. At the same time, recalling
the words of Surrallés, one could say that ellipsis—as
a syntactic construction of phrases—has a connection
to Basque oral culture because it acclaims literalness,
the word as commitment, and economy of expression
(Zulaika 1988, 230). As stated above, in traditional
Basque culture the ideal person is totally linked to the
ideology of the word, because in oral culture every-
thing is subject to the authority of the word. Te word
must be precise, measured, and meaningful. Like
people. Like men. Like bertsoak. Women, however,
when they come into contact with the word, have no
identity. Larrañaga explains this idea in the following
terms (1994, 40): “the distance between the genders
(male and female) is, therefore, more than distance;
because, strictly speaking, the woman does not even
exist. Or, in any case, she is that difcult and indefn-
able hybrid: half adult, half child; an eternally half-
made creature, obstinately unfnished.”
Te word of (Basque) women cannot represent

(Basque) culture because it is not precise, measured,
and meaningful. But, moreover, the word of women
does not lead to action because it is a word linked to
the home (and afect), not to the plaza or the outside
public world, to competition, to power, to joko or
the game, in a serious competitive sense (Larrañaga
1994, 43–44). As the Basque expression goes, Hitza
duen gizona, hitzeko gizona (Te man who possesses
the word is a man of his word). Te word of women
is not suitable for action.
On the other hand, the motives included in the
bertso are images created by the community. Ellipsis,
with the aid of rhyme and melody, binds what seem
like loose images, creating the option to insert sev-
eral previously mentioned notions, especially the
concepts of metonymy or traditional referentiality.
Te audience will use “that which is not said because
it is understood” or tradition in order to establish
a relationship or fll in the gaps, referring to a very
sensitive and subjective feld. However, that space,
which can be ambiguous and untouchable, is more
understandable from feminist theory because it has
been the traditional home of women and because
in several cases it has been transformed into an area
of research. Women bertsolariak also mention that
place—even though they do not refer to it as such—
every time they set foot onto the stage: they renounce
a past, an imposed silence, gender instructions and
roles, inertias. Teir presence alone, their bodies and
voices, question tradition (“traditional referentiality”
in Foley’s words) and call for it to be deconstructed.
A Bertso Home 73
Yet as well as their presence and bodies, they

have used the word itself to transform the bertso.
It would demand a more thorough and defnitive
study, without any doubt, but could we not argue
that the “narrativity” developed by Maialen Lujanbio
in bertsolaritza is a kind of provocation aimed at el-
lipsis? Although subtly, prudently, and suggestively,
Lujanbio ofers up connected and linked ideas/im-
ages. In this case, ellipsis is not something that would
bear out traditions, stereotypes, or “that which
is known”; ellipses must be flled in by listeners
through refection, really giving them some thought.
Lujanbio’s arguments are aimed at every listener,
rather than at the wide abstract community, but, and
because of that, she is provocative and transgressive.
Awkward.
Tat said, there are other moments and situa-
tions in which awkwardness is apparent. As regards
that, if there is one mythical scene in the history of
bertsolaritza that portrays the most ftting example
of such awkwardness, it is that of Fernando Aire or
“Xalbador” crying.
Xalbador took part in the 1967 National
Bertsolaritza Championship and fnished runner-up.
However, he was the central fgure in that year’s cham-
pionship.9 In the fnal stages of that fnal—during
the head-to-head section—Xalbador and Manuel
Olaizola or “Uztapide” faced of against each other as
9. Te details of this story were taken from information pub-

lished in Wikipedia: https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xalbador
(accessed on June 3, 2016).
they had been the best performers to that point on the

day according to the judges. When the decision was
made public, boos and whistles from the audience—
those who disagreed with the decision to choose him
for the fnal head-to-head section, most likely on ac-
count of the fact that they did not fully understand
his Northern Basque dialect—flled the Anotea pilota
court, where the championship was being held, for
a minute and a half, spoiling the atmosphere. Ten,
as the expressions of disagreement quietened down,
a barrage of applause were heard alongside whistles
and the general din. Te audience was divided in two:
when it seemed that the whistles were silencing the
applause, fans of Xalbador stood up and applauded
their bertsolari. One of the judges asked the bertso-
lariak to begin the session, but both remained stead-
fastly silent. Finally, Uztapide, amid all the shouts and
howls, performed the presentation bertso.
Ten Xalbador’s turn arrived. As he was about to
begin his turn, a cacophony of whistles and applause
were heard once more. In the end, when the voice of
the spectators abated, Xalbador performed the fol-
lowing bertso:
Anai-arrebok, ez, otoi, pentsa
neu’re gustora nagonik,
poz gehiago izango nuen
albotik beha egonik.
Zuek ezpazerate kontentu
errua ez daukat ez nik,
txistuak jo dituzue bainan
maite zaituztet oraindik.
A Bertso Home 75
(Brothers and sisters, please

don’t think I’m thrilled,
I’d be happier,
looking on from the sidelines.
If you’re not happy,
it’s no fault of mine;
you did jeer
but I love you still.)
When he came to sing “If you’re not happy, it is
no fault of mine,” there was an unprecedented round
of applause that stopped the bertsolari in mid-bertso
for a short while, before he could end it with the last
two lines. With that bertso, Xalbador managed to
bring the two sides that had formed among the spec-
tators back together. Abandoning his native Lower
Navarrese Basque dialect, he adapted the bertso to
Gipuzkoan Basque—the dominant dialect among
the listeners—and that way he managed to reach into
their hearts.
Tis moment experienced by Xalbador clearly
reveals that if bertsolaritza is one thing, it is that fuid
link that emerges between audience and bertsolari.10
10. In order to portray this link I would like to invoke the

words of Jorge Oteiza that, I think, capture it better than any-
one else (2007, 117): “Te bertsolari’s technique is that he is
front of everyone and disappears into his inner reality. From
where his words emerge (and will continue to emerge). I usual-
ly say that it is as if he allows himself to be submerged in a river
(the river of his internal vision). Now I also say that it is as if
he abandons the audience (that is listening to him) on a beach.
And he walks backwards toward the sea. And, completely sub-
merged, he speaks to us in that watery rhyme that comes to
Te bertso is located there somewhere in between,

as a social symbol, as a means of bringing about that
social link. It ultimately serves to connect the word,
the Basque language, the bertso, and so on.
Afer studying welcoming ceremonies in
Amazonia, Surrallés highlights the importance of the
word in such ceremonies; in his opinion, whenever
words are exchanged culture emerges, and alongside
that social links. Tis is how he describes that special
moment linked to the word (Surrallés 2003, 775):
“For in these welcoming ceremonies language plays
a crucial role because the culminating moment is the
spoken dialogue; the conceptual abstraction of a so-
cial link becomes concrete at the very moment when
the frst words are exchanged.”
But as he himself explains, the exchange of words
expresses the will to establish social relations, a con-
sensus and agreement based on the word, and in
our case, on the Basque language. As in Amazonia,
in the Basque Country ceremonies like that would
also constitute a space/moment in which to produce
and reproduce that social question. Te word, trans-
formed into a social link, takes on a special force, in
other words as a symbol of mana. One might specu-
late that Xalbador managed to turn whistles of deri-
sion into applause with the help of that special force
(mana); one might speculate that the word manages
to infuence reality and transform reality itself by
us on waves hitting the shore (which can also be rough).” As

Asier Altuna once said in an interview, this description is at
the root of the documentary Bertsolari and, naturally, one can
see it “performed” in the flm itself.
A Bertso Home 77
means of that force, as Zulaika himself highlights

(1988, 230): “Words ‘do’ things for people who ‘do’
them not only in speech but also in their lives.”
One can fnd emotions at the root of that force
and, alongside emotions—and as already stated—
consensus and agreement.
What happens when criticism—in this case,
from the gender perspective or stemming from fem-
inism—emerges? What happens when non-shared
emotions, wishes, and desires appear in this issue?
Basque culture has also trained the bertsolari
physically in order to be the center of perception.
If she or he has to be the voice of the people, the
bertsolari must embrace, internalize, and, as a f-
nal objective, represent the popular will, so that the
power of the word and the bertso may bring about
change. Indeed, the bertsolari, the word (the Basque
language) would internalize that power to do things
in life via such activity. In order to do so she or he
must be prepared by developing a special skillful
sensibility. Technique alone is not enough, nor is
well-developed discourse; if the bertsolari manages
to get her or his voice heard, amid the whirlwind of
outside noise, she or he will feel a sense of security
and everything will be in order.11 Yet, starting with
the Xalbador incident, we realize that for women
bertsolariak it is not just enough to note the popu-
lar will and to transform that into truth; they should
also have the ability to take part in that will, when
called for—as in Xalbador’s case—in order to be able
11. Tese are the words of the bertsolari in the abovemen-
tioned interview, which I have edited.
to transform, change, or at least adapt it. But in order

to do that they must speak from the heart, from the
body, and still today in the Basque context, female
bodies have not found a bertso home.
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4
Crossroad: Tradition and
Modernity in the Improvised
Song of the Catalan Countries
Josep Vicent Frechina
Let me, frst of all, give a brief digression on the cul-

tural context in which this work is circumscribed.
Te Catalan Countries is a name used for the ad-
ministrative territories with a Catalan-speaking ma-
jority, which includes the regions of the Valencian
Community, the Balearic Islands, Catalonia and
the so-called Franja de Aragón (literally “Aragonese
Strip”), all of these in Spain; the Principality of
Andorra; and Northern Catalonia—an area that
largely corresponds to the French department of the
Pyrenees Orientales. Te denomination was put
forth in the 1960s by Valencian intellectual Joan
Fuster, although it had been used occasionally in the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and
was quickly adopted by the progressive and linguisti-
cally conscious sectors of the population throughout
all these territories. It is, however, a political concept
that today is hotly debated for a variety of rea-
sons—even in the most pro-independence regions
of Catalonia—and that arouses visceral opposing
reactions in the Valencian, Balearic, and Aragonese

territories.
Nevertheless, although the consolidation of the
autonomous state (the political system based on re-
gional autonomy in the Spanish state) has had per-
verse consequences that have hindered the normality
of cultural fows between Catalan-speaking territo-
ries, it has been in the feld of culture and, especially,
in popular music, where the evidence of a frame of
reference that transcends administrative bound-
aries—and that clearly outlined the controversial
cartographic shape—has been more pronounced.
Specifcally, many of the new dynamics that have de-
veloped around the improvised song in recent years
have been framed territorially, culturally, and, more
important, ideologically, in the context of the Catalan
Countries—including even the protagonists of some
of the improvised verses themselves (Schmitt Solà
2013). Hence the inescapable need to use the same
feld of reference in the analysis of such dynamics,
beyond political controversy and spurious uses of
the identity question.
Genres of Improvised Song in the Catalan
Countries
If we started a journey from south to north in or-
der to prepare an inventory of the diferent types of
improvised song that have been used in the Catalan
Countries,1 we would fnd a very varied sample with
1. A more detailed description of all the genera listed below
can be found in Vicent Frechina, 2014, 115-166) and in the
literature quoted therein.
Crossroad 85
some genera virtually extinct—or fossilized in prac-

tices that have lost their improvised character—and
others that preserve an outstanding vitality.
Beginning with the southern regions of Alicante,
we frst observe the recurrent presence of the last
examples of trovo (Mas i Miralles 1983), a genre of
improvised song very much implanted throughout
the southeastern Iberian Peninsula—from the foot-
hills of the Alpujarras region in Andalusia to the
Cartagena countryside and the plain of Murcia.
Te comarcas2 of the Marina in the south and
the Plana de Castelló in the north mark the limits
of maximum difusion of the Valencian genres im-
provised by antonomasia: the cant d’estil (literally,
“singing of style”) and the albaes (“dawn songs”)
(Frechina 2005; Marzal Barberà 2009; ). Both genres
are in full force in their traditional form. Cant d’estil
and albaes, grouped occasionally under the generic
name of cant valencia, are two independent musical
genres that, however, go hand in hand because they
are sung by the same singers in the same context—
nocturnal rounds, called guitarraes in the frst case
and nits d’albaes in the second. An important pecu-
liarity of both genres is that the singer himself rarely
improvises the verses he sings, but they are dictated
to the singer’s ear by a specialist called the versador.
Te albaes are sung by two singers who alter-
nate their intervention. Tey are accompanied by
the dolçaina and tabal—pipe and drum. Te albaes
are made up of four or fve verses distributed in six
2. In Valencia and Catalonia, comarca is a local administra-
tive division.
musical phrases, with three of each sung by one of

the singers.
Te cant d’estil is sung accompanied by a mixed en-
semble formed by string and wind instruments—the
guitar, guitarró, trumpet, clarinet, and trombone—al-
though it is not unusual to pair the wind instruments
with other stringed instruments, such as the bandúr-
ria and the lute. Te cant d’estil has diverse styles that
are recognized by their diferent introduction and
harmonic structure: u i dos and u i dotze, with the
rhythmic structure of a fandango and alternation of
tonic and dominant in the instrumental accompani-
ment; and u and riberenca—pertaining both to the
fertile tree of the Andalusian fandangos. Te numer-
ical appellations given to these—”one and two,” “one
and twelve,” and “one”—have never been satisfactorily
explained, although most hypotheses are associated
with dance steps or chord positions on the guitar.
A very important musical characteristic of the
cant d’estil is the contrast between the instrumental
accompaniment, which is of a tonal nature and regu-
lar rhythm, and the singing, which is of clear modal
fliation and free rhythm. Such a contrast reinforces
the vocal expressiveness of the interpretation, fur-
ther propitiated by a certain improvisational free-
dom in the melody tracing, a strategic projection of
the melismata—especially on the last syllable of each
musical phrase—and a tendency to impregnate the
phrasing with the pathos of the “mi mode,” so pres-
ent throughout the Mediterranean area.3
3. For the pathos associated with “mi mode,”, see Reig Bravo
(2011, 245).
Crossroad 87
In the Catalan regions around the River Ebro we

fnd another kind of improvised song that has a cer-
tain kinship with the Valencian cant d’estil: the cur-
rently termed jotes del Ebre (previously known as the
jota tortosina), an appellation that reveals the dis-
placement of identity the territory has experienced in
recent years and that has been catalyzed, among other
phenomena, by social protest against the National
Hydrological Plan.4 Like the cant d’estil, these impro-
vised jotes are accompanied by a mixed ensemble of
string and wind instruments, although in this case it
is the bombardino that completes the triad of wind
instruments together with trumpet and clarinet.5
Te Ebro regions also mark the southern border
of the expansion of the cançons de pandero (tambou-
rine songs), a genre historically associated with the
Majorelle of the Virgin of the Rosary who played
them, accompanied by a square tambourine, in the
festive desserts to raise funds for their cofradia. It
is the only genre of improvised song in the Catalan
Countries interpreted exclusively by women and
spread throughout inland Catalonia to the northern
slopes of the Pyrenees, already in Northern Catalonia.
It fell into disuse during the frst third of the twenti-
eth century and has recently been recovered outside
its traditional context (Serra i Boldú 1907 [1982];
Sistac i Sanvicén 1997; Palomar i Abadia 2004).
4. Te Spanish National Hydrological Plan (NHP), approved

in the year 2000, envisaged an important water transfer from
the River Ebro to the Mediterranean coastal regions.
5. For a detailed description of this typology of jotas see Cas-
tellanos et al. (2010, 2011) and Ferré Pavia (2004).
Te corrandes de caramelles, included in the

Easter ritual, were also widely disseminated through
much of Catalonia (Roviró 2010). Tey are sung by a
specialized corrandista during the round that is car-
ried out by the houses and farms of the population
on Easter Saturday.
Two other genres, the nyacres and patacades, are
limited exclusively to a few Empordian populations:
with the nyacres in Roses, Castelló d’Empúries, and
Sant Pere Pescador; and the patacades in Cadaqués.
In both cases they are songs that accompany col-
lective dances. Te nyacres disappeared many years
ago, but they have been revived successfully within
the new contexts in which the improvised song is
practiced today. On the contrary, the patacades are
still interpreted within the ritual sequence of the San
Sebastián feast day in Cadaqués.
Another type of implementation that is strictly
local in origin is the garrotín, which is limited to
the Romani communities in the city of Lleida (Tort
and López 2003). Tey were sung—and danced—in
festive gatherings, private parties, and Carnival cel-
ebrations. Tey have, therefore, a funny and naughty
tone—carrincló, in the slang of the city.
All genres mentioned so far have a similar po-
etic structure: octosyllabic verses grouped in stanzas
ranging from four verses for the simplest combina-
tions and six for the more sophisticated ones—al-
though tambourine songs usually duplicate the four-
line stanza. Te rhymes go equally from the required
minimum of rhyming assonant of the even verses to
the complete rhyme consonant of the alternate verses.
Crossroad 89
We fnd greater freedom of versifying in the

glosa of the Balearic Islands (Sbert i Garau 2009). In
Mallorca, the glosa is sung without instrumental ac-
companiment. Historically, each singer had his/her
own characteristic melody. Te Mallorcan glosa has
a signifcant strophic fexibility, so that the glosador
can adapt the number of verses to his/her expres-
sive needs, from a minimum of four to a maximum
that rarely exceeds twelve. It is usually interpreted
as a poetic combat that defends opposite positions,
represents antagonistic roles, or is simply dialogue
singing.
In Menorca, the glosa is accompanied by a gui-
tar melody called ses porgueres. Its basic stanza is six
verses in ABBAAB rhyme, but it is not difcult to
fnd other combinations of seven to twelve verses
with diferent rhyming patterns. It is also interpreted
in the form of a combat between several glosadors
(López Casasnova 2007; Pons 2003; Tur 2013).
In Majorca there is another widespread genre
of improvised song that is sung, usually, around the
bonfres in the festival of San Antonio: the songs of
ximbomba(the friction drum), in which it is easy to
see the alternation between so-called contextual im-
provisation—memorized stanzas that are integrated
into an improvised dialogue—and pure improvisa-
tion (Ayats 2010).
Crossroad
In the early 1980s, the deep socioeconomic trans-
formations of the last third of the twentieth century
led to the defnitive collapse of a more traditional
society—with the consequent growth of urban live-

lihoods to the detriment of those in the rural world
and the progressive abandonment of the agricultural
calendar and its associated rituals.
At this point, out of all the diferent types of im-
provised song in the Catalan Countries, the only ones
that maintained a certain validity were the glosa of
Mallorca and Menorca, the jotes of the Ebro, and the
Valencian albaes and cant d’estil. Tere were very few
singers of corrandes, with Josep Casadevall Carolino
being the best known of these (Roviró 2005); some
genres had practically ceased to be performed, like
the garrotín, for example; and others had disap-
peared completely, as in the case of the tambourine
songs or nyacres.
At the time in València there were still a few
active versadors like Paco Ortí (1940–2013), Enric
Gironés (1950), Manuel Marzal, known as el Xiquet
de Mislata (1918–1993), Josep Bahilo (1940–2011),
Vicent Izquierdo Naiet de Bétera (1949), and Josep
Estellés el Xiquet del Carme (1937–2016); all of them,
except the frst two, were also singers who kept alive
a cultural expression that was losing some of its rel-
evance in the festive framework and was beginning
to be relegated to a “folkloric citadel,” increasingly
hemmed into a much reduced social and cultural
space.
In the territories of the Ebro, the charisma of Josep
García Canalero (1914–2004) shone brightly, accom-
panied by Francisco Roig lo Noro (1905–2002), José
Guarch Teixidor (1931–2011), and Andreu Queralt
Codonyol (1925–1989) (Rovira 2002).
Crossroad 91
In Menorca the glosa was in a bad way with the

