ZEBRAFISH

Volume 9, Number 4, 2012

ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2012.0743

A Guide to Writing a Scientific Paper: A Focus

on High School Through Graduate Level Student Research

Renee A. Hesselbach,1 David H. Petering,2 Craig A. Berg,3 Henry Tomasiewicz,1 and Daniel Weber1

Abstract

This article presents a detailed guide for high school through graduate level instructors that leads students to
write effective and well-organized scientific papers. Interesting research emerges from the ability to ask ques-
tions, define problems, design experiments, analyze and interpret data, and make critical connections. This
process is incomplete, unless new results are communicated to others because science fundamentally requires
peer review and criticism to validate or discard proposed new knowledge. Thus, a concise and clearly written
research paper is a critical step in the scientific process and is important for young researchers as they are
mastering how to express scientific concepts and understanding. Moreover, learning to write a research paper
provides a tool to improve science literacy as indicated in the National Research Council’s National Science
Education Standards (1996), and A Framework for K–12 Science Education (2011), the underlying foundation for the
Next Generation Science Standards currently being developed. Background information explains the importance of
peer review and communicating results, along with details of each critical component, the Abstract, Introduction,
Methods, Results, and Discussion. Specific steps essential to helping students write clear and coherent research
papers that follow a logical format, use effective communication, and develop scientific inquiry are described.

Introduction published.1 For others, such as for high school or under-

graduate students, publishing a research paper may not be the

A key part of the scientific process is communication

of original results to others so that one’s discoveries are
passed along to the scientific community and the public for
ultimate goal. However, regardless of whether an article is to
be submitted for publication, peer review is an important step
in this process. For student researchers, writing a well-
awareness and scrutiny.1–3 Communication to other scientists organized research paper is a key step in learning how to
ensures that new findings become part of a growing body express understanding, make critical connections, summarize
of publicly available knowledge that informs how we un- data, and effectively communicate results, which are impor-
derstand the world around us.2 It is also what fuels further tant goals for improving science literacy of the National
research as other scientists incorporate novel findings into Research Council’s National Science Education Standards,4 and
their thinking and experiments. A Framework for K–12 Science Education,5 and the Next
Depending upon the researcher’s position, intent, and Generation Science Standards6 currently being developed and
needs, communication can take different forms. The gold described in The NSTA Reader’s Guide to A Framework for K–12
standard is writing scientific papers that describe original Science Education.7 Table 1 depicts the key skills students
research in such a way that other scientists will be able to should develop as part of the Science as Inquiry Content
repeat it or to use it as a basis for their studies.1 For some, it is Standard. Table 2 illustrates the central goals of A Framework
expected that such articles will be published in scientific for K–12 Science Education Scientific and Engineering Practices
journals after they have been peer reviewed and accepted for Dimension.
publication. Scientists must submit their articles for exami- Scientific papers based on experimentation typically
nation by other scientists familiar with the area of research, include five predominant sections: Abstract, Introduction,
who decide whether the work was conducted properly and Methods, Results, and Discussion. This structure is a widely
whether the results add to the knowledge base and are con- accepted approach to writing a research paper, and has
veyed well enough to merit publication.2 If a manuscript specific sections that parallel the scientific method. Following
passes the scrutiny of peer-review, it has the potential to be this structure allows the scientist to tell a clear, coherent story

1
NIEHS Children’s Environmental Health Sciences Core Center, 2Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and 3Curriculum and
Instruction, University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

