Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Case study

Applying the resilience principles for sustainable ecotourism development:

A case study of the Nakdong Estuary, South Korea
Yun Eui Choi a, Chi-Ok Oh b, Jinhyung Chon c, *
a
OJeong Resilience Institute (OJERI), Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
b
Graduate School of Culture, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
c
Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: When studying sustainable ecotourism, the ecotourism system can be better understood as a complex association
Ecotourism resources of various elements that affects the local society and wildlife habitats. The purpose of this study is to plan an
Estuarine wetland ecotourism system for the wise ecotourism resource management of estuary wetlands by using a resilience
Social-ecological system
principle-based systems thinking approach. This study suggests an integrated management plan that considers
Role of stakeholders
diversity, connectivity, learning, participation, and polycentric governance to solve universal and important
Systems thinking
Resilience issues, such as estuary dam removal, urbanization, and natural resource use in the estuary’s social-ecological
Planning system. The ecotourism system plans suggested in this study include minimizing ecological conflict and load
through an improved sense of responsibility among stakeholders and strengthened protective activities. The
results of this study suggest appropriate roles for various stakeholders in the management of tourism resources
that can be used to establish new guidelines for ecotourism destination planning.

1. Introduction ecological factors that occur in a specific system, such as an estuary

wetland system. Previous studies have not reflected actual policies and
For years, estuarine wetlands distributed worldwide have been practices due to insufficient consideration of the interrelationship be­
treated as nonproductive land that needs to be reclaimed for national tween the social and ecological elements that constitute the estuary
development and expansion (Kennish, 2002). This has resulted in the wetland system.
damage of rare and unique estuarine ecosystems such as tidal marshes, This study focuses on ecotourism as a social-ecological system to
salt marshes, mangrove swamps, river deltas and mudflats around the manage estuarine wetlands. Ecotourism considers community, eco­
world, resulting in biodiversity loss (Thrush, Halliday, Hewitt, & Lohrer, nomic and ecological interactions through the lens of sustainable
2008). In practice, estuarine wetlands produce a variety of ecosystem development and prioritizes the conservation of the ecosystem (Orams,
services, such as providing biological habitats, supporting fisheries, 2012; Scheyvens, 1999). However, in some cities, the area surrounding
purifying water, providing buffer zones to mitigate natural disasters, estuary wetlands is being developed into industrial and residential
allowing ecological exploration and supporting education (Barbier et al., complexes, and policies that promote ecotourism are being implemented
2011). In accordance with the importance of estuarine wetlands, 50 in the hopes of diluting any negative image generated by this develop­
estuarine wetlands have been designated protected areas by the Ramsar ment (Choi, Song, Kim, & Lee, 2017). In such cases where ecotourism is
Convention, an intergovernmental treaty that provides a framework for activated based on negative intentions, policies supporting the devel­
international cooperation for the preservation and wise use of wetlands opment of man-made resources that will generate profits, such as
and their resources. However, there are still many estuarine wetlands infrastructure or leisure sports facilities, are being prioritized over pol­
that have not been systematically protected because they lack this icies aiming to conserve ecological resources (Choi, Doh, Park, & Chon,
designation. Unprotected estuary wetlands exposed to development 2017). Although it is important to improve quality of life by ensuring
pressure require a plan based on an understanding of social-ecological local revenue generation through ecotourism, the excessive develop­
systems such that they can be used wisely to preserve the ecosystem. ment of man-made resources has direct and indirect adverse effects on
Social-ecological systems include feedback from both social and the conservation of ecological resources (Fennell, 2014). Because

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y.E. Choi), [email protected] (C.-O. Oh), [email protected] (J. Chon).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104237
Received 11 December 2018; Received in revised form 22 September 2020; Accepted 26 September 2020
Available online 7 October 2020
0261-5177/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y.E. Choi et al. Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237

damage to ecological resources is essentially the same as destroying the interpretation.