withdrawal or disappearance of the old generation
of glosadors headed by Antoni Olives l’amo de Son
Mascaró (1909–1981), Josep Triay (1907–1983),
and Llorenç Janer Vivetes (1902–1993). Fortunately,
the capital fgure of Miquel Ametller (1937) began
to emerge (Pons 2005). Alongside Esteve Barceló
Verderol (1946), her would be decisive in the future
of the glosa.
Finally, as in the rest of the cases referred to
above, there was no generational rejuvenation within
the glosa of Mallorca and the old active glosadors
found themselves to be the last link in a traditional
chain that was about to break. Tey were, among
others, Joana Serra Cartera (1908–1991), Miquel
Perelló Canta (1915–1990), Joan Planisi (1928),
Antoni Socias Pobler (1929–2011), and Rafel Roig
Carritxoner (1933–2017).
Te slow languishing of traditional genres pro-
pitiated by the dynamics of developmentalism and
mass culture would be interrupted, however, by a
countercurrent that would recover some practices
typical of traditional society, but recontextualize
them with new functionalities within the framework
of an advanced modern society.
Tis was the case of the improvised song that
initiated a process of revitalization in territories in
which it seemed condemned to disappear, that re-
doubled its validity where it had not yet entered
decay, and that was reborn seemingly from no-
where and encouraged by the unveiling of tradi-
tional music, as a kind of identity marker, which
occurred in urban areas under the umbrella of new

folk music.
Tese three phenomena—revival, intensifca-
tion, and recreation—occurred in varying degrees
throughout the territories, but they were developed
following more or less common patterns: the move-
ments started simultaneously, were animated by the
dynamic action of cultural associationism, and inev-
itably interbred, giving rise to interesting synergies
and occasional conficts.
In Menorca, for example, a decisive event in 1999
was the founding of Soca de Mots, an association
that would bring together all the active glosadors on
the island and that would capitalize on initiatives to
promote and teach the glosat.
In Mallorca, the body that initially assumed this
same role was the Canonge de Santa Cirga cultural
association in Manacor, which, with the encourage-
ment of Felip Munar and Mateu Llodrá, organized
the Regional Glosat Shows and gave way to the foun-
dation, in 2008, of the Associació de Glosadors de
Mallorca. Felip Munar is also the author of two im-
portant didactic books that are widely used in glosa
workshops that have spread throughout the Balearic
territory (Munar 2001, 2008).
Te point of infection was marked in Valencia
by two signifcant events: the publication of Carles
Pitarch’s initial research (Pitarch 1997), which for
the frst time introduced the notion of the cultural
and artistic value of the cant d’estil and the albaes
from an academic approach; and, above all, the
publication, by the Fonoteca de Materials of the
Crossroad 93
Generalitat Valenciana (the Valencian government),

of the Antologia del Cant Valencia d’Estil (1915–1996)
(1997). Te creation of the Godella singing schools
of Godella, in which the singer Josep Aparicio Apa
exercises his mastery, and the Popular University of
València, with Victoria Sousa Victorieta as a main
reference, would also play a signifcant role.
In Catalunya, where the improvised song only
retained an important presence in the regions of the
River Ebro, the phenomenon of recreation would
be especially transcendent. A careful analysis of its
timeline demonstrates three obvious milestones.
First, there was the creation of the Tradicionàrius
festival in Barcelona in 1988. Tradicionàrius has
been the main supporter of the folk movement in
the Catalan Countries and its powerful infuence
has been felt throughout the territory. For example,
one of the groups popularized by the festival, Quico
el Célio, Noi and Mut de Ferreries, has popularized
the improvised jotas, and some of their most em-
blematic interpreters such as Canalero or Teixidor,
outside of their natural environment. Moreover, en-
counters of singers promoted by festivals that mir-
rored the Tradicionàrius—like that organized by the
Solc association in the region of Lluçanès, for exam-
ple—would promote some corrandistas like Carolino
de Folgueroles; the same Tradicionàrius would also
support improvised song get-togethers that, under
the denomination of Corrandàrius, encouraged the
career of Francesc Tomàs Panxito; and many bands
and performers at the same festival, like Marcel
Casellas, De Calaix, Pomada, and their specialized
incarnation, Ensaladilla So Insistent, would incor-

porate improvised song into their repertoires.
Te second milestone was the publication in
2002 of the specialized fanzine Cor de Carxofa—be-
hind which are some members of bands mentioned
above—and the subsequent foundation of the associ-
ation of the same name in 2006 that, in a short time,
has become the most important reference point for
the improvised song in Catalunya: Cor de Carxofa
organizes workshops for initiation into the world
of improvisation as well as program meetings and
festivals, and it enjoys an important position in the
network, publishing a Manual d’Iniciació a la Glosa
(2008) which laid the foundations for a new way of
understanding improvised song based on the trans-
glosador model: in other words, an improviser with-
out genre or geographical markers that uses the dif-
ferent genres as interchangeable expressive resources
and that, therefore, can also improvise on glosa from
Menorca, on nyacra from l’Empurdà, on jota from
the Ebro territories, or on Valencian albaes.
Tis model was defnitively consolidated with
the third of the three milestones mentioned above:
the creation of the Trobada de Cantadors (“Singers
Meeting”) of Espolla (2004), inspired by the Basque
competitions of bertsolaris, in which the winner is
proclaimed with the crown of Nyacres King/Queen
(Tegido-Mallart Gustinet 2012). Tis meeting facili-
tated the media visibility of a new improvised song
that would henceforth be called, generically, glosa: a
controversial metonymic operation that, however, has
been quite successful and very quickly implemented.
Crossroad 95
Under the impulse of Cor de Carxofa, and taking

advantage of the popular success of the Trobada de
Cantadors, diferent events were organized such as
the improvisers’ championship leagues and twelve
hours of improvised song. Te model thus spread
rapidly throughout the territory: popular institu-
tions, cultural associations, and civic entities of
all kinds and conditions organized the singing of
nyacres, battles of garrotins, glosa afernoons, nights
of corrandes, and so on. At these events, new impro-
visers came to coexist occasionally with singers from
a more traditional background, with a notable pres-
ence of young Mallorcan and Menorcan poets who
combined both traditional and modern formats.
Mateu Matas Xurí (Frechina 2013) and Maribel
Servera Servereta would be the most paradigmatic
examples: both have won the Espolla contest with-
out ceasing to be two of the primary exponents of
the present Majorcan traditional glosa. Teir poetry,
however, has undergone notable changes with re-
spect to the traditional poetry bequeathed to them
by previous generations: their melodic palette has
expanded considerably and it is not difcult to per-
ceive in them the infuence of the vigorous Ibero-
American movement around the improvised décima
(ten-line stanza) in its preference for this structure
or in the adoption of a fnal seguidilla with which,
in the way of the great Alexis Diaz Pimienta, Xurí
brightly closes his interventions.
Te above example is not the only consequence
of the confuence of modern and traditional prac-
tices. Tere have also been, as mentioned earlier,
small conficts owing to the overlapping of the

multigeneric and participatory dynamics that are
promoted in the new contexts with their more tra-
ditional counterparts, which have always operated
under diferent formulas.
In the new dynamics priority is given to the playful
aspect, to the open and collective celebration that is
developed over new rituals, with the musical compo-
nent dissociated from the text and converted into an
accessory and interchangeable element. If this is done
with genres that have fallen into disuse, such as tam-
bourine songs or nyacres, the operation is innocuous
and has no collateral efects. However, if it is done with
living genres that are consequently decontextualized
and, in a sense, perceived as distorted, it is possible to
generate a certain amount of discomfort among habit-
ual listeners: it is not difcult to understand the per-
plexity with which a veteran glosador from Menorca
or a Valencian singer contemplates those willing gloses
or albaes that appear, more or less disfgured—to say
nothing of the instrumental accompaniment, or the
tuning, or the pitch, or the placement of the voice, or
the circumstances, or the customary ritual surround-
ing the jotes, corrandes, and garrotins. I assume, how-
ever, that it is time to accept this collectivization of a
heritage that was understood up to now as exclusive
to specifc owners who are its new custodians.
Another problematic consequence of the overlap-
ping of dynamics, and one that is a little more complex
than the previous point, is observed by Anaís Falcó
(2014) in regard to the feast day of Sant Sebastián of
Cadaqués in which occasional improvised patacades
Crossroad 97
are sung. In recent years, the success of the impro-

vised song has promoted among its new practi-
tioners and adepts a certain cultural tourism whose
main impulse is to attend traditional rituals in which
improvisation plays a central role. Tis is not exactly
the case with the festival of Cadaqués because the pa-
tacades are rarely improvised, but are instead mostly
repeated in a ritual that “simulates” improvisation.
However, visitors try to intervene during the party
by improvising some stanzas or even interacting
with the “ofcial” singer—Dionis Baró. Tis attitude
in turn disturbs the “genuine” participants and ends
up distorting the festive model of interest.
In any case, and despite these small clashes be-
tween two realities that are learning to coexist, the
new improvised song continues on its unstoppable
progression: it forms part of the pro-independence
imaginary in which it has become strongly rooted ,
especially among younger people that perceive it to
be a powerful instrument for articulating a collec-
tive identity as well as a vehicle of fun and valuable
communication; furthermore, it has entered with
force into the world of the education—for example,
the Corrandascola project designed by Albert Casals
is a magnifcent example of the enormous potential
that this practice could have at school (Casals 2010;
Casals, Ayats, and Vilar 2010); and it has conquered
social networks in an imaginative and surprising way:
on January 22, 2011 the Twitter social network was
fooded with tweets with the hashtag #garrotweet as
a result of the invitation made by Oriol Beltran Uru,
who had written:
Perquè els folkis 2.0

no quedin en entredit
provoco el noi del Pandero
i inauguro el #garrotweet.
For the folkies 2.0
Do not be questioned
I provoke the tambourine boy
and I open the #garrotweet.
Te move was made, in fact, to play with the dou-
ble restriction of the maximum of 140 characters per
tweet imposed by Twitter and the four octosyllabic
verses of the traditional couplet—here linked to tra-
ditional genre of garrotín. Most signifcant, however,
was not the abundant tweets, which remain, but the
euphoria exhibited by participants in and editors of
the numerous media that responded to it—a eupho-
ria born from the feeling of conciliation and aroused
by a game as harmless and banal as that described,
between a well-established tradition and one of the
most rabidly contemporary forms of communication.
Future Perspectives
Against this background, improvised song faces the
twenty-frst century in the Catalan Countries with a
double reality at stake.
On the one hand, traditional practices resist the
onslaught of modernization and regain lost social
prestige even if their real presence in the cultural cal-
endar has diminished. In the Valencian Country the
nits d’albaes and the guitarraes of cant d’estil remain
in their most important fefdoms—El Puig, Bétera,
Crossroad 99
Xàtiva, the festival of the Fallas, and so on—but their

frequency has waned in the rest of their territory. Te
Associació d’Estudis del Cant Valencià (2008) has
been founded, and there are several active versadors
such as Paco Nicasio Paco de Faura, Josemi Sánchez,
Salvador López Voro de Paterna, Vicent Ribelles
Vicent de Rosa, and Carles Bahilo; the schools of cant
d’estil have experienced an important growth and, in
a decision debated by certain authors that do not be-
lieve it to be the most suitable option (Reig Bravo
2014), the Council of Ministers approved, in June
2014, a royal decree that created the specialty of cant
valencia in professional schools of music. Tere is,
however, no school of verses that reinforces de facto
the historical subordination of poetic improvisation
to singing.
In the regions of the River Ebro there is a gener-
ation of young singers—José Subirats Joseret, Marc
Guarch Guardet, Sofía Morales Sofía de la Ribera,
and Sílvia Lluís Sílvia Ampolla—who improvise jo-
tas in the traditional context: rounds, family celebra-
tions, feasts, and so on. Initiatives such as the Escola
de Música Tradicional Ebrenca lo Canalero (2015)
have been launched in Roquetes, which organized
the frst course of improvised song in Catalan—
with healthy representation from all the improvised
genres of the Catalan Countries. Additionally, the
Centre d’Interpretació de la Jota de les Terres de
l’Ebre - Casa de la Jota (2013) has been opened in
Tortosa. And, since 2013, the Ebrefolk, Campus de
Música i Balls Populars de les Terres de l’Ebre, and
the Jotacampus, the summer school of the Aula de
Músiques de la Terra have been taking place, dis-

seminating and teaching the improvised jota.
In Mallorca and Menorca the situation is even
more positive. Tere are dozens of glosadors and glosa
enjoys a constant presence in the media. In 2015, ac-
cording to data from the website of the Association
of Glosadors of Mallorca, there were glosa shows on
almost one hundred days of the year, a signifcant
part of them in bars and restaurants, which indicates
its ability to attract the public (Vicens 2012). A re-
cent census of glosadors de picat in Majorca (Munar
2015)—poets capable of executing a poet fght or
battle—records twenty-four names, among which
include the aforementioned Mateu Xurí and Maribel
Servera, together with Macià Ferrer Noto, Antònia
Nicolau Pipiu, Toni Llull Carnisser, Antoni Viver
Mostel, Jordi Cloquell Artiller, Miquel Àngel Adrover
Campaner, and Llorenç Màgic Cloquell. And from
Menorca we can also mention Bep Coll, Moisès Coll
Zès, Alfonso de la Llana, Joan Fortuny Nanis, Bep
Guàrdia, Joan Moll Joanet, Pons Pons, Toni Rotger,
Paco Rotger, and Miquel Truyol.
On the other hand, the new improvised song
maintains its frm pulse: Cor de Carxofa inaugu-
rated, with great enrollment success, the Escola
d’Estiu de Glosa in Espolla (2012) as a prelude to
the Trobada de Cantadors; and the same association
has been able to establish some fxed appointments
in the calendar—for example, glosa Wednesdays in
the Ateneu de Manlleu and the itinerant glosa work-
shops, also on Wednesdays, in the Gracia neigh-
borhood of Barcelona. And only recently a new
Crossroad 101
amateur glosa championship has been launched—

the ABBA league, organized by the FIGA (Federació
Intercomarcal de Glosa Amateur)—which is ex-
pected to run from three to fve days.
Consequently, if the traditional dynamics assure
the territorial roots and the existence of genuine ref-
erents in improvised song, modern dynamics can
play a cohesive and dynamic role that connects the
improvisation of the diferent territories, provides
new values, and brings them to areas that the former
could hardly achieve alone. Te mutual reinforce-
ment between both dynamics allows us to foresee,
then, at least in the short term, a future as open as it
is promising.
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servatoris professionals.” Notas de paso 1: 121–29.
At http://revistadigital2.csmvalencia.es/wp-con-
tent/uploads/2016/02/Revista-1-PDF.pdf.
Rovira, Joan-Josep. 2002. Cantadors del Delta. Teixidor,

Lo Noro, Caragol. Tortosa: Cinctorres Club.
Roviró, Xavier. 2005. “El corrandista Josep Casadevall
i Sangles, Carolino.” Caramella 12 (January–
June): 16–20.
———. 2010. “Les corrandes de camalleres.
Cançons improvisades d’humor, sàtira i crítica.”
Caramella 23 (January–June): 124–27.
Sbert i Garau, Miquel. 2000. “La poesia improvisada
en las Illes Balears: los ‘glosadors’.” In Actas del VI
Encuentro-Festival Iberoamericano de la Décima
y el Verso Improvisado, edited by Maximiano
Trapero et al. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria:
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
———. 2009. Llengua de glosador. Notes sobre poesía
de tradició oral. Palma: Lleonard Muntaner.
Schmitt Solà, Bàrbara. 2013. “O cantem o desapa-
reixem. La glosa i els Països Catalans.” Mirmanda
8: 74–80.
Serra i Boldú, Valeri. 1907 [1982]: Cançons de pan-
dero. Cançons de ronda. Arxiu de Tradicions
Populars. Facsimile edition. Barcelona and Palma
de Mallorca: José J. de Olañeta.
Sistac i Sanvicén, Dolors. 1997. Les cançons de pan-
dero o de tambor. Estudi i noves aportacions.
Lleida: Institut d’Estudis Ilerdencs.
Tegido-Mallart Gustinet, Josep Maria. 2012. “Pomada
de cor de carxofa dins de(l) calaix.” Caramella 27
(July–December): 115–16.
Tort, Josep, and Matías López. 2003. Lo garrotín de
Lleida: Sintonia d’una ciutat de paios i gitanos.
Lleida: Ajuntament de Lleida.
Crossroad 105
Tur, Aina. 2013. La glosa menorquina (analisi con-

temporania del glosat i els glosadors. Quaderns
de Folklore 98. Ciutadella: Collectiu Folklòric de
Ciutadella.
Vicens, Francesc. 2011. “Reinventar la tradició. Nous
usos del glosat a Mallorca.” Caramella 25: 15–18.
Singer Karen Owen. Photo by Conny Beyreuther.
Courtesy of Xenpelar Dokumentazio Zentroa.
Researcher Josep Vincent Frechina. Photo by Xenpelar

Dokumentazio Zentroa.
Singers Yunet López and Alaia Martin. Photo by Conny

Beyreuther. Courtesy of Xenpelar Dokumentazio Zentroa.
Singers Mateu Xuri and Maribel Servera. Photo by Conny

Alaia Martin and Maribel Servera. Photo by Conny

Maribel Servera and Maialen Lujanbio. Photo by Conny

Participants of the conference on improvised singing in

Donostia-San Sebastián, Basque Country.
Photo by Conny Beyreuther. Courtesy of Xenpelar
Participants of the conference on improvised singing.

Photo by Xenpelar Dokumentazio Zentroa.
Participants of the conference on improvised singing.

Photo by Xenpelar Dokumentazio Zentroa.
Researcher Albert Casals. Photo by Xenpelar

Performance of improvising poets in the aquarium.