246
WRITING GUIDE 247

Table 1. Key Skills of the Science as Inquiry findings and the significance of the results, and how this work
National Science Education Content Standard is different from the work of others. It is important to note that
the Abstract briefly explains the implications of the findings,
Abilities Necessary to Do Scientific Inquiry
but does not evaluate the conclusions.1,3 Just as with the Title,
Identify questions and concepts that guide scientific
investigation this section needs to be written carefully and succinctly. Often
Design and conduct scientific investigations this section is written last to ensure it accurately reflects the
Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations content of the paper. Generally, the optimal length of the
and communications Abstract is one paragraph between 200 and 300 words, and
Formulate and revise scientific explanations and models does not contain references or abbreviations.
using logic and evidence
Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models
Communicate and defend a scientific argument Introduction
All new research can be categorized by field (e.g., biology,
National Research Council (1996).
chemistry, physics, geology) and by area within the field (e.g.,
biology: evolution, ecology, cell biology, anatomy, environ-
in a logical format, essential to effective communication.1,2 In mental health). Many areas already contain a large volume of
addition, using a standardized format allows the reader to published research. The role of the Introduction is to place
find specific information quickly and easily. While readers the new research within the context of previous studies in the
may not have time to read the entire research paper, the particular field and area, thereby introducing the audience to the
predictable format allows them to focus on specific sections research and motivating the audience to continue reading.1
such as the Abstract, Introduction, and Discussion sections. Usually, the writer begins by describing what is known in
Therefore, it is critical that information be placed in the the area that directly relates to the subject of the article’s
appropriate and logical section of the report.3 research. Clearly, this must be done judiciously; usually there
is not room to describe every bit of information that is known.
Guidelines for Writing a Primary Research Article Each statement needs one or more references from the scien-
tific literature that supports its validity. Students must be
Title
reminded to cite all references to eliminate the risk of pla-
The Title sends an important message to the reader about the giarism.2 Out of this context, the author then explains what is
purpose of the paper. For example, Ethanol Effects on the Devel- not known and, therefore, what the article’s research seeks to
oping Zebrafish: Neurobehavior and Skeletal Morphogenesis8 tells the find out. In doing so, the scientist provides the rationale for
reader key information about the content of the research paper. the research and further develops why this research is im-
Also, an appropriate and descriptive title captures the attention portant. The final statement in the Introduction should be a
of the reader. When composing the Title, students should in- clearly worded hypothesis or thesis statement, as well as a
clude either the aim or conclusion of the research, the subject, brief summary of the findings as they relate to the stated
and possibly the independent or dependent variables. Often, the hypothesis. Keep in mind that the details of the experimental
title is created after the body of the article has been written, so findings are presented in the Results section and are aimed at
that it accurately reflects the purpose and content of the article.1,3 filling the void in our knowledge base that has been pointed
out in the Introduction.
Abstract
The Abstract provides a short, concise summary of the re- Materials and Methods
search described in the body of the article and should be able
Research utilizes various accepted methods to obtain the
to stand alone. It provides readers with a quick overview that
results that are to be shared with others in the scientific com-
helps them decide whether the article may be interesting to
munity. The quality of the results, therefore, depends com-
read. Included in the Abstract are the purpose or primary
pletely upon the quality of the methods that are employed and
objectives of the experiment and why they are important, a
the care with which they are applied. The reader will refer to
brief description of the methods and approach used, key
the Methods section: (a) to become confident that the experi-
ments have been properly done, (b) as the guide for repeating
the experiments, and (c) to learn how to do new methods.
Table 2. Important Practices of A Framework
It is particularly important to keep in mind item (b). Since
for K–12 Science Education Scientific
and Engineering Practices Dimension science deals with the objective properties of the physical and
biological world, it is a basic axiom that these properties are
Dimension 1: Scientific and Engineering Practices independent of the scientist who reported them. Everyone
Asking questions and defining problems should be able to measure or observe the same properties
Developing and using models within error, if they do the same experiment using the same
Planning and carrying out investigations materials and procedures. In science, one does the same ex-
Analyzing and interpreting data periment by exactly repeating the experiment that has been
Using mathematics and computational thinking described in the Methods section. Therefore, someone can only
Constructing explanations and designing solutions
repeat an experiment accurately if all the relevant details of
Engaging in argument from evidence
Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information the experimental methods are clearly described.1,3
The following information is important to include under
National Research Council (2011). illustrative headings, and is generally presented in narrative
248 HESSELBACH ET AL.