foundation of ecotourism, development-oriented estuarine ecotourism
needs to be deeply concerned about the conservation and wise use of 2.2. Connectivity
ecological resources. Therefore, a balanced management plan for
ecological and man-made tourism resources is needed for sustainable Connectivity refers to the network between social-ecological com­
ecotourism in estuarine wetlands. One good way to establish an ponents in a system. A systematic network of components improves the
ecotourism resource management plan for this purpose is through system’s resilience by exchanging the energy, materials, and informa­
resilience principles-based systems thinking. tion needed to maintain and develop the system on its own (Biggs et al.,
Resilience principles consist of the following five principles: (1) di­ 2015). Connectivity between components includes both connections
versity and (2) the connectivity of elements that form social-ecological between the same types (connections between habitats or relationships
systems, encouraging stakeholder (3) learning and (4) participation between stakeholders) and between different types (connections be­
while (5) building multiplicity governance (Biggs, Schlüter, & Schoon, tween habitats and stakeholders). Connectivity in the estuary ecosystem
2015). The five principles of resilience provide the necessary criteria for is described as animal movement and the cycling of material through the
managing the main components of a system and overcome the problems connection of different habitats. It also includes the link between pol­
typically experienced by a particular type of social-ecological system icies, institutions and stakeholders for managing this ecosystem. How­
(Biggs et al., 2015). In this study, we apply the five principles of resil­ ever, unnecessary or excessive connectivity can produce confusion or
ience as a strategy to alleviate damage to ecological resources and the damage. A fragmented wetland patch can avoid water pollution, but
excessive supply of man-made tourism resources presented in the highly connected mangroves may suffer from pests or the spread of
ecotourism system of estuary wetlands. Before applying the five resil­ disease (Sheaves, 2009). A closely connected social network may pro­
ience principles to the estuary ecotourism system, we make use of sys­ mote the governance of ecological resources, but incorrect management
tems thinking as an approach to analyzing the structure and behavior of strategies can hinder resilience (Biggs et al., 2015). Therefore, it is
the case study system. Systems thinking provides a framework for necessary to consider modularity, which prevents negative conse­
decision-making based on a feedback structure to solve problems related quences, when planning the connectivity of social-ecological systems.
to the entire system (Maani & Maharaj, 2004). We apply resilience To maintain connectivity in estuarine ecotourism systems, the interac­
principles-based systems thinking to the management of ecotourism tion between critical elements (core species of ecological resources,
resources and thereby provide an important guide to transforming habitats with nested connections, isolated habitat patches, etc.) should
ecotourism into a sustainable system. be identified through monitoring. Continuous monitoring activates in­
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to plan an ecotourism system formation sharing among stakeholders by providing predictable data on
(i.e., a social-ecological system in an ecotourism destination) for the disturbances at the estuary. Monitoring can also prevent distractions
wise ecotourism resource management of estuary wetlands by using a from spreading by enabling an immediate response to problems between
resilience principles-based systems thinking approach. In particular, we connected components.
apply this approach to the development of ecotourism in an estuary area
located in South Korea (the Nakdong Estuary), which we expected will 2.3. Learning
contribute to creating a more desirable ecotourism system. This study
will show that resilience principles can be effectively applied to promote Learning is the process of modifying and creating knowledge.
the wise management of ecotourism resources and, in particular, to Learning includes interpreting and understanding reality in different
create ecotourism system plans that emphasize the roles and re­ ways by acquiring information, enhancing knowledge, memorizing
sponsibilities of various tourism stakeholders. We apply these principles critical facts, acquiring techniques and methods, understanding mean­
because various stakeholders (such as policymakers, tour suppliers and ing, and reinterpreting knowledge (Biggs et al., 2015). Learning in the
tour demanders) want to continue to grow the ecotourism system by ecotourism system emphasizes education and interpretation that can
developing the positive and overcoming the negative factors. enrich the environmental responsibility of tourism providers and tour­
ists. Tourists should also evaluate the rationality and fairness of
2. The 5 resilience principles for estuarine wetland ecotourism ecotourism, and operators should improve ecotourism by reflecting on
the results of that evaluation (Wood, 2002). To encourage learning in
2.1. Diversity estuarine ecotourism systems, knowledge of the biological processes of
estuary ecosystems should be accumulated through continuous research
Diversity means that there are many options to solve a problem. If a and monitoring of the site, and information should be provided for the
system has diversity, it can cope with disturbances in a suitable way by development of habitat management measures that take into account
choosing among various available methods (Leslie et al., 2013). Di­ diversity and connectivity. A group of researchers can experiment with
versity also means it is possible to cope with disturbances in other ways and verify various ideas for ecosystem management. Ecotourism experts
if one method fails (Low, Ostrom, Simon, & Wilson, 2003). To ensure should provide consulting to increase their sense of responsibility for the
diversity in estuarine ecotourism systems, (1) various types of habitats environment of tourism operators and residents (Choi, Doh, et al.,
should be created for wildlife with different habitat conditions (Choi, 2017). Operators and local residents who wish to develop estuary wet­
Song, et al., 2017). Healthy estuaries where fresh and saltwater mix are lands should be made aware that education and interpretation of the
made up of many different types of habitats, which can include sand­ natural environment will be more beneficial to sustaining estuary
banks, halophyte vegetation, marshes, and mangroves. Additionally, ecosystem services and ecotourism than developing tourism facilities.
different animals live in each of these different habitats. These various This approach also improves the ability of educators and guides the
habitats and animals offer different and unique scenery every season. delivery of the estuary ecosystem to ecotourists. Ecotourism operators
Various ecotourism resources can accommodate the needs of visitors of should provide information and education that will give tourists a sense
different tastes and can be supported by other resources when one of environmental responsibility (Timothy, 2012). An Internet
resource fails. In addition, (2) incentives to diversify the means of technology-based platform for estuary wetlands using an online website
livelihood for local residents should be promoted (Low et al., 2003). For or mobile app should be developed that contains information about the
example, if fishing and bird watching are not possible due to population tradition, culture, ecological resources and conservation activities of the
decline, epidemic outbreaks, or environmental pollution, local govern­ ecotourism site. Ecotourism operators should promote the platform to
ments should operate alternative programs, such as ecological education tourists and keep the information updated. In addition, tourists should
and experiences, using other natural resources and local cultural be provided with pre-education and various ecotourism programs to

