English For Musicians

English for
musicians
Based on "San Martín Gómez, M. (2017). English for specific purposes (Music)."
Reproduced for educational purposes.
Introduction
Foreign language instruction not only encompasses a set of strategies that encourages learners' engagement within a social and
communicative framework, but it also involves other aspects of students' lives. Language has a tremendous impact on our
internal thoughts, feelings and intentions. When it comes to learning a foreign language, this process involves an immersion in
different values and thinking structures that may be completely alien to us; i.e. language learning/teaching goes beyond the fact
of simply learning new lexical items.
Otherwise, in music, it is impossible to mark out limits or boundaries. This noticeable feature can also be observed in
languages. In the case of music, this conveys a unique way of thinking, feeling and expressing, alongside a host of other aspects.
In fact, performing musicians, educators, researchers, composers and arrangers are unable to agree on a cohesive definition of
what music actually is. In other words, music professionals are still struggling to find a fully complete concept of music that
might include all of its possible social, affective, physical, spiritual, historical and even mathematical or linguistic uses and
assumptions.
In light of these complex and wide-ranging academic perspectives, I decided to create a course on English for Specific Purposes
focused on Music (ESP-Music) during my undergraduate studies on a Latin-American Popular Music Bachelor program at the
National University of Cuyo (Mendoza, Argentina). Many undergraduate and post-graduate students from Music degrees, as
well as EFL students (from teaching and translation degrees) took the course. Within each lesson I outline a general instructive
outcome: to foster relevant concepts related to music in English as foreign language students in order to facilitate professional
refinement.
This course appears to be extremely relevant due to the increasing interaction among musicians in different parts of the globe,
the numerous professional challenges that can emerge for Spanish-speaking musicians and music researchers in terms of
performing or presenting their own artistic projects. At the same time, learners will be able to consult and understand different
reference sources, give precise opinions on any musical work, utilize music software with ease, and understand the meaning of
expressions and symbols in any score printed in English.
In terms of background course requirements, this method is open to all students who have mastered an elementary level of
English (A1-A2 onwards), which seems to be enough for comprehension/production purposes. This is due to the fact that the
learning strategies involved are focused on the association of many terms musicians would have studied and mastered
beforehand in their mother tongue. Therefore, it is crucial to mention that an average learner of this course should have a
consistent conceptual basis related to solfège and sight-reading, harmony, music history, organology and instrumentation, music
analysis and aesthetics.
Contents are presented in order of importance by considering some musical methodological aspects, which are developed with
an increasing level of difficulty. Throughout the first topics, brief and engaging concepts will be presented. Towards the later
topics, reading comprehension is going to be more relevant. The idea is that musicians can get involved in real contexts
concerning their professional careers and the use of reliable reference sources. With this in mind, contents are
also presented, where possible, for both classical and popular musicians, fostering exchange opportunities between these two
main disciplines.
From a linguistic point of view, lexical items are presented either in isolation or in chunks, supported by pictures, drawings or
video/audio Youtube© links. This encourages teachers and students, on the one hand, to foster the use of English at all times.
On the other hand, theoretical/practical music exercises are presented in English in order to train students in some
methodological strategies seen in English-speaking conservatories. Furthermore, some reading boxes or articles are
also featured so as to position these items within a real context ('Language Corner' and 'Some notes on…' sections).
A complete list of reference sources has been consulted in order to clearly present each topic and to provide in-depth and up-to-
date coverage of the most relevant musical features. Paper-based and digital publications, journals, articles and reports from the
most prestigious universities, colleges and specialized media from around the world were utilized for this purpose.
There will always be new concepts to deal with in the never-ending world of music. Therefore, this material is also meant
to aid EFL teachers and translators in planning and designing courses, or looking up key words that are hard to encounter in
most dictionaries.
At the same time, all kinds of musicians can use this publication as a starting point for an immersion in technical music terms
which will undoubtedly represent an effective academic support. The study topics that this textbook embraces are the following:
English for musicians 1

- Starter Topic: What musical instruments do you play?
Professional identification as performers and composers. Brief and guided dialogues might emerge from this topic.
- Topic No.1: Fundamentals on Music Theory
Concepts and definitions related to solfège and sight-reading, intervals and harmony. All of these areas will be covered by
presenting similar assignments as the ones seen in English-speaking conservatories textbooks.
- Topic No.2: Band Formation
Orchestras, ensembles, choirs and band organology. Instrument families and parts.
- Topic No.3: A Brief History of Music
Art and Popular Music timelines from the medieval era (c1150) to dubstep (2010's).
- Topic No.4: Phrasing, Expression and Performance
Importance of musical phrases and sentences, dynamics, and instrumental technique resources according to each instrument
family.
- Topic No.5: Score Analysis
Score analysis on art and popular music pieces. This is meant to assist students in recognizing expressions and symbols seen in
previous topics.
- Topic No.6: Music Critique
Reading & writing strategies and resources to elaborate music critique reports on either art or popular music.
- Appendix: Reading Comprehension
Texts on art and popular music that encompass technical music terms studied in previous topics. Each text is accompanied by a
set of reading comprehension exercises in order to reach a deeper understanding of key chunks of information.

Starter Topic: “What musical instruments do you play?”
I’m a (an)…
Pianist / Keyboardist Guitarist
Percussionist / Timpanist / Singer / Rapper

Drummer
Double bass player / Harpist

Bass player
Violinist / Violist / Cellist Flutist / Flute player/

Indian Flutist /
Quena player /
Pan flute player
Trumpet player / Saxophonist / Clarinetist /

(French – English) Horn Player / Tuba player / TrombonŝƐƚ
Oboist
Composer / Arranger
Songwriter/ Producer

Topic No.1: “Fundamentals on Music Theory”
Adaptation from García (2012)

AmE
BrE Breve Semibreve Minim Crotchet Quaver Semiquaver Demisemiquaver Hemidemisemiquaver
Longman American Dictionary, 2003

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2005

Simon Horsey’s Essentials for Music (2012) http://www.essential-music-theory.com/music-note.html
Scaletrainer Music Theory (2012) http://www.scaletrainer.com

Rodríguez J. www.teoria.com - 2005
Notice: Staff (AmE) - Stave (BrE)
Traditional vs graphic notation
When notating a rhythm from a listening excerpt, traditional or non-traditional forms of notation may be used. In
the case of traditional notation, a five-line staff with specific musical features is utilized.
In the case of graphic notation, music is represented through shapes and symbols.

Notice: The treble clef may be called G Clef, whereas the bass clef may also be labeled as F Clef.

This ten-line staff is, in fact, a Grand Staff made of 11 lines, in which line number 6 is imaginary and graphically
represented by ‘middle C’.
In English-speaking countries, Latin notation system is not commonly utilized. Both the UK and the US make use of
the English notation system when establishing key signatures. However, when solfeging, the Latin notation system is
still widely used. Some note name changes to mention accidentals. For example: E (Mi), Eb (Me) // G (Sol), G# (Si), Gb
(Se).

Some notes on what ‘fixed-Do’ and ‘movable-Do’ stand for.
According to Dr. Jody Nagel (2005), in “Fixed Do”, “Do” is always “C”, no matter what key you are in. With
“Movable Do”, “Do” is the tonic note. For example, in the key of “C Major”, “Do” is “C”, but in the key of “F
Major”, “Do” is “F”. Fortunately in Spanish we do not have this sort of debate, because in most Latin-based
languages, solfège tends to be related to the note label signification.
Some of the variations of the two basic solfège systems in use are listed below.
Fixed-Do:
(1) Non-chromatic syllables.

C and C-sharp are both named "Do." The voice must inflect up or down the actual pitch while saying "Do." D, D-flat, and D-
sharp are all named "Re." Etc. In this system, the ascending pitches of a C-major scale are named Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La Ti, Do.
An ascending E-major or E-minor scale (or an E-scale in any other 7-tone mode) is always labeled Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti, Do, Re, Mi.
Etc.
(2) Chromatic syllables.

C is named "Do." C-sharp is named "Di." The names of sharp pitches are based on the names of natural pitches with the final
vowel altered to "i" (pronounced as a long "E"); this has the advantage of causing raised notes to rhyme with "Ti," which
stretches the mouth open wide, and physically as well as musically leads to resolution on the pitch a semitone higher. The
names of flat pitches (except for Re Flat) are based on the names of natural pitches with the final vowel altered to "e"
(pronounced as a long "A"). The exception, Re Flat, is designated "Ra." The ascending chromatic scale from C to C, then, is
labeled Do, Di, Re, Ri, Mi, Fa, Fi, Sol, Si, La, Li, Ti, Do. The descending chromatic scale from C to C is labeled Do, Ti, Te, La, Le,
Sol, Se, Fa, Mi, Me, Re, Ra, Do. The pitches of an ascending E-major scale are named Mi, Fi, Si, La, Ti, Di, Ri, Mi. Etc. In this
system, E-sharp and B-sharp are named "Mis" and "Tis," respectively. A double-sharped note is named by adding an "s" to the
name of a sharped note, and a double-flatted note is named by adding an "s" to the name of a flatted note. Thus, G-double-
sharp is called "Sis," G-double-flat is called "Ses," and D-double-flat is called "Ras."
Moveable-Do:
(3) Non-chromatic syllables.

Scale-degrees 1 and sharp-1 are both named "Do." The voice must inflect up or down the actual pitch while saying "Do."
Scale-degree 2, flat-2, and sharp-2 are all named "Re," etc. Thus, the ascending pitches of any 7-note scale are named Do, Re,
Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti, Do.
(4) Chromatic syllables.

Scale-degree 1 is named "Do." Sharp-1 is named "Di." The ascending chromatic scale from 1 to 1, then, is named Do, Di, Re,
Ri, Mi, Fa, Fi, Sol, Si, La, Li, Ti, Do. The descending chromatic scale from C to C is named Do, Ti, Te, La, Le, Sol, Se, Fa, Mi, Me,
Re, Ra, Do. [See (2) above for a description of these naming conventions.] Thus, the ascending pitches of any major scale are
named Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti, Do. The ascending pitches of any natural minor scale are named Do, Re, Me, Fa, Sol, Le, Te,
Do. Note that, in the key of C major or in "atonal" music, the chromatic moveable-Do system converges with the chromatic
fixed-Do system. Of particular importance to those music students from non-English-speaking countries that use non-
chromatic fixed Do: in those countries, the syllable "Si" is still used to indicate the pitch "B." In countries such as Korea,
where non-chromatic moveable Do is often used, "Si" refers to the 7th scale degree. However, in the moveable-Do system
with chromatic syllables, "Si" refers to a raised fifth scale degree, and "Ti" is used for the leading tone!
(5) "Moveable Do-La."

Scale-degree 1 of any major scale is called "Do." Scale-degree 1 of any minor scale is called "La." Scale-degree 1 of
any Dorian scale is called "Re." Etc. In the case of altered-scale tones, the conventions of either Non-chromatic syllables or
Chromatic syllables might be used. Incidentally, this system (with non-chromatic syllables) is closest to the one Guido D’Arezo
used in the 11th century, since, at that time, there was no defined A-440 and, by definition, the system was more or less
"moveable."

Other Scales: Sight-sing the following scales based on the concept of chromatic syllables.

Two Different Whole-tone Scales

The term ‘steps’ means ‘tonos’ in Spanish. Do not misunderstand the concepts of ‘tonos’ and ‘tonalidad/armadura”
(Key Signature), because they actually imply different connotations.
Some relevant terms concerning intervals are:
- Whole step (1)

- Half step (1/2)
- ¼ tone
- 1/8 Tone
Language Corner…
Ordinal numbers indicate order or rank. Some ordinal number spellings might be irregular, but most of these numbers carry
the affix –th in their regular spelling form. In Music the most used ordinal numbers are:
1st = First 10th = Tenth

nd th
2 = Second 11 = Eleventh
3rd = Third 12th = Twelfth
4th = Fourth 13th = Thirteenth
5th = Fifth 16th = Sixteenth
6th = Sixth 32nd = Thirty-second
7th = Seventh 64th = Sixty fourth
8th = Eighth 128th = One hundred and twenty-eighth
9th = Ninth

Randel (2003) in Harvard Dictionary of Music also specifies other interval types:
 Perfect
 Major
 Minor
 Augmented
 Diminished
 (M6) Shortened interval label utilized in the western world to define an interval.

