ADESHINA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, SHARE.

(GOVERNMENT APPROVED)
ISC 112

SCIENCE EDUCATION

HOW CHILDREN LEARN

Children learners differ from adult learners in many ways, but there are also surprising
commonalities across learners of all ages. Learning in young children fulfills two purposes: it
illustrates the strengths and weaknesses of the learners who populate the nation‘s schools, and it
offers a window into the development of learning that cannot be seen if one considers only well-
established learning patterns and expertise.

INFANTS’ CAPABILITIES

It was once commonly thought that infants lack the ability to form complex ideas. Most
psychologists accepted the traditional thesis that a newborn‘s mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa)
on which the record of experience is gradually impressed. Since babies are born with limited
behaviors and spend most of their early months asleep, they certainly appear passive and
unknowing. Until recently, there was no obvious way for them to demonstrate otherwise. But it
is now known that very young children are competent, active agents of their own conceptual
development.

A major move away from the tabula rasa view of the infant mind was taken by the Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget. Beginning in the 1920s, Piaget argued that the young human mind can
best be described in terms of complex cognitive structures. From close observations of infants
and careful questioning of children, he concluded that infants actually seek environmental
stimulation that promotes their intellectual development. He thought that their initial
representations of objects, space, time, causality, and self are constructed only gradually during
the first 2 years. He concluded that the world of young infants is a combination of the internal
and external worlds and that the development of an accurate representation of physical reality
depends on the gradual coordination of schemes of looking, listening, and touching.
THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS ON HOW
CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE

1. Early predisposition to learn about some things but not others

Young children show positive biases to learn types of information readily and early in life. These
forms of knowledge, referred to as privileged domains, center on broadly defined categories,
physical and biological concepts, causality, number, and language (Carey and Gelman, 1991).
Young children are capable only of registering the ambient events that impinge on their senses in
an undisciplined way.

2. Strategies and metacognition

Outside of these privileged domains children, like all learners, must depend on will, ingenuity,
and effort to enhance their learning. It was previously thought that young children lacked the
strategic competence and knowledge about learning (metacognition) to learn intentionally.

3. Theories of mind

As they mature, children develop theories of what it means to learn and understand that
profoundly influence how they situate themselves in settings that demand effortful and
intentional learning (Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1989). Children entertain various theories of
mind and intelligence (Dweck and Legget, 1988). Indeed, not all learners in schools come ready
to learn in exactly the same way. Some theorists argue that there is more than one way to learn,
more than one way to be ―intelligent.‖ Understanding that there are multiple intelligences
(Gardner, 1983) may suggest ways of helping children learn by supporting their strengths and
working with their weaknesses.

4. Children and community

Although a great deal of children‘s learning is self-motivated and self-directed, other people play
major roles as guides in fostering the development of learning in children. Such guides include
other children as well as adults (caretakers, parents, teachers, coaches, etc.). But not only people
can serve as guides; some powerful tools like notably television, books, videos, technological
devices of many kinds and cultural artifacts can also serves as guides.

TRADITIONAL AFRICA IDEA OF HOW CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE

The Seven Cardinal Goals Many people including some Africans hold the wrong view that
traditional African education has no clearly defined goals. This is because they think that since
traditional education does not involve reading and writing, it could not have got any clear goals.
As you have learnt in unit one, there is no system of education without its own aims or goals.
Therefore, traditional African education has its own goals even if they are not clearly written
down as it is done under formal education. We shall now identify the seven cardinal goals of
traditional education as listed by Fafunwa (1974). They are:

1. To develop the child's physical skills

2. To develop character
3. To inculcate respect for elders and those in position of authority
4. To develop intellectual skills
5. To acquire specific vocational training and develop a healthy attitude towards honest
labour
6. To develop a sense of belonging and to participate actively in family and community
affairs
7. To understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the community. How
these, goats age achieved in traditional African societies you wil1 learn in the remaining
sections of this unit.

3.2.2 Physical and Mental Development

In the traditional African societies, the physical and mental/intellectual development of

the child is adequately taken care of. We shall see how this is done. I am sure you know the
way this is done in primary schools that is the formal school system. Although, there is no
written syllabus in traditional African system of education, yet there are ways of developing
the physical and intellectual skills of the child. For example, there are games and sports
which children in traditional societies always participate in mostly in the evenings. They run,
jump, climb and dance in games, which are given different names in different communities.
In Yoruba land for instance, there are games such as `Bojuboju', `Ekun meran' etc which
encourage children to do much running. Do you know that wrestling is one of the sporting
activities in many African societies? Many African communities organise wrestling
competitions for their youths. For the girls, it could be dancing competitions. All these go a
long way in the physical development of the African child. As regards the intellectual
development, there are many things which are done to help his intellectual development. For
example as the child grows up, he learns the history of his people from the elders.

The elders always take joy in telling the children stories about their ancestors. Even, if
such stories are not written down, they are kept in memory and passed on from generation to
generation. This is what is known as oral tradition. Most of the known history of Africa that
are studied in schools and colleges or from textbooks is got through oral tradition. In the
same way, there are riddles and jokes which help to promote logical and critical thinking in
children. Such riddles and jokes are usually directed by elders during the evening get-
together. There are also proverbs which are used by elders to explain some difficult points
during discussions. Do you know that Mathematics is taught in the traditional societies? Yes,
they do it but in a very practical way. For example, in the local language, the parents or
somebody else could say bring one cup etc and the child brings it. As the child grows older,
he effortlessly learns the numerals in his or her mother tongue. Therefore, along with his
language development the child learns most of the things which make him an intelligent
person in the society. For example he learns to add, subtract, multiply and divide in very
practical, ways. As once observed by Fafunwa (1974), no number is too large or too small for
the Yoruba or Nupe man or woman to calculate. Areas are measured on the farms, according
to Fafunwa by the number of heaps that could be accommodated.