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prevent tourism activities from damaging the ecotourism area (Choi, 3. Methods
Doh, et al., 2017).
Systems thinking is a research methodology that identifies diverse
2.4. Participation problems in a system based on correlation and a feedback analysis of the
variables that form the system; it aims to find strategic points that can
Participation means the active engagement of a stakeholder in an effectively transform the system to solve problems (Maani & Maharaj,
activity related to the management and governance process (Stringer 2004). Thus, systems thinking is useful for analyzing systems where
et al., 2006). Participation occurs at every step or at every few steps of social and ecological issues form diverse and complex influence re­
ecotourism system management, from realizing monitoring and evalu­ lationships, such as estuary wetland ecotourism. Systems thinking is
ation to implementing policy, operating tourism services, and providing utilized not only to understand the system but also to discover strategies
ecological education. The participants involved in these steps are that can favorably change it. Strategies are discovered through whole
various stakeholders who can contribute to ecotourism system man­ system analysis, discussion of the principal elements of the strategy, the
agement by providing services such as political support, funding, in­ derivation of strategic points, and transformation planning. Some
formation, monitoring, and management practices. The participation of studies that use systems thinking for system transformation planning
various stakeholders forms trust in the decision-making process and control key variables that affect strategic points (Nguyen & Bosch,
builds the legitimacy of the knowledge base. In addition, it supports the 2013). However, as with most estuary wetland ecotourism systems, if
interpretation and detection of impact and disorder by enhancing the changes continue and new issues arise, simply adjusting the variables in
ability of the management system (Folke, 2006). In particular, the the existing system may not create an effective transformation plan. To
participation of local residents with anecdotal or experimental knowl­ overcome this situation, one idea is to attempt a structural trans­
edge can enhance the understanding of the dynamism of the ecotourism formation of the system by adding new appropriate variables (Choi,
system by offering ecological, social, and political traditional knowledge Song, et al., 2017). Yet, this proposal raises a reasonable question: how
that cannot be learned through the scientific process (Folke, Hahn, can we find new variables? Although there is no guided method for
Olsson, & Norberg, 2005). To expand participation in estuarine finding new variables in systems thinking, this study attempts to apply
ecotourism systems, stakeholder groups should establish methods, goals, resilience principles to the stage of transformation planning. The resil­
roles, and processes for appropriate engagement by each group (Biggs ience principles include securing diversity, managing connectivity,
et al., 2015). The central government must provide comprehensively encouraging learning, expanding participation, and building a poly­
planned and specific guidelines for ecotourism and organize appropriate centric governance system (Biggs et al., 2015). The resilience principles
laws and regulations. The local government should play a mediating role not only include ecotourism principles related to the environment, so­
between local residents and tourism operators and support marketing ciocultural issues, and the economy (Buckley, 2009) but also provide
for ecotourism vitality. Tourism operators must provide for tourists by detailed guidelines for sustaining ecotourism.
maintaining tourism services and managing tourism resources. In The resilience principle-based systems thinking approach for
particular, ecotourists and tourism operators with enhanced re­ ecotourism resource planning was applied to the Nakdong Estuary based
sponsibility should independently readjust the ecotourism system so on the following five steps (Mella, 2012). The first step is selecting
that ecotourism continues based on their understanding of the impor­ variables that can simply explain the diverse phenomena that exist and
tance of the conservation of natural resources in ecotourism sites. identifying ecological and socioeconomic issues in the Nakdong Estuary
ecotourism destination (Maani & Maharaj, 2004). We explored ecolog­
2.5. Polycentric governance ical and socioeconomic issues in the Nakdong Estuary ecotourism
destination through a gray literature review. Research papers and
Governance is a way to realize an integrated approach to policy- Internet articles were used to explore this issue.
making; it is the system that adjusts the strategic goals and interests of The second step is to confirm the characteristics of the relationship
the government, the private sector, civil society, and NGOs through between variables through a literature review and the state of the case
official and unofficial communication (Hall, 2012). A polycentric site. A causal relationship between variables is indicated using an arrow
governance system operates through a network of diverse stakeholder (→) for the direction and plus (+) and minus (− ) signs for the charac­
communications occurring at different scales of space and time. Poly­ teristics (Richardson, 1991). A plus (+) is marked on the head of an
centric governance produces the ability to make decisions and solve arrow when the causal relationship between two variables runs in the
collective dilemmas when the social-ecological system faces problems same direction (i.e., the independent variable increases (decreases) as
from dynamism and feedback at multiple temporal and aerial scales. The the dependent variable increases (decreases)). A minus (− ) is used if the
degree of cooperation in polycentric governance ranges from informa­ relationship between variables runs in different directions, such as if the
tion sharing to coordination, problem solving and internal conflict res­ independent variable increases (decreases) when the dependent variable
olution. Polycentric governance should be organized in conjunction decreases (increases).
with the four other resilience principles (Biggs et al., 2015). Cooperation The third step is building and analyzing a causal-loop diagram of
between residents of estuary villages, experts, and state units should be ecotourism systems. A causal-loop diagram is made by combining the
supported by providing improved learning and experimental opportu­ relationships between two or more variables confirmed in the second
nities. In addition, a wide range of actors should be gathered, and sci­ step. In building a causal-loop diagram, we focus on whether direct or
entific knowledge should be integrated with the tradition of estuary indirect relationships between variables eventually form feedback loops.
wetlands by expanding participation beyond scale (Murtinho & Hayes, Each feedback loop is also combined into one causal-loop diagram based
2012). If it is difficult to preserve the estuary ecosystem at the regional on the associated variables. Causal-loop diagrams can be drawn easily
level, it should be possible to provide functional redundancy by pro­ using computer simulation software, such as Vensim, STELLA, or Edraw.
tecting the ecosystem through conservation measures such as designa­ Among these, Vensim software provides a graphical modeling interface
tion as a Ramsar site or within the East Asian-Australian Flyway with casual-loop diagrams and confirmation of feedback loops in the
Partnership at the national and international level. Finally, the con­ causal-loop diagram. We built a causal-loop diagram based on the var­
nectivity of governance should be improved through nested cross-scale iables and relationships of ecotourism destinations using Vensim PLE
links with other levels of governance (Biggs et al., 2015). version 6.3 (Ventana Systems, Harvard, MA, USA). Causal-loop dia­
grams are analyzed to interpret the dynamics of the system, such as the
form in which the feedback loops of the ecotourism system operate,
which loop predominates, and whether the identity of the predominant

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feedback loop changes over time. The types of feedback loops that and balancing loops.
should be considered when analyzing feedback include reinforcing loops Fourth, if a problem is found through the feedback analysis of the
and balancing loops (Meadows, 2008). In a reinforcing loop, all variable ecotourism system, the strategic point at which the problem can be
values of the loop change in the same direction. This loop has the solved with the least effort and cost should be selected. The strategic
characteristics of either a ‘virtuous circle’ or a ‘vicious circle’ (Meadows, points are the variables related to the bottleneck, time delay, and tipping
2008); a virtuous circle heads towards the direction of the policy goal, point (Choi, Doh, et al., 2017), and they can produce considerable
while a vicious circle heads in an unintentional direction away from the change with low effort and effectively transform the system.
policy goal. In contrast, a balancing loop shows a decrease or increase Fifth, to manage the strategic points, transformation planning of the
when the value of one variable in the loop is changed based on the ecotourism system based on resilience principles is first established.
values of the other variables in the loop (Mella, 2012). This loop has the Transformation strategies are then applied to the current ecotourism
characteristics of either a ‘stabilized loop’ or a ‘stagnated loop’ system. Transformation strategies can be applied by, for example, de­
(Meadows, 2008). A stabilized loop is stabilized towards the policy goal, leting or adjusting the value of the strategic point in the current system
while a stagnated loop is stabilized in the opposite direction of the policy directly, controlling the existing variables that affect the strategic point
goal. The causal-loop diagram of the ecotourism system can show or introducing a new policy variable and changing the dominant feed­
various behaviors depending on the combination of reinforcing loops back loop (Choi, Doh, et al., 2017). We enabled a characteristic change

Fig. 1. A shows a regional map of the locations of the Nakdong Estuary (red square). B shows a satellite map of the Nakdong Estuary. C shows the Nakdong Estuary
Eco-center. D shows the Nakdong Estuary Bank. E shows a new western town in Busan Metropolitan City. F shows jet-skiing activity. G shows birdwatching tourists.
H shows a whooper swan. I shows Eulsukdo Island. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of
this article.)