REFERENCE GUIDE: “Circle of Fourths and Fifths”

Key Signature Major Key Minor Key
B, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭, F♭ F♭major D♭ minor
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭,

C♭ major A♭ minor
F♭
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭ G♭ major E♭ minor
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭ D ♭ major B♭ minor
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭ A♭ major F minor
B♭, E♭, A♭ E♭ major C minor
B♭, E♭ B♭ major G minor
B♭ F major D minor
C major A minor
F♯ G major E minor
F♯, C♯ D major B minor
F♯, C♯, G♯ A major F♯ minor
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯ E major C♯ minor
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯ B major G# minor
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯, E♯ F♯ major D♯ minor

F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯, E♯, B♯ C♯ major A♯ minor
F, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯, E♯, B♯ G♯ major E♯ minor

- Staff (AmE) / Stave (BrE)
- Measure (AmE) / Bar (BrE)
- Meter and Time Signature
Meter is the organized succession of rhythmic pulses. It is most frequently indicated by the time signature
at the beginning of a piece of music. The division of meter can be duple, triple or quadruple; simple or
compound.
Four quarter notes. Three quarter notes.

Four -four time Three-four time.
MIXED METER
Mixed meter is the use of more than one meter in a piece of music.

Absence of Meter: A piece of music may also have no meter. In contrast to music with
meter that has some consistency, music without meter has a sense of freeness.
On scores for music with no meter, composers might indicate some form of division by
varying the bar lines or by numerical second indications. Ex. 'Kontakte' (K. Stockhausen)
Pulses within a measure

Downbeat: The strongest pulse within a measure.
Strong: Less strong pulse than the downbeat.
Weak: Unmarked and unaccented pulse (usually 2nd and 4th pulses).
Downbeat Weak Downbeat Weak Strong Weak
Downbeat Weak Weak

- Other ways of naming the most utilized time signatures:
- Say the following time signature names.
Harmony (Galettis, 2009)

Harmony is two or more pitches sounding together. It may also consist of a series of chords, or it may be produced
by two or more parts singing or playing together. The notes used to harmonize a melody are usually taken from the
chords and harmony on which the melody is based.
Harmonic Rhythm
Harmonic Rhythm refers to the rate of change - that is, how fast or slow the harmony moves through the piece of
music. Some pieces have fast changes from chord to chord, and other pieces have a slow-paced progression.
Accompaniment Styles
Accompaniment supports the melodic line. Composers can choose particular accompaniment styles or techniques,
which may include:
- Parallel harmony (harmonizing the melodic line)

- Broken chords (Arpeggios, Alberti bass, Walking bass -jazz music term-)
- Block chords (blocks of long duration notes sounding at the same time, ie. breves or semibreves)
- Twelve-bar blues
- Ostinati and riffs.
Modulation
We use the term modulation to refer to the change of key in a piece of music. In Western art music it is common to
hear changes of key. In popular or mainstream music, a change to a higher key, usually one note higher, creates a
climax towards the end of a song. Precise key changes — for example, a modulation from C major to G major — can
be difficult to detect and name correctly.

Dissonant and consonant sounds
In general, a consonant sound is pleasing to the ear, whereas a dissonant sound is heard as a ‘clash’ of notes.
Consonant sound is generally based on the diatonic scales — the major/minor scales with which we are most
familiar. It conveys a harmonious and satisfying sound to our ears. To the diatonic-trained ear, a dissonant sound
stands out as not so pleasing to the ear, or resolved. A dissonant sound is generally based on the major, minor and
chromatic scales. These notes combined with others create a clash that we hear as a dissonant sound. Dissonant
sounds can also include tone clusters — that is, a clash of notes that are close together. Other features of tonality
that can create dissonance are atonality, whole tone, blues and microtones. Dissonance is likely to occur in musical
genres that use these tonalities.
Other relevant concepts related to Harmony:
Harmonic feature Definition Music genre most associated

Harmonic ostinato A repeated pattern, usually chordal, played with a Most musical genres
melody (e.g. Gymnopédie No. 1 by Erik Satie)
Drone One or more notes held throughout a piece or Most musical genres. Some traditional cultural
section of music music more than others (ex. Scottish music
commonly uses bagpipes)
Pedal point A held or repeated note, usually in the bass Western art music
Harmonic riff A repeated harmonic pattern Usually refers to modern styles and jazz music
Cadence (perfect, plagal, imperfect, interrupted) The ending of a phrase, section or piece of music Western art music
using particular intervals and chords to suggest
it is either finished or unfinished. The four main
types are perfect, plagal, imperfect and
interrupted.
Suspension/resolution A note in one chord is held on into the next chord, Western art music
to which it does not belong (suspension). This is
usually resolved with the completion of the second
chord (resolution).

Note!! Seventh chords = Root + Third + Fifth + Seventh

Some chord type names
________________________________________________________________
Suffix Chord Type
sus4 , sus Suspended fourth
(add9) Added ninth
m(add9) Minor added ninth
5 , (no3) Fifth (a.k.a. “power chord”)
6 Sixth
m6 , -6 Minor sixth
6/9 Sixth, added ninth
m6/9 Minor sixth, added ninth
7sus4 , 7sus Seventh, suspended fourth
m(maj7) , m(+7) Minor, major seventh
maj7(b5), maj7(-5) Major seventh, flat fifth
m7(b5), m7(-5) Minor seventh, flat fifth
+7 , 7(#5) Seventh, sharp fifth
7(b5) , 7(-5) Seventh flat fifth
7(b9) , 7(-9) Seventh flat ninth
+7(b9) Seventh, sharp fifth, flat ninth
9 Ninth
maj9 , M9 Major ninth
m9 , min9 Minor ninth
11 Eleventh
m11, min11 Minor eleventh
13 Thirteenth
Other types of chords (Mel & Boling - 1993):

- Quartal and Quintal chords: They are usually built in perfect fourths or fifths. Only
three notes are used.
- Clusters (Secondal Harmony): They are built in seconds and sometimes thirds. They
might be triads, tetrads and even more complex chord depth.
- Polychords: They are constructed by voicing one tertian chord above another.
- Slash Chords: Triads over bass notes. They are notated by a symbol followed by a
diagonal slash followed by the name of the bass note. Ex. Bb/C.

- Root Position
- 1st inversion
- 2nd inversion
- 3rd inversion (only applicable to seventh chords)

Turnarounds (Mel & Boling, 1993)

References:
• Day, Holly and Pilhofer, Michael (2011) Music Theory For Dummies. Minneapolis: John Wiley & Sons.
• Gray D. (1927) Preliminary Scales & Arpeggios for Piano. Sydney: Boosey & Co.
• Dr. Jody Nagel (2005), The Use of Solfeggio in Sightsinging: Fixed vs. Movable "Do" for People Without
Perfect -Pitch. [Journal] Based on an open panel discussion at the Music Theory Forum at The University of
Texas at Austin.
• Fundación Educativa Héctor A. García – Proyecto Salón Hogar. “Concepto de Música” [retrieved on
05/01/2013]. http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/Enciclopedia/NE_Musica2.htm
• Longman Group (2003), Longman American Dictionary.
• Oxford University Press (2013), Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.
• Lucas, J. (2013) Northwestern Illinois University Journals on Music.
• Scaletrainer website. [retrieved on 08/01/2013] www.scaletrainer.com
• Music Reading Savant website [retrieved on 08/01/2013] http://www.musicreadingsavant.com
• Randel, D. M. (2003). The Harvard Dictionary of Music. Fourth Edition. Harvard University Press.
• Galletis, H. (2009). Musical concepts: music 1 aural skills preliminary and HSC course / Helene Galettis.
Milton: John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.
• Rubin J. H. (2006). Understanding Inversions of Triads and Seventh Chords: University of Minnesota website
[retrieved on 08/04/2013] http://www.d.umn.edu/~jrubin1/JHR%20Theory%20Inversions.htm.
• Boyd, B. (1997). Jazz Chord Progressions (Piano Method). Chicago, USA: Hal Leonard Corp.
• Mel Bay / Mark Boling (1993). The Jazz Theory Workbook (2nd ed.). Rottenburg, Germany: Advance Music.
References (pictures):
- www.withfriendship.com – Superstar pianist Lang Lang

- devcager.deviantart.com - Guitarrist sketch by DevCager
- music.coloringcrew.com – Percussionist coloring page to color online
- www.youthforum.com – Karaoke singer
- wspa-2012.webs.com - Double Bass Player (Watercolour) - Westhall Secret Postcard Auction 2013
- www.fineartamerica.com - Harpist, 1935 Photograph - Harpist, 1935 Fine Art Print
- noidatron.deviantart.com - The Violinist by Noidatron
- blog.avenuehotel.dk - Flutist Linnéa Villén
- thetrumpetguy.wordpress.com – Trumpet Player
- www.tycerdd.org - Ty Cerdd
- music.cbc.ca - Composer at work
- www.collegerag.net/careers-in-linguistics/ - Top 5 Carreers in Linguistics (Article Picture)

A musical ensemble also known as a music group is a Number of group
group of people who perform instrumental or components:
vocal music, typically known by a distinct name.
In classical music, trios or quartets either blend the 1 = Soloist
sounds of musical instrument families, or group 2 = Duet
together instruments from the same instrument family, 3 = Trio
such as string ensembles or wind ensembles. In jazz
ensembles, the instruments typically include wind 4 = Quartet
instruments (one or more saxophones, trumpets, etc.), 5 = Quintet
one or two chordal "comping" instruments (electric 6 = Sextet
guitar, piano, or organ), a bass instrument (electric 7= Septet
bass guitar or double bass), and a drummer or
percussionist. In rock ensembles, usually called rock 8 = Octet
bands, there are usually guitars and keyboards
(piano, electric piano, Hammond organ, synthesizer,
etc.) and a rhythm section made up of a bass guitar
and drum kit.

Classical Orchestra Formation
- A symphony orchestra = A philharmonic orchestra

- A chamber ensemble/orchestra
- A string / woodwind quartet/quintet…
- A choir
Basically, there is no difference between a philharmonic and symphony orchestra. These modifiers do not
necessarily indicate any strict difference in either the instrumental constitution or role of the orchestra,
but can be useful to distinguish different ensembles based in the same city (for instance, the London
Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra). Both of them possess over eighty
musicians on its roster, in some cases over a hundred.
A smaller-sized orchestra (of about fifty musicians or fewer) is called a chamber orchestra.