form. A detailed list of all the materials used in the experi- they are important members of the soil community. Because
ments and, if important, their source should be described. atrazine damages nerve cells, we hypothesized that exposure
These include biological agents (e.g., zebrafish, brine shrimp), to atrazine will inhibit the ability of worms to do locomotor
chemicals and their concentrations (e.g., 0.20 mg/mL nico- activities. In the first experiment, we tested the effect of the
tine), and physical equipment (e.g., four 10-gallon aquariums, chemical on burrowing action.’’
one light timer, one 10-well falcon dish). The reader needs to Then, the experiments to be done are described and the
know as much as necessary about each of the materials; results entered. In reporting on experimental design, it is
however, it is important not to include extraneous informa- important to identify the dependent and independent vari-
tion. For example, consider an experiment involving zebra- ables clearly, as well as the controls. The results must be
fish. The type and characteristics of the zebrafish used must be shown in a way that can be reproduced by the reader, but do
clearly described so another scientist could accurately repli- not include more details than needed for an effective analysis.
cate the experiment, such as 4–6-month-old male and female Generally, meaningful and significant data are gathered together
zebrafish, the type of zebrafish used (e.g., Golden), and where into tables and figures that summarize relevant information, and
they were obtained (e.g., the NIEHS Children’s Environ- appropriate statistical analyses are completed based on the data
mental Health Sciences Core Center in the WATER Institute of gathered. Besides presenting each of these data sources, the
the University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee). In addition to author also provides a written narrative of the contents of the
describing the physical set-up of the experiment, it may be figures and tables, as well as an analysis of the statistical signif-
helpful to include photographs or diagrams in the report to icance. In the narrative, the writer also connects the results to the
further illustrate the experimental design. aims of the experiment as described above. Did the results
A thorough description of each procedure done in the support the initial hypothesis? Do they provide the information
reported experiment, and justification as to why a particular that was sought? Were there problems in the experiment that
method was chosen to most effectively answer the research compromised the results? Be careful not to include an interpre-
question should also be included. For example, if the scientist tation of the results; that is reserved for the Discussion section.
was using zebrafish to study developmental effects of nicotine, The writer then moves on to the next experiment. Again,
the reader needs to know details about how and when the the first paragraph is developed as above, except this exper-
zebrafish were exposed to the nicotine (e.g., maternal expo- iment is seen in the context of the first experiment. In other
sure, embryo injection of nicotine, exposure of developing words, a story is being developed. So, one commonly refers to
embryo to nicotine in the water for a particular length of time the results of the first experiment as part of the basis for un-
during development), duration of the exposure (e.g., a certain dertaking the second experiment. ‘‘In the first experiment we
concentration for 10 minutes at the two-cell stage, then the observed that atrazine altered burrowing activity. In order to
embryos were washed), how many were exposed, and why understand how that might occur, we decided to study its
that method was chosen. The reader would also need to know impact on the basic biology of locomotion. Our hypothesis
the concentrations to which the zebrafish were exposed, how was that atrazine affected neuromuscular junctions. So, we
the scientist observed the effects of the chemical exposure (e.g., did the following experiment...’’
microscopic changes in structure, changes in swimming be- The Results section includes a focused critical analysis of
havior), relevant safety and toxicity concerns, how outcomes each experiment undertaken. A hallmark of the scientist is a
were measured, and how the scientist determined whether the deep skepticism about results and conclusions. ‘‘Convince
data/results were significantly different in experimental and me! And then convince me again with even better experi-
unexposed control animals (statistical methods). ments.’’ That is the constant challenge. Without this basic at-
Students must take great care and effort to write a good titude of doubt and willingness to criticize one’s own work,
Methods section because it is an essential component of the scientists do not get to the level of concern about experimental
effective communication of scientific findings. methods and results that is needed to ensure that the best
experiments are being done and the most reproducible results
are being acquired. Thus, it is important for students to state
Results
any limitations or weaknesses in their research approach and
The Results section describes in detail the actual experi- explain assumptions made upfront in this section so the va-
ments that were undertaken in a clear and well-organized lidity of the research can be assessed.
narrative. The information found in the Methods section serves
as background for understanding these descriptions and does
Discussion
not need to be repeated. For each different experiment, the
author may wish to provide a subtitle and, in addition, one The Discussion section is the where the author takes an
or more introductory sentences that explains the reason for overall view of the work presented in the article. First, the
doing the experiment. In a sense, this information is an main results from the various experiments are gathered in
extension of the Introduction in that it makes the argument one place to highlight the significant results so the reader can
to the reader why it is important to do the experiment. The see how they fit together and successfully test the original
Introduction is more general; this text is more specific. hypotheses of the experiment. Logical connections and
Once the reader understands the focus of the experiment, trends in the data are presented, as are discussions of
the writer should restate the hypothesis to be tested or the error and other possible explanations for the findings,
information sought in the experiment. For example, ‘‘Atrazine including an analysis of whether the experimental design
is routinely used as a crop pesticide. It is important to un- was adequate. Remember, results should not be restated
derstand whether it affects organisms that are normally found in the Discussion section, except insofar as it is absolutely
in soil. We decided to use worms as a test organism because necessary to make a point.
WRITING GUIDE 249