Bertsolari Beñat Gaztelumendi Arandia. Photo by

Alberto Elosegi. Courtesy of Xenpelar Dokumentazio
Zentroa .
Poet and researcher Eurig Salisbury. Photo by Xenpelar

Researcher Harkaitz Zubiri. Photo by Xenpelar

Researcher Jone Miren Hernandez. Photo by Xenpelar

Performance of Basque and Cypriot improvisers in

the streets of Oñati, Basque Country. Photo by Conny
Performance of Welsh improviser Eurig Salisbury in

the streets of Donostia-San Sebastián, Basque Country.
Participants and organizers afer the great festival of

improvised poetry in the Kursaal of Donostia-San
Sebastián, Basque Country. Photo by Conny Beyreuther.
Courtesy of Xenpelar Dokumentazio Zentroa .
Austrian improvisers in full performance at the Kursaal.

Cuban improvisers performing at the Kursaal.

Dokumentazio Zentroa .
Researcher Miren Artetxe. Photo by Xenpelar

Researcher Patricia Tapanes. Photo by Xenpelar

Researcher Ruth Finnegan. Photo by Conny Beyreuther.

Courtesy of Xenpelar Dokumentazio Zentroa.
Improvising performance at three corners in Tabakalera,

Donostia-San Sebastián, Basque Country. Photo by
Conny Beyreuther. Courtesy of Xenpelar Dokumentazio
Zentroa.
Alondras Huastecas: Dana Sofía Limón, Rebeca

Limón and Diana Laura Hernández. Photo by Conny
Te participants dined daily in the Kresala Society,

Donostia-San Sebastián, Basque Country. Photo by
Xenpelar Dokumentazio Zentroa.
Researcher Tierry Rougier. Photo by Xenpelar

5
Singing Improvised Verses
to Promote the Language in
Schools: Te Case of Catalonia
Albert Casals
Si voleu ballar corrandes

jo us en cantaré deu mil,
que les duc a la butxaca,
lligadetes amb un fl.
If you want to sing corrandes
there’s ten thousand I can sing.
Tey’re here in my pocket
well tied up with a thin string.
(traditional corranda)
In the last twenty years, the activities revolving
around corrandes—songs with improvised verses—
have gone from being a disappearing phenomenon
to one of the most important assets of language and
music with traditional roots in Catalonia today. Tis
unexpected and accelerated growth has been accom-
panied by an increasing interest on the part of the
Catalan education sector. But how has this phenom-
enon occurred?
In this chapter I will explain the introduction

of corrandes in schools in Catalonia, focusing spe-
cifcally on their impact on the use and survival of
Catalan. To this end, I will frst outline what cor-
randes are, the situation of the Catalan language,
the school system in Catalonia, and the evolution of
corrandes, as a necessary context for understanding
the growth of this activity in the educational context
described below. Second, I will briefy report on the
work done in classrooms and then conclude by dis-
cussing the consequences and importance of such
work for the adoption of Catalan as the habitual lan-
guage of communication in Catalonia.
Some Notes on Catalan and the School System in
Catalonia
Catalan is one of the Romance languages spoken
in southwestern Europe, in the region known as
the Països Catalans.1 It is estimated that there are
around ten million speakers, of whom 60 percent
live in Catalonia (Plataforma per la Llengua 2016). It
should be noted that Catalan is a stateless language
and that Catalonia is one of the autonomous com-
munities that make up Spain, although it is currently
immersed in a political process of self-determina-
tion based on its language, culture, and character.2
While not wishing to go deeper into the situa-
tion of Catalan as the language commonly used in
1. To learn more about the history of Catalan, I recommend read-

ing Vallverdú (1984) and Ionita (2017).
2. To understand the political situation in Catalonia, it is worth
reading Lanz (2016).
Singing Improvised Verses in Catalan Schools 123
Catalonia, nor having this possibility due to the

constraints of space here, it does seem necessary to
highlight some data that can help to illustrate the
existing strengths, problems, and weaknesses of this
supposition.
Drawing at all times on the latest report on the
situation of Catalan, published by the Observatori de
la Llengua (Xarxa CRUSCAT 2015), we fnd that:
Although the percentages of inhabitants who
can understand, speak, read, and write in Catalan
in Catalonia may be considered by many people as
good or acceptable (95 percent, 73 percent, 79 per-
cent, and 56 percent respectively), the data also show
that in the ten years between 2003 and 2013, those
who defned themselves as Catalan or bilingual by
birth gradually decreased (by around 4 percent),
while the number of Spanish speakers or those with
another mother tongue increased (by 9.2 percent
and 152.8 percent, respectively).
Te data indicate the appeal held by Catalan: for
example, there are more people who speak to their
children in Catalan than to their mothers, and there
are more people who state that Catalan is their lan-
guage of habitual use than those who indicate that it
is their mother tongue. In contrast, only 38.5 percent
of the population said Catalan was their main lan-
guage (L1) in 2014.
Both in the written press and radio, the ofer in
Catalan has grown steadily compared to Spanish.
For its part, television in Catalan has maintained
about 20 percent of the audience share over the last
few years, although it should be underscored that the
Catalan public television channel, TV3, topped the

audience ratings in 2015. On the other hand, only 3
to 4 percent of moviegoers choose to watch flms in
Catalan (although it is also true that the ofer of flms
dubbed or subtitled in Catalan is low).
Given this scenario and the linguistic problems
that exist in Catalonia—in which there is a struggle
between a stateless language without efective recog-
nition outside its territory and another ofcial lan-
guage with millions of speakers, favored by the state
and receiving international recognition—compul-
sory schooling emerges as one of the decisive felds
in which the weaker language plays out its future,
and its very survival. Hence, in 1983 linguistic im-
mersion in Catalan was introduced into the schools
in Catalonia, an option that was later formalized by
the 2009 Catalan Education Act3: “Catalan is the lan-
guage normally used as the language of transmis-
sion and learning in the Education System” (Article
11.1).4
Te model established by the aforesaid law is justi-
fed because it guarantees full mastery of the Catalan
and Spanish languages on completing compulsory
schooling (Article 10.1) and the non-segregation of
3. As the reader may well know, any discussion of the Spanish

education system means referring not only to a series of general and
common parameters throughout the territory that makes up Spain
but also to a diversity of models that exist in the various regions that
hold delegated competences in the feld of education. One of these
regions is the autonomous community of Catalonia.
4. Te original legal text is: “El català és la llengua normalment
emprada com a llengua vehicular i d’aprenentatge del sistema educa-
tiu” (Llei 12/2009, d’Educació).
pupils in centers, classes, or groups for reasons of

language (Article 11.3). Tis model, although it is
supported by the results and praised as an example
to follow outside Catalonia, is currently the object of
attack by Spanish centralist sectors within the spiral
of political controversy experienced in recent years.
Te Corrandes and their Process of Positive
Reevaluation and Revitalization
Having outlined the situation of Catalan and linguis-
tic immersion in compulsory schooling, we must
now consider the nature of corrandes and how they
have evolved in Catalonia over the last fegw decades.
In the Catalan-speaking regions, the Països
Catalans, Jaume Ayats (2007, 114–18) lists up to
nineteen genres or classifcations of songs with lyr-
ics that are improvised over a sole melodic formula.
Most of them have been present at some point in
Catalonia, with the corranda being the most gener-
alized form.5 Historically, the term has ofen been
used generically in Catalonia to defne this type of
repertoire, although it currently coexists alongside
others: the descriptive “improvised song” or, more
recently, glosa. Tis latter term is, in fact, a word
from the Balearic Islands adopted to denominate
any activity that develops around improvised poetry
in Catalan, whatever its origins, the melody used, or
the type of activity in course. In this chapter I use
5. Other forms worthy of note are the jotes de l’Ebre, the garro-
tins, and the cançons de pandero. To learn more about them and
their background, I recommend reading Ayats (2007) and Frechina
(2014).
the term corranda (or corrandes in the plural) as a

way of making clear that I am only discussing what
happens in the context of Catalonia.
Corrandes coincide with most similar genres in
other cultures in the sense of being more than one
type of song. I defne their performance as an im-
portant communicative activity within the group in
which it occurs (Ayats 2007, 66), with implications
for the level of group identity (in the sense of Gross
2008) and ofen associated with ethnic afliations
(as described by White 2001). Tis is an oral, multi-
modal, communicative activity using spoken, musi-
cal, and body languages. And it is eminently social.
As is usual in oral culture, improvised verses have
value and meaning in the here and now, seeking to
impact a live audience, without any pretension of
creating poetry that will last over time. In particu-
lar, corrandes are based on melodies borrowed from
their own cultural tradition or that have been pop-
ularized, and they usually have a playful character
and/or feature social criticism (Ayats 2007).
If we go back to the 1980s and 1990s, we fnd
scholars of folklore and traditional music warning
of the imminent disappearance of the traditional
songbook and its manifestations in Catalonia (Pujol
1985), among them the corrandes. In fact, there
were still a few singers scattered around the region
and possibly two areas where the art of improvisa-
tion through singing continued to show some signs
of life: southern Catalonia (Terres de l’Ebre) with its
jotas, and the Romani community in Lleida with the
garrotín.
Nonetheless, it is common knowledge that tra-

dition adapts to new circumstances and has a strong
survival instinct. Accordingly, the activity of impro-
vising sung verses was revalued positively and revi-
talized (see Frechina 2014 and Serrà 2005, 9–11).
Like the traditions in many other places, the cor-
randa was reinvented, mutating from something
outmoded, for old and illiterate people living in ru-
ral contexts, to something modern, typical of young
urbanites with university studies (Casals, Ayats, and
Vilar 2010).
In this new stage, which began at the turn of
the century, it is important to note that the impetus
behind the new corrandes came from the world of
music. It emerged in certain folk music scenes and
was later channeled through the Cor de Carxofa as-
sociation. Although this situation has subsequently
evolved, in this context the preponderance of musi-
cians as compared to philologists, lyricists, or other
wordsmiths is still evident. Tis is something partic-
ular to Catalonia and it reoccurred with the intro-
duction of corrandes into schools.
Teir growth in the last decade has been astound-
ing;indeed, it could almost be described as exponen-
tial: the number of events and singers has soared; the
Cor de Carxofa association has grown signifcantly
both in terms of activities and supporters; their so-
cial impact and media coverage has increased con-
siderably; and there are people who work or who
intend to work—even if only part-time—in the feld
of corrandes. Specifcally, one of the areas in which
more progress has been made and is anticipated is
education: from the training of corrandistes (cor-

randes singers) in workshops and on courses to the
implementation of school and interschool corranda
projects.6
Corrandes and Schools: A Successful Partnership
Te presence of corrandes in schools in Catalonia
is a relatively recent phenomenon, but in just a
few years they have found a place on the Catalan
education agenda. Following a few isolated and
non-systematized trials, a frst pilot project was
carried out in a primary school in the 2006–2007
school year, which was repeated the following year
with four more. Te excellent results obtained
and compiled in the form of a dissertation (Casals
2009) led in 2009–2010 to the development of the
Corrandescola (corrandes for schools) program.
Subsequent to the publication of the didactic pro-
posal (Casals 2010), specifc training courses were
set up with the support of the Servei d’Immersió
i Ús de la Llengua.7 Tese have currently been pi-
loted directly in more than forty schools. Indirectly,
through teacher training, we also know that many
more schools are experimenting with corrandes,
both in primary and secondary education. In addi-
tion, in the last few years interschool meetings have
been organized in various towns and cities around
6. For further information about this process of revitalization, see

earlier studies like Casals and Sabater (2014) and Casals (2009).
7. A division of the Department of Education of the Catalan gov-
ernment (Generalitat) responsible for promoting Catalan immer-
sion and use.
Catalonia, with more expected to join the initiative

in the near future.8
Two important particularities stand out in the
process of implementation in schools as compared
to other noteworthy experiences (in the Basque
Country and Mallorca, for example): the initia-
tive has come from the feld of music; and most of
the projects are based on empowering teachers for
the educational use of corrandes. Te key points
and main aspects of the project in Catalonia are as
follows:
Te reasoning behind the use of corrandes at
school is pedagogical; it is based on their immense
educational potential (in the areas of language, mu-
sic, theater, attitudes, and so on). In other words, the
intention is not to preserve or extend a taste for im-
provised poetry in Catalan, nor are there any other
possible intentions, alhough obviously one thing
infuences another. Tis is not an end in itself but
rather the consequence of an educational approach
that aims to work more efectively on communica-
tion as a competency.
Te goal is that students, each at their own level,
are initiated into the art of improvisation. It is not
just a question of introducing them to corrandes but
rather of challenging them to become corrandistes
themselves and daring them to improvise in public.
8. Apart from the Corrandescola project, other schemes and proj-

ects have existed in Catalonia and more and more are being designed,
although many of them are proposals developed by a sole teacher.
It was decided to empower the teachers and more

specifcally those working in two subject areas (Catalan
and music). Tose working on oral improvisation in
classrooms are teachers who have received specifc
training. In short, this is not a case of corrandistes with
didactic training but rather teachers with notions of
improvisation, who can teach how to improvise verses.
Tis guarantees a satisfactory didactic approach and
facilitates the inclusion of the Corrandescola program
in the curriculum and the school education agenda.
At any rate, the participation of well-known corran-
distes at some point in the program is important, be-
cause they serve as a role model.
Given the area under discussion of this chapter,
I will leave aside the specifc aspects of the program
(which can be consulted in Casals 2010) to focus on
the results and benefts that have been identifed.
Te research and pilot experiments show important
benefts in diferent areas, these being especially re-
markable in a type of student not used to playing a
positive role in the classroom.
Te work based on corrandes goes beyond the
usual disciplinary compartmentalization of edu-
cation: its focus is holistic and competency-based,
in line with the latest, most innovative educational
trends. It should be noted that the main teaching goal
of this activity is to improve the competency of oral
communication: being better prepared to reach the
other using the sum of the available expressive re-
sources (verbal, musical, and corporal). Accordingly,
what is really appreciated and evaluated is commu-
nicative efectiveness, above and beyond syntactic,
lexical, or melodic accuracy: whether students are

able to obtain an adequate response, and whether
they know how to respond to a particular challenge.
As a consequence, the work with corrandes is
wholly interdisciplinary and has repercussions in dif-
ferent subject areas, such as the Catalan language in
particular. In language and literature, most students
show signifcant progress in terms of oral expression,
vocabulary acquisition, and comprehension of and
interest in poetry (see Casals 2011, 2012). And it
has an impact on multiple aspects ranging from the
argumentation and synthesis of ideas to the struc-
turing of discourse and use of rhetorical devices.
And despite being a purely oral activity, some im-
provement has even been detected in writing skills:
for example, overcoming problems with placing the
accent on words (stress) as a consequence of better
identifying the separation of syllables and the ac-
cented syllable.
On the other hand, it should not be forgotten that
the work with corrandes also has a very positive im-
pact on music education and diferent types of trans-
versal learning (learning that transcends the curric-
ular subjects). Tis can be summed up as follows:
Benefts are seen in music in aspects such as
solo singing (Casals, Vilar, and Ayats 2011), making
singing come naturally, expressiveness in sung per-
formance, and the signifcation of tradition (Casals,
Ayats, and Vilar 2010).
In drama teaching, there are positive results as re-
gards the ability to act in public, with more expressive
use of the body and better modulation of the voice.
In terms of interpersonal relationships and per-

sonal growth, students are forced to challenge them-
selves, face up to and deal with mistakes, overcome
shyness, and express and cope with criticism, among
other things.
Complementarily, another reason for the success
of the Corrandescola program, apart from improved
academic performance, is that it ofers students re-
sources to help cope with difculties and challenges
at school. Two of them deserve special mention: the
program provides tools for guiding teaching-learn-
ing processes in the felds of oral expression, poetry,
theater, and creativity; and it helps to rethink and re-
new the organization of school festivals.
Corrandes and the Emotional Bond with the
Language
Holding a conversation through singing and doing
so playfully in a group is a positive experience with
a high emotional impact. And this is precisely the
greatest contribution that the corrandes—or any lin-
guistic activity—can make to the survival of a lan-
guage, in this case Catalan. In fact, some authors do
not hesitate to claim that “positive attitudes toward
the language and the desire to do things with peo-
ple who speak it are two decisive factors for its ac-
quisition” (Vila, Siqués, and Oller 2009, 120). And
naturally this is a crucial point when considering
non-Catalan-speaking contexts—in which experi-
ences associated with Catalan are few and not always
positive—or contexts in which there is reticence to-
ward Catalan or open rejection.
In the case of pilot experiments carried out in

centers with a low or non-existent percentage of
Catalan speakers, we have seen students with little
or no interest in learning Catalan, or insecure about
using it, become motivated and end up having fun
in Catalan. And although this may seem paradoxi-
cal, the use of a communicative device that requires
so many skills at the same time in initial learning
environments is not a problem. Te motivating, lu-
dic character of corrandes, the ease with which the
activity and its mechanisms can be adapted to any
level, the impossibility of constant correction by the
teacher, and the implicit normalization of error are
some of the explanatory factors.
It is interesting to note that when non-Catalan
speaking students cannot fnd any reference sim-
ilar to the corrandes in their mother tongue, they
quickly accept that this activity (conversing playfully
through singing) has to be in Catalan; they do not
contemplate the possibility of doing so in another
language. On the other hand, the experience of rap
in Catalan in some schools, in which students have
references in English and Spanish, has met with
much more interference between languages.
Te recreational and social use of Catalan not
only helps to raise interest in using it and, ultimately,
in learning it; it also leads to greater social cohesion.
Seeing as corrandes are conversations that stem from
their interests and opinions, the class group builds
up more relationships among its members, they get
to know each other better, and a sense of group iden-
tity emerges.
By Way of a Conclusion
In view of the research and results obtained in the
ten years since the launch of the frst project, which
systematized and laid the foundations for the use of
corrandes in schools (the Corrandescola program),
it is possible to talk about a pedagogical success story
and ambitious perspectives for the future. Among
other things, the results reveal the potential of cor-
randes in terms of experiencing Catalan, of its use
and, ultimately, its survival. Because for a language to
survive and advance—and even more so in the case
of one with fewer speakers and without the backing
of a state—it is imperative that potential speakers
build emotional bonds and associate positive expe-
riences with that language, and discover spaces in
which it is necessary, functional, and useful. Te use
of corrandes in schools has the capacity to meet all
these demands.
In the same vein, only if people are able to live out
their whole lives using a language (from shopping
and browsing the Internet to defending themselves
in court, making declarations of love, or insulting
each other) is it possible to imagine a future for that
language, encouraging those whose mother tongue
it is and attracting new speakers. And as can be de-
duced from the data presented at the beginning, the
world of leisure (cinema, television, music, and so
on) is one of the spaces in which Catalan is fghting
a non-stop battle for its future. It is a space in which
corrandes, by way of being a recreational artistic ac-
tivity, and as a form of entertainment, can also help
to confrm and to show in certain contexts just how

much fun it is possible to have in Catalan too.
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Prat, and Llorenç Prats. Barcelona: Alta Fulla;
Fundació Serveis de Cultura Popular.
Serrà, Antoni. 2005. “Funció del glosador en la so-
cietat preindustrial.” In Formes d’expressió oral,
edited by Felip Munar. Manacor: Consell de
Mallorca; Associació Cultural Es Canonge de
Santa Cirga.
Vallverdú, Francesc. 1984. “A Sociolinguistic History
of Catalan.” International Journal of the Sociology
of Language 47 (January): 13–28.
Vila, Ignasi, Carina Siqués, and Judith Oller. 2009.
“Usos lingüístics de l’alumnat d’origen estranger
a l’educació primària de Catalunya.” Zeitschrif
für Katalanistik / Revista d’Estudis Catalans 22:
95–124. At http://www.romanistik.uni-freiburg.
de/pusch/zf/cat/2009.htm (accessed February
2, 2017).
White, Linda. 2001. “Orality and Basque Nationalism:
Dancing with the Devil or Waltzing into the
Future?” Oral Tradition 16, no.1 (March): 3–28.
At http://journal.oraltradition.org/issues/16i/
white (accessed February 2, 2017).
Xarxa CRUSCAT. 2015. VIII Informe sobre la situ-
ació de la llengua catalana (2014). Barcelona:
Observatori de la Llengua Catalana. At http://
blogs.iec.cat/cruscat/publicacions/informe/ (ac-
6
El Punto: Forms of Transmission in
Cuba—Knowledge and Meanings
Connected With Everyday Practice
Patricia Tápanes Suárez
Guajira, Improvisada, Sentimental, Octosilábica, and