Other kinds of brass instruments:
Cornett: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornett
Serpent: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_(instrument)
Didgeridoo: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didgeridoo

- Mouthpieces

Parts of the Piano
UPRIGHT PIANO
Every acoustic piano, whether a glossy concert grand or a well-worn upright, part of an orchestra or a jazz combo,
shares certain characteristics with every other piano:
Keyboard: The keyboard is what makes a piano a piano. On an acoustic piano, the keyboard is comprised of 88 black and
white keys. The keys are what you press or strike, tap or pound to produce that inimitable piano sound.
Housing and lid: Whatever shape a piano takes — the curves of a grand or the rectangle of an upright, your piano also has a lid.
Propping open the lid on a grand piano gives you a louder and more resonant sound than when the lid is down. Opening the lid
of an upright does not do as much for your sound as pulling the piano away from the wall does.
Pedals: Pedals — sometimes two, but generally three — are part of a piano as well. With the pedals you can make the sound
softer or make certain notes sound longer.
Keys, hammers, and strings: These parts actually produce the sound. Each of the 88 keys is connected to a small, felt-
covered hammer. When you press a key, its hammer strikes a string, or set of strings, tuned to the appropriate musical note.
The string begins to vibrate extremely rapidly. Your ear picks up these vibrations, and you hear music. The entire vibration
process occurs in a split second.
To stop the strings from vibrating, another mechanism called a damper sits over the strings inside the keyboard. Dampers are
made of cloth or felt that mutes the strings by preventing any vibration. When you press a key, in addition to triggering the
mechanism that vibrates the string, a piano key also lifts the damper. When you release the key (provided you are not holding
down a pedal), the damper returns to mute the string so that all your notes do not crash into each other.
KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS SOUND SAMPLES:
Clavichord: Clavicordio http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9WuVVE2t-Vk

Harpsichord: Clavecín http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71iUAFFQ8ik
Clavinet: Clavinet http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DmVBN7EGCVs
Reed organ: Armonio http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFrN6imrc7E
Pipe Organ: Órgano a tubos http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oYc0ipOhRyA
Calliope: Calíope http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k1p_BRlQySI
Carillon: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0K_f9nAJcHo
Celesta: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HEDQiXDjQcI
Dulcitone: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rs0hmmp_4yw
Rhodes Piano: It is an amplified dulcitone with digital sound quality. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u89mYyDhum

Topic No.3 “A Brief History of Music”
Art Music timeline

Music in the 20th Century changed dramatically, due to the
hostile political climate, advances in technology, and huge shifts
in style. Many composers, struggling to build any further on the
music of generations gone by, reacted against established musical
trends, creating exciting new forms and styles.
This period undoubtedly appears to be the most confusing of all,

as composers have pulled in various apparently contradictory and
opposing directions. Typical of the dilemma during the inter-war
years, for example, were the Austrians Webern and Lehar: the
former was experimenting with the highly compressed and
advanced form known as 'serial structure', while simultaneously
Lehar was still indulging in an operetta style which did not have
seemed out of place over half a century beforehand. In the middle
of the enormous political events which shook Europe in the 20th
Century, Shostakovich, was particularly persecuted by the Soviet
regime when his music was thought to be too ‘modern’ or elitist,
meaning he was forced to write in two styles - symphonies for the
authorities, and smaller works such as string quartets which were
true to his own voice. The Holocaust, Hiroshima and World War II
convinced many post-war composers that they needed to put the
past behind them and find ever more progressive methods, for
example: Pierre Boulez’s Structures, Schoenberg’s experiment
with tonality and John Cage.
American composers like George Gershwin and Duke Ellington began to draw on their own native music - jazz. Stravinsky and
Ravel responded with music that also encompassed jazz styles. Folk music was also a great source of inspiration for composers
like Vaughan Williams, Bartók and Messiaen.
Modernism in music was about being radical and different. For the first time, musicians and audiences realized that music did
not have to be confined to tradition, but by 1960 this idea had run out of steam. The next generation of ‘serious’ composers
relaxed and had a wider palette of musical colors to work with - influences from other cultures, popular music, ancient music
and the experiments of modernism.
Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Michael Nyman and John Adams championed Minimalism, breaking musical boundaries and winning
them huge popularity. Their music reflects advances in music and technology - sometimes including elements of jazz and rock.
A group of composers who met while studying in Manchester have become the main exponents of ‘post-modern’ music in
Britain. While music written by Peter Maxwell Davies, Harrison Birtwistle and Alexander Goehr do not seem to be everybody’s
cup of tea, it can be profoundly powerful and stimulating.
Film music and videogame music increased in popularity toward the end of 20th century: soundtracks to E.T., Star Wars, Harry
Potter and Lord of the Rings make their mark on classical music.
From this moment on, a piece of music may have only consonant sounds, only dissonant sounds or a combination of both. So
why does music contain dissonant sounds? Twentieth-century art music composers were concerned with experimentation and
the breakdown of the conventions of tonality, and dissonant sounds fitted well in this context.
So diverse are the styles adopted throughout the greater part of this period that only by experimentation can listeners discover
for themselves whether certain composers are to their particular taste or not.

Some notes on American Popular Music History
What happened before the 1990’s?
Americans have been singing even before the first Europeans and
Africans began arriving in North America in the sixteenth century. Many
indigenous tribes had developed their own styles of ceremonial and
religious music since immemorial times. Nonetheless, a huge amount
of work songs, hymns, love songs, dance tunes, humorous songs, and
parodies brought from Europe provided the only musical record of
American History we have access today, serving both as historical
sources and subjects of historical investigation.
During the colonial, revolutionary, and federal periods (1607-1820)

most American songs were strongly tied to the musical traditions of the
British Isles. Hymn tunes, ballads, theater songs, and drinking songs
were imported from England or based closely on English models. The
main exceptions were the hymns of German-speaking communities in Pennsylvania, the music of African-American
slave communities, and the songs of New Orleans, which were closely linked to the French West Indies and France.
Those exceptions aside, the most distinctively American songs were patriotic ones, like “Yankee Doodle” and the
“Star Spangled Banner,” and even these were adaptations of English originals.
The first uniquely American popular song tradition arose with the minstrel show, beginning in the 1840s. Many
songs still familiar today, such as “Turkey in the Straw” (“Zip Coon”) (c. 1824), “Oh Susanna” (1854), “Dixie” (1859),
“Buffalo Gals” (1844), and “Old Folks at Home” ("Swanee River") (1851), were originally composed for the minstrel
stage and first performed on northern stages by white singers in blackface. African Americans themselves created
all-black minstrel shows, contributing songs like “Carry Me Back to Old Virginny” (1878) and “O Dem Golden
Slippers” (1879) to the repertoire. European songs, especially sentimental songs like those contained in Moore’s Irish
Melodies (1808-1834) and arias from Italian operas, remained important in the first half of the nineteenth century,
joined by similar songs composed in America, for example “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair” (1854), “Lorena”
(1857), and “Aura Lee” (1861), recorded with new lyrics in 1956 by Elvis Presley as “Love Me Tender.”
From the 1900’s onwards…
American song in the second half of the nineteenth century underwent a tremendous commercial expansion, which
extended into the twentieth century and indeed has not abated today. Initially, sheet music and pocket songsters
were the primary means of circulating songs, since many Americans played and sang music in their own homes. The
music publishing industry was increasingly concentrated in New York City’s famous “Tin Pan Alley” by the 1880s.
After that point, however, songs also came to be bought, sold, and preserved in a succession of new media: sound
recordings and player pianos in the 1890s; radio in the 1920s, movie sound tracks in the late 1920s, television in the
1950s, cassette tapes in the early 1960s, CDs in the early 1980s, DVDs in the mid 1990s, and MP3s in the late 1990s.
This commercial expansion meant that more songs were composed, performed, produced, and consumed in the
United States, as well as exported to, and received from, the rest of the world.
Expansion and commercialization extended a process that began with the minstrel show: songs that had once been
restricted to ethnic minorities or immigrant groups were marketed to the entire nation. Irish ballads like “Danny
Boy” (1913), “My Wild Irish Rose” (1899), and "When Irish Eyes Are Smiling" (1913) became popular among non-Irish
singers and listeners; so did Italian songs like “O Sole Mio” (1899). Jewish composers and performers likewise
incorporated elements from their culture into American music, as when Sophie Tucker alternately sang her popular
“My Yiddishe Momme” (1925) in English and Yiddish. African-American traditions gave rise to a succession of
distinctive song styles: spirituals, ragtime, blues, and, later, rhythm and blues, all appropriated enthusiastically by
white American performers and audiences.

This was not simply a matter of cross-marketing or trading repertoires.
Songwriters and performers from a wide range of backgrounds listened to
each other’s music, learned from it, parodied it, created new styles out of it,
and crossed back and forth between musical genres. By the 1970s, for
example, an African-American performer like Ray Charles, deeply rooted in
black religious music, the blues, and rhythm and blues, could easily take a
country music song like “You Are My Sunshine” (1940) or a sentimental
ballad like “Georgia on My Mind” (1930) and make them his own.
By the 1950s two different, seemingly contradictory, things were coming to

be true about American popular music. The first is that some songs
remained familiar across long periods of time and to very different people.
A so-called “standard”—a song from Tin Pan Alley’s glory days (roughly 1910 to 1954)—might be recorded hundreds
of times over several decades and still remains familiar today. “St. Louis Blues” (1914), “Stardust” (1929), and “God
Bless America” (1939) are still present, in multiple versions. At the same time, with the rise of rock ‘n roll in the
1950s and the great commercial success of African-American rhythm and blues (R&B) and soul music in the following
decade, taste in popular song was increasingly separated by age, race, ethnicity, region, and gender. Perhaps the
best sign of this is the proliferation of musical categories in record stores and in music award shows.
These seemingly contrary tendencies may well be two sides of the same coin and part of a long-standing process in
American music. For at least the past two centuries, much of what is dynamic in American music arose out of a
continual process of sampling, fusing, and appropriating the different music genres that make up American popular
song. Commercial music industries, from live entertainment to sheet music to recordings, while catering to
mainstream audiences, have also sought out musical styles and performers from beyond the mainstream.
Marginalized by factors such as geography, race, and economic class, performers and styles such as “hillbilly” or
country music, delta blues, and hip hop have worked their way onto stages and into recording booths throughout
the history of American popular song.
Rock’n'roll brought significant band formation changes, and Elvis Presley became a global star, the biggest of the late
1950s and early 1960s. But he would find himself supplanted by the Beatles, who revolutionized pop by writing their
own material, instigating a fashion that remains undiminished.
The Beatles set the standard for pop music, and it still remains present -
Beatlesque has become a standard descriptive adjective. From 1962 until their
break up in 1970 they dominated the charts in Britain and America. The Beatles
influenced a generation –more than one, indeed– with their melodies and
harmonies, and that was apparent in the 1970s, when pop zigzagged through
several styles, from the Glam Rock of T. Rex to the raw fire of punk. But the
biggest pop star to emerge from this period was a singer and pianist, Elton John,
whose popularity still remains.
It appears to be that the 80’s proved a moribund decade for pop. Styles came and went, but it was an era short on
memorable music. Only Wham! (and later George Michael), Michael Jackson and Madonna emerged as true pop
stars, yet the presence of electronic music became an underlying influence that will even encourage the proliferation
of a remarkable musical genre diversity for the next decades.
The 1990s was the time of boy bands, perhaps the ultimate in manufactured acts. A group of young male singers
was assembled for their looks, given catchy songs and arrangements and pushed to fame. It happened to the British
group ‘Take That’. America saw how it worked and gave the world the ‘Backstreet Boys’ and ‘‘N Sync’, and for a few
years it worked very well, selling millions of records. But like any fashion, it passed. A female version, the Spice Girls,
was briefly huge. Notably, the only ones to come out of this and sustain a solo career were Robbie Williams from
‘Take That’ and Justin Timberlake from ‘‘N Sync’.