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for the dominant feedback loop by including a transformation strategy and annual tourism trends (e.g., number of visitors, tourism facilities,
variable into an existing variable that affects the strategic point. and ecotourism programs) (Yeo et al., 2019; Yeo, Oh, et al., 2017; Yu,
The five steps of resilience principle-based systems thinking need to 2020). Internet articles were collected from BIGKinds (BIGKinds, 2020),
be sequentially conducted through the feedback process (Choi, Song, a big data analysis system operated by the Korea Press Foundation.
et al., 2017). This research proceeded through each step of the feedback Searches were conducted using 9 major newspapers with 1721 articles
process, and the confirmed results are described in this paper. identified covering political, social, economic and ecological issues in
the Nakdong Estuary.
4. The case of the Nakdong Estuary The main tourism resources in the Nakdong Estuary are ecological
resources such as waterfowl and their habitats (Choi, Song, et al., 2017).
4.1. Nakdong Estuary as an ecotourism destination The Nakdong Estuary ecosystem preservation and restoration project
(Yeo et al., 2019; Yeo, Oh, et al., 2017; Yu, 2020) was intended to
The Nakdong Estuary is the estuarine wetland that is deposited from enhance the biodiversity of birds and habitats. However, biodiversity is
the mainstream of the Nakdong River and the West Nakdong River threatened by illegal activities, such as jet skiing, drones, fishing, and
(Fig. 1). Because the Nakdong Estuary is located at the main passing bright flashes from night photography (Hong, 2017; Park, 2020). At the
tracks of migratory birds traveling from East Asia and Australia, it is one same time, more routine activities such as noise generation, artificial
of the world’s most important ecological bases as a way station for erosion and sedimentation, urbanization of the western area of Busan
wintering and migrating birds. Approximately 163,389 birds, including and the operation of ecological tour ships also damage habitats (Lee,
migratory birds and endangered species, visit the area each year (Yeo 2020; Son, 2016). A policy to open the Nakdong Estuary Bank’s flood­
et al., 2019). In particular, it is the largest domestic wintering habitat for gate was planned as an activity to preserve the integrity of Nakdong
swan species such as the whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus), black swan Estuary’s ecological system (Hwang, 2020; Kim, Park, & Park, 2016;
(Cygnus atratus) and tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus). The swan spe­ Ryu, 2020). This plan aims to restore the brackish water zone by opening
cies are designated a Korean natural monument, use wide tidelands and a waterway that was blocked by the Nakdong Estuary Bank. These
many sandbanks at the estuary as resting places, and feed on the benthos ecological issues are categorized into the following variables: ecological
and macrophytes that live throughout the estuary (Yeo, Oh, et al., 2017). resources, ecosystem conservation and restoration efforts, environ­
The scenery of the Nakdong Estuary, which is composed of migratory mental load and ecological disturbance, western area urbanization de­
birds and wetland geographical features, is quite unique and attractive. mand, and Nakdong Estuary Bank opening plan.
To preserve it as a migratory bird habitat, Korean government agencies Local residents in the Nakdong Estuary are working as natural
have designated the Nakdong Estuary as various types of protected environment interpreters and cultural tourism interpreters to operate
areas. However, the environment for habitats has been damaged ecotourism interpretation and education programs for ecotourists
because of the Nakdong Estuary Bank construction in 1987 and waste (Jeong, 2020). Several public hearings were held during the develop­
landfill construction at the southernmost of Eulsukdo Island in 1993 and ment of the ecotourism destination and the governance system for
1995 (Yeo et al., 2019). To restore the ecosystem at the Nakdong Es­ environmental management (Park & Lee, 2018). Such social ecotourism
tuary, the Ministry of Environment designated the Nakdong Estuary a activities can improve the environmental awareness of stakeholders.
Wetland Preservation Area in 1999. Busan Metropolitan City created the However, it is rare for local residents to earn income through social
Nakdonggang Bird Sanctuary after abolishing illegal farmlands and ecotourism activities, and as a result, local residents want to generate
waste landfill in Eulsukdo Island. The Nakdonggang Bird Sanctuary is greater economic benefits through ecotourism. This demand is leading
classified as a district for education and utilization, a buffer zone, and a to the expansion of artificial tourism infrastructure such as lodging,
core conservation district (Yeo, Oh, et al., 2017). Most ecotourism ac­ dining and leisure facilities in natural areas of the Nakdong Estuary. The
tivities in the Nakdong Estuary are conducted in the area of education government and private enterprises, not local residents, have invested
and utilization. The number of visitors per year increased consistently financial capital to expand the tourism infrastructure (Yeo, Oh, et al.,
from 2007 (74,398 visitors) until 2013 (141,048 visitors) (Yu, 2020). It 2017), which will contribute to job and revenue improvement for local
then declined from 2014 (115,500 visitors) to 2016 (113,939 visitors) residents, but large profits will go to private companies. This results in
due to the highly pathogenic bird flu. In 2017, the total number of vis­ unbalanced profit sharing within local society, disturbs the positive
itors increased (225,781 visitors), with a significant increase in the change in the economic system, and causes negative effects to residents’
number of adult visitors (96,378 visitors) compared to other years (52, standard of living (Choi, Song, et al., 2017). These socioeconomic issues
690 visitors, previous five-year average). The increase in the number of are categorized into the following variables: man-made tourism re­
visitors continued in 2018 (276,969 visitors) and 2019 (558,970 visi­ sources, tourism attractiveness, the number of tourists, tourism revenue,
tors) (Yu, 2020). The explosive increase in visitors in 2019 is due to the natural resource utilization, population and local community, job and
increase in the number of elderly visitors (63,038 visitors, previous revenue-making opportunities, and development pressure.
five-year average 8808 visitors) and children visitors (176,870 visitors,
previous five-year average 51,685 visitors). It is predicted that visitors of 4.2.2. Confirming the characteristics of the relationship between variables
different ages have an increased interest in ecotourism, and it is neces­ Causal relationships between the ecological, social and economic
sary to examine whether this phenomenon represents the energizing of variables of the Nakdong Estuary ecotourism system were reviewed
ecotourism in the Nakdong Estuary. based on prior research. The causal relationships of the variables are
described in Table 1.
4.2. Ecotourism system of the Nakdong Estuary
4.2.3. Building and analyzing a causal-loop diagram of the ecotourism
4.2.1. Variable selection for Nakdong Estuary ecotourism system
The ecological, social, and economic issues in the Nakdong Estuary A causal-loop diagram of the ecotourism system in the Nakdong
provide the basis for the main variables that form ecotourism systems. Estuary that structures the causal relationships among the variables is
We set the data collection period from June 2007 to August 2020 shown in Fig. 2. At the stage where ecotourism begins, there is the
because ecotourism at the Nakdong Estuary began when the Nakdong preservation and restoration of ecological resources that attract the in­
Estuary Eco-center of Eulsukdo Island opened in June 2007. Research terest of tourists (Fig. 2, R1). Alternately, there is development pressure
reports are published by Busan Metropolitan City, which is located in the to increase or sustain tourism revenue through the development of man-
Nakdong Estuary, and include annual ecological monitoring data (e.g., made tourism resources (Fig. 2, R2). R1 and R2 explain the gradual
number of birds, water quality, and ecological conservation activities) increase in the number of tourists through the steady efforts of local