Fugaz are all names for improvised Cuban poetry,
Punto. Poetry whose feeting, forgotten nature turns
everything around it into magic and, on occasions,
moves far away from the world of the rational.
Cuban peasants’ poetry, singing, and musical ac-
companiment; Tonada on top of which rehearsed or
improvised verses are sung; each verse has ten lines
and a precise, octosyllabic meter termed Décima.
It is accompanied by plucked string instruments
(lute, tres, guitar and, sometimes, double-bass),
with optional idiophone accompaniment (usually
clave, guiro, and/or marimba), and membraphones
(bongo, conga).
Musicological research has demonstrated that a
nation’s music contains the solid, indelible character-
istics of its experiences, history, and traditions: “Tey
come together, to a greater or lesser extent, with
other factors that, in turn, are determined by hetero-
geneous social spheres meaning, consequently, that
there may be great contrasts and nuances between

musical tones in diferent urban, suburban, and ru-
ral areas to the extent to which there are mutual in-
fuences between these spheres, as well as external
infuences” (Pérez Cassola 2008, PAGE).
Music of Hispanic origin was strongly protected
from external infuences in peasant society. In the
frst place, and as the most common stylistic fea-
ture, it included the sound of plucked strings, using
imported instruments (such as guitars, bandurrias,
tiples, and lutes) and original Cuban instruments
(such as the tres); second, it retained the Décima
meter, the Cubans’ favorite form of poetry and, as
Samuel Feijoo put it, “the perfect spiritual form of
Cuban music, the most loved by the people.” Te
Décima meter has always been the form chosen
for songs, becoming the essentially national form,
with great beauty and a very particular, natural style
(Pérez Cassola 2008).
In our country we make music using styles taken
from previous cultures. From the island’s frst po-
etic echoes onward, the improvised Guajira Décima
has always been there in the special Tonadas, the
rhythms and sounds that made it possible to write
our highly extensive popular songbook, and without
having taken any other musical or poetic form into
account until the present day.
Tere are interesting characteristics such as
Gautequ’, Canturia, and Parranda, and these are
the places where you can see the main variations in
Punto: the Punto Libre (in which there is a free me-
ter in the Tonadas), the Punto Fijo, which includes
El Punto 141
Clave (with a strict meter in the Tonadas), and the

Cruzado (in which the stress moves in syncopation
depending on the accompanying music’s tempo).
Punto Pinareño or Vueltabajero, Espirituano, and
Camagüeyano are among the other options.
“Al cantío de un gallo” (To a rooster’s crow) is a
common expression in Cuban Guajiro when a party is
getting together: dance, music, food, and drink are the
preamble for improvised singing; between two and
four pairs of improvising poets come together, and
their dialogues capture the attention of those of us who
are hypnotized afer listening to them for just a few
seconds, the explosion of an octosyllabic verse, with a
set rhythm and ten well-linked verses. Te Décima—
or “Sentimental Guajira,” as some poets call it—goes
right into you, makes each poet’s and the spectator’s
hair stand on end, and the oral game begins.
Tere are diferent types of stages; improvising
poets always feel the need to sing whenever they
hear the sound of the lute, the tres, or the guitar. In
the past, the doorway to a wine cellar could be the
ideal place; a patio inside a building; the cool shade
of a good tree. Nowadays, although some of the tra-
ditional stages are still used, the improvised Décima
has spread out to larger areas such as squares, the-
aters, beach bars, and public events. But there can
be no doubt that Cuban minstrels feel most at home
in more peasant-style surroundings, where the pres-
sure of modern life does not afect them, and they
can play with time.
Madruga, Güines, Ceiba Mocha, Güira de
Melena, Limonar, and Las Tunas: all of these towns
and places on our island have been conscious or un-

conscious witnesses to a unique, unrepeatable act;
entertainment that, without any apparent prepa-
ration, moves even the most sophisticated of audi-
ences. Occasions vary from birthday celebrations,
casual parties, family meals, poetry encounters,
planned singing sessions, and festivals to just spon-
taneous singing.
An afernoon spent anywhere in Cuba, under a
Balsa tree at a beach bar provides shade for more
than three hundred people, most of them men of
diferent ages and social classes; incredible amounts
of rum are ofen drunk, there is a lot of smoking,
and loud talking about what they are going to hear.
Several improvising poets begin to appear; members
of the audience, friends, and admirers, start greeting
each other; the musicians tune up; pairs are named,
and the peasant party kicks of. Improvising bards
stop time with their songs, forming part of a scene
in which the audience, under the spell of the songs,
adopts a certain attitude; so there is real communica-
tion. But the poets also use Décima as verse, and the
music as accompaniment, and adopt other people’s
attitudes at the same time as infuencing them.
And there they are, you see them getting onto
the stage, or just taking their place in front of the
musicians, who sit on stools or stand, and start the
concert. Te strings paint over the silence and the
noise of the crowd, and the color of Punto Libre,
blessed in its feet-tapping origins, gives the poets the
freedom to sing without any music-imposed obliga-
tions. It is then that an invisible process begins in the
El Punto 143
improvising poets’ minds, an incredible ability that

involves everybody participating, and in which time,
mood, the audience’s acceptance, the context, and
that daring girl called Muse are all essential.
Afer half an hour of singing, the atmosphere is
diferent. Depending on the subject that the impro-
vising poets take on, the surfeit of alcoholic bever-
ages and local preferences for particular poets can
call for a change of tone. Te cultural meaning of
improvised poetry turns around and becomes highly
social and symbolic. Te dialogue between the po-
ets can become a moment of relaxation from the
pressure of daily life, a moment for laughter; but it
can also become aggressive, with confict, ofence,
misunderstandings, and even desperation. As you
watch them improvise, you see them put their char-
acters together step by step, using their knowledge
and memories to improvise, and, above all, living
through their characters; and, by manipulating the
ritual, seeking the acceptance of everybody listening.
Weddings are always celebrated by playing string
instruments such as the lute, the tres, and the guitar,
although other instruments—such as güiros, claves,
and bongos—are sometimes used too, usually to
provide rhythm to back the strings up. Some Cuban
improvising poets speak their improvisations, either
as an exercise or to entertain, but that is not the usual
way in our country: it is sung improvisation that is of
sociocultural importance.
Te instrumentalists, who are an indispensable
part of the improvising poetry performance, use
Cuban or Guajiro Punto as a musical form, hardly
changing its original form, the musicians only be-

ing diferentiated in terms of each player’s speed and
skill. Te lute is played to mark all the beginnings
and ends of the musical interludes; the tres and the
guitar are musical backing.
Oral tradition is passed on from generation to
generation mimetically, and continually recreated
by the groups who make use of it. People who pass
Punto on vary from children to old people, illiter-
ate people to graduates, with no distinction between
phenotypes, genders, or religions. Te society I be-
long to holds it to be an indispensable spiritual and
a cultural activity that is of great heritage value. It is
present in our everyday lives, at family, social, civic,
festival meetings, in our homes, in local squares, and
in public buildings, which also become places for
extending it for each of us to use it in a free, sponta-
neous way.
At performances (singing sessions, parties, festi-
vals, and competitions) organized by promoters and
institutions with responsibility for protecting and
promoting the genre, instrumentalists, improvising
poets, and performers appear in front of varied audi-
ences. Te organizers of these acts vary depending on
whether the events are public or private, although, in
general, they tend to be the local promoters in each
place, civil servants at public institutions, or other
groups connected with the genre.
With no academy to ofer systematic learning, it
has always been passed on from one generation to
the next. In many cases it is passed on within the
family, and in close connection with the local area;
El Punto 145
in others, however, it is learned mimetically by lis-

tening, observing, repeating, getting involved in the
process of formal education, and enriching it by put-
ting it into practice.
One method has emerged from the wish to pro-
tect collective memory, historical and cultural signs
of identity, and it combines traditional oral trans-
mission with a program or workshop for children
that is taught by Punto performers. Te methods fol-
lowed are entertaining. It was put together by Alexis
Díaz Pimienta and is taught at cultural centers and
schools throughout Cuba. Décima rules are taught,
as are techniques for improvisation and the melodies
that are sung, as well as the playing of instruments
that accompany Punto. Other manuals have been
added to poet Alexis Diaz’s methods, methodology
programs and suggestions from other performers in
the genre that take into account the diferent charac-
teristics of diferent regions in Cuba and the diver-
sity of the tradition on the island.
Instrumentalists learn techniques for playing
their instruments in two diferent ways: teaching
themselves by copying and playing with musicians
from this tradition at diferent events and in diferent
activities, and at music schools around the country.
Te performers, Tonadistas, poets, and
Parranderos use Punto to address diferent subjects
individually and collectively (love, death, hope, na-
ture), subjects that illustrate events and experiences
from everyday life.
All Cuban peasants consider it to be cultural heri-
tage of great value, true to its characteristics, and one
that makes use of those features depending on what

each performer in the genre needs to express. People
respect and admire performers and they, in turn, re-
spect and follow the ways and means of those who
went before them and have an important place in the
tradition. Values are passed on at performances and
creativity is encouraged, as is pleasure in the genre
for both the performers and the general public.
As Abel Zabala (2007, PAGE) puts it: “Tis is a
very old art form . . . An art form with its roots in
prehistory . . . Ageless music with no frontiers, which
has reached the present day and continues to cross
centuries and cultures.”
And it was then that the poet “dared to address
natural phenomena and, at frst, called himself
a priest in order preserve his vocabulary. Which
is why in modern times poets are invested in the
street, by the public, in order to defend their poetry.
Nowadays, too, poets are the oldest priesthood. Tey
used to have pacts with darkness, and now they have
to interpret the light” (Neruda 1974, 361).
We like to imagine that our ‘Guajira Sentimental’
–elegant, anonymous, and feeting– is moving to-
ward that light.
Bibliography
Pérez Cassola, Sonia Margarita. 2008. Album notes
on CD. Various Artists, Soy la décima guajira.
Havana: Egrem.
Zabala, Abel. 2007. Al son de la rústica cuerda. El
verso improvisado en el Río de la Plata. Granada:
Fundación El Marchal.
7
A Strategy to Produce Your Own
Cultural Ecosystem: Te Case of
Bertsolaritza
Harkaitz Zubiri, Xabier Aierdi, and
Alfredo Retortillo
Too Long to Be a Mere Fad

What makes bertsolaritza (the art of improvised
verse singing in the Basque language) something
more than just a quaint, folkloric appendage to
Basque culture? Afer all, in a world that is becoming
progressively more globalized and commercialized,
the potential target audience for improvised verse
singing, which is based on an age-old tradition, is a
mere drop in the vast ocean of cultural consumers.
Furthermore, in the cultural feld, languages such as
Spanish, English, and French are hegemonic, even
in the only region in which the Basque language
is spoken, and to make matters worse, the original
Several researchers participated in this project, either in the
frst or second phase or in both: Xabier Aierdi, Juan Aldaz,
Eider Alkorta, Alfredo Retortillo, and Harkaitz Zubiri. We
would like to thank the Bertsozale Elkartea and Mintzola for
asking us to conduct this piece of research. We are also grate-
ful to the volunteers who passed out the questionnaires and to
those who participated in our in-depth interviews; their time
and generosity is greatly appreciated.
habitat of bertsolaritza, namely rural society, has

disappeared. Inertia has therefore long been driving
bertsolaritza toward extinction.
Table 7.1. Basque population cultural practices
Music Books Cinema Con- Theater Bertso-
certs laritza
Basque citizens 69.9 58 54.8 38.2 21.9 7.6
in any language
Basque citizens 46.4 6.3 0.3 8 5.4 7.6
in Basque
Basque speakers 72.6 57.5 54.7 46.5 24.7 17.3
in any language
Basque speakers 68.8 20.7 1.02 16 12.5 17.3
in Basque
However, the number of bertsolaritza followers

today shows that currently, the art is as successful
as other cultural disciplines in the same language, a
circumstance that is not at all common in other con-
texts. Data from the Basque Observatory of Culture
(table 7.1) suggests that the percentage of the popula-
tion who attend bertsolaritza events (17.3 percent said
they attended a session at least once a year) is similar
to those percentages reported by other cultural dis-
ciplines: reading books in free time (20.7 percent at
least once in the last three months), going to music
concerts (16.0 percent at least once a year), or going to
the theater (12.5 percent at least once a year) (Zubiri
2010, 2014). Nevertheless, it should be noted that, as
with other cultural disciplines in the Basque language,
the frequency with which people go to bertsolaritza
events is well below that of cultural disciplines in
Spanish and French. Tis is true even among Basque
bilinguals in the region in which Basque is spoken.
A Strategy to Produce Your Own Cultural Ecosystem 149
It has ofen been remarked upon that 14,000 peo-

ple gather every four years in the Bilbao Exhibition
Centre to attend the fnal of the Basque Oral Poetry
Championship, as John Miles Foley called it. Tis
event is broadcast live on public television and aver-
ages around 100,000 viewers, a fgure which shoots
up to 200,000 during the highpoints of the contest. It
helps to read Foley’s (2007) description of the fnal,
because the event is too familiar for us and we ofen
forget just how striking it is to see so many people
sitting there, almost from dawn till dusk with only
a short lunch break, listening to improvised verses
composed in accordance with specifc metrics and
rhymes and sung a capella, either individually or
in pairs. It is still more remarkable if we take into
account that these audience and viewer numbers,
14,000 and 100,000, are uncommon in this context.
While it is true that, on their forthcoming tour, the
US hard rock band Guns N´ Roses will most likely
attract even larger audiences at their concerts, given
the demographics of the Basque Country this is not
a common occurrence. Te region has just three mil-
lion inhabitants and less than 800,000 Basque speak-
ers. Furthermore, although no ofcial research has
been conducted on this subject, the data ofered by the
media covering cultural events reveals that over the
last twenty-fve years only eleven musicians or bands
have attracted audiences signifcantly larger than
that recorded for the Bertsolaritza Championship:
Pink Floyd (1994), the San Sebastian Choral Society
(1997), Luciano Pavarotti (1998), Te Rolling Stones
(2003, 2007), U2 (2005, 2010), Depeche Mode
(2006), Bob Dylan (2006), Bruce Springsteen (2008,

2009, 2011, 2012, 2016), ACDC (2010), Bon Jovi
(2011), and Shakira (2011). Of those, four attracted
more than 20,000 people and seven had audiences
of over 30,000. Te performers were English, Irish,
North American, Australian, and Colombian, with
the San Sebastian Choral Society being the only one
from the Basque Country.
But bertsolaritza is not just a happening that takes
place once every four years. While it is evident that
the Championship is essential in social and media
terms, due to the exposure it provides the art, in quan-
titative terms (that is, audiences) the Championship
is not really all that signifcant in comparison with
the bertsolaritza events that take place all year round
(Figure 7.1). For instance, in 2013, a total of 30,245
people went to one of the various Championship
events, whereas 263,884 people went to other bert-
solaritza events (when interpreting these specifc fg-
ures, it should be noted that they do not refect indi-
vidual people but rather the number of tickets sold).
In other words, the audience at the Championship
represented only 10 percent of all those who at-
tended bertsolaritza events throughout the course
of the whole year (Xenpelar Dokumentazio Zentroa
2016).
According to Aierdi et al. (2007), bertsolaritza
has a noteworthy number of devotees: 14 percent of
Basque speakers love bertsolaritza, 26 percent like it,
29 percent like it moderately, and only 32 percent do
not like it at all. If, in order to avoid the bias of polit-
ical correctness (because loving bertsolaritza may be
Figure 7.1. Public all year long and in the

Championship (2013)
considered politically correct by many people in the

Basque Country), we assume that only those who
claim to love bertsolaritza can be considered devo-
tees, then we can conclude that there are over 100,000
bertsolaritza enthusiasts in a language community of
800,000 people. Te data from the Championship f-
nal suggests that there are, in fact, more than 100,000
devotees, because otherwise how can you explain the
fact that 100,000 Basque speakers watched the event
on television and 14,000 attended it live? Aierdi et
al. (2007) also ofer some other interesting facts:
60 percent of Basque speakers knew who the cur-
rent champion was, suggesting that it is a broader
cultural phenomenon that does not just interest the
art’s most ardent followers. Moreover, 60.1 percent

of those who claimed to moderately like bertsolar-
itza knew who the champion was, and 43.8 percent
of those who said they did not like bertsolaritza at all
were also in possession of this knowledge.
A New Habitat
Te data we have shown so far is quite recent, that
is, it is from a period in which the original habitat of
bertsolaritza, namely rural society, no longer exists.
Nowadays, six out of ten (62 percent) Basque citi-
zens and six out of ten (60 percent) Basque speakers
live in capital cities and their conurbations, and 43
percent of bertsolaritza events take place in those ur-
ban areas. Two conclusions can be drawn from these
fgures, one that is obvious and one that is incorrect:
able 7,2, Populalion, Basque speakers, and Dertsolaritza Evcnls in C apital Cities and lhcir Conurba lions (CCC)
Population Basque Rertsolaritza Uasque Basque speakers in BerlsolaritZIJ events ill
speakers in events in the speakers ill each CCC.as a -each CCC asa
thel\asque llasque: each CCC percentage of the perce:.orage: of thcs: total
C"AfWllry Count11· lo tal numbtt: of number of
Basque speakers in bet/solarllz:a e\'ellU in
each province each provi.t1ce
CCC 62% 60% 43%
Hilbao CCC 29% 27% 11% 24% 75% 57%
D onostia-San 10% 21% 17% 42% 46% 35%