America tried a similar tactic with female pop
stars, and both Mariah Carey and Britney Spears
became massive manufactured stars, followed, to
a lesser degree, by Christina Aguilera.
Beyonce Knowles & Britney Spears
The ‘00s.
Since the year 2000 there’s been a lack of major new stars, relying mostly on established talent. Several younger
artists have come and gone, and new styles have briefly emerged, but nothing appears to have gained a major
foothold besides modern R&B, which owes little to its soulful predecessor, but a lot to hip-hop – which itself has
become a sort of pop style. 1990’s Rn’B most famous interpreters became pop stars in this decade (Beyoncé, Usher,
Justin Timberlake, Mariah Carey, Alicia Keys, among others), making this genre more wide-ranging and diverse.
A blending between rap instrumental loops, with some acoustic instruments and jazzy
voices, makes trip-hop a remarkable genre followed by many fans throughout the
world. 1990’s gangsta rap hits a tremendous amount of top 1’s in the charts, and in
this decade starts out including more white rappers such as Eminem, who wins the
Grammy for Best Rap Album in 2002.
Emo and Hardcore punk might sound like very similar. However, Hardcore Punk
contains provoking lyrics (Green Day), whereas Emo Punk Music is always dealing with
sentimental and dramatic storylines (My Chemical Romance). In contrast, Acoustic
Rock emerges to give a natural and spontaneous way of making music: John Mayer is
the greatest example of this style, in which jazz, rock, blues and classical techniques are brilliantly contained in one
talented individual.
Smooth jazz is mainly instrumental and vocal. It includes synthesizers and other electronic sound samples.
Conversely, Jazz standards rise from the ashes, conceiving mainstream artists who depict those supposedly old-
fashioned environments where jazz had been taking place since the 1920’s. The most important artists that belong
to this movement are Norah Jones, Jamie Cullum, Michel Bublé, among others.
We are currently experiencing almost the mid 2010s, and there is a soul revival trend that hits the road: Amy
Winehouse, Adele and Gnarls Barkley become the most influential
2010’s soul singers of this part of the decade. Their raspy and bluesy
voices are just impossible to forget.
Plus, DJ’s are taking over the most important roles in band
formations, not only as performers, but also as ‘digital’ composers.
Alternative hip-hop (Gorillas), dubstep (considered to this extent of
the decade as the latest genre in music history), and electropop
(David Ghetta, AVICII, Daft Punk, etc.), are the main genres in which
they take an active participation. These kinds of music are currently
played in nightclubs, on the radio, TV shows and even marketed and
broadcasted on the net. AVICII

References:
- Raynor, Henry (1978). The Orchestra: a history. Scribner.

- Sptizer, John, and Neil Zaslaw (2004). The Birth of the Orchestra: History of an Institution, 1650-1815. Oxford University
Press
- Randel, D. M. (2003). The Harvard Dictionary of Music. Fourth Edition. Harvard University Press.
- For Dummies: “Parts of a Piano” – Website [Retrieved on 12/09/2013] http://www.dummies.com/how-
to/content/parts-of-a-piano.html
- Naxos Education “Brief History of Classical Music” [Retrieved on 15/09/2013] -
http://www.naxos.com/education/brief_history.asp
- Classic FM – Classic Music Periods – Website [Retrieved on 15/09/2013] -
http://www.classicfm.com/discover/periods/modern/
- Raynor, Henry (1978). The Orchestra: a history. Scribner
- University of Luisiana Lafayette - School of Music Website. [Retrieved on 08/10/2013]
http://music.louisiana.edu/ensembles.html
- Vic Firth Website [Retrieved on 08/10/2013] www.vicfirth.com/education/
- How to Tune a guitar – Guitar Parts: http://www.howtotuneaguitar.org/lessons/the-guitar/guitar-diagram/ [Retrieved
on 08/10/2013]
- Longman Group (2003), Longman American Dictionary
- History of Classical Music – Naxos Education Website http://www.naxos.com/education/brief_history.asp [Retrieved
on 08/10/2013]
- Pettit C. Popular Music Timeline http://www.chrispettitt.com/Pop%20Music%20Timeline.pdf [Retrieved on
08/10/2013]
- Music History and Development http://aman.hubpages.com/hub/Music-history-and-development [Retrieved on
08/10/2013]
- http://www.types-of-music.net/pop/history-of-pop-music-timeline/ [Retrieved on 08/10/2013]
- Billboard Ranking Charts: http://www.billboard.com/ [Retrieved on 08/10/2013]
- Visible Knowledge Project’s American Popular Song: A Brief Story. – Website [Retrieved on 05/01/2014]
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/songs/amsong.html
- Types of Music’s History of Pop Music Timeline – Website [Retrieved on 05/01/2014 http://www.types-of-
music.net/pop/history-of-pop-music-timeline/
-
References (Pictures):
- http://welltempered.wordpress.com/2010/10/18/jerusalemquartet_1.jpg - Jerusalem String Quartet

- http://www.talentbookingusa.com/dance-bands/images/caliente-band.jpg - Caliente Latin Band
- http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blackkeys022011.jpg/250px-Blackkeys022011.jpg - The
Black Keys
- http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-V8EqkNT5zb8/UDpO0KqoZlI/AAAAAAAAABU/U9DMAh6JtJc/s1600/orchestra+chart.jpeg -
Diagram of the orchestra instruments and placement
- http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-JRC5hcqPUko/UAag49ZhZXI/AAAAAAAAAW0/4AAqi87HZAM/s640/Violin+parts.JPG – Parts
of the Violin.
- http://chinathong.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/guitar-diagram.jpg - Electric and Acoustic Guitar diagram.
- http://www.classicalguitar101.org/images/classical-guitar-part-names.jpg - Classical Guitar diagram.
- http://www.westhamptonbeach.k12.ny.us/cms/lib2/NY01001014/Centricity/Domain/317/Flute_Parts_2.jpg - James
Mac Cougall’s Flute Resources (Flute Diagram)
- http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Partes_del_Oboe2.jpg - Partes del Oboe (Wikipedia)
- http://www.dcyop.org/nu_upload/Image/instruments/brass3.jpg - Brass Instruments
- http://www.instrumentalsavings.com/v/vspfiles/assets/images/parts%20of%20a%20trumpet.jpg – Parts of a Trumpet
- http://www.themusic-store.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Tuba_Parts.jpg - Parts of a Tuba
- http://www.mouthpieceexpress.com/specshub/images/mpc_anatomy_2.jpg - Mouthpiece parts
- Encyclopedia Britannica(2012) – Concussion and Percussion Idiophones Pictures
- http://www.vicfirth.com/ - Percussion Mallets Pictures
- http://drumlessonsbeginners.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Drum-Kit-Terms.jpg - Drum Kit Terms
- http://visual.merriam-webster.com/images/arts-architecture/music/keyboard-instruments/upright-piano.jpg - Upright
Piano Parts (inside)
- http://classicalpianomusic.info/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/9p-1.jpg - Piano Parts (Outside)
- http://www.radio.utfsm.cl/Los%20Andes%20Big%20Band.jpg – Los Andes Big Band

- http://assets.nydailynews.com/polopoly_fs/1.1047617!/img/httpImage/image.jpg_gen/derivatives/landscape_635/son
ora22h-1-web.jpg - La Sonora Ponceña
- www.wikipedia.org - Jazz Sextet Picture
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dio_(band) – Dio Band
- http://www.bhsmusicboosters.com/images/101_6728.JPG - BHS Choirs
- http://www.hu17.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/york-waits-green.jpg - Medieval Representation
- http://cdn.gozonews.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/gregorian_chant3.jpg Chorus Urbanus performs a concert of
Gregorian Chant
- http://blog.zap2it.com/kate_ohare/Monk1.jpg - Harmonious Monks
- https://files.nyu.edu/lga2/public/Renaissance%20Nutshell/Renaissance%20Nutshell/Images/clip_image001_0000.gif -
A short introduction to Renaissance Music
- http://coursesite.uhcl.edu/HSH/Whitec/ximages/art/Music/RenBand.gif A musical band from the Renaissance
- http://us.123rf.com/400wm/400/400/karidesign/karidesign1202/karidesign120200010/12459605-old-harpsichord-
spinet.jpg - Old Harpsichord Spinet
- http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg - J. S. Bach
- http://www.taotv.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/mozart.jpg - W. A. Mozart
- http://globedia.com/imagenes/usuarios/noticias/28289/1249239238.jpg - Mozart’s Piece Staff
- http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/h/fotos/haydn.jpg - F. J. Haydn
- http://www.wgbh.org/imageassets/beethoven_ludwig_250x269.jpg L. Beethoven
- http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Frederic_Chopin_photo.jpeg/250px-
Frederic_Chopin_photo.jpeg - F. Chopin
- http://www.classicalnotes.net/classics3/schumannsym-portrait1.jpg - Schumann
- http://3.bp.blogspot.com/--iJsF2smH7Y/TzP4Zua_svI/AAAAAAAAC-8/OQ9-TZrlDjI/s640/lizt.jpg - Simone de Cyrille’s
“Lizt”
- http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serve/_/15133253/Giuseppe+Verdi.jpg – G. Verdi
- http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_Go0MKPZWTmc/TMfgcV7KLCI/AAAAAAAAANk/VAGXh3isRms/s1600/wagner2a.jpg - R.
Wagner
- http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/w/fotos/webern.jpg - A. Von Webern
- http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-fT5-W7Gd29Y/TqhClYGb42I/AAAAAAAAAMQ/39QaqFwxjq8/s1600/D_blog_20111026d.jpg -
Schoenberg
- http://media.tumblr.com/tumblr_mc3q7vVF2u1qczjz7.png A. Copland
- http://www.clpgs.org.uk/images/12C.LEHAR%201910.jpg – F. Lehar
- http://www.frederickblues.org/assets/images/robert_jgif.gif - Frederick Blues Society
- http://www.venezuelasinfonica.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/4.-ODL-Blog.jpg - Original Dixieland Jazz Band
- http://media.web.britannica.com/eb-media/31/101931-004-A550CA28.jpg - Benny Goodman’s Big Band –
Encyclopedia Britannica online
- http://www.oderecords.co.nz/attachments/aja5566.jpg - Charlie Parker
- http://multimedia.hola.com/noticias-de-actualidad/2009/10/13/elvis.jpg - Elvis Presley
- http://pixhost.me/avaxhome/4a/6b/00186b4a_medium.jpeg - The Ventures’ Surf rock anthology
- http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serve/_/44792329/Aretha%2BFranklin%2BImage1.png – Aretha Franklin
- http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-fxEIwx-lyXo/UjJQB9uULmI/AAAAAAAASWs/pJxYa3zP9YE/s1600/bee-gees-GD5791397.jpg -
The Bee Gees
- http://static2.hypable.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/backstreet-boys-outfits-matching.jpg - Backstreet Boys
- http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_M1d25D-kCkk/SeAKZZDnUNI/AAAAAAAADkg/H6j7jlLSJzc/s400/Snoop_Dogg.jpg - Snoop
Dog
- http://images.coveralia.com/autores/fotos/david-guetta18583.jpg - David Ghetta
- http://www.charybdis.nl/yankee-doodle/fca86640.jpg - Yankee Doodle Brand
- http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Ray_C._Geor.jpg/220px-Ray_C._Geor.jpg - Ray Charles -
Georgia on my mind
- http://periodiconmx.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/the-beatles.png - The Beatles
- http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/02447/beyonce_2447479b.jpg - Beyoncé
- http://tutupash.com/site/assets/Britney-Spears-10.jpg - Britney Spears
- http://images.coveralia.com/audio/e/Eminem-Space_Bound_(CD_Single)-Frontal.jpg – Emimem: Space Bound
- http://djpicshd.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/avicii-live-wallpaper-hd.jpg - AVICII

Topic No. 4: “Phrasing, Expression and Performance”
Language Corner Some concepts related to musical performance.
Simple Compound Asymmetrical

To perform (v.) / A performance (n.) Meter (n.) Meter (n.) Meter (n.) To play (an instrument) (v.)
To sing / To rap / To beatbox (v.) To tune up – down (an instrument) (v.)

Singing / Rapping / Beatboxing (n.) To sing in tune. To sing out of tune.
To conduct. (v.) To sight-read (v.) / Sight-reading (n.) To warm up (v.)

A (an) vocal/instrumental warm-up (n.)
To rehearse (v.) / A rehearsal (n.) To compose / To arrange (v.) To record (v.) / A recording (n.)
A piece / An arrangement (n.) To master (v.) / To produce (v.)
A band / A group / An ensemble (n.) A show / A concert / To transpose (v.) / A transposition (n.)
A gig / A venue (n.)
To be on stage (v.) To go backstage (v.) To accompany somebody on the piano (v.)
A soundcheck (n)/ To do a soundcheck (v.)