All other areas of knowledge, which in the formal school system we call subjects, are
also taught in traditional societies. Take for instance, Geography. The child acquires the
knowledge of his physical environment by learning from parents and others the names of
rivers, lakes, the heavenly bodies – stars, moon and the sun, etc. He learns the four cardinal
points and even reads the time through the position of the sun. You may also be surprised
that in traditional societies, people learn the climatic conditions of a place to determine what
crops to grow there and when. All these are things which we spend year to learn at different
levels of formal education. From this short discussion on the physical and intellectual or
mental development of the African child, you will agree that there is almost nothing left out.
In other words the traditional African education is in a way very comprehensive. Exercise 2.1
Enumerate the seven major goals of traditional African education.

3.2.3 Moral and Character Development

You have just learnt how the physical and intellectual development of the child takes
place. Now let us discuss moral and character development. In traditional societies, much
attention is given to the development of good character in children. There is much respect for
a well-behaved person in the traditional societies. In fact children who arc of good character
bring honour to the parents. Therefore, in order for children to be good ambassadors of the
family, the parents and other relations jointly train the child to behave in culturally accepted
ways. In doing this, the parents are usually role models to their children. No child is ever
allowed to get away with any misconduct. Ile is punished or corrected immediately. Respect
for elders and those in position of authority is taught right from infancy. This begins with the
mode of greetings. There are special ways of greeting people of different categories and for
different occasions. For example, boys are expected in Yoruba land to prostrate for the elders
while girls should kneel down. This is also done by men and women for elders and those in
position of authority no matter their age. This includes greeting kings, high chiefs, and
religious leaders. Among the Hausa people, elders and those in positions of authority are
given respect. The young man often raises his clenched right fist to greet an important person
such as a chief or a religious leader. Generally, it is not right in the African culture for a
younger person to first want to shake hands with an elder. It must be the elders who are to
show the desire to shake hands with the younger person who often sees it as a special
privilege for him. This is an important aspect of traditional education which we should not
allow to die. Western civilization has in recent years been making it difficult for most young
men and women to keep to this tradition particularly in the urban cities. Do you respect your
own parents, elders and those in position of authority? How do you show your respect
towards them?

3.2.4 Vocational Training

In traditional societies, everybody is expected to be gainfully employed. In other words,

there is no question of unemployment in the traditional African societies. There are various
types of vocational training available in the society for the child to pick from. Some may be
within the family while some may be from outside. There are three main groups of vocational
training usually provided in the traditional African societies. These according to Fafunwa
(1974) are:

(a) Agriculture education which includes farming, fishing, animal rearing and care.

(b) Trades and crafts such as weaving (cloth, baskets, etc), smithing (iron, silver and gold),
hunting, carving, building, drumming, hair dressing, pot making, boat making, etc.

(c) Professions such as medicine (native doctors, priests, civil servants, village heads, chiefs,
hunter, etc).

Any of these vocational training can be received within the family. For example, if a man is a
farmer, fisherman, cattle rearer, native doctor or drummer, his son can learn directly from
him. In the same way, others who are weavers, pot makers, hair dressers, etc can teach their
daughters. It is only when such an occupation for which a child is considered fit is not
available in the family that the child could be sent to another person outside. The child then
goes to the person as an apprentice. The period of training may be long or short. It depends
on the nature of the work, the ability of the child or the wish of the parents. There are some
cases where the apprentice child could stay from childhood to adulthood in order to master
that trade or profession very well. A good example is the native doctor (medicine).
Therefore, with the training received, nobody is expected to be jobless. Everybody in the
village for example is expected to have a visible means of living otherwise, he may not be
wanted in the community. The only people expected at home during the day are the old
people, children, the sick, disabled and possibly a nursing mother. It is only on special days
such as market days, festivals meetings, etc that you may find most people at home. It is even
a sign of laziness to find a man at home doing nothing. No one will respect him and he may
not even get a wife in the community. Thus, everybody is proud of his work and takes it
seriously.
3.2.5 Promotion of Cultural Heritage

Africans generally like their culture and they always want to keep it. This, is one of the
reason why in the traditional African education, much attention is given to the cultural
heritage. The child learns to do things according to his cultural environment through the
imitation of adults. As a matter of necessity, children are always taken to different places by
their parents or other adult relations so that they can learn what they do in such places and
how they do it. For example children are allowed to witness the coronation of kings, the
annual religious festivals, the various displays and competitions. All these are done in the
traditional society to ensure that the young ones who will keep on the tradition when the
elders arc no more know exactly what to do. In the same way, the children are given special
trainings to make them useful to themselves and the community. Thus, whatever the training
a child has received, he is not expected to keep it to himself. He is to cooperate with other
members of the extended family when he grows up. For example, there are various age
groups and other community based associations to which each person must belong. The age
groups do some community work such as clearing of the 'roads' to the farm, the river, lake or
brook where they get their water. The age groups also help members to do some of their
personal work such as clearing their farms, planting and harvesting of crops as well as
building their houses. In the traditional societies, everyone is expected to help his relatives or
neighbours when there is need for it. As you will learn in one of the units later, there is a ‗we-
feeling' or team spirit or a sense of belonging among traditional people. This means that there
is love and cooperation among the people. In many cases, there could