SebasLiin-l r un
CCC
Vitoria- 8% 7% 4% 24% 95% 38%
G astd1,
Pamplona- 10% 4% 10""% 8% 40% 93'%
In n1ea CCC
Raiona- 4% 1% 0.3% 7% 14% 5%
Angelu-
Hiarrit1.
Source: Data from the I~F., I~SF.F., Azl.ik.cr, and Bapatean 2014.
t\"ote: the percentage of bcrtsolar itza even ts held in the Pamplona- lruii.ca CCC is somewhat misleading, because it
does not correspond to the conurb ation itself b ut rather to the so-called :\1erindad (cou nty), which covers a much
larger area.
frst, that bertsolaritza now forms part of the cultural

environment in the Basque Country’s capital cities
and their conurbations, and second, that most bertso-
laritza events still take place in rural areas. As stated
earlier, however, this second conclusion is erroneous
because although a few areas outside the main cit-
ies still retain their eminently “rural” natures, this
is not always (or even mostly) the case. Agriculture
was predominant until it started to decline with the
onset of the industrial revolution; then in the 1980s
the service sector increased, industry decreased, and
agriculture became almost insignifcant (in 2001 it
represented only 3 percent of the Basque economy).
Consequently, most formerly rural areas can no lon-
ger be considered “rural” at all.
Bertsolaritza Becomes a Social Movement
So why has bertsolaritza not died out? Tere are sev-
eral reasons, but we believe that the social project
established by this age-old art form is an essential
piece of the puzzle. In social terms, bertsolaritza be-
came an art-based social movement in the 1980s.
Our analysis is wholly consistent with Jon Sarasua’s
(Sarasua 2004, 2007, 2013; Garzia, Sarasua, and
Egaña 2001a, 2001b) concept of self-constitution:
Sarasua states that at some point in its evolution
bertsolaritza became an organized movement with a
sociocultural strategy. Tis is also the basis of our ar-
gument, but when a group of people organize them-
selves, they can do so in a number of diferent ways,
and in our opinion, bertsolaritza self-constituted as
a social movement. Tis metamorphosis increased
bertsolaritza’s capacity to generate its own cultural

ecosystem, and consequently, it became better able
to promote the quantitative and qualitative growth
of its own practitioners (known as bertsolaris in the
Basque language), supporters and followers.1
Tere are several ways of defning a social move-
ment. According to the behaviorist perspective on
collective conduct (Turner and Killian 1987), social
movements are irrational and contagious, and only
spread under pressure. Mobilization theory and po-
litical process theory, on the other hand, hold that
social movements take advantage of a window of op-
portunity to organize themselves and confront struc-
tural problems (Zald and Ash 1966; Gamson 1975;
McCarthy and Zald 1977; Tilly 1978; MacAdam
1982; Polleta and Jasper 2001; Rao, Morrill, and
Zald 2000). Terefore, according to this perspective,
it is not irrationality but rather rationality that is at
the core of social movements (Garner in Garner and
Zald, 2012).
Te latter perspective has been criticized because
power is depicted as being monopolized by just
one pole, the importance of culture (understood in
the broadest sense of the term) is underestimated,
and, consequently, it seems that social movements
exclusively aim to infuence states (Armstrong and
Bernstein 2008). Likewise, it has also been criticized
for overestimating rationality and taking for granted
1. Te term “supporters” is used here to refer to those peo-

ple who make an active efort to help organize events and run
verse schools; “followers” is used to denote those who simply
attend events and contests.
the preexistence of a collective actor (Polleta and

Jasper 2001).
Te New Social Movement Teory (NSMT) takes
a diferent perspective: social movements are created
in the context of macro-historic transformations, but
they do not automatically derive from the needs re-
lated to those changes, because they must be pushed
by social actors to become autonomous subjects and
so change their situation (Ofe 1985; Touraine 1981,
1985, 2004; Melucci 1985, 1989, 1996). Based on ex-
amples such as the feminist, gay, green, and pro-peace
movements, the NSMT states that social movements
are defned by conficts; however, the theory also
claims that there is no central confict and that the
main aim of social movements is not necessarily to
infuence political authorities, but rather to achieve
recognition as a social actor and change the cultural
model. Tis is something social movements have
indeed attempted to do in several felds: territory,
way of life, body, health, sexual identity, commer-
cialization of social life, cultural and linguistic her-
itage and cultural habits, among others (Ofe 1985;
Moufe 1984). Nevertheless, all social movements
have to deal with the new global order, the so-called
one-dimensional globalization, and all are actors in
what Touraine defnes as the grand refus, albeit from
diferent positions, perspectives, and starting points.
Moreover, all tend to become progressively more in-
formational, giving priority to communication while
at the same time following the May ‘68 tradition of
l´action exemplaire, striving to engage in spectacular
actions in order to raise public awareness (Castells
1997, 2015). Te research conducted within the

Northern Basque Country’s Seaska education project
(Heidemann 2012, 2014) and the social movements
that joined forces to demand television channels for
certain minoritized European languages (Hourigan
2001) were based on the NSMT.
Te Bertsolaritza Social Movement
Identity, Confict, Antagonists, and Aims

Te Bertsolaritza social movement (from here on the
BSM) defnes itself as an autonomous cultural proj-
ect. Other cultural disciplines (music, literature, the-
ater, and so on) in the Basque Country had the op-
tion of importing international models, because they
were better-known. Bertsolaritza, on the other hand,
had no chance of adapting an international model
to ft its own individual situation, because although
examples of improvised verse singing do exist in
countries such as Brazil, the United States, Cuba,
and Spain, they were neither visible nor well-known
in the Basque Country at the time when the the BSM
was emerging. Terefore, when some practitioners
and supporters of bertsolaritza decided to organize
themselves in order to guarantee the survival of the
art, they had no choice but to create a new model.
Several proposals were tabled, including setting up
a company to manage a traveling bertsolaritza con-
test-show and creating an association charged with
managing practitioners’ careers. When those who
were active in the BSM are asked to explain how
the movement emerged, two key moments are ofen
mentioned in relation to that critical time: the setting

up of the verse schools (special schools dedicated to
teaching the art of bertsolaritza) and the establish-
ment of the Bertsozale Elkartea (the Association of
Friends of Bertsolaritza). However, these were not
decisions made by any one person at any one spe-
cifc moment in time and although the establish-
ment of the Association of Friends of Bertsolaritza
was hugely important, the BSM had gradually been
gaining momentum for a long time beforehand. Te
whole process began before the association was cre-
ated, and besides, the emergence of the BSM had al-
ways been based mainly on the local work carried
out in each city, town, or village.
Words as diferent as culture and autonomous
seem synonymous when pronounced by the BSM,
because being autonomous from other agents has
notably been the cornerstone of the BSM’s self-def-
nition: the BSM has always claimed its independence
from political parties, public institutions, and other
agents.
As culture became progressively more globalized
and commercialized, agents working in the feld of
bertsolaritza asked themselves how they should re-
act to the new context (Sarasua 2004), the answer
being: by becoming a social movement. Te ques-
tion, however, is an ongoing one and reveals the con-
fictive context in which the movement has always
found itself. Culture in languages other than Basque
and commercial culture are its antagonists. In other
words, the BSM opposes trends that destroy cultural
heritage and diversity, which is why it competes with
those others in order to dispute their cultural hege-

mony. Te BSM explicitly uses ecological discourse
(Garzia 2007; Sarasua 2013), in the sense that caring
for and revitalizing cultural heritage means fostering
existing diversity, and for this to happen the BSM be-
lieves it is necessary to create conditions conducive
to promoting and expanding bertsolaritza.
Te main aim is to guarantee the survival of an
art form, which is why the BSM invests in a social
strategy, because it believes that adequate social con-
ditions will necessarily provide bertsolaritza with
more opportunities to strengthen and grow.
Te method employed to this end is to invest
mainly in the social project and to leave the artistic
side of things to practitioners. Tis strategy is fairly
uncommon, although there are many cases of the
opposite approach being taken, with movements
striving to infuence an art by directly conditioning
artistic practice, usually by creating guidelines for
artists and practitioners. Such cases are well-known
in literature, for instance. However, the BSM has al-
ways followed the criterion of non-intervention in
artistic matters, stating instead its determination to
invest in measures designed to foster sociocultural
transformation.
Te priority is not to infuence a powerful agent
such as the state (although the BSM does not com-
pletely ignore this path), but rather to mobilize prac-
titioners, active supporters and actual and potential
followers. Tis approach explains the creation of
the verse schools, associations, and championships,
the establishment of media policies, and, above all,
bertsolaritza’s action examplaire, known as bert-

so-saioa, the bertsolaritza event in which practi-
tioners improvise their verses in front of an audience.
Basically, the BSM is oriented toward cultural
transformation, with culture being understood as
art, but also as something broader. In a context of
cultural globalization, the BSM takes an art form as
its reference and creates a social movement around
it. Individuality and even isolation are not uncom-
mon in the arts. Tere may be many small-scale,
introspective, competitive lobbies, but few have the
will or the means to efect true collective or social
transformation. Yet the BSM emerged and expanded
in a diferent way. Integrating practitioners, support-
ers, and followers into an autonomous, collective
agent was quite an innovation, particularly since the
strategy aimed to produce the social conditions re-
quired for the art to fourish and grow.
Figure 7.2. Number of bertsolaritza events (1990–2015)
2250
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
If we analyze the increase recorded in the number

of events, practitioners, and spectators, it becomes
evident that the BSM is achieving its initial goals.
Te number of events has increased steadily over
the last twenty-fve years (fgure 7.2): 419 events took
place in 1990, 1,125 in 1995, 1,237 in 2000, 1,327 in
2005, 1,699 in 2010, and 1,764 in 2015. Terefore,
the BSM’s most visible manifestation, the bertso
saioa, the principal symbol of this art form, has be-
come more popular than ever.
Te number of practitioners has also risen over
the last twenty-fve years (fgure 7.3): whereas in
1990 there were only 290 bertsolaris, afer a steady
and prolonged increase, the fgure in 2015 was 859.
Figure 7.3. Number of bertsolaris (1990–2015)
1125
859
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Audience numbers also confrm the hypothe-

sis of the growth brought about by the BSM (fgure
7.4). During the so-called boom that occurred in
bertsolaritza between 1990 and 1995, around 223,924

people attended bertsolaritza events every year. Tis
number dropped to around 160,000 over the follow-
ing years (we will explain this decline later) and then
bounced back even higher, with fgures of around
260,000 per year being recorded over the most re-
cent period.
Figure 7.4. Attendance at bertsolari events (1990–2015)
280000 262,850 263,884
210000
140000
70000
0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Te growth in audience numbers was not just

quantitative, but qualitative as well. Some decades
ago, the public at bertsolaritza events was more ho-
mogenous. Ten, during the period in which the
BSM emerged, audiences started to “splinter,” as
Garzia (2000) puts it, becoming much more het-
erogeneous than ever before. Garzia states that in
the pre-boom period, bertsolaris sung to the “peo-
ple” rather than to their actual audiences, just as
they used to during the era of resistance to Franco’s
dictatorship, but that over recent years, audiences

have become more varied. Garzia (2012) defnes the
current period as multipolar, and indeed, from the
year 2000 onward, audiences have become increas-
ingly diverse and complex.
Nowadays, total audience numbers are higher,
but audiences are diferent from those in the boom
period because the underlying growth model is dif-
ferent as well. Today, there are a greater number of
smaller events, as opposed to the large-scale events
of the past that were only attended by a certain ideo-
logical segment of the population. Tis means that
there is more variety, since depending on its specifc
characteristics, each event will attract a diferent type
of public. What we are witnessing today may well be
the beginning of a diversifcation boom.
One of the characteristics of today’s bertsolaritza
events is that they attract diferent types of people in
terms of age and cultural tastes, for example. However,
this new multipolar period raises new questions such
as how to make events general enough to appeal to
a heterogeneous, ever-more-diverse audience, while
at the same time catering to their increasingly spe-
cialist tastes. Te strategy for hegemonic articulation
may prove useful for the current period (Laclau and
Moufe 1985, Laclau 2005).
Link to its Specifc Moment in History
Te emergence of the BSM is evidently related to
the specifc moment in history in which it occurred.
Bertsolaritza used to be the dominant cultural dis-
cipline in Basque-speaking rural society, a cultural
ecosystem in which it had few competitors. Te trans-

mission from one generation to the next occurred as
part of an apparently natural process and there was
no need for a conscious strategy. Society came into
contact with bertsolaritza in the places in which it
was practiced (cider houses, bars, private homes,
and so on), and future practitioners learned the art
as though learning were a spontaneous process.
Ten that ecosystem disappeared. Te places
in which bertsolaritza was practiced were radically
transformed and, almost overnight, those who had
been the majority suddenly became a tiny minority.
Tese changes threatened the very practice of bert-
solaritza, putting both its visibility and its future into
grave danger. Tis radical drop in status seems mainly
to have been the consequence of a much broader set
of historical processes, rather than changes within
bertsolaritza itself. Te Western world underwent
an extreme process of urbanization and industrial-
ization, followed by the decisive emergence of the
third sector and, eventually, the dawning and ex-
pansion of the informational era (Castells 1997,
2015). Old spaces, jobs, and ways of life disappeared.
Bertsolaritza was part of the old system, and as that
model was eroded, inertia started pushing the art
form toward the sidelines until it became a marginal
cultural discipline, seemingly doomed to extinction.
During the twentieth century there were a num-
ber of attempts to revitalize bertsolaritza, but the
emergence of the BSM in the 1980s proved by far
the most efective means of coping with the prob-
lems of the new era. Te BSM has created new
spaces for transmission, cultural associations to ar-

ticulate volunteer work, strategies geared toward
ensuring greater media impact, and new discourses
for defning the art of improvised verse singing (pi-
oneered by Xabier Amuriza). It has also promoted
massive public and media mobilization through the
Championships. Organized initiative proved the key
to the art form’s survival and subsequent expansion
at the very moment at which inertia was pushing it
in the other direction.
While it is clear that the historic moment did not
inevitably or directly trigger the social movement,
and although it is true that there was no preexisting
collective initiative, it is equally true that the changes
themselves constituted obvious warning signals that
resulted in the wake-up call that kick-started the
whole process. It should be noted, however, that
other cultural disciplines also experienced similar
risks in the same context, and none of them reacted
by coming together to form a movement. Tus, at
a specifc moment in history, in which there was
no preexisting collective initiative, the key to bert-
solaritza’s survival was its organization of a social
movement.
Nonetheless, although bertsolaritza was revital-
ized, that does not mean it ever recovered the dom-
inant position that it used to have in Basque rural
society. Times have changed completely. Te Basque
language is now minoritized and endangered and
the infuence of globalization has spread to the cul-
tural feld as well. Furthermore, cultural disciplines
are now much more diverse. As is the case nowadays
with all cultural manifestations, it is impossible for

bertsolaritza to maintain the same level of impor-
tance it used to have for its devotees. Whereas in
the past it was a two-way struggle between literature
and cinema for the dominance of narrative, nowa-
days both disciplines have a multitude of other com-
petitors, and the same is true for bertsolaritza. Te
cultural playing feld is, in general, becoming much
more diverse.
Organization and Resource Mobilization
Now, more than ever, bertsolaritza is a socialization
network centered around improvised verse singing.
Tis is a direct consequence of the work carried out
by the BSM. Te BSM promotes two types of social-
ization: activities carried out by volunteers, associ-
ation employees, and practitioners, and initiatives
organized for the public. Te frst network, that is,
that formed by volunteers, association employees,
and practitioners, constitutes the core of the BSM,
the muscle that drives the bertsolaritza phenomenon
onward. Te network encompasses verse schools, na-
tional and provincial bertsolaritza associations, and
local supporters and organizers. Tese groups basi-
cally organize, support, and participate in bertsolar-
itza activities, but doing this requires a socialization
network, frst because networks provide necessary
support for bertsolaritza activities, and second, be-
cause constructing and maintaining such networks
is one of the BSM’s main objectives. Te movement
therefore has two principal aims: to promote the art
of bertsolaritza and to create social networks. Tey
are like the movement’s muscle and skeleton, mutu-

ally reinforcing each other to create the critical mass
that strengthens the core of the BSM that, invigo-
rated by that synergy, generates a ripple efect in its
immediate environment.
Verse schools are a clear example of this. Tey
are organized spaces for learning, and as such are
located outside the former natural learning model.
Furthermore, their work goes beyond mere trans-
mission, since they integrate both participation and
transmission into the same process. Miren Artetxe
(2014) uses Lave and Wenger’s (1991) community of
practice to analyze verse schools, arriving at the con-
clusion that these institutions have the capacity to
create friendship groups around bertsolaritza activi-
ties. Ainhoa Agirreazaldegi and Arkaitz Goikoetxea
(2007) argue that verse schools not only transmit
knowledge but also promote collaboration and lei-
sure-time friendship groups.
Bertsolaritza schools do train future practi-
tioners, and in that sense are key, but they also help
generate and strengthen bertsolaritza’s critical mass,
which is why so much emphasis is placed on creating
friendship networks.
Te Associations of Friends of Bertsolaritza
(there is one national and fve provincial associa-
tions) are vital components of the BSM. At the be-
ginning, the frst association (the national one) was
mainly based on voluntary work, although there
were a few employees. As associations have taken on
more projects, their staf has grown (there are now
more than seventy paid employees), but voluntary
work remains essential in terms of coping with the

workload and ensuring decision-making capacity,
infuence, and social expansion. Te institutional-
ization that has resulted from the associations’ suc-
cess has increased both their size and the amount
of fnancial support they receive from the public in-
stitutions, but this is a double-edged sword, at once
enabling the establishment of better facilities and
generating new problems and difculties. Te BSM
claims that, on the one hand, by combining the ef-
forts of both employees and volunteers they have
been able to launch more projects more efciently;
yet on the other, the new situation has created coor-
dination problems between the two groups, as well
as posing a new challenge regarding the integration
of the new generation into the institutionalized sys-
tem of the associations, a system that is sometimes
perceived not as a work in progress, but rather as a
ready-built project in which there is little room for
young people and their concerns.
Informational Strategy
Te BSM does not subscribe to the usual public mo-
bilization model. Tere are no standard protest gath-
erings. Since the BSM is frst and foremost an art-
based movement, it is bertsolaritza’s principal form of
expression, namely the bertso saioa, which embodies
what mobilization represents for other social move-
ments. In fact, as stated earlier, bertso saioas, bertso-
laritza events in which bertsolaris sing improvised
rhymed verses in accordance with certain metrics in
front of an audience, is the BSM’s action exemplaire.
In order to promote mobilization, the BSM de-