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Table 1
The causal relationships between the main variables and a description of Nakdong Estuary ecotourism.
Main variables Causal Description References
link mark
Independent variable Dependent variable

Ecological resources Tourism attractiveness + Ecological resource is the main tourism resource for ecotourism. Nguyen and Bosch (2013)
Superior ecological resource improves tourism attractiveness.
Tourism attractiveness The number of tourists + Tourism attractiveness generated by ecological resources and man- Gunn and Var (2002), Mai and
made tourism resources increase the number of tourists by causing Smith (2015) and Nguyen and
interest and concern among tourists. Bosch (2013)
The number of tourists Tourism revenue + Ecotourists are willing to pay a higher price to create tourism profit that Nguyen and Bosch (2013)
returns to ecotourism regional residents. They are also interested in
purchasing tourism products with the unique characteristics of the
ecotourist destination.
Tourism revenue Ecological conservation + The revenue from ecotourism operation increases ecological Jeon and Chon (2014) and Mai
and restoration effort preservation and restoration effort. and Smith (2015)
Ecological conservation Ecological resources + Ongoing ecological preservation and restoration of the ecological Boley and Green (2016) and
and restoration effort tourism destination is the most direct way to healthily sustain natural Stem, Lassoie, Lee, Deshler, and
resources and services. Encouraging local residents and NGOs to Schelhas (2003)
participate in preservation activity, reinforcing tourists’ sense of
responsibility through the interpretation, and restoring wild animal
populations by experts are powerful ways to engage in ecological
preservation and restoration.
Man-made tourism Tourism attractiveness + Man-made tourism resources apply education, interpretation, Mai and Smith (2015)
resources experience programs, transportation, accommodation, restaurants,
convenience facilities, recreational facilities, and tourism infrastructure
to make tourism destination more attractive.
Tourism revenue Development pressure + Revenue from ecotourism operations is used to increase tourism Jeon and Chon (2014)
destination development pressure to raise the attractiveness of natural
and man-made tourism resources.
Development pressure Natural resource + Development pressures in ecotourism destination premises the Jeon and Chon (2014) and
utilization utilization of natural resources. Nguyen and Bosch (2013)
Natural resource Man-made tourism + Man-made tourism resources are developed through the use of natural Berry and Ladkin (1997)
utilization resources resources.
Man-made tourism Job and revenue-making + If the man-made tourism resource operated by the local residents or Gunn and Var (2002) and Mai
resources opportunity private company resources increases, there will be more opportunities and Smith (2015)
for jobs and revenues.
Jobs and revenue-making Population and local + Stable jobs and revenue-making opportunities encourage people to Stem et al. (2003)
opportunity community settle in the region and strengthen the local community.
Population and local The western area + There is consistent demand for urbanization in ecotourism destinations Higham and Lück (2002) and
community urbanization demand from the national government, the local government, and private Wu, Wang, and Ho (2010)
companies. Local residents working in ecotourism also demand
urbanization for purposes like property value increases or a better
organized living environment.
Population and local Environmental load and + The residents, merchants, and travel agents engaged in the ecotourism Jeon and Chon (2014), Mai and
community ecological disturbance destination increase environmental load and ecological disturbance by Smith (2015) and Nguyen and
releasing waste and pollutants. Bosch (2013)
The western area Development pressure + Demand for urbanization by the government, the local government, and Wu et al. (2010)
urbanization demand the private company increase the development pressure on the natural
area.
The number of tourists Environmental load and + Tourists without a sense of responsibility towards nature create an Budeanu (2007) and Mai and
ecological disturbance environmental load and ecological confusion. Tourism by those who Smith (2015)
are concerned about the environment also create environmental
impact.
Environmental load and Ecological resources – An ecological load beyond the capacity to receive and ecological Brown, Turner, Hameed, and
ecological disturbance disturbance decrease the quality of ecological resources and services. Bateman (1997) and Budeanu
(2007)
Natural resource Ecological resources – The excessive use of natural resources beyond the capacity to receive at Brown et al. (1997) and
utilization the ecotourism destination degenerates ecological resources and Budeanu (2007)
services.
Nakdong Estuary Bank Ecological conservation ? There has been much discussion of opening the bank for ecological Branch et al. (1985)
opening plan and restoration effort preservation and restoration in many estuarine wetlands worldwide.