Music Phrasing
General terms and definitions (SUNY Journals on Music, 2006):
- Music Analysis: discovering the component parts of a given whole and relating these to each other.
- Phrase: the shortest passage of music which, having reached a point of relative repose has expressed a more or less
complete musical thought. (A phrase, then, will generally end with a chord in root position, otherwise it would be
unlikely to convey a quality of relative repose).
- Phrase member (sub phrase): A phrase member is present when a phrase seems to be made up of two or more
component parts.
- Motive: A motive is a small unit of music that can be identified as a recognizable musical object. Think of the
opening of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, shown below. The first four notes form a motive that recurs throughout
the entire composition.
- Musical period: a series of two or more phrases, the last of which completes a harmonic or melodic progression left
incomplete by the previous phrase(s). It usually consists of one or more phrases ending with inconclusive cadences
(antecedent or antecedent group) followed by a phrase with a conclusive cadence (consequent). It is also possible to
have a consequent group.
Types of harmonic movement in the musical period:
a) Complete harmonic movement: a harmonic movement away from the tonic with a return to that tonic via a
conclusive cadence.
antecedent consequent
(I---------------?) (?---------------I)
b) Interrupted harmonic movement: occurs when a passage makes its way as far as the cadential V, but does not reach
I. Instead, the harmonic motion is repeated–either exactly or with variation–
and the end is altered to conclude on I.
(I---------------V) (I---------------I)
c) Progressive harmonic movement: a move away from tonic without an immediate return. Such a move may embody a
real modulation or only a brief tonicization.
(I---------------?) (?---------------I)
[In a new key]
d) Repeated harmonic movement: the harmonic goal of the antecedent is the same as the consequent. However, the
consequent is more conclusive melodically than the antecedent.
(I---------------I) (I---------------I)
[Imperfect] [Perfect]
Authentic Authentic
Cadence Cadence

Music Texture (BBC, GCSE Bitesize, 2012)
Some music is written with 'block' chords, some has weaving parts around the tune, while some music has no
harmony at all. These are all examples of different textures in music.
Unison
Music that has no chordal accompaniment, where different instruments or parts play or sing the same notes is
described as in unison. An example of unison: a male choir singing a traditional Armenian hymn.
Homophonic
This literally means 'sounding together'. Homophonic music is played in block chords. Homophonic music is also
sometimes called chordal music. An example of music with a homophonic texture is Chopin’s Nocturne, Op. 62 No.2.
Polyphonic
This literally means 'different sounds or voices'. Polyphonic music has parts that weave in and out of each other.
Polyphonic music is also sometimes called contrapuntal music (or counterpoint).
Polyphonic music may contain an element of imitation, where one voice or instrument copies what has just been
played by another. For instance, JS Bach's Brandenburg Concertos contains an evident polyphonic texture.
Fugue
A fugue is a special type of polyphonic texture. Fugues always begin with a tune that is played on a solo
instrument/voice or by instruments/voices in unison. This tune is then played by all the other instruments or voices
in turn but not necessarily at the same pitch.
Here is an example of a fugue: JS Bach's Toccata and Fugue in D minor. Notice how the solo starts the fugue tune and
then the other voices join in one at a time.
A capella
A capella music is always for voices. It is vocal music that has no instrumental accompaniment.
A capella music can be polyphonic, homophonic or unison. The words 'a capella' in Italian mean 'in the style of the
chapel'. This is because early music for the church was for unaccompanied voices. Listen to this example of a capella
singing - yodeling from Gabon in Africa.
Call-and-response
This texture is when a solo is immediately answered by another tune played or sung by a group. It is used a lot in
popular, jazz and world music. Here is an example of a call-and-response song from Latin America.
Melody and accompaniment

This is a melody which can be sung or played on an instrument, with an accompaniment. Any song with piano or
guitar accompaniment falls into this category.

Some notes on Song structure
Very few pieces of music are a continuous progression of harmony and melody for the entire duration. Usually harmony and
melody will develop within a section of the song, before returning to a home point at the end of the section.
The structure of a song is the way in which its sections have been arranged, usually with repetition, to create the total work. An
appropriate song structure will create an effective musical experience for the listener, and two main aspects should be
considered:
1. Balance of Repetition and Variety - Repeating sections is a good way to build the familiarity of the musical themes but
too much feels limited and quickly becomes stale. Different sections should contrast with each other, while still
sounding compatible.
2. Musical Dynamic of the Whole Song - You are telling a story, even with instrumental music. Create a sense of
anticipation that builds to a satisfying conclusion as the song unfolds, with each section drawing the listener strongly to
the next.
Bearing these in mind, you are pretty much free to create any song structure that seems to fit your musical ideas. But there are
two basic types of structures that are used by the vast majority of popular songs.
Songs in an AABA structure are based on the contrast between two different sections. Section
A provides the basic musical theme, and is initially played twice, each time with different lyrics.
Usually the title of the song will be in the first or last line of Section A.
Section B is musically different, containing different chords, and bringing a sense of release
from the musical themes of Section A. It often provides lyrical contrast too, developing an
additional path to the storyline, or giving insight into a different part of the picture.
The arrival of Section B, and its eventual return to another Section A, should sound inevitable,
to create a cohesive, satisfying musical package.
Example: “Somewhere over the rainbow” Israel "IZ" Kamakawiwo'ole - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w_DKWlrA24k
Songs in a Verse/Chorus structure also have some contrast between the two sections, but
there are several differences.
Where a Section A in an AABA song will tend to stand alone quite well, a Verse will almost
always feel incomplete without its Chorus. Unlike a Section B, the Chorus does not take a
new musical direction; rather it is the climax to which the Verse builds.
The Chorus contains the main message and the title of the song, often in a simple repetitive
way, providing a sense of lyrical as well as musical completion. It should create an urge in
the listener to sing along, and is usually repeated several times at the end of the song.
Because there is not a great deal of contrast between the Verse and Chorus, additional
sections, such as those described below, are often added to achieve variety.
Example: “Sweet Home Alabama” Lynyrd Skynyrd - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5MhOZt5-Jl8

Middle Eight and Bridge sections present alternate musical themes to the main sections
of the song. While they are most strongly needed in the Verse/Chorus format, they also
appear in AABA songs for additional contrast.
A Middle Eight section (named because it is usually eight bars long) is a relatively
brief diversion, typically appearing only once in a song before leading back to a Chorus.
A Bridge plays a similar role to a Section B for a Verse/Chorus song, providing a

distinctly different lyrical and musical space. It can lead to a verse, chorus or back to
itself.
A Solo is usually a repeat of a Section A, Section B, Verse or Chorus but played instrumentally instead of sung. It is very effective
in a climax or post-climax role, and provides clear contrast, even when it is musically similar to the other sections.
Example: “We can work it out” The Beatles - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=asf8KLYQh60
- 12-bar Blues, 32-bar and 64-bar Pop Song Layout

12-bar blues comes to us from the Blues tradition of the rural South. At its core is the idea of "call-and-response" found in
African-American work songs, field hollers, and old Black Gospel music: where someone sings a line and someone else repeats it
back to them or an instrument (guitar, diddley bow, gutbucket bass, washboard, piano) would answer with a line. 12-bar blues
did not get "codified" until the days of Robert Johnson, Son House, John Lee Hooker, and Muddy Waters: the 1920s - 1940's.
In a 32-bar pop song layout, the number of sections of most common songs is 8 bars long. But just know your song can be
structured by starting with two verses (A-A), followed by a bridge, and ending with a final verse (A). Besides, there is also a 64-
bar pop song layout, which doubles the number of bars.
Example of (12-bar blues): “Crossroad Blues” Robert Johnson/Cream - http://youtu.be/YdwVVI4B3oY

Example (32-bar pop song): “I got rhythm” George Gershwin - http://youtu.be/5G7UIeYGq0k
Example (64-bar pop song): “Cherokee” Ray Noble - http://youtu.be/sOtDQH8znjM
- Advanced Song Layouts

You can even combine the above layouts for more advanced song structure. The following are just a few more popular song
layouts found in today's music:
Song Parts Definitions
- Intro: This is quite often the same chords/dynamics as the verse or chorus, mainly the verse.
- Verse: Normally a pretty straightforward structure, containing four to 8 chords.
- Chorus: Again, normally pretty straight forward, and consisting of four to eight chords. There is normally a change in
the dynamics of a chorus to make it stand out. These include volume, intensity, contrast, and timbre.
- Bridge: This is often literally a bridge between the verse and the chorus, or the chorus and the verse. This is especially
useful when you have a key change from one to the other, or the transition from verse to chorus or vice versa is not
particularly smooth.
- Middle 8: This section is used to break up the song so it is not just a sequence of Verse-Chorus-Verse-Chorus. It can
change the whole feel of the song, and if used properly can make or break it. Again, dynamics is normally different to
add variety.
- Outro: Finally, like the intro, this can often simply be a repeat of the verse or chorus chords/structure, but can also be
totally different.

Helene Galletis (2009), states the following concepts related to dynamics:
EXPRESSIVE TECHNIQUES
These techniques are used to create the musical detail that articulates a style or interpretation of a style.
DYNAMICS
Dynamics refers to the volume of sound. Important aspects include the relative softness and loudness of sound, change of
loudness (contrast), and the emphasis on individual sounds (accent).
DYNAMIC LEVELS
They are the volume levels in a piece of music. There are varying degrees of softness and loudness, and many Italian terms are
commonly used in music to express these. The following tables show the common uses of piano, meaning ‘soft’ in volume, and
forte, meaning ‘loud’ in volume.

EXPRESSIVE TECHNIQUES
They refer to the way a performer plays a piece of music. The composer indicates specific details and techniques to guide the
musician’s performance. These directions help portray the style of the music. Expressive techniques are coupled with dynamics;
without these features to give a variety of ‘shades’ to a piece of music, it would sound quite unexciting and plain.
A wide range of expressive techniques have been developed over time. They mainly relate to tempo, style, articulation,
ornamentation, instrumental and vocal techniques, and electronic manipulation. Many of these features overlap in meaning.
TEMPO INDICATIONS
Tempo indications recognize and describe the overall tempo of a piece of music. Within a piece of music it is important to
identify:
- Changes in tempo
- Whether a change is sudden or gradual
- How the change affects the music.
Terms to describe changes in tempo include:
- Gradually getting faster (Accelerando)

- Gradually getting slower (Rallentando)
- Immediately slowing down (Ritenuto)
- Immediately getting faster (Affretando)
- Return to the original speed (A tempo)

STYLISTIC INDICATIONS
Stylistic indications for the performer affect the style of music, giving the musical genre its particular qualities. For example:
- Legato (smooth)
- Rubato (with freedom)
Phrases may also be used in a score or a song as a stylistic indication, such as ‘slowly, with expression’ or ‘moderately bright’.
Some phrases may relate to the musical genre that the piece belongs to, perhaps indicating a drum beat that would suit the
song. For example, an indication at the start of a piece could be ‘medium funk’ or ‘moderate jazzy beat’. The composer of the
score or song is indicating to the performer the style in which the piece is to be performed.
Words or expressions that can be used to describe the overall style of a piece of music or of a specific section include:
- Excited - Smooth
- Passionate - Lightly
- Sweetly - Majestic
- Sad - Marked, accented
- Energetic - With freedom
- Expressively - Tranquil, calm.
- Graceful
ARTICULATION
Articulation means ‘the expressive details added to the music’, but it is more specific. Articulation refers to specific parts or even
precise notes in a piece — that is, how the notes are played. The table below outlines some of the more common articulations
you may hear in a piece of music.

ORNAMENTATION
Ornamentation is the decoration of the notes of a melody or harmony with added features that contribute to the expressive
qualities of the piece of music.
Trill occurs in Western art music.
Mordent occurs in Western art music, particularly Baroque and Classical Music
Turn occurs in Western art music, particularly Baroque and Classical Music
Appoggiatura occurs in Western art music, particularly Baroque and Classical Music
Acciaccatura occurs in Western art music, particularly Baroque and Classical Music;
also Jazz (usually in the form of a ‘grace note’)
Glissando occurs in western art music.
INSTRUMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Some expressive techniques are general and some are specific to the capacities of a particular instrument. Examples are
summarized in the tables below, in which the instruments are very loosely categorized into the four ‘families’ of the orchestra.