veloped a two-pronged information strategy: the
organization of bertsolaritza events and its media
policy.
Te importance of championships is paramount.
Tey are the most popular bertsolaritza events in
terms of both audience numbers and media impact.
In fact, the Association of Friends of Bertsolaritza
was initially created in the context of a debate about
the main championship. Over recent decades, cham-
pionships have been used as expansion tools in an
increasingly informational way: all the BSM’s core
resources are mobilized to organize these events,
which are intended to promote large-scale mobili-
zation. Media policy is also used to help encourage
mobilization. Te BSM decides what media outlets
to approach and how to do so. However, the strat-
egy employed is not always geared toward expan-
sion, and sometimes priority is given to other needs
or issues. Lately, for instance, the BSM has engaged
in a process of refection and debate on the current
championship model, which may be modifed in the
future even though these potential changes may re-
sult in a drop in audience numbers.
Examples of media policy refect this expan-
sion-contraction strategy more clearly. During its
early years, the BSM focused on television, the dom-
inant media at that time, and a very popular pro-
gram was broadcast on the Basque public television
about the art form. Bertsolaritza was already present
on the radio and in the written press, but television
was the key to increasing audience levels. A public
mobilization with extensive media coverage was vi-

tal to reaching the living rooms of those who never
attended bertsolaritza events, in order to encourage
them, through the media also, to become audiences
in squares, theaters, youth-managed buildings, au-
ditoriums, or any other venue in which face-to-face
sessions were held.
However, the aim was not only to appear in the
media. Being an art-based phenomenon, the BSM
required appropriate conditions to show its art form
to its best advantage. Te movement negotiated with
the media to reach an agreement on the coverage
that would be provided. Tis leverage was the direct
result of the media policy enacted by the BSM: it was
a collective initiative that was legitimized to nego-
tiate and had solid criteria. In the 1990s, however,
the Basque public television had a diferent set of
criteria (for example, it wanted the right to broad-
cast the same bertsolaritza event as many times as it
wanted), and since no agreement was reached, the
events were not broadcast on television for almost
two years. Tis hampered the expansion process and
was the source of serious economic difculties for
the national Association of Friends of Bertsolaritza,
because television rights constituted an important
source of income. Te association was forced to fre
the only two employees it had at the time. Te deci-
sion prioritized other needs, over and above expan-
sion, with the Association of Friends of Bertsolaritza
deciding to sacrifce short-term expansion in order
to maintain appropriate conditions for its art form. It
was a strategic decision that the association believed
would reinforce the BSM’s identity, enabling it to

expand more efectively in the future. In fact, the
decision proved benefcial for both the art and the
social movement, giving rise to a greater degree of
social recognition and prestige. When the bertso-
laritza events were once again broadcast on public
television, it was from a much stronger position than
before.
Tere is much data to suggest that the BSM’s in-
formation strategy was successful. As I have already
shown, the number of events, practitioners, and fol-
lowers increased, but in order to understand how
this happened, it is interesting to analyze when the
followers became followers and how they learned
about bertsolaritza, since this will provide some
insight into the consequences of the informational
strategy.
According to a study conducted by Siadeco in
1993, almost half of bertsolaritza devotees did not
become so at home, during their childhood years,
but rather came to appreciate the art either at school
or when they were adults. Te results reported by
Xabier Aierdi et al. (2007) are similar, fnding that
most followers became fond of bertsolaritza outside
the scope of primary socialization, which occurs
during childhood in the family context. Te fact that
they discovered the art form outside the family envi-
ronment and/or when they were adults suggests that,
in a period in which the former natural transmission
spaces no longer exist, there must inevitably be some
other dynamics at work in promoting the revital-
ization of the art. When the sources of information
about bertsolaritza are analyzed, the importance of

the media is striking: two out of three people (65
percent) claimed to receive information about bert-
solaritza through the media, whereas only one out of
three (33 percent) said they obtained said informa-
tion from friends (Aierdi et al. 2007).
We can therefore conclude that the BSM’s infor-
mational strategy was a determining factor in the re-
vitalization of the art. However, the media age has
changed drastically over recent years, and the de-
cline of the television-based media model has forced
the BSM to establish a new strategy ofering new ini-
tiatory pathways, such as the bertsoa.eus model.
Tat Question by Touraine
Alain Touraine’s (1985, 2004) concern is whether or
not the collective actor emerges when a new prob-
lematic situation appears and certain agents start
moving, and whether this collective actor is capable
of becoming an autonomous subject that transforms
its own situation. In the case of bertsolaritza, the an-
swer to both questions seems to be yes. Because it
belonged to an ecosystem that no longer existed, it
was pushed toward extinction. A diferent cultural
model prevailed and improvised verse singing was
not widespread in hardly any of the new cultural
contexts. However, it somehow managed to turn it-
self into a social movement based on an art form, op-
erating exclusively and autonomously in the cultural
feld. Tis social movement has created spaces for
transmission and participation, has encouraged the
emergence of new practitioners, and has attracted
more followers, as well as greater numbers of asso-

ciation employees and volunteers. It has mobilized
masses, not for protest but rather for artistic-social
events, has used the media to expand its infuence
and reach the living rooms of those who were not
following the art in face-to-face sessions, and has
created and socialized new ways of understanding
the art based on a combination of social and artistic
perspectives. As a result, the number of events, prac-
titioners, and followers has grown, and the diversi-
fcation process is becoming increasingly evident in
terms of artistic production, types of events and the
nature of the audience.
Te BSM now faces a new set of problems, be-
cause all moments have their challenges. Te follow-
ing issues are particularly worth highlighting: (1) the
BSM needs to fnd a way of responding to the in-
creasingly heterogeneous tastes of bertsolaritza fol-
lowers; (2) it must create the conditions required to
enable younger generations to join the project and
adapt it to their specifc circumstances; (3) it must
establish new transmission and promotion policies
for the new multipolar media era; and (4) it must
strive to incorporate innovative and peripheral gen-
der-equality initiatives into the hegemonic discourse
and practice of both the social movement itself and
the artistic discipline.
Methods
Te study was based on both qualitative and quanti-
tative techniques: 2,867 questionnaires, 32 in-depth
interviews, 3 focus groups, and one Delphi with
27 participants. It was conducted in two phases.

Between 2005 and 2007, a total of 1,200 question-
naires were administered to Basque speakers, 723
questionnaires were administered to the audience
at the Championship, and 344 questionnaires were
completed by members of the public attending bert-
solaritza events all year round. During the same pe-
riod, one Delphi was conducted with 27 experts on
bertsolaritza and 3 focus groups were held. Between
2015 and 2017, a further 600 questionnaires were
completed by members of the audience at bertso-
laritza events all year round, 32 in-depth interviews
were held with bertsolaritza experts and we analyzed
the quantitative data that has been collected by the
Xenpelar Documentation Center since the 1980s.
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8
Be Tere, Take the Floor, Say
Something: Bertsolaritza Schools,
Agency, and Language Use
Miren Artetxe Sarasola
Let us imagine a bilingual society. Let us imagine

that one of those two languages is a minoritized lan-
guage. Tis is a description that fts the situation in
the Basque Country, both in the Northern Basque
Country (NBC) in France and in the Southern
Basque Country in Spain. Let us continue imagin-
ing. Let us say that everybody in that society has
language skills, to a greater or lesser degree, in the
two languages mentioned. Although that situation
is better than our current one, there, too, the key to
minoritized language survival is its speakers’ attitude
and conduct: a certain number of speakers have to
tend to use the minoritized language in order for it
to survive. And the tendency to use that language—
whether conscious or unconscious—is the result
of daily choices. If Basque is to survive, then, there
* Tis is part of the dissertation I am working on, with a grant
from Mintzola Fundazioa and Mikel Laboa Katedra. Support
has also been provided by Te Basque Government’s Educa-
tion, Language Policy, and Culture Department (IT-881-16).
is a need for speakers who tend to use it, and not

just people who can get by in it. It is a fact, however,
that current data about the use of Basque is wor-
rying (Eusko Jaurlaritza 2013), and the transition
from knowing the language to actually using it has
not been as automatic as had been expected. From
the Basque sociolinguistic perspective, motivation,
knowledge, and use have been seen as the key ele-
ments (Sánchez Carrión 1987). However, until the
present those factors have seldom been examined in
an integrated way: “Te links between them have
been sensed, and their existence declared, but how
are they actually connected in practice? How does
the leap from one to the other take place? Or, on
the contrary, what type of gaps are there between
those dimensions, gaps that afect them mutually?”
(Hernández 2016, 188)
In this chapter I will try to explain several ideas
I have developed during the research I am currently
carrying out that may lead us toward the answers
to those questions. In fact, the objective of my re-
search is to examine how the tendency to use Basque
is constructed and how it is maintained, particularly
among young bertsolaris or oral improvisers in the
NBC. Te current-day language landscape in the
NBC is not promising but, although there is a low
density of Basque-speakers, there are several oases
for Basque. One of them is the Seaska school network,
another the bertsolaritza—or oral improvisation—
school network and the bertsolaritza movement in
general that, although smaller, may be more tightly
woven. Young Bertsolaritza school (BS) pupils (from
Be Tere, Take the Floor, Say Something 181
the ages of seventeen to twenty), all of them Seaska

pupils and former pupils, are the subjects of this re-
search.1 In fact, the research question is based on an
observation: In addition to having a frm discourse
in favor of the revival of Basque, young people at BS
also have a proactive attitude to the use of Basque:
they have decided to live in Basque, and, in order to
do so, they take their everyday language decisions
in an active manner. In my work, then, I will try to
identify some of the major factors that may be be-
hind these young people’s proactive attitude toward
Basque.2
Terefore, as I said, in what follows I will out-
line the key ideas of my work up to now. To do so,
frst, I will try to explain several concepts related to
1. Tis chapter is based on ffeen interviews and three years

of feldwork. Te informers come from diferent linguistic or-
igins (Basque is not the only home language for all of them),
but they have all gone to language immersion schools. Some
of them have been improvising since they were small children,
while others started recently, and all of them have been partic-
ipants in the bertsolaritza school at the Bernat Etxepare High
School in Baiona.
2. Although the term “proactive” is mostly used in the work
and institutional area, it is increasingly used in sociolinguistic
psycholinguistics as well. Te concept addresses individuals’
active control of their attitude, in contrast to a reactive attitude
to taking decisions, an attitude that depends on context and
structure. I have not used the term in an absolute sense: no
decisions are taken without any reference to the context. What
I want to state with this term is that although the options that
the context ofers may not be diverse, they do seek out even
the slightest opportunities, and in an active manner, in order
to make choices that favor Basque.
language use, concepts that I believe will be needed

in later analysis; second, I will explain how bertso
activities infuence BS pupils with regard to language
attitudes and behavior, analyzing BSs as communi-
ties of practice.
Language Behavior, Motivation, Experienced
Identity, and Agency
Te factors that infuence bilingual speakers to choose
one language or another at a particular moment have
been examined from various diferent points of view
(perhaps mostly from a psycholinguistics perspec-
tive), and in our context work has been carried out
to classify and model the factors that infuence lan-
guage use from a sociolinguistic point of view.3 Tree
areas are usually taken into account: social structure
(with regard to the language’s place and image in so-
ciety, in other words, demographic, economic, polit-
ical, legal, and cultural factors, among others); rela-
tionship networks and interaction areas (where, with
whom, the subject under discussion, and so on); and
the speaker or individual. From Anthony Giddens’
duality of structure perspective, when a language
becomes a paradigm for socialization, on the other
hand, there is little point in making distinctions: in-
dividuals’ characteristics are developed in their im-
mediate surroundings, and those surroundings are
developed within a larger structure and, at the same
3. I will refer to two pieces of research on the Basque Country

in my analysis below: Jean Baptiste Coyos’ theoretical model
(Coyos 2007) and Iñaki Martínez de Luna’s proposed model
(Martínez de Luna 2004).
time, each individual’s characteristics can afect those

surroundings and that structure (Giddens 1979).
It cannot be denied that when decisions are
taken, there are social conditions in addition to each
individual’s ability to choose: “they will use one lan-
guage or another depending, on the one hand, on
their priorities, wishes, values, and needs; on the
other, the material and nonmaterial costs involved
in each choice also condition each decision” (Grin
1990, 155, in Erize 2016, 118–19).
Tis language-choice dilemma has been exam-
ined in Basque sociolinguistics in terms of attitude
to language use and motivation. And, with regard
to motivation, in particular, two types of motivation
have been diferentiated: integrative and instrumen-
tal motivation. An integrative attitude is linked to
symbolic motivation, and it has also been defned as
being identity creating in our context (Martínez de
Luna 2004). Tis type of motivation is usually de-
fned in terms of attachment with regard to language,
communication between speakers, certain groups,
and cultural and social customs. Instrumental moti-
vation, on the other hand, is connected to “the pos-
sibility of increasing social scale opportunities and
economic advantages” as a result of using a particu-
lar language variety (Joly and Uranga 2010).
Te main motivation, then, to use a minority
language is integrative (leaving the language com-
petence factor to one side), bearing in mind that the
instrumental motivation has very little infuence in
our case (Martínez de Luna 2004). In the general
context of the NBC, it is very clear that knowing
and using Basque brings very few social advantages,

whereas there are many great advantages to using
French. Tat being the case, it is obvious that with-
out integrative motivation it will be very difcult to
promote a tendency to speak in Basque.
As Iñaki Martínez de Luna himself points out,
however, integrative motivation by itself is not
strong enough, and “has to be put through the sieve
of reality” (Martínez de Luna 2001). Tis is in fact
the main problem: “although identity creating moti-
vations are among the strongest, by themselves they
are not enough to turn reality around” (Martínez de
Luna 2004).
In this area, I think that the question that Jone
Miren Hernández raises in order to understand the
gap between knowledge and use is relevant: “what
is the basis for one attitude or another at its starting
point? What does it take to motivate me? What keeps
my interest and commitment to Basque? (Hernández
2016a, 182). Tis is the key that Xabier Erize sug-
gests: “In any case, bearing in mind that motivation
is something internal, motivating from the outside
is difcult and, in order for it to be successful, that
external motivation must connect with something
inside the person; otherwise, it is very difcult to
achieve anything” (Erize 2016, 121).
Te diferentiation between identity creating and
instrumental motivation or between internal and ex-
ternal motivations is concurrent with a concept of
agency brought from psychological anthropology
to social sciences.4 I fnd Sherry Ortner’s interpreta-

tion of this concept particularly interesting. Ortner
believes that subjectivity is the essence of agency;
in other words, agency is not a desire in itself but,
rather, desires and intentions within the framework
of feelings and thoughts, which are both constructed
socially. Tis author understands agency as an “ef-
fect of critical subjectivity in action” to the extent to
which the subject sees difculties in his/her context
(Ortner 2006).
From an anthropological perspective, several au-
thors believe that the basis to general identifcation
is the experienced identity (Terradas 2009). Tus lan-
guage and national identity, for instance, are derived
from real-life experience identity:
What is experienced identity? It is human rec-
ognition of life that is mainly based on memory of
experiences had, their repercussions on feelings, and
the feelings of belonging and connection that that
memory requires. Experienced identity is the basis
for cultural identity, which is never either wholly
individual or wholly collective. It emerges half-
way along the road between the memory of per-
sonal meanings and shared chronotope memories
(Terradas 2009, 63–64).
Te sentimental attachments, emotions and af-
fection that emerge from things we do in daily life
4. Anthony Giddens and Pierre Bourdieu, for example, have

used the same concept to research agents’ infuence on the
production and reproduction of social systems (Duranti 2004,
452).
make our experienced identity, and on that founda-

tion we build our other identities such as language,
culture, and national identities (which give rise to
identity creating motivation). Identity is not some-
thing that we are given beforehand; it is, rather,
something that results from things we do and do
again (Butler 1990). Te performative turn has led us
to understand identity as something that is contin-
ually defned and redefned. From that perspective,
then, language identity must also be understood in a
dynamic way: depending on the language we use, we
develop one language identity or another, and this
will change if we change our language habits. We de-
velop identity creating motivation through our (lan-
guage) habits in the micro-spaces in our everyday
environment or community of practice.
Individuals participate in multiple communities
of practice, and individual identity is based on the
multiplicity of this participation. Rather than seeing
the individual as some disconnected entity foating
around in social space, or as a location in a network,
or as a member of a particular group or set of groups,
or as a bundle of social characteristics, we need to
focus on communities of practice. Such a focus al-
lows us to see the individual as an actor articulating
a range of forms of participation in multiple com-
munities of practice (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet
1992, 8).
However, from the sociolinguistic perspective
we ofen forget that the speaker, the individual, is a
body, and everything we have lived through has been
as a body, and from a body. As Mari Luz Esteban
underlines, recent theories and methodologies have

made the body a central issue. From that point of
view, the body is seen as an agent, in other words, as
“a bridge between structure and practice” (Esteban
2010). When the scientifc paradigm—which sees
the mind and the body as well as rationality and emo-
tionality in a dichotomous way—moves the body to
the center of the paradigm, emotions, too, become
objects of research. In fact, the body and the emo-
tions are taken as the basis for inter-subjectivity, and
thus, for identity construction (Esteban 2011, 29).
Before moving from these conceptual consider-
ations to refections about my research, let me say
that I have chosen to analyze BSs as communities
of practice, with the objective of examining the lan-
guage identity construction process in a group that is
created and structured around the practice or bertso-
laritza.5 A decade afer Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger
(1991) created the concept of community of prac-
tice, Penelope Eckert and Sally McConnell-Ginet re-
visit it in their research about language and identity
construction (Eckert 2001; Eckert and McConnell-
Ginet 1992; Eckert and McConnell-Ginet 1995),
defning it as: “An aggregate of people who come
together around mutual engagement in an endeav-
our. Ways of doing things, ways of talking, beliefs,
values, power relations in short practices emerge
in the course of this mutual endeavor” (Eckert and
McConnell-Ginet 1992, 464). In our case, thanks to
this concept as defended by Hernández (2007) and
5. For more information about the choice of analyzing BSs as
communities of practice, see Artetxe (2014).
Paula Kasares (2013), identity has been analyzed as

an element constructed by practice.
From this position, and with the intention of ana-
lyzing the language behavior phenomenon in a more
complex way, I will explain several phenomena that
take place in BSs: for one thing, I will bring up the
fact that there is a link between the feeling of agency
and the presence of the body, the voice and the fact
that we create a discourse while we sing improvised
verses. For another, I will put forward the notion that
individual and collective experiences of agency can
infuence language behavior.
Bertsolaritza School: Being Tere, Taking the
Floor
Let us begin at the beginning. Subjectivity and iden-
tity are embodied through practice. So far so good.
But which practices are carried out at BSs? Around
which practices is the community constructed?6
Firstly, a group comes together at the BS.
Individuals decide whether to go there in their free
time: it is a leisure activity. Some of them have been
going to the BS for years. Others have just begun.
Te BS can be described as a place for developing
bertsolaritza skills, but it could not be adequately
defned without specifying that it is also a space for
pleasure.
6. In this chapter, rather than analyzing what is done at the