residents and the local government to expand the infrastructure (Hovi­ commercialization may occur, with a decrease in contact frequency with
nen, 1982) and manage the ecological resources for tourists (Crompton residents based on their clear separation from tourist attractions and the
& Hensarling, 1978). Actually, the number of ecotourists in Nakdong development of the tourist market (Buckley, 2009; Hovinen, 1982). This
Estuary gradually increased. The preservation and restoration of could weaken the virtuous cycle of R1 and strengthen the vicious cycles
ecological resources and the development of man-made tourism re­ of R2 and R3. Additionally, excessive increases in the number of tourists
sources are continuing. may increase the environmental load and cause ecological disturbances.
Busan Metropolitan City, which is the local government that operates In this case, the inflow of tourists may be affected by the decrease in
and manages ecotourism in the Nakdong Estuary, established a plan to tourism attractiveness after the decline in the quality of ecological re­
develop the western area of Busan and expand tourism resources. It sources (Fig. 2, B1). When natural resource utilization increases with
began receiving investments from outside of the region, such as from the aggravated development pressure, it may decrease the quality of the
central government, to energize ecotourism (Fig. 2, R3). When the natural resource (Fig. 2, B2). When predominantly B1 and B2 are
ecotourism system enters the development stage, gradual operating, it may no longer increase the number of tourists.

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Y.E. Choi et al. Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237

Fig. 2. Nakdong Estuary ecotourism system. R1 is a virtuous reinforcing loop of 1-2-3-4-5-1. R2 is a vicious reinforcing loop of 6-2-3-4-7-8-6. R3 is a vicious
reinforcing loop of 6-9-10-11-7-8-6. B1 is a stagnant balancing loop of 1-2-3-12-1. B2 is a stagnant balancing loop of 1-2-3-4-7-8-1.

Additionally, the main tourism resource may change from ecological behavioral change were analyzed by applying established trans­
resources to man-made tourism resources (Butler, 1980). formation planning.

4.2.4. Selection of strategic points 4.3.1. Resilience strategy for ecological resources
The circulation of fresh water and seawater through the Nakdong To sustain proper salinity after the opening of the Nakdong Estuary
Estuary opening changes the water level and salinity (Isola, Colwell, Bank floodgate, it is necessary to be prepared for an extreme increase in
Taft, & Safran, 2000). The changes could have an enormous impact on salinity. New habitats should be created for diverse functions. Fresh­
the vegetation, which plays a role as a food resource and a hiding place water wetlands can control the salinity and water level of the Nakdong
for waterfowl (Yi, Yeo, Oh, & Sung, 2011). Meanwhile, ongoing con­ Estuary. Freshwater wetlands also provide drinking water and food re­
struction in the western area of Busan causes many types of noise that sources to waterfowl, which is a habitat function differentiated from that
disturb the roosting of the waterfowl, which increases the emigration of the brackish water area. When there is a disturbance in the brackish
rate of the waterfowl (Choi, You, Kang, Choi, & Chon, 2015). Therefore, water area, the freshwater area, which is separated by the water gate,
the opening of Nakdong Estuary Bank’s floodgate and development can prevent the spread of that damage and function as a substitute
pressure should be considered to sustain Nakdong Estuary’s consistent habitat. As in the case of America’s salt marsh wildlife protection area in
ecological resources. Ecotourism operation in the Nakdong Estuary de­ the state of Louisiana, freshwater areas and brackish water areas have
pends on the local government’s budget and support from the govern­ established a mosaic pattern through the construction of an artificial
ment authority. During the process of preparing to enter the freshwater lake to secure the diversity of landscape patches (Choi et al.,
development stage, qualitative and quantitative improvements in edu­ 2015). Meanwhile, to provide different forage resources for waterfowl,
cation and interpretation programs and tourism infrastructure can be substitute forage resources should be cultivated to prepare for the
supported by immediate budget allocations and active support from the decrease in vegetation. Therefore, new substitutes for foraging resources
government (Choi, Doh, et al., 2017). However, when there is a budget should be provided. Substitute foraging resources in the brackish water
cut due to a policy change by the local government or the government area include horned pondweed (Zannichellia palustris), common eelgrass
authority, a vicious circle can be strengthened, which may consistently (Zostera marina), and beaked tasselweed (Ruppia maritima) (Laubek,
decrease tourism attractiveness. Meanwhile, due to consistent demands 1995). Substitute foraging resources in the freshwater area include
on tourism facilities, several facilities are being extended into neigh­ Manchurian wild rice (Zizania latifolia) and sacred lotus (Nelumbo nuci­
boring regions beyond the Nakdong Estuary Conservation Area. The fera) (Choi et al., 2015). When diverse substitute foraging resources are
phenomenon surrounding man-made tourism resources can lead an planted, a poor harvest of one plant will not have a crucial impact on the
ecotourism system into immediate decline. To stop the collapse of the food supply because plants manage disturbances differently (Biggs et al.,
ecotourism system, it is necessary to manage the consistent preservation 2015).
and restoration of ecological resources rather than the development of To manage the connectivity of the waterfowl habitats, it is necessary
man-made tourism resources. Therefore, we select ecological resources to build a system for the real-time monitoring of environmental factors,
and man-made tourism resources as our strategic points. such as the water level, salinity, water quality, erosion, and sedimen­
tation. A monitoring system enables quick action by detecting any rapid
environmental change that exceeds the optimum level (Biggs et al.,
4.3. Transformation planning based on resilience principles
2015). For the newly created habitats to be managed effectively, it is
necessary to have a proper network built and modularized at different
To manage the strategic points, the Nakdong Estuary ecotourism
scales and locations. One efficient way is to build ecological corridors
system required comprehensive action for the brackish water based on
with the least-cost path (Lee, Ellis, Choi, You, & Chon, 2015). A network
plans to open the Nakdong Estuary Bank’s floodgate, supporting ur­
between freshwater areas can be formed through waterway construc­
banization, constructing infrastructure, and operating government ini­
tion. However, a network with high density can promote the spread of
tiatives. Hence, this study developed resilience strategies that manage
damage. The introduction of a modularized system is necessary to avoid
ecological resources and man-made tourism resources by applying the 5
the spread of a dominant species (e.g., reeds) that could threaten sub­
resilience principles (diversity, connectivity, learning, participation and
stitute foraging resources, the spread of pollutants, or the spread of
polycentric governance). The system’s feedback structure and