- Some instrumental techniques for bowed string instruments (violin, viola, cello and double bass)
- Some instrumental techniques for guitar and guitar-like instruments
guitar reef a short rhythmic phrase played by the guitar, especially one that is repeated in
improvisation.

Guitar Techniques:
- Classical Guitar. (It requires a classic guitar)

- Jazz Guitar. (It requires a jazz guitar)
- Rock Guitar. (It requires an electric guitar)
- Fingerstyle guitar (It embraces features from the classical, jazz, rock, bass guitar technique as well as percussive
resources at the same time. It is considered one of the newest techniques on guitar performance. This technique applies
for acoustic guitars only.)
- Some instrumental techniques for percussion
- Some instrumental techniques for woodwinds

- Some instrumental techniques for brass instruments
- Vocal technique (Karyn O’Connor, 2013; Galletis, 2009)
Vocal techniques can affect the style of a piece. As well as singing voices, a composer might include
speaking or whispering in a piece of music. When a composer uses a solo voice in a piece, it is usually to
carry the melody, and the vocal effects and techniques are obvious to the listener. But there are many
different styles of singing; for instance, in an aria from an opera you will hear a classical voice performing.
Popular music uses different types of voice based mainly on the sternum or even chest voice. The singing
voice differs among world cultures. Traditional Maori calls, for example, have a somewhat nasal pitch and
use microtones.
• Vocal Range
• Vocal Registration (Chest, Middle and Head Voice, Mixed Voice,
Falsetto –in men-, Whistle Register –in women-)
• Chest, Diaphragmatic and Intercostal Breathing
Voice registers:
Female Male
High voice Soprano Tenor
Medium voice Mezzo-soprano Baritone
Low voice Alto Bass
Other vocal technique terms:
- Spoken voice
The singer speaks instead of singing within the vocal solo part.
- Beatboxing
It is a form of vocal percussion primarily involving the art of producing drum beats, rhythm, and musical sounds using
one's mouth, lips, tongue, and voice. It may also involve singing, vocal imitation of turntablism, and the simulation of
horns, strings, and other musical instruments. Beatboxing today is connected with hip-hop culture, although it is not
limited to this genre.

- Growled vocals (Raspy voice)
It is a vocalization style usually employed by vocalists of the death metal music genres, but also used in a variety of
heavy metal styles.
- Plainsong
Plainsong is monophonic, consisting of a single, unaccompanied melodic line. Its rhythm is generally freer than the
metered rhythm of later Western music. Besides, it is a body of chants used in the liturgies of the Western Church.
- Coloratura
The word is originally from Italian, literally meaning "coloring", and derives from the Latin word colorare ("to color").
When used in English, the term specifically refers to elaborate melody, particularly in vocal music and especially in
operatic singing of the 18th and 19th centuries, with runs, trills, wide leaps, or similar virtuoso-like material. It is also
now widely used to refer to passages of such music, operatic roles in which such music plays a prominent part, and
singers of these roles.
- Reefs (voice goes up) and runs (voice goes down) (Oversinging)
Oversinging has two meanings: One is a technical understanding, where oversinging is understood as "pushing the
voice", and "is when a singer pushes too much breath pressure through the larynx", which is known as overblowing of
the vocal folds. The result is over-production of sound.
The other meaning is what is known as "vocal gymnastics". This will imply melisma, and is described by Hollywood vocal
coach Roger Burnley as "using too many riffs, runs, and embellishments in their singing".

- Some technique terms on keyboard instruments
Piano/keyboard technique means to take over the instrument. It is necessary to consider its principles, particularly as these have
become endangered (even amongst professionals):
1) Listening: Every motion is connected to a musical thought. The ear always directs the fingers, which trigger a sound, which
influences the next sound, which itself is directed by the ear.
2) Efficiency: It is the principle of least effort.
3) Elements of Piano Technique:

a) Single notes (scales, broken chords, repeated notes, trills and tremolos)
b) Double notes (double thirds, double sixths and octaves)
c) Hand-position changes (i.e. passing the thumb as in scales or arpeggios, leaps)
d) Fingerings
e) Touch (legato, staccato and all degrees thereof)
f) Pedal
g) Voicing
In contemporary art music and jazz, it is possible to deal with other technique terms, such as:
a) Prepared piano, i.e., introducing foreign objects into the workings of the piano to change the sound quality.
b) String piano, i.e., striking, plucking, or bowing the strings directly, or any other direct manipulation of the strings.
c) Whistling, singing or talking into the piano.
d) Silently depressing one or more keys, allowing the corresponding strings to vibrate freely, allowing
sympathetic harmonics to sound.
e) Touching the strings at node points to create flageolet tones.
f) Percussive use of different parts of the piano, such as the outer rim.
g) Microtones.
h) Use of the palms, fists, or external devices to create tone clusters.
i) Use of other materials to strike the keys.
Electronic Manipulation
Electronic manipulation means creating an electronic effect on an instrument to enhance the musical style. It is one of the
expressive techniques that create the style of the piece of music; for example, a distorted guitar sound means the rock style.
A synthesizer is considered an electronic instrument because of its electronic manipulation of real instrumental sounds. A MIDI (Musical
Instrument Digital Interface) is an electronic song, using computer sounds. It is a means of interconnecting electronic instruments (such as
synthesizers) and computers to create electronic music. A piece of music may also include sound effects. Some popular pieces of music use an
effect that evokes an old recording studio in a newly recorded context.
- Some audio samples on:

Attack: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idRPJugsKbw Decay: http://youtu.be/jCZV2qdZjts Vocoder: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGGZ1HULZQo

Topic No.5 “Score Analysis”
According to Mauleón (1993), some expressions and symbols you might find in a score are:
• Clave (Latin music rhythmic pattern)

• Introduction (Intro)
• Verse
• Bridge
• Chorus
• Vamp till cue // Vamp till coda (Vamp: An improvised accompaniment)
• Montuno section (The open vamp section which features call-and-response singing and instrumental solos.
• The ‘Coda’ sign is to be taken only when ending a tune unless otherwise stated.
• All repeats are observed during a ‘D.C. al Coda’ or ‘D.S. al Coda’ except in the following cases: a.) When
‘Coda’ sign appears in a repeated section; the Coda is taken before repeating (unless marked ‘On repeat’).
b.) When an instruction to the contrary appears (Ex. ‘D.S. al 2nd Ending Coda’)
• When no solo form is specified, the whole tune is used for solos (except any Coda)
• A section mark called ENDING (Fine) is played at the end of a tune. It directly follows the last bar of the
head.
• Gtr. /Prc. / Sax. Tacet: Used as a direction in music to indicate that an instrument is not to play during a
movement or long section.
• Repetition bars:
• Metric modulation:

Other features to consider when analyzing a score (Galettis, 2009):

- Go to the following website on Youtube: http://youtu.be/xHd_B4Wx_u4
- Listen to the song, then analyze the following score by utilizing the concepts previously specified in Topic 5.

- Go to the following website on Youtube: http://youtu.be/kP5O_NUhrK0
- Listen to the song, and then analyze the following score by utilizing the concepts previously specified in Topic 5.
ESP – MUSIC // Mauricio San Martín Gómez 76

References
- Elements of Music: “Texture” [Retrieved on 15/10/2013]

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/music/elements_of_music/texture1.shtml
- Song Structure [Retrieved on 15/10/2013] http://www.learneverythingabout.com/lyrics/song-structure.html
- Chordwizard Software Pty Ltd - Song Structure [Retrieved on 15/10/2013]
http://www.howmusicworks.org/910/Writing-Songs/Song-Structure
- Percussion Rudiments: http://www.vicfirth.com/education/rudiments.php [Retrieved on Jun 10,2013.]
- O’Connor K. Singwise: Understanding Vocal Range, Vocal Registers, and Voice Type: A Glossary of Vocal Terms
[Retrieved on 26/10/2013]
http://www.singwise.com/cgibin/main.pl?section=articles&doc=UnderstandingVocalRangeRegistersAndType
- Extended Techinique [Retrieved on 26/10/2013] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_technique
- Articles on Piano Technique [Retrieved on 26/10/2013] http://www.key-notes.com/piano-technique.html
- VV.AA. State University of New York Journals on Music, 2006, Postdam.
- Board of Studies NSW 1999, Music 1 Stage 6 Preliminary and HSC Courses, Sydney, NSW.
- Mauleón R., 1993, Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble, NY: Sher Music Co.
- Sher C. The Latin Real Book: The best contemporary & classic salsa, Brazilian music, Latin jazz (Vol.1). NY: Sher Music Co.
- Sadie, Stanley & Tyrrell John (eds.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan, 2001.
- VV. AA., The Real Book C Edition. Winona: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation, 1986.
- Wong, Herb: The Ultimate Jazz Fakebook. Winona: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation, 1988.
- Various Authors: The Best of Latin Music: Lo Mejor de la Música Latina (Piano/Vocal/Chords). Miami: Warner Bros
Publications, 1999.
- Sher, Chuck: The Latin Real Book. Winona: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation, 1999.
- Gershwin Publishing Co. It Ain’t Necessarily So (Score). 1995. NY, Gershwin Publishing and Chapel Co.
References (Pictures)
- http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/01431/1995_1431671i.jpg - Michael Jackson

- http://www.teachchildrenmusic.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/7-instrument-friends.jpg - Instrument
friends
- http://www.kveller.com/mayim-bialik/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/1646069-adele-perform-2-grammys-
2012-show-617.jpg - Adele performing at the Grammy’s
- http://2.s3.envato.com/files/62282824/Preview.jpg - Electric guitar tuning
- http://img.ehowcdn.com/article-new-thumbnail/ehow/images/a01/ua/lo/sing-tune-800x800.jpg - People
singing.
- http://sp1.fotolog.com/photo/33/60/119/nosoypokemon/1195946775_f.jpg - Ronald McDonald Singing out
of tune.
- http://i-love-my-life.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/handsofconductor.jpg - Hands of an orchestra
conductor
- http://www.sightreadingsuccess.com/images/home_img1.png - Sight-reading
- http://media.eldiario.com.ar/fotos/2012/03/24/o_1332641255.jpg - Vocal warm up
- http://carclew.com.au/Resources/Carclew/Images/5925-6758860-Image.jpg - Carclew’s rehearsal
- http://www.davidearl-pianist.net/images/compose.jpg - David Earl Pianist
- http://www.ranchstudio.com/images/andyconsole1.jpg - Recording Studio
- http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2007/03/06/nyregion/06ink_lg.jpg - A band of scientists who really
are a band.
- http://www3.pictures.gi.zimbio.com/Sonohra%2BScalo%2B76%2BItalian%2BMusic%2BShow%2BOHMopDkk
SkBl.jpg - Scalo 76 Band
- http://www3.canyons.edu/offices/pio/Resources/pac_stage1a.jpg - Stage
- http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-edMLY2C-SiM/TbCPrBQ0vYI/AAAAAAAAAHI/sldIjvZGSiA/s1600/camarin.jpg -
Backstage
- http://www.musicteachershelper.com/blog/wp-content/images/erika-april-2007.jpg - Singing recital
- http://blog.sharemyguitar.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/SMG_Sound_Check.jpg - Sound Check
- http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-qJl_dwghGac/Tbc0E35w9tI/AAAAAAAAAi0/QxDW4ORs4-M/s1600/CelloWG.jpg -
Cello Player (by William Glen)
- http://i63.photobucket.com/albums/h156/tvvoodoo/AcousticGuitar.jpg - Acoustic Guitar
- http://c1.zzounds.com/media/quality,85/p3534h-55f4bcb3df692e11f6d46c6d0afd00d2.jpg - Snare Drum kit

- http://www.musicalario.es/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/fagot-sistema-aleman.jpg - Fagot
- http://www.aulos.com.ar/eventos/tuba1.jpg - Tuba
- http://bloximages.chicago2.vip.townnews.com/qctimes.com/content/tncms/assets/v3/editorial/a/2f/a2f9e
b3a-46d1-5020-8516-17de942f8b44/52777db1d78b4.preview-620.jpg - John Mayer singing
- http://media.lehighvalleylive.com/music_impact/photo/garfunkel-and-oates-1cdf526b70354b11.jpg - Girls
singing
- http://www.musichicos.com.ar/piano01.jpg - Piano keyboard
- Galletis, H. (2009). Musical concepts: music 1 aural skills preliminary and HSC course / Helene Galettis.
Milton: John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd. (p. xvii)

Topic No.6 “Music Critique”
Writing effective criticism of musical performances relies on:
• Sound observation skills.