BS, I will make use of an actual BS session in order to ofer
meaningful examples, based on an observation carried out at
Bernat Etxepare High School on March 5, 2014.
Tere was already a good atmosphere among

us all, a really good atmosphere during our
three years at high school, and at the begin-
ning we used to go to the bertsolaritza school
with the intention of thinking up verses, but.
. . I don’t know how many hours we’ve spent
there, laughing out loud, talking about I don’t
know what, discussing things, having our af-
ternoon snack. . . So we did use to go to the
bertsolaritza school, but it’s not just limited to
that, there are hundreds of other things you
can do as well as verses.
—Boy [I], seventeen years old. Member of
the bertsolaritza school at Bernat Etxepare
High School (Baiona).
Members of the BS meet up at the school gates
and get chatting there. Te teacher comes and the
atmosphere doesn’t change: we say hello in a friendly
way, and we all head to the classroom, talking all the
way. When we’re in there, we move the tables and
chairs around and put the chairs into a circle. And
then “So, shall we start?” is what you hear, and the
teacher gives us an exercise: someone will stand
up and say a word, which will be the base for the
rhyme, and somebody else starts a verse of. As soon
as this other improviser sings some words, the next
member gives the next rhymed word and so on, un-
til the stanza is completed. Te frst one completes
the stanza and starts the humor of: some by choos-
ing the rhymed word (by mentioning events exter-
nal to the school, and making the others sing about
that), others by singing the verses that make up the

rhyme (making an efort to get over the obstacles set
up). Laughter is heard from verse to verse and afer
hearing the rhymes set for each improviser. You hear
comments about the verses. And applause when the
verses are good. Some rhymes lead to discussions.
“Lakona,” “Lakabe,” Zutabe.”7
Bertsolaritza as a social practice involves features
that make it easy to enjoy it and feel emotions: the
disassociation between composing and perform-
ing, the disassociation between the creator and the
audience, and the disassociation between the indi-
vidual and the community becomes fuzzy (Casals
2009), and mutual connections and feelings of iden-
tifcation are strengthened: “oral improvisation, as a
playful activity that consists of an unavoidable func-
tionality, has been seen to be a generator of group
identities and modifcations in individual identities”
(Casals 2010, 6).
Defning them as places and times for pleasure
gives us the basis for examining the activities that are
carried out there: the subjects build a positive nar-
rative about what takes place there. In other words,
starting with the emotional repercussions that the
subjects feel there (Terrades 2004) and identifcation
with the group, the BS is a suitable place for building
individual identity (Artetxe 2014).
“Who wants to sing now?” says the teacher. Afer
some warm-up exercises, it is time to begin in a more
7. “Lakona” is a breed of sheep; “Lakabe” is an occupied town;
the word “zutabe” means column, but is also the title of ETA’s
printed bulletin (Zutabe).
serious way. Now two people are going to sing about

a topic, and the others will listen. “Alright, L and A
stand up, ok?” Tey both get up, prop themselves
on the table in front of the others, who are in a cir-
cle. “You’re a ffeen-year old girl, A, and it’s the frst
time you’re going out at night. Luckily, L, your sister,
who’s eighteen and used to going out, has come out
with you.” Tey agree who is to begin. Te teacher
tells them to stand up, and suggests they take the
microphone (a broom resting against a chair). Some
people think that’s a good idea, but A and L prefer
not to use it.
Improvising verses involves moving out of the
group and standing somewhere the others can see
them. Afer hearing the subject, they think about what
they are going to say, and start to sing. Improvising
verses thus leads to becoming the center of attention
in public. Your presence itself is under examination:
your body, your position, movements, and gestures.
And knowing how to be there is another necessary
skill in bertsolaritza. An example of that can be seen
at the BS where, although there is no explicit training
in managing emotions, the bertsolaris are asked to
know how to feel comfortable under the others’ gaze:
“As well as the ability and skill to improvise verses,
beginners are taught how to adopt typical bertsolari
postures and use typical techniques” (Esteban 2004,
198). So the body, even if in negative terms, is the im-
provisational improviser’s frst tool (Alberdi 2012),
and putting their body in front of others infuences
themselves and the others.
Alessandro Duranti states that presence is a type

of individual agency that afects everybody: “human
presence is something that must be reckoned with
by others and therefore implies the power to afect
others” (Duranti 2004, 455). In fact, this author con-
frms diferent levels of agency during performances.
And the frst level, in fact, is the individual’s self-af-
frmation or “ego-afrming” level. Duranti mentions
two things on this level: presence and voice: “A and
B agree on a melody and concentrate, looking down
at the foor. Te other people, carry on chatting for a
while in a respectful but—at the same time—infor-
mal tone of voice. Ten they realise that A is ready to
start the verse from the look on her face. Tey keep
quiet and look at her. Another twenty seconds go by,
and then A starts singing.” Her voice, in both speech
and song, is a coordinated action of her whole body.
Te voice and respiratory system, the digestive sys-
tem, vocal resonators, and many muscle groups are
used to project the voice. Creating a voice is not one
of this area’s main function. Te voice, however, is
the immediate expression of our identity: “an irre-
ducible sign of identity” (Merleau-Ponty 1970).
And, as well as being a sign of identity, bringing
your voice out is also an action of self-afrmation for
the individual. Speaking in itself denotes agency:
Te very act of speaking in front of others
who can perceive such an act establishes the
speaker as a being whose existence must be
reckoned with in terms of his or her com-
municative goals and abilities. As the most
sophisticated form of human expression,
language use implies that its users are entities

that must also possess other human qualities
including the ability to afect their own and
others’ ways of being. Hence, this most basic
level of agency—an agency of an existential
sort which, however, needs others (whether
as a real or imaginary audience)—does not
need to rely on referential or denotational
meaning. It is language per se as a human fac-
ulty rather than the meaning of its words that
is sufcient for agency as ego-afrming to be
at work. (Duranti 2004, 455)
Inevitably, then, taking turn to speak is an afr-
mation of the individual’s character: Tis is me, I’m
here and this is my voice. And this “both afrms the
speaker qua speaker and reveals human qualities”
(Duranti 2004, 459). Tus the experience of speak-
ing is not neutral , and learning to have confdence
in oneself is also learning to improvise:
Te bertsolaritza school has given me this
. . . Te way I am . . . M.A.S.: What? I don’t
know . . . It’s a lot of things. Perhaps I know
myself better now . . . I’ve gotten rid of that
timidity, or I’m trying to, trying to have more
self-confdence.
—Girl [P], seventeen years old. Member of
And if we look beyond speaking in public, to
singing verses (or, as Marta Font defnes it, poetic
performance), agency takes on another dimension
that can become a subversive experience, both in-

wards and outwards (Font 2011).
Afer L’s frst verse, A spends a long time thinking.
People look at him, and he says “-ela.” Te sugges-
tions come straightaway: “gela,” “arbela,” “horrela,”
“epela,” “itzela,” “txapela” . . . Tey are still shouting
out rhymes as A starts singing. Another two verses,
and the two-bertsolari session has fnished. Te
members who are listening sing out the repetition of
the last line at greater volume than before, giving the
session a happy ending. Te applause, too, is louder
than before.
Learning to improvise is learning the technique
in order to improvise verses. But making verses in-
volves more than that, as the objective of improvising
is actually saying something pertinent. Te bertso-
lari needs to master technique in order to be able to
create a discourse. Jon Sarasua, Andoni Egaña, and
Joserra Gartzia, who have carried out considerable
work developing and transmitting the theoretical
bertsolaritza corpus, place bertsolaritza’s rhetorical
and poetic value above its technical value (Gartzia,
Sarasua, and Egaña 2001).
With regard to content, the need to cre-
ate discourse clearly calls for refection: the
bertsolaris have to deal with a subject, place
themselves in a situation, or give an opinion.
Bertsolaris have to choose what to say and
how to say it, and then try to be true to that
decision, respecting the verses’ formal lim-
itations. Te dynamic of refection created
during the poetic dialogue process is even
more interesting. During an artifcially cre-

ated dialogue situation, what Eric Dicharry
calls “twofold intellectual decentralization”
takes place (Dicharry 2013, 65). On one hand,
the poet has to distance him/herself from his/
her own point of view, forced to interpret or
play a certain personality or situation, and on
the other, he/she has to place him/herself in
relation to the fellow bertsolari’s point of view.
Tat makes you think, ideas and so on,
“What would I say there?” and then you have
to think it through. And, well, we think it
through . . . And when we listen to the others,
too. “Oh, yeah!”
Boy [K], ffeen years old. Member of the
bertsolaritza school at Bernat EtxepareHigh
School (Baiona).
Half an hour has already passed since they came
chatting into the room. Tey’ve all sung one by one
during the frst exercise, then a frst round in pairs,
and it’s time to do the second round. First they had to
sing in the zortziko handi meter (four rhymes, long
verses), and now it’s a zortziko txiki (four rhymes,
short verses). It’s advisable for diferent meters. A
and J have gotten up, stood in front of the others,
and the teacher has given them their subject: “You’ve
been classmates since you were little. You can’t stand
each other. You’ve started at high school this year,
and today’s your frst day at class. Te teacher tells
you where to sit when you come in . . . And you’re
next to each other.” A thinks of an idea straightaway.
You can see that in her facial expression. “J starts,”

says the teacher. “A has an idea,” answers J. He does
not have any ideas, and wants A to begin. “Ok, A can
start!” says the teacher.
A specifc idea come from a single word, an im-
age, a memory, or a sensation. And if you think it is
a good idea, that is because you confer an expressive
force to that idea. A potential expressivity. However,
you have to say it using a specifc number of syllables.
Using specifc words. In a specifc order. So there is a
specifc aesthetic.
Afer thirty seconds, A begins: “Erakasle hone-
taz, ezin ginen fda/ Ta hala ikusi dut arbelan begira/
Hartu regla eskutan, mugitu kadira/ hasieratik lim-
itak markatu behar dira”[“We can’t trust this teacher
/ I’ve seen that on the board / Pick up your ruler,
move your chair / You have to draw the lines from
the start”]. Laughter is heard. Te people sitting
down act the situation out. Tey look at each other
aggressively, as if they wanted to be as far apart from
each other as possible. More laughter. And silence
once more. Now it is J’s turn.
Te second agency level that Duranti mentions
is “Act-constituting agency.” Duranti pays special
attention, however, to the creative power of poetry,
singing, theater, humor from daily life, and narra-
tive: “Tis is a dimension where speakers/singers/
actors/story-tellers exploit some taken for granted
or hidden properties of language, transforming our
ordinary understanding of language and its rela-
tion to reality” (Duranti 2004, 459). In these genres
“language users [are] accountable for the form of
their expressions and the style of delivery” (Duranti

2004, 459).
Te person singing the verses, however, chooses
a way to say what he/she wants to, taking on the role
assigned, putting together the best possible idea and
expressed in the best possible way, respecting the for-
mal limits or, perhaps more accurately, making use
of them. In fact, bertsolaritza’s symbolic strength is
based on those formal limits. Being able to say things
within those limits gives the message its strength:
“Poetically organized discourse (POD) and, in gen-
eral, poetic procedures may be regarded as a special
way of formalizing speech by means of a number of
constraints on how the text is organized—such as
meter, rhythm, morphosyntactic parallelism, asso-
nance, and other procedures—. . . Such constraints,
that ofen occur together, heighten and specialize
the symbolic impact of an utterance” (Banti and
Giannattasio 2004).
But J starts to get nervous right away. He can’t think

of anything. “I don’t know what to say,” he says. Te
others keep quiet. Tey don’t want to say anything
right away. It seems they would rather he tried and
managed it by himself. But they have stopped their
theatrics. Time passes slowly. A minute. Two min-
utes. “Come on, J!” says the teacher. “I really can’t
think of anything.” When he gives up, the others
start shouting ideas out. “You’ll get on better as time
goes by.” “Really that’s what you wanted, being side-
by-side.” Laughter once more. Everyone relaxes.
Conversations start up once more while J gets his
verse ready. “Gela hontan badira ikasleak hogeita

hamar / ta nik zure ondoan nuen erori behar / ezin
gira soporta bizi osoan zehar/hori jakin nuelaik in
nuen negar!” [“Tere are thirty pupils in this room /
And I have to sit next to you / We can’t stand each
other / I cried when I found out”]. Tere is applause
and shouts of encouragement in the room. “Tat’s
it, that’s it!” “Great stuf, J!” J breathes a great sigh of
relief. He is not satisfed, and the others know that
too. Tey all feel a little frustrated.
As we have seen, improvising a bertso puts the
individual on show. First, your body in front of
the group. When the singing starts, each person’s
voice, and the internal situation that each voice ex-
presses. Ideas, and the ways chosen to express them.
Furthermore, the bertsolari may make a mess of the
formal aspects of the creative process. Getting stuck.
Making obvious mistakes. Or not. Even if there are
no problems, even if you have to sing about a sub-
ject you know about and from a role you are familiar
with, each person has to choose an idea and, so, the
others, the listeners, will decide whether the idea is
appropriate and whether it has been well expressed,
and the bertsolari knows that from the moment he/
she stands up.
Terefore, from the moment he/she dares to
make verses until afer singing, he/she has the sen-
sation of being evaluated (by him/herself and by the
others), and that gives rise to emotions in the bertso-
lari’s body as well as in those of the listeners, through
empathy. As Hernández underlines, bertsolaritza
does take the improvisers’ bodies and emotions—as
well as those of the listeners—to be an essential part

of the whole. Tus for agency performance, there is
no alternative to taking the risk of making mistakes.
Making decisions, and living with them. If there were
no evaluation, there would be no agency. Duranti, in
fact, puts forward the following characteristics for
defning agency: “Agency is here understood as the
property of those entities (i) that have some degree
of control over their own behaviour, (ii) whose ac-
tions in the world afect other entities’ (and some-
times their own), and (iii) whose actions are the ob-
ject of evaluation (e.g. in terms of their responsibility
for a given outcome)” (Duranti 2004, 453).
As the BS is something that is held every week,
and its members are not forced to attend, it is rea-
sonable to suppose that, in that context, it is an emo-
tionally bearable experience for them, both when
singing and when listening. Although experiences
outside the BS may be very diferent, the young peo-
ple interpret the BS as an opportunity for agency
performance.
I know the other members of our school very
well, so I don’t mind about singing badly or
well, doing this or that. Knowing the others
better removes that timidity about singing in
front our your bertsolaritza school classmates
. . . I’m the frst person to put my foot in it,
so I know only too well that when I do, they
don’t say “Oh! You did that badly;” they’re
more likely to say “You should have done it
another way.” But without mocking you, or
anything like that.
—Boy [I], seventeen years old. Member of

I do get nervous at bertsolaritza school be-
cause I put myself under pressure, but then
I know they aren’t going to judge me, so I’m
relaxed with the others. But nervous, too, be-
cause I demand things of myself, but I know
the teacher won’t say anything bad, the others
won’t say I’ve done it badly and they’ll help
me, we’ll help each other.
—Girl [N], seventeen years old. Member of
Tose young people are aware of the agency ex-
perience they get at the BS, and their discourse both
refects that and infuences them:
Bertsolaritza has given me self-confdence,
I’ve seen I can do it and I sometimes even
reach the championship, and that gives you a
positive image of yourself.
It is even more than that. Empathy based on in-
ter-subjectivity determines the group identity of the
BS community of practice, and, at the same time,
identifying agency experience also leads to each
person identifying him/herself as an agent. Tis is
why the expression “I’m in the BS” was mentioned a
lot in the interviews.
Well, thanks to the bertsolaritza school, I don’t

know, I think. . . Yeah, our bertsolaritza school,
for instance, makes me feel good, and then . . .
really when we are at the bertsolaritza school,
or bertsolaritza summer camps, or anything
connected with bertsolaritza, it’s me, it’s really
me, well, I don’t know how to put it.
—Girl [M], seventeen years old. Member of
Tere is positive identity in that “It’s really

me.” Tis “I” is an agent capable of perform-
ing in front of others, making choices, and
seeing itself to be capable. And afnities and
identifcations are developed along with that
experienced positive identity.
In the end, people are a bit like you. And . .
. yeah. Tat’s more than just acceptance, con-
fdence, or something like that . . . It’s not con-
fdence, it’s more than that. I mean it’s really
something amazing.
—Girl [U], seventeen years old. Member of
Why do I actually have a good time? Well, be-

cause I like bertsolaritza, but, you know, the
people. . . Tat’s it, you trust each other, and
they’re like you, so you identify with them
right away, and. . . you have an amazing rela-
tionship with the people.
—Girl [U], seventeen years old. Member of

Conclusion: Experienced Agency and Language

Behavior
Viviani has researched popular young musicians in
La Plata, Argentina, and states that “the musical ex-
perience empowers young people, and take shape in
diferent moments of everyday life, not only in those
specifcally linked with musical experience” (Viviani
2014, 210). In other words, this author believes that
“this experience and the possibilities which it ofers
make up emotional structures and behaviour pat-
terns which later afect other areas of the young peo-
ple’s lives” (Viviani 2014, 210–11).
I believe that we have the ability to commu-

nicate within the group and to do things in
group, and that’s important . . . Bertsolaris do
have the ability to communicate well, that’s
it. And then, well. . . I don’t know, feeling in-
volved or something . . . In general, in life the
way other people look at you [worries me],
really a lot, so I don’t dare to do some things,
and bertsolaritza really helps me to do more
things.
Maybe, well, the way we sing in front of peo-

ple, we fnd it easy to explain what we need
and so on. So sometimes we do stand up to
the [high school] teacher.
—Boy [K], ffeen years old. Member of
It’s true that at secondary school, for instance,

there are diferent groups, Baxoa Euskaraz
[the movement if favor of being able to take
university access examinations in Basque],
the radio, some other types of groups, and the
bertsolaritza school gives life to absolutely all
of those groups, no doubt about that, I don’t
know why.
—Boy [A], seventeen years old. Member of
More research needs to be done on how or to
what extent that individual and collective agency
experience shows itself outside the BS, outside in
general. But it can be afrmed that it does infuence
language use.
Te individual’s agency, identifcation with oth-
ers, and the group’s and with individual’s positive
identities are all elements I have mentioned as fac-
tors that defne the BS as a community of practice.
But they are not the only factors because those ex-
periences happening in Basque is no mere detail.
Another meaningful feature of the BS community
of practice is that communication among the mem-

bers of the BS takes place in Basque. And, what is
more, the pretext or reason for coming together uses
Basque as an essential element of the activity itself.
In any case, the experiences of group members re-
lated to those practices are also experiences lived
out in Basque, and language experiences cannot be
separated from other experiences. Tus the agency
sensation, among other things, is something that the
young people have experienced in Basque and that
infuences their attitude to the language:
It was the only moment in the week when I
felt myself . . . and it just happened to be the
only moment of the week when I was doing
something in Basque. . . . I felt myself, I felt
accepted, I felt really good.
As mentioned at the beginning of the chapter,
other types of identifcation, including language
identity, are based on experienced identity. At the
BS, these young bertsolaris experience agency, and
experience it in Basque. Language identity is thus
constructed in relation to this experience of agency,
which enhances identity creating motivation. At the
same time, the basis for a proactive language behav-
ior with regard to language choice is individuals and
groups acting as agents. My point is that experienc-
ing agency in the BS can lead to seeing oneself as an
agent in other aspects of social life.
If you go to a good bertsolaritza school, well,