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Y.E. Choi et al. Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237

brackish water in freshwater wetlands (Choi et al., 2015). conduct green marketing to promote soft tourism that minimizes
To encourage learning, expand participation and build a polycentric adverse environmental and cultural effects (Perkins & Grace, 2009).
governance system for managing ecological resources, it is first neces­ Additionally, it is necessary to build a platform to train resident moni­
sary to understand the stakeholder groups. The stakeholders of the tors to suppress illegal recreation and provide advanced information to
Nakdong Estuary include residents (fishermen, farmers and normal tourists. As such, various types of stakeholder participation and
residents), environmental organizations (Green Busan Unite and extended learning opportunities through networks of polycentric
Wetland and Friends of Birds), research institutes (Busan Development governance can reduce ecological conflict and development pressure by
Institute, learned societies and universities), local governments (Busan increasing a sense of responsibility for the environment among local
Metropolitan City, Gimhae City, Yangsan City and Ulsan City), and residents, operators, and tourists. Additionally, these forms of partici­
government authorities (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Trans­ pation can provide an opportunity for change in ecological governance
portation, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, systems from a top-down approach to a bottom-up approach.
and Korea Water Resource Corporation). These groups should improve
their mutual understanding through workshops and must decide on a 4.3.3. Transformation planning for the ecotourism system
plan for managing ecological resources. The resilience strategy, as previously discussed, was categorized into
strategic points (Table 2) for inclusion at the strategic point of the
4.3.2. Resilience strategy for man-made tourism resources ecotourism system in the Nakdong Estuary (Fig. 2). A resilience strategy
To secure diversity in the management of man-made resources, built on key variables was planned to enable a change in the dominant
designation as a Ramsar Protected Area must be strongly promoted. The feedback loop by adjusting the existing variables that impact the stra­
establishment of national-level protected areas does not reach the in­ tegic points to transform the Nakdong Estuary’s ecotourism system into
ternational level of environmental regulation. In the case of the Nakdong a desirable system (Fig. 3).
Estuary, demand for the deregulation of state-designated protected areas To strengthen the virtuous circle of R1, the plan will apply the
are increasing due to the urbanization surrounding them. In response, transformation strategy for waterfowl habitat management to the Nak­
benefits to future generations should be guaranteed by creating redun­ dong Estuary opening plan. This plan includes the establishment of an
dant devices that can protect estuary wetlands internationally (Choi, ecosystem monitoring system (Fig. 3, 1), the construction of freshwater
Song, et al., 2017). There is another way to ensure diversity. Improve­ wetlands (Fig. 3, 2), the creation of substitute waterfowl food resource
ments to increase attractiveness to tourists should be replaced by habitats (Fig. 3, 3), the construction of habitat networks (Fig. 3, 4), and
ensuring the quality and quantity of ecological education and inter­ the delegation of environmental observer roles to stakeholders (Fig. 3,
pretation programs rather than by building commercial recreation fa­ 5). The work done in this study changes the causal relationships in the
cilities. Current education in the Nakdong Estuary has a tendency to Nakdong Estuary Bank opening plan and ecological preservation and
place an excessive weight on winter bird watching. To improve this restoration efforts from a ‘question mark (?)’ in the current ecotourism
situation, resources should be developed for various forms of ecological system (Fig. 2) to a ‘plus mark (+)’ in the ecotourism system plan
education and interpretation that can be operated according to seasonal (Fig. 3).
characteristics, age range and the aim of the activities. Examples include The plan to transform the feedback loop of R2 from a vicious cycle to
(1) the introduction of plants and animals living in the Nakdong Estuary, a virtuous circle involves managing the excessive development pressure
(2) a tideland marsh experience, and (3) the introduction of a local through a land use change monitoring system (Fig. 3, 6). Additionally,
culture-connected lifestyle. The development of such substitute educa­ instead of tourism infrastructure, the original purpose of ecotourism
tion programs will provide functional redundancy that can respond to should be reinvigorated by increasing tourism attractiveness by
disturbances such as a decrease in the number of birds or the spread of extending the quantity and quality of environmental education and
bird influenza.
To maintain connectivity, ecological resources and man-made re­
sources should be networked by considering convenience in the man­ Table 2
agement of ecotourism operators and for tourist use (Lee, Chon, Kim, Transformation planning based on resilience principles in the Nakdong Estuary
ecotourism site.
You, & Choi, 2017). Examples include (1) a food source program to
preserve migratory bird habitats; (2) making and selling souvenirs using Strategic points Transformation planning Resilience principles
representative species such as whooper swans; (3) food cultural sharing Ecological 1. Establishment of ecosystem Connectivity, Learning
events using local specialties; and (4) exploring various types of habitats resources monitoring system
(such as reed beds, mudflats, wetlands, and rivers). The network of 2. Construction of freshwater Diversity
wetland
ecological resources and man-made tourism resources extends the
3. Creation of substitute waterfowl Diversity
length of tourist visits and leads to diverse consumption activities. To food resource habitats
control excessive networking, the separation of space can be an option, 4. Construction of habitat network Connectivity
such as a core area for ecological conservation, a buffer zone for con­ 5. Delegation of environmental Learning, Participation,
servation and utilization, and an area for human utilization. It is also observer role to stakeholders Polycentric governance
Man-made 6. Establishment of land use Connectivity, Learning
necessary to build a land use transformation monitoring system to tourism monitoring system
monitor development pressure. resources 7. Enhancement of the quantity and Diversity, Learning
It is necessary to encourage learning, expand participation and build quality of education and
a polycentric governance system for managing man-made resources. interpretation
8. Development of a sense of Learning
Regional-level stakeholders (i.e., residents, tourism operators, tourists,
responsibility among tourists
local NGOs, experts, and local government) should meet with national- 9. Support from task force team by Participation,
level stakeholders (research institutes, environmental groups, and cen­ multi-stakeholders Polycentric governance
tral government). The central government or local government should 10. Creation of guide program for Participation,
plan and implement public consultation techniques and procedures to residents and tourism operators Polycentric governance
11. Development of a sense of Learning
engage all stakeholders in making decisions regarding ecotourism. The responsibility among residents and
role of the government may also be to implement education and operators
awareness programs that allow people to detect sustainable tourism 12. The quality of the information Learning
development issues (Choi, Jin, Chang, Jang, & Chon, 2018). Tourism platform
13. Designation as Ramsar Wetland Diversity
operators should educate tourists on the impact of their visits and