• Experience in playing/singing/listening to music from many
genres, styles and levels.
• Rich vocabulary that is able to educe the emotion created
and experienced between the performer and the audience.
• Opening your mind. Remember that certain performance
and technique features that are appropriate within a
determined genre, might sound like a total disaster in
another style. In other words, what seems to be precise in
one genre is going to be absolutely out of place in other
genres, because performance and technique
appropriateness depend on the context.
When reviewing music, note that nothing is either ‘right or wrong’, or ‘good or bad’, let alone ‘nice or ugly’… that’s not
objective for critiquing purposes.
Adjectives you might use to describe music
1. Analytical Adjectives (Objective)
• Acoustic / Unplugged • Slow

• Electronic • High ≠ Low
• Tonal ≠ Atonal • Fast /Up-Tempo
• Rhythmic ≠ Ad Libitum = Free • Instrumental ≠ Vocal
• Bluesy • Melodic
• Classical • Orchestral
• Funky • Consistent ≠ Inconsistent
• Jazzy • Monodic
• Rockish • Homophonic ≠ Polyphonic
• Pop • New age
• Folk • Syncopated
• Indie (Leftfield) ≠ Massive • Modal
• Moderate • Poly rhythmic / Cross-rhythmic
2. Performance Adjectives (Subjective)
• Happy ≠ Sad / Depressing • Energetic/Peppy/Uplifting/Aware

• Discordant • Relaxing /Tranquil/Mild/Soothing ≠ Sharp
• Harmonious • Powerful/Catchy
• Inspiring • Contemporary ≠ Old-fashioned
• Joyful • Bright ≠ Dark/Somber
• Political / Provoking/Protest • Entertaining ≠ Flat / Dull
• Sumptuous ≠ Minimalist/ Plain / Simple • Patriotic
• Minimalist • Sentimental/Passionate
• Deep ≠ Shallow • Thematic
• Pleasant • Fluent ≠ Hesitant
• Holy/ Religious • Rustic ≠ Highly-elaborated

Expressions you might use to describe music
- I think / I consider (that)

- It appears to be / It seems to be(that)
- [+] There is (1) / There are (+1) [-] (There isn’t / There aren’t)
- In the following piece/song
- This belongs to…
- This means/implies/signifies (that)
- This music depicts…
- This music is performed (in a jazzy style / a folk style, etc)
- The percussion section sounds like…
- The presence of…
Assignment:
I. Match the expressions with their corresponding adjectives or terms. Follow the example.
a) It seems to be that… 1. ______ certain natural traits of the Appalachian

environment.
b) This piece is performed in…
2. ___a__ ‘Simple gifts’ from Copland’s
c) Each orchestra section sounds like… Appalachian Springs shows a repetition of the
same motive performed by different timbres.
d) The presence of…
3. ______ the indigenous way of living in America.
e) This music depicts…
4. ______ double-basses bring significant depth to
f) Cut time in this piece implies… the piece.
5. ______ an allusion to Indigenous drums.
6. ______ a nationalist style.

answers
D–4
A–2
B–6
C–1
E–3
F–5
Key
II. Fill in the gaps with the words and expressions in the box below.
requirement for early jazz arrangements - aesthetic – move away – unfree and planned - forms of jazz
Syncopated technique and the technological veil (Lewandowski J., 1996)
The primary technical feature peculiar to jazz is syncopation. Syncopation was a 1)_requirement for early jazz arrangements_- it
distinguished jazz music from other, ’straight’ forms of music, and persists as a chief feature of today’s jazz. Syncopation is the
common thread that runs throughout all 2)______________________, and its importance should not be underestimated.
In syncopation, individual players are allowed the ’freedom’ to 3) __________________ from the governing beats of the
measure. Such a movement, in Armstrong’s idiomatic characterization, is a ’swinging around’: ’the boys are "swinging around",
and away from, the regular beat and melody you are used to, following the scoring very loosely and improvising as they go, by
ear and free musical feeling’.
Given the privileged role assigned to syncopation, both by jazz musicologists and, within jazz, by musicians such as Armstrong, it
is not surprising that Adorno directs much of his critical energies towards this technical feature - in both its ’ragtime’
(mathematical) and ’blues’ (spontaneous) forms. According to Adorno, both forms of perpetual syncopation are not simply
4)________________ techniques or innovative styles that express ’free musical feeling’, but rather the embodiment of an
emergent network of arbitrary social controls. Therefore, syncopation is not about ’swinging around’ freely and improvising as
one goes, but of recapitulating the congealed nature of an 5)____________________________ society.

- Listen to “Miserere” from The Mission (OST) by Ennio Morricone. (http://youtu.be/84q2QNG6MY0)
- After listening to the piece, have a look at the following music critique rubric.
1. Music Piece/Song Title: “Miserere”
2. Band / Ensemble / Performer Name: Barnet Schools Choir – The London Philharmonic Orchestra
3. Composer Name: Ennio Morricone
4. Genre (style) / Historical period: Neoclassical / Modern Classical
5. Instrumentation (classification and names if known) and/or Voices types
- Instruments: Cello, Viola, Violin (strings), Timpani and Pan flute
- Voices: Boy-soprano.
6. Time and Key Signature (Major/Minor): 4/4 time, G Major
7. Function (social and cultural purpose) of the piece: Religious, movie soundtrack.
8. Other features:
a. Tone: (1 - Many mistakes, 2 - Frequent mistakes, 3 – A few mistakes, 4 – No mistakes)
- Focused tone quality. (4)
- Balance within/between sections (4)
- Intonation within/between sections (4)
b. Technique: (1 - poorly controlled, 2 – fair, 3 - mostly correct, 4 – effortless)
- Fingering / Vocal Pitch / Percussion Rudiments (4)
- Rhythmic stability (4)
- Note accuracy (3)
- Other technical features: It seems that the voice and the pan flute make pitch-bending at times.
c. Expression: (1 - poor , 2 – fair, 3 – expressive, 4 -very expressive)
- - Dynamic contrasts and tone color (4)
d. Melodiousness (Musicality): (1 - poor , 2 – fair, 3 – good, 4 – excellent)
- Appropriateness of style (4)
- Sensitivity to phrasing (4)
- Appropriateness of dynamic contrasts (4)
- Appropriate observance of tempo (4)
- Demonstrates musical understanding (4)

e. Others:
There is an interesting mixture between rustic and highly-elaborated elements. The presence of timpani sounds like an
unknown imminent world, whereas the indigenous voice, which is almost in tune (by the use of pitch bending –portamento-
and appoggiaturas), appears to be a sign of a firmly indomitable Spanish colonization.
Choose one of the following songs or music pieces and listen to it. Then make your own music critique by sticking
to the parameters shown in the form below.
Suggested Art Music Pieces
- Alleluia (From: Exultate Jubilate – KV165 – Wolfang

Amadeus Mozart) - http://youtu.be/y2M5fz3jCN0
- Simple Gifts (From: Appalachian Spring – Aaron
Copland) - http://youtu.be/az667ziu538
- Minuet in G major (BWV Anh. 114) Johann
Sebastian Bach - http://youtu.be/KqSAGwa49MM
Music Critique Form

Music Piece / Song Title: ____________________________________________________________________________________
Band / Ensemble / Performer Name: __________________________________________________________________________
Composer Name: __________________________________________________________________________________________
Genre (style) / Historical period: _____________________________________________________________________________
Instrumentation (classification and names if known) and/or Voices types
- Instruments:_____________________________________________________________________
- Voices: _________________________________________________________________________
1. Time and Key Signature (Major/Minor) : _______________________________________________
2. Function (social and cultural purpose) of the piece: ______________________________________________________

3. Other features: ____________________________________________________________________
a. Tone:
  
1 - Many 2 - Frequent 3 – A few 4 – No

mistakes mistakes mistakes mistakes
 Focused tone quality.
 Balance within/between sections
 Intonation within/between sections
b. Technique:
1 - poorly 2 - fair 3 - mostly correct 4 – effortless

controlled
 Fingering / Vocal Pitch / Percussion
Rudiments
 Rhythmic stability
 Note accuracy

Other technical features: ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
c. Expression:
1 poor 2 - fair 3 - expressive 4 -very expressive
Dynamic contrasts and tone

color
d. Melodiousness (Musicality)
1.poor 2. fair 3. good 4. excellent
 Appropriateness of style.
 Sensitivity to phrasing.
 Appropriateness of dynamic
contrasts.
 Appropriate observance of tempo.
 Demonstrates musical
understanding.
e. Others:

References:
- Lewandowski J., 1996, Philosophy and Social criticism: Adorno on Jazz and society. Missouri: Central Missouri State
University.
- Winslow High School Music Department Website: “Performance Self Evaluation” [Retrieved on 08/25/2013]
- http://www.winslowmusic.org/assessments/selfevaluation.html
- Twin City Catholic Education System: “Student Student’s Choice Concert Critique Form” [Retrieved on 08/25/2013]
http://www.tcces.org/seton/forms/ConcertCritiqueForm.pdf
- Longman Group (2003), Longman American Dictionary
References (pictures):
- http://static.essay-writing-service.co.uk/data/139.en/133/writers.jpg - Writer

Appendix: Reading
“Three Key Composing Tools”
(From: Allan Belkin’s- “A Practical Guide for Music Composition”. 2008. University of Montreal Website:
http://alanbelkinmusic.com/bk/index.html [Retrieved on: 08/22/2013])
• Progression
Progressions constitute important tools for creating expectations and

therefore tension. By "progression" here we do not necessarily refer to
harmonic successions of chords. Rather we mean any incremental series of
events, of the same type and over a limited period, which are easily
perceptible to the listener as moving in a continuous change. Examples might
include a series of rising high notes in a melody, gradually decreasing registral
extend, harmony that gets more and more dissonant - or consonant. Here is
an example:
Haydn’s String Quartet op. 76 #2, 3rd movement: measures 1-3 (vln.): the
melodic line rises first to F, then to G, then finally to A. This progression gives
a straightforward sense of direction to the phrase. When the following leaps
take the phrase suddenly higher in m.3-4 (up to D and then E) the effect is
more dramatic because of the previous conjunct movement.
By establishing such progressions, the composer gives the listener points of reference, and encourages projection of the music's
motion into the future. In other words, he creates expectations. The actual course of the music is then compared by the listener
with these expectations. If they are met, psychological tension decreases, and if not, it increases.
One of the most effective ways to use progressions is to create predictability on a higher level, while leaving details less
obviously organized. For example, in a complex melodic line, successive peaks might rise progressively higher: The relationship
between the peaks provide clear direction and coherence, while the details provide interest and newness.
• Momentum
One way of understanding the effect of progressions is as creating momentum: the tendency of the music to continue in a given
direction. Momentum also acts on a rhythmic level, even without progressions: once a given level of rhythmic activity is
reached, it is hard to abruptly change it without some punctuating event.
In Stravinsky’s ‘Petrushka’, one measure before #100, "A Peasant enters with a Bear. Everyone gets scared and runs away." At
this point, the music has built up a great deal of rhythmic momentum, with stable 8th notes, and rushing 16th note runs. To
illustrate the disruption created by the peasant with the bear, the sudden arrival of the low register and the new use of
quintuplets in the upper parts break up the previous momentum. All this prepares the listener for the bear's dance. Again, this is
a crucial aspect of musical direction.
• Balance and Length
The sense of balance is closely related to issues of length and duration. While it is impossible to make hard and fast rules here,
there are numerous important principles to consider:
· Greater length implies greater contrasts. This seems obvious: the longer the piece, the more it will require renewal of interest
through contrast.
· Greater contrasts usually imply greater length. This proposition is equally true but rather less evident: strong contrasts,
especially if presented with little or no transition, tend to demand longer forms. The reason for this may not be immediately
evident.
· When a strong contrast is abruptly presented to the listener, it acts like a provocative question.
· The ideas must be presented, joined and combined in various ways before the listener will accept that they do belong
together. Once this is achieved, the formal "question" posed by the contrast may be considered to be answered, and a kind of
resolution achieved.

· Greater contrasts usually imply greater formal complexity. Longer forms require more complex proportions, with more
sophisticated transitions, if they are not to become overly simplistic and predictable.
· Sustaining interest over a long time frame requires finding new ways to present and combine the material; the need for
many and varied types of transition becomes pressing.
I. Read the text on ‘Three key composing tools’ and circle the correct choice to complete the statements below:
1) Progressions are:
a) a signal that makes music understandable and at times, unpredictable.
b) a series of chords that has a logical order of appearance.
c) a series of effects such as: rising high notes in a melody, harmony that gets more dissonant or consonant.
d) melodies that are intertwined and interrelated one from another.
2) Momentum acts like:

a) a tendency of the music to continue in a given direction within harmony.
b) a tendency of the music to continue in a given direction within rhythm and notes.
c) a tendency of the music to continue in a given direction within a specific musical phrase.
d) a tendency of the music to continue to combine different elements.
3) According to the concept of Balance and Length, it is possible to infer that:

a) it creates predictability on a higher level.
b) it implies contrast of ideas, renewals, combination of elements, and generate expectation.
c) it implies simplicity, austerity, but at the same time, it needs dexterity.
d) it depends on the interpreter.
II. Fill in the following statements according to what is mentioned in the text.
1) When a strong contrast is abruptly presented…

__________________________________________________________________________________________
2) To illustrate the disruption created by the peasant with the bear in Stravinsky’s ‘Petrushka’…
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3) When the composer establishes progressions, it gives the listener…

__________________________________________________________________________________________
4) The ideas must be presented, joined and combined in various ways

__________________________________________________________________________________________
III. Answer the following questions.
a) Why do greater contrasts imply greater formal complexity?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
b) What does the relationship of peaks and details provide?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
c) What does the listener compare when expectations are already presented? What happens within this process?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

“Gretchen at the Spinning Wheel” By Dyana Hepburn (2010)
http://www.finearts360.com/index.php/musical-analysis-of-gretchen-am-spinnrade-by-franz-schubert-2397/
[Retrieved on 02/26/2014]
Gretchen am Spinnrade (Gretchen at the Spinning Wheel) is related to the musical

genre of German lied, specifically in the musical style of the romantic lied. Composed
in 1814 by Romantic period German composer Franz Schubert, it is one of the
earliest and most famous lieder. Schubert was inherently a composer of the classical
tradition, yet, like Beethoven, needed more freedom in compositional style to
express the emotional aspect of the Romantic period. An excellent pianist, he loved
to accompany singers in the smaller venue of the private home sitting room as he
performed his own music.
German lieder composers drew upon the works of famous poets of their time for the
lyrics of their songs. Schubert used text from the dramatic play Faust (1808) by
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe as the lyrics for his song "Gretchen." Written for a
soprano, the text is about a girl singing at her spinning wheel while thinking of Faust
and all that he promises. Goethe had himself borrowed his character from "Dr.
Faustus" by sixteenth century playwright Christopher Marlowe, whom some think
might have attained Shakespeare's status if he had not met his early end.
Lieder are emotional, often about love or sorrow. Rather than being an incidental
song within a larger work, it is shorter and complete in its story telling. It was
particularly suited to the intimacy of a private drawing room where close
acquaintances and members of a social group gathered to perform and listen to
music which was not distant and formal but performed in a comfortable setting.
The piano in the 19th century was coming into its own as an accompaniment instrument and as the perfect instrument to take
the place of the string quartet. It could be the orchestra for the composer to perform their music, able to deliver the lowest and
highest pitches, in dynamics ranging from the softest to excitingly loud. Franz Schubert played the piano with virtuosity and
wrote his own style into the accompaniments of his songs, presenting a formidable challenge to an ordinary drawing room
pianist, yet providing the sound that would achieve the anguish and passion that his lieder required. The performing of
"Gretchen am Spinnrade" as written by Schubert requires a pianist of both strength and dexterity. The left hand requires a
steady beat to simulate the treadling of the spinning wheel, while the right hand has to ripple rapidly through sixteenth notes to
simulate the whirring sound of the spinning wheel.
The song is hauntingly beautiful but disturbing - an ominous feeling of unrequited love warning that no happiness lies ahead for
the maiden. Faust has attracted moths to his flame ever since his emergence through the pen of Christopher Marlowe who was
stabbed to death in the eye in an English pub before his 30th birthday. The ultimate power of life over death, wealth, brilliance
and power attracts the naive to Faust hoping for all they want in the material world, yet falling with him and losing it all.
The lyrics are divided in stanzas of four, yet, lieder are often strophic in form. Schubert basically followed that form, but varied
slightly by dividing the poem into three parts, giving it a verse-chorus form as a stanza recurs with the words, "My peace is gone,
my heart is heavy, I will find it never, never again."
Opening in the key of D minor, "Gretchen am Spinnrade" weaves its melody through the minor mode, modulating slightly into
other major keys: C, E, F, Ab, and C minor and E minor, just creating enough tension to draw the listener into an otherworldly
feeling intensified by the diminished seventh chord in measure sixty-eight occurring on the highest note until then. Besides, it is
important to mention that Schubert was feeling his way toward the strange tonalities of Impressionism (Oriental, whole tone
and pentatonic scales).
Playing in six-eight time, the right hand is directed to play legato sixteenth notes throughout, opposed by the left hand which is
conversely directed to play a steady staccato in an eighth note thumping pattern to keep the even beat of a constant foot
pedaling of a treadle.
The emotional pull of the lieder is achieved by the large dynamic range. Beginning with a pianissimo in the first measure, it rises
in crescendo to forte in measure eight; then it falls in a decrescendo to pianissimo again in measure thirteen, and then begins to

rise again to culminate in a sforzando in measures sixty-eight and sixty-nine on a diminished seventh chord as Gretchen yearns
passionately for Faust's kiss. The song becomes more passionate, after a dip in intensity, as it again climbs to a resounding
sforzando in measure 105 which continues through 111, when it slows and dies to a pianissimo as Gretchen once again feels sad
and trails off "My heart is heavy..."
I. Fill in the table below with all the musical/technical changes mentioned in the text. Follow the example.
Measures Characteristics
1 6/8 time, D minor. Right hand is directed to play legato sixteenth notes throughout, opposed by the left
hand which is conversely directed to play a steady staccato in an eighth note thumping pattern. Pianissimo.
13
68-69
105
111
II. Find synonyms for the words below (Look them up in a dictionary - http://www.wordreference.com ). Then use
these synonyms to write sentences. Follow the example.
a) Venue: ____show – public event_____

__The audience was pretty welcoming for today’s show.____________________________________
b) To attain: ________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
c) Sorrow: ________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
d) Incidental: _________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
e) Disturbing: __________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
f) Treadle: ______________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
III. Refer to “Gretchen at the Spinning Wheel’s” literary features (lyrics, its relation to Goethe’s masterpieces, etc).
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Key Answers
- Text No. 2: “Three Key Composing Tools”
I.
1. c
2. b
3. b
II.
1. it acts like a provocative question.

2. the sudden arrival of the low register and the new use of quintuplets in the upper parts break up the previous
momentum.
3. points of reference, and encourages projection of the music's motion into the future.
4. before the listener will accept that they do belong together.
III.
a. Because longer forms require more complex proportions, with more sophisticated transitions, if they are not to
become overly simplistic and predictable.
b. Peaks provide clear direction and coherence, while details provide interest and newness.
c. The actual course of the music is then compared by the listener with their expectations. If they are met, }
psychological tension decreases, and if not, it increases.

Text No. 4: “Gretchen at the Spinning Wheel”
I.
Measures Characteristics
1 6/8 time, D minor. Right hand is directed to play legato sixteenth notes throughout, opposed by the left
hand which is conversely directed to play a steady staccato in an eighth note thumping pattern. Pianissimo.
8 Rising in crescendo to forte.
13 Falling in a decrescendo to pianissimo.
68-69 Rising again to culminate in a sforzando on a diminished seventh chord.
105 The song becomes more passionate, after a dip in intensity, as it again climbs to a resounding sforzando.
111 Tempo slows and dies to a pianissimo as Gretchen once again feels sad and trails off, "My heart is heavy..."
II.
a. Venue - Concert / Show
b. To attain - To reach
c. Sorrow - Sadness
d. Incidental - Secondary
e. Disturbing - Upsetting / Agitate / Troubling / Worrying
f. Treadle – Pedal
References (Pictures)
- http://merloactualidad.com.ar/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/fiesta-cueca.jpg - Cueca Cuyana

- http://cellobello.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/10820352-music-composer.jpg - Music Composer
- http://www.art-jamaica.org/espagnol/aboutthecollector_files/BIGpage0_1.jpg - Jamaican Flag
- http://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large-5/2-bob-marley-andrew-read.jpg - Bob Marley by Andrew
Read.
- http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marianne_Stokes_St_Elizabeth_of_Hungary_Spinning_for_the_Poor.jpg - St
Elizabeth of Hungary Spinning for the Poor

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English for musicians 1

- Topic No.1: Fundamentals on Music Theory

- Topic No.2: Band Formation

- Topic No.3: A Brief History of Music

- Topic No.4: Phrasing, Expression and Performance

- Topic No.5: Score Analysis

- Topic No.6: Music Critique

- Appendix: Reading Comprehension

English for musicians 2

Pianist / Keyboardist Guitarist

Percussionist / Timpanist / Singer / Rapper

Double bass player / Harpist

Violinist / Violist / Cellist Flutist / Flute player/

Trumpet player / Saxophonist / Clarinetist /

English for musicians 3

Adaptation from García (2012)

English for musicians 4

BrE Breve Semibreve Minim Crotchet Quaver Semiquaver Demisemiquaver Hemidemisemiquaver

Longman American Dictionary, 2003

English for musicians 5

English for musicians 6

Notice: Staff (AmE) - Stave (BrE)

Traditional vs graphic notation

English for musicians 7

English for musicians 8

English for musicians 9

(1) Non-chromatic syllables.

(2) Chromatic syllables.

(3) Non-chromatic syllables.

(4) Chromatic syllables.

(5) "Moveable Do-La."

English for musicians 11

English for musicians 12

English for musicians 13

Some relevant terms concerning intervals are:

- Whole step (1)

1st = First 10th = Tenth

English for musicians 14

English for musicians 15

English for musicians 16

B, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭, F♭ F♭major D♭ minor

B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭,

B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭ G♭ major E♭ minor

B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭ D ♭ major B♭ minor

B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭ A♭ major F minor

B♭, E♭, A♭ E♭ major C minor

B♭, E♭ B♭ major G minor

F♯, C♯ D major B minor

F♯, C♯, G♯ A major F♯ minor

F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯ E major C♯ minor

F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯ B major G# minor

F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯, E♯ F♯ major D♯ minor

English for musicians 17

- Meter and Time Signature

Four quarter notes. Three quarter notes.

English for musicians 18

Pulses within a measure

Downbeat Weak Downbeat Weak Strong Weak