I don’t know how to put it, I don’t know what
a good bertsolaritza school is, but, if there’s a
good atmosphere at the bertsolaritza school,
you have to take that outside with you too,
and you refect that to other people, and . .
. And I don’t think it’s enough for you to say
to yourself “I’m going to speak in Basque;”
well, I think, me for example, I know I’m not
strong enough to say to myself “Hey, from
now on I’m going to speak in Basque;” well,
no, well, I need to feel my friends are there .
. . I don’t know if I’d be strong enough to do
that by myself, well, I don’t know what would
happen if I wasn’t at the bertsolaritza school.
Girl [L], seventeen years old. Member of
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9
Playing It by Ear: An Introduction
to Welshe Strict Metre Poetry
Eurig Salisbury
Te elaborately interweaving decorations and il-

lustrations of the famous Book of Kells are icons of
Celtic art and culture. Tese visual manuscript em-
bellishments seem to have been a distinctly Irish
feature of the culture, however, for none of the me-
dieval Welsh manuscripts contain anything close to
the level of intricate decoration found in the Book of
Kells. Nonetheless, what the Welsh manuscripts lack
in visual ornamentation, they make up in the com-
plexity of their poetry.
Te reason I chose to refer to the famous images
of the Kells gospels is because they can be seen as a
visual representation of a common phenomenon in
Celtic culture—a love of intricate patterns. Te vi-
sual interweaving in the Irish images is mirrored in
the sound of interweaving words, rhymes, and con-
sonants in Welsh poetry. Which is why I have chosen
this title for the presentation—in Welsh poetics, the
poets are playing it by ear.
By this I mean that the rules of traditional Welsh

poetry are governed by what can be heard, and not
by what can be seen. Tis may be an obvious thing
to point out in this conference, but the reason I re-
fer to it is because the complexity of the rules may
explain why a tradition of improvisation similar to
the Basque bertsolaritza has not fourished in Wales.
Which does not mean that there is no tradition of
improvisation in Wales—I will come to that later
on—but it will be worth outlining the rules of Welsh
poetry before we go any further. It may also better
explain why Karen Owen and I went to one side of
the stage to compose for twenty minutes on Monday
night, while all the other poets improvised on the
spot!
Welsh poetry composed in the traditional manner
is called cerdd dafod, which literally means “tongue
craf”/”craf of the tongue.” In the Middle Ages, poets
performed with musical accompaniment, almost al-
ways on the harp, but this aspect of the tradition has
been almost completely lost. Te manuscripts that
safeguarded the poetry have very little to say about
the music, unfortunately.
However, traditional poetry is occasionally per-
formed today alongside cerdd dant, which means
“harp-string craf,” a highly complex and relatively
recent form of musical accompaniment that is prob-
ably quite diferent to what was used originally by
the medieval poets. I should note that cerdd dant is
rarely used by modern poets—rather their poetry is
sung by skilled practitioners of cerdd dant and can be
performed individually, as a group or even as a choir,
Playing It by Ear 213
almost always with accompaniment on the harp. One

other point of interest is that those who sing cerdd
dant do not follow the melody of the harp; rather,
they sing a counter-melody that can be improvised
according to the singer’s expertise (see https://m.
youtube.com/watch?v=zJlcHbLyRc8).
Unlike cerdd dant, the rules of cerdd dafod have
not changed much in about six hundred years. Te
roots of the craf, however, go back even further to
the earliest Welsh poetry, which may belong to the
sixth century. What makes cerdd dafod unique is
the fact that it contains cynghanedd, which means
roughly “harmony” or “chiming.” Te underlying
principle is that a line of cynghanedd sounds good,
and creates a certain harmony between words that
embellishes a poem when performed.
So, here is a crash-course on the main types of
cynghanedd.
Tere are three main types of cynghanedd. Te
simplest type, cynghanedd lusg (“trailing”), relies on
rhyme alone: a word somewhere in the line rhymes
with the accented penult of a fnal polysyllable:
Mae arch ǀ yn Ystrad Marchell
Cynghanedd gytsain (“consonantal”) can be di-
vided into three subtypes that refect varying degrees
of strictness. Te simplest kind is cynghanedd draws
(“traversing”), in which the line is divided into two
parts (not necessary of equal length) and the conso-
nants in the frst half must be matched in the second
half, with one consonant or more lef out of the cor-
respondence at the beginning of the second half:
Gweiddi ǀ maent am gywyddwr

In the next subtype, cynghanedd groes (“cross-
ing”), consonants in both halves of the line are
matched equally:
Tresbas drud ǀ tros Bowys draw
Te strictest consonantal subtype is cynghanedd
groes o gyswllt (“by connection”), in which conso-
nants are “borrowed” from the end of the frst half
of the line in order to complete the correspondence
with the beginning of the line:
O lawr Egwestl ǀ oreugall
All three consonantal subtypes are subject to re-
strictions governed by the nature of the fnal word
in a line. If the fnal word is accented, it can only be
matched by another accented word at the end of the
frst half of the line. If the fnal word is unaccented,
it can be matched by either another unaccented or
accented word at the end of the frst half and, in both
cases, the consonants on the penult in the fnal word
in the line must correspond in the matching word in
the frst half:
Da fu’r gŵr, ǀ difyr gariad
In all but a very few cases, the fnal consonants (if
any) in both words must be diferent, otherwise they
form a rhyme or a proest (“partial rhyme”).
Te third type of cynghanedd relies on both rhyme
and consonance. In cynghanedd sain (“sonorous”),
the line is divided into three: the frst two parts rhyme
with one another and the third part is in consonance
(of varying degrees of strictness) with the second:
Ym mynwent ǀ cwfent ǀ a’u cell

Tis is an example of the most common form of
cynghanedd sain, in which the fnal word in the line
is accented and the metrically emphasized word in
the second part of the line is unaccented (a combina-
tion that does not occur in cynghanedd gytsain). In
this case, the consonants on the penult in the second
part of the line do not have to match the fnal con-
sonants in the third part. If the fnal word in the line
is unaccented, the same rules apply as in cynghanedd
gystain, namely that the consonants on the penult in
the word in the second part of the line (whether ac-
cented or unaccented) must correspond:
Teg ǀ a difreg ǀ yw dwyfron
Ar fardd ǀ y chwardd ǀ a cherddawr
Tere are no limits on the number of syllables in
a line of cynghanedd, but traditional metres can con-
tain any number between four and ten, with seven
syllables being the most common. So-called forbid-
den faults and exceptions to the rules of cynghanedd
are too numerous to detail here.
I hope you can now see why Karen Owen and
I had to take our time on Monday night! All these
rules make it quite difcult to improvise poetry in
cynghanedd. However, modern poets do occasion-
ally take part in competitions that require a degree of
improvisation. Before I turn to those competitions, I
should mention a few medieval examples that seem
to suggest that improvisation has always played a
small part in Welsh poetry.
Some bardic grammars found in the manuscripts

seem to suggest that medieval poets could improvise
in repeat performances of a poem. In other words,
the poet would perform a poem for the frst time,
very probably afer prior composition, and then in
later performances of the same poem, some varia-
tion could come into play as the poet improvised the
old material to suit a diferent audience. Tis sug-
gests that the poets were capable of creating and rec-
reating complex lines of cynghanedd in a very short
period of time. It is not surprising, perhaps, that
professional poets who dedicated their time to the
business of composing poetry day in day out could
occasionally turn their hand to improvisation.
Tis theory is supported by occasional stories
found in the manuscripts, written alongside the po-
etry, that seem to explain the circumstances in which
some poems were composed. One such story is
found with a late fourteenth-century poem by a poet
called Sypyn Cyfeiliog, who was travelling one win-
ter’s night to the home of his patron. He was thrown
of course, however, by a terrible snowstorm, and
was forced to abandon his route and take shelter at
the home of another patron. Tis patron’s house was
already full of visiting poets and musicians, whose
poems of praise were well-prepared for a Christmas
feast the following day. Sypyn Cyfeiliog had likewise
prepared a poem for his original patron, but now felt
ashamed that he didn’t have a poem for the man who
had given him shelter. It would bring shame on him
as a poet to turn up at the feast the next day with-
out a poem of praise for his generous patron, so he
decided to stay up all night composing a long and

intricate new poem. According to the story, Sypyn
Cyfeiliog succeeded in fnishing his poem on time
and wowed his audience, who considered his poem
to be superior to any other at the Christmas feast.
Tis poem is accordingly called a cerdd unnos, or
“a one-night poem,” and other poems are referred to
in the same way in the manuscripts, usually because
the poet had apparently turned up at a patron’s house
without a poem. Another reason for composing a
one-nighter was the sudden illness of a patron who
quickly needed the poet’s assistance.
As well as these occasional cerddi unnos, impro-
visation of a more formal nature is also mentioned in
the manuscripts. One rather strange custom popular
in both the ffeenth and sixteenth centuries was the
cyf clêr, or “the poets’ butt of ridicule.” Tis custom
took place during wedding feasts, which seem to
have been held over a number of consecutive nights.
On the frst night, any number of poets would turn
up to the celebrations, and one poet was chosen to be
the butt of ridicule. Tis poet was usually the most
prominent in the group, a widely respected fgure
whose satirising was all the more efective because of
it. Te other poets then invented a lewd story about
this poet, a fabrication or embellishment that may
have nonetheless included a grain of truth.
For example, the earliest example of the genre is a
story about a well-known poet called Tudur Penllyn,
who was apparently crossing a mountain one day
when he was attacked by a wolf, and the wolf bit his
testicles of. Te other poets all composed poems
ridiculing Tudur Penllyn, including his own son,

Ieuan, who mourned the fact that he had never have
any more brothers of sisters! Te themes ofen re-
volved around masculinity and fertility, which may
explain why the custom was held at a wedding feast.
Afer enduring these satirical poems, the object of
their ridicule—the poor poet—was expected to
compose a poem in response by the following day.
Tis show of expertise in improvisation by the mas-
ter poet was a way of reasserting his predominance,
for by dazzling everyone with his new poem he
would succeed in putting the minor poets back in
their place.
Tis rather bizarre custom has not survived to
today—thankfully, perhaps! Nevertheless, the cus-
tom of composing poetry in a short period of time
continues in a competition known as the ymryson,
which means “duel.” In its most traditional form, this
is a competition in which the poets turn up—usu-
ally at a festival—without much prior arrangement,
and spontaneously form teams of usually four po-
ets. Tey are then given four or fve tasks which they
must complete within about thirty minutes. Te po-
ems are read aloud in turn, afer which they are eval-
uated by an expert—usually a respected poet—and
given marks out of ten. Te winning team are some-
times presented with a cup and occasionally a small
amount of prize money.
Te ymryson difers from two other popular com-
petitions as it is the only competition that involves
improvisation from beginning to end. Te talwrn
competition, which means “cockpit,” is very similar
to the ymryson, except that the teams of poets are

formed and given tasks at least a week before the
event. A very popular and long-running talwrn com-
petition is broadcast annually on BBC Radio Cymru.
My team, Y Glêr, has won the competition twice, frst
in 2012 and most recently in 2017. Although difer-
ent from the ymryson, this competition does have a
small element of improvisation—one of the tasks in
every round is to complete within a minute a couplet
of traditional metre afer being given one line by the
adjudicator.
Te other popular competition is the stomp, a
recent development in Welsh poetry in which po-
ets compete individually by reading a poem com-
posed beforehand, and then the audience votes
with coloured paper for their favourite poem. Te
successful poets then go head-to-head by reading
a second poem in the fnal round, and the winning
poet is given a milking stool. Tis prize refects the
informal nature of the stomp—in which some poets
sometimes read very obscene or risqué work—be-
cause the milking stool itself is a send-up of the most
prestigious prize in Welsh poetry—the Chair, which
is awarded to the creator of a winning composition
at an eisteddfod (cultural festival).
Te complexity of cynghanedd, therefore, has
not always been a barrier to improvisation in Welsh
poetry, although that small degree of improvisation
pales, of course, in comparison to the complexity of
the Basque tradition. Nonetheless, there is much to
be said and indeed gained from further investiga-
tion into similarities and diferences between both
traditions, especially in terms of genre manipulation

and the relationship between poets and their audi-
ences, not to mention the important roles that po-
etry can play in the cultures of minority languages.
Gall Cymru gyfrif prifeirdd,
Gwlad y Basg all glywed beirdd!
(Wales can count its poets,
but the Basques can hear theirs!)
About the Contributors
Afer graduating in Basque Philology at the University

of the Basque Country (EHU), Miren Artetxe
Sarasola did a Master’s Degree in Cognitive and
Linguistic Sciences at the University of Barcelona.
She is currently PhD student at the Department
of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising
in EHU as well as being member of the NOR and
Feminist Anthropology research groups. Her re-
search felds include oral improvisation, sociolin-
guistics and anthropology. She is a bertsolari.
Albert Casals Ibañez is a member of the research

group Música, Veu i Educació. He has a PhD in the
Didactics of Music. His thesis treatedimprovised verses
and their educational use in Catalonia. He promotes
the inter-school project Corrandescola, based on the
didactic use of improvised verses at school. He is also
the author of Corrandescola: Proposta didactica per tre-
ballar la glosa a Primaria. He regularly publishes arti-
cles in Catalan, Spanish and international magazines.
Ruth Finngegan is an anthropologist and Emeritus

Professor of Social Sciences at Te Open University
(United Kingdom). She is an expert on oral literature,
and started by researching the oral culture creations
in Africa and the South Pacifc, having made a great
contribution to the recognition of Oral Literature as
a literary genre. She covers various areas of research
on comparative sociology/anthropology of artistic
performances (mainly on oral culture creations and
music), communication and oral performance.
Josep Vincent Frechina is a researcher specialized

in music and popular culture of the Mediterranean
countries. He is editor of Caramella magazine
(1999-present) and he ofen contributes articles to
other media as well. He is author of the books La
cançó en valencià: Dels repertoris tradicionals als gè-
neres moderns (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua,
2011) and Pensar en vers: La cançó improvisada als
països de la Mediterrania (Llibres de Caramella,
2013).
Jone M. Hernandez is professor of Social

Anthropology at the University of the Basque
Country. She has studied Basque, Basque culture,
youth, leisure and sports, mainly from the perspec-
tive of gender and feminist theory. Currently she
studies the emotions and the corporal aspects.
Tierry Rougier is a member of the Passages Joint

Research Unit. Regarding cultural anthropology
and musicology, he has focused his research on the
About the Contributors 223
poets-singers from Brazil. He defended his thesis

in 2006: “Los Cantadores, improvising poets from
the Northeast of Brazil.” He has published articles
in collaboration with the Occitan Research Center
CORDAE/La Talvera de Cordes-sur-Ciel. His areas
of interest include cultural and linguistic diversity,
world music, and guitars and guitarists. He is also
director of the festival “Atypical Nights” celebrated
in Sud-Gironde.
Eurig Salisbury is a poet and lecturer in creative writ-

ing at the Department of Welsh and Celtic Studies in
Aberystwyth University. He was Bardd Plant Cymru,
2011–2013 (Welsh children’s laureate) and was one of
the Hay Festival’s International Fellows, 2012–2013.
His frst collection of poetry, Llyfr Glas Eurig (Eurig’s
blue book) was published in 2008.
Patricia Tapanes Suárez graduated in sociology at

the University of Havana. She carried out her post-
graduate work on the identity of Cuba and cultural
anthropology. She has taken part in many projects
such as the Specialized Workshops for Children’s
Repent (throughout the country), promoted by
the Ministry of Culture in Cuba. She has done re-
searched on the social aspect and the symbolism of
improvised verse singing, and, as a result, she has
collaborated in a multitude of documentaries and al-
bums of Cuban popular culture and orality.
Harkaitz Zubiri is a PhD in Sociology, he also

has a Bachelor’s Degree in English Philology and
Sociology. He is holder of a diploma in Teaching

Foreign Languages as well. He is currently a re-
searcher and professor at the University of the
Basque Country. One of his main felds of research
is culture in Basque, a subject on which he has pub-
lished articles and books. He has recently fnished
a sociological study on bertsolaritza. Besides, he is
author of a novel and a nonfction book.
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Conference Papers Series

Edited by Xabier Irujo

Center for Basque Studies Press

William A. Douglass Center for Basque Studies

Conference Papers Series, no. 14

Copyright © 2017 by Center for Basque Studies

1. What Is Oral about Poetry? 13

About the Contributors 221

Knowing the person next to you is a beautiful way of

that we started travelling out of the Basque Country

around with the meaning of words, to pay attention

ecosystem of cultural production created in Basque

and cultural context. To research bertsolaritza, there-

ecosystem generation afer generation. And, in the

To tackle this we need, obviously, to look to two as-

African deserts. It is an example of the Somali genre

While a cheerful love song by a young man in

country too, most notably—I learnt that songs can

So do our minutes hasten towards their

this in Africa too, and literature, written or unwrit-

lines, at least in their sound, their rhythm their echoic

these things, for me, together make up what I would

Mayan for example, or the systems of ancient Greece

Who knows?) and it has turned out to be in a kind of

Or rather—I believe that Homer delivered many dif-

delight, the familiar themes and settings, and who

not just in (silent) print form but in the popularity

Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,

5. For further examples of visual poetry see Finnegan (2013, chap-

Nor gates of steel so strong, but Time decays?

has taken its name.

———. 2013. Communicating: Te Multiple Modes

As a musician and an ethnologist, I teach at the

tradition whose vivacity is remarkable. And today,

Improvisation: A Mobile Tradition

the modes. Whatever the case, the modes are very

suspense of the poetic tournament, the monolithic

has ten lines of ten. To build his verse, the improviser

Te number of forms that can be heard during

Te subject feld is very wide. It embraces: the

A Conquering Movement: New Production

thanks to the rivalry between poets who invent un-

exclusively male professional environment. Te evo-

As a result, it is estimated nowadays that there

have participated in the exploitation of rubber trees

Brazil, wherever they can magnify the Portuguese

improvisation, a space can be created in which free

mouvement dans le Nordeste brésilien.” PhD

One would assume there have always been women

bertsolaritza. Whether in the form of some names

several questions, doubts, and lines of inquiry for the

2. Tere is information about this trajectory at the afore-

in which women are clearly invisible; (2) in the im-

clear about the fact that discussion of women bert-

metonymy alongside John Foley’s “traditional refer-

bertso and the context/situation it creates. Carmen

4. Trough diferent initiatives, in recent years the situation

vision, it seems appropriate to recall what John

So far, although there is just a hypothesis in re-

other than ordinary conversation is permitted.”