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Y.E. Choi et al. Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237

Fig. 3. Transformation planning of the ecotourism system in the Nakdong Estuary.

interpretation programs (Fig. 3, 7). These programs produce a sense of the foundation for practicing internationally agreed-upon justice.
responsibility for nature among tourists (Fig. 3, 8), and therefore, it is Ecotourism practices environmental preservation by reinforcing stake­
possible to encourage tourists to practice responsible tourism even as holders’ sense of responsibility and aims for the distribution of profits in
they increase in number. local society through engaging local residents in tourism activities
Meanwhile, the plan that controls B1, which limits growth that (tourism, operation, management, interpretation). The resilience prin­
damages ecological resources, involves decreasing ecosystem conflict ciple provides a guideline for building stakeholders’ polycentric gover­
and environmental load through stakeholders’ social and economic ac­ nance, learning, and participation and securing the connectivity and
tivities. The task force team should involve a group of experts and diversity of ecological and social elements within ecotourism destina­
develop ecotourism guide programs to increase the sense of re­ tions. This study suggests that the resilience principle matches the
sponsibility among local residents and the local government towards purposes of ecotourism, such as extending the participation of local
ecotourism in the Nakdong Estuary (Fig. 3, 9–11). The platform, which society and preserving the natural environment by reinforcing stake­
provides advanced information about tourism destinations constructed holders’ sense of responsibility. This point has been applied to the
by responsible residents and tourism operators, can also boost tourists’ ecotourism system plan based on the resilience principle, which con­
sense of responsibility (Fig. 3, 12). In this way, the environmental load siders the ecological environment and stakeholders together.
and ecological conflict generated by the tourism activities engaged in by Despite these contributions, it is worth noting some study limitations
tourism operators and tourists can be minimized. and future research directions. First, although this study included
To control the stagnation that occurs in B2, Ramsar Wetland desig­ extensive ecotourism resource management plans, it did not cover all
nation is promoted as a response to the demand that ecological preser­ ecological and man-made tourism resources in the estuary wetlands.
vation sanctions be relaxed (Fig. 3, 13). A protected area designation Because estuary wetlands form complex and sensitive social-ecological
followed by an international agreement can contribute to preserving systems, to reflect the ecotourism resource management plan in prac­
natural resources, which can forcibly relax development activity that tice, the relationship between the elements of space and the time scale
damages natural resources by contradicting the development logic and and the drivers that operate these elements must be further specified.
relaxing the need to protect the area. Second, in the enactment of the resilience principles-based systems
The plans to transform ecotourism systems into desirable systems thinking approach, the opinions of various stakeholders were not
will lead to stable development stages starting at the involvement stage captured. Data collection for this study was based on gray literature.
within the tourism life cycle. Additionally, they enable gradual reduced This is positive in terms of the use of realistic and formal records, but it is
growth or rejuvenation after the stagnation stage is overcome, which is insufficient for building stakeholders’ participation, learning, and
the next stage of development. polycentric governance. Therefore, future research will identify the
target ecotourism resource and establish a concrete and practical plan by
5. Conclusions reflecting the opinions of the major stakeholders affecting this resource.
The final limitation is that the conservation method of the Nakdong
Most estuarine wetlands in the world are important social-ecological Estuary is limited in terms of ecological tourism resource management
systems with many coexisting issues related to estuary bank opening, and does not directly consider the negative impact of ecological tourism
complex industrial and residential development, and preservation ef­ activities. Ecotourism surely generates a positive impact on the social
forts for wetland and bird sanctuaries. At the same time, it is a place ecosystem, but on the contrary, it also creates a negative impact (Fen­
where much effort is needed to develop it as a global ecotourism nell, 2008). In this study, as an indirect way to minimize the negative
destination. This study is meaningful because it plans the estuarine impact of ecotourism, it was proposed to increase the sense of re­
wetlands as an ecotourism destination from the perspective of resilience. sponsibility for the environment through the education and interpreta­
The resilience perspective provides a basis for discussing a strategy for tion of tourists, local residents, and tourism operators. In follow-up
transforming the social-ecological system of ecotourism. The link be­ studies, it will be necessary to identify which types of ecotourism edu­
tween the original intent of ecotourism and the resilience principles lays cation and interpretation can ultimately promote the responsibility of

9
Y.E. Choi et al. Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237

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Stringer, L. C., Dougill, A. J., Fraser, E., Hubacek, K., Prell, C., & Reed, M. S. (2006). Jinhyung Chon is a professor at Korea University. His research
Unpacking “participation” in the adaptive management of social–ecological systems: interests include ecotourism, green infrastructure, and resil­
A critical review. Ecology and Society, 11(2). ience by design. He earned a Ph.D. from the Department of
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loss, fragmentation, and community homogenization on resilience in estuaries. University.
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Metropolitan City.

Yun Eui Choi is a research professor at Ojeong Resilience

Institute in Korea University. Her research interests include
tourism resources, the role of stakeholders in protected areas,
and community resilience. She earned her Ph.D. from the
Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engi­
neering at Korea University.

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