Second, the task is to help the reader link the present work lation to the research question/hypothesis, as well as develop
with the larger body of knowledge that was portrayed in the a detailed discussion of what they learned. Consequently,
Introduction. How do the results advance the field, and what teaching students how to effectively organize and write a
are the implications? What does the research results mean? research report is a critical component when engaging stu-
What is the relevance?1,3 dents in scientific inquiry.
Lastly, the author may suggest further work that needs
to be done based on the new knowledge gained from the Acknowledgments
research.
This article was supported by a Science Education Part-
nership Award (SEPA) grant (Award Number R25RR026299)
Supporting Documentation and Writing Skills
from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
Tables and figures are included to support the content of of the National Institutes of Health. The SEPA program at the
the research paper. These provide the reader with a graphic University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee is part of the Children’s
display of information presented. Tables and figures must Environmental Health Sciences Core Center, Community
have illustrative and descriptive titles, legends, interval Outreach and Education Core, funded by the National In-
markers, and axis labels, as appropriate; should be numbered stitute of Environmental Health Sciences (Award Number
in the order that they appear in the report; and include ex- P30ES004184). The content is solely the responsibility of the
planations of any unusual abbreviations. authors and does not necessarily represent the official views
The final section of the scientific article is the Reference of the National Institutes of Health or the National Institute of
section. When citing sources, it is important to follow an ac- Environmental Health Sciences.
cepted standardized format, such as CSE (Council of Science
Editors), APA (American Psychological Association), MLA Disclosure Statement
(Modern Language Association), or CMS (Chicago Manual of
No competing financial interests exist.
Style). References should be listed in alphabetical order and
original authors cited. All sources cited in the text must be
References
included in the Reference section.1
When writing a scientific paper, the importance of writing 1. Trevelyan R, Cook J, Fisher M. Scientific Writing and Pub-
concisely and accurately to clearly communicate the message lishing Results. Tropical Biology Association, Cambridge,
should be emphasized to students.1–3 Students should avoid UK, 2007.
slang and repetition, as well as abbreviations that may not be 2. Day RA, Gastel B. How to Write and Publish a Scientific
well known.1 If an abbreviation must be used, identify the Paper, 6th ed. Cambridge University Press, New York, 2006.
word with the abbreviation in parentheses the first time the 3. Dodd JS (ed.). The ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors
term is used. Using appropriate and correct grammar and and Editors, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, New York, 2005.
spelling throughout are essential elements of a well-written 4. National Research Council. National Science Education
Standards. The National Academies Press, Washington DC,
report.1,3 Finally, when the article has been organized and
1996.
formatted properly, students are encouraged to peer review to
5. National Research Council. A Framework for K–12 Science
obtain constructive criticism and then to revise the manuscript
Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas.
appropriately. Good scientific writing, like any kind of writ-
The National Academies Press, Washington DC, 2011.
ing, is a process that requires careful editing and revision.1 6. Achieve: Next Generation Science Standards. 2011. Available
at http://www.nextgenscience.org/, accessed October 15,
Conclusion 2012.
A key dimension of NRC’s A Framework for K–12 Science 7. Pratt H. The NSTA Reader’s Guide to a Framework for K–12
Education, Scientific and Engineering Practices, and the de- Science Education. NSTA Press, Arlington, VA, 2012.
veloping Next Generation Science Standards emphasizes the 8. Carvan MJ, Loucks E, Weber D, Williams FD. Ethanol effects
on the developing zebrafish: Neurobehavior and skeletal
importance of students being able to ask questions, define
morphogenesis. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2004;26:757–768.
problems, design experiments, analyze and interpret data,
draw conclusions, and communicate results.5,6 In the Science
Education Partnership Award (SEPA) program at the Uni- Address correspondence to:
versity of Wisconsin—Milwaukee, we found the guidelines Renee A. Hesselbach, M.S.
presented in this article useful for high school science students NIEHS Children’s Environmental Health Sciences Core Center
because this group of students (and probably most under- University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee
graduates) often lack in understanding of, and skills to P.O. Box 413
develop and write, the various components of an effective Milwaukee, WI 53201
scientific paper. Students routinely need to focus more on the
data collected and analyze what the results indicated in re- E-mail: [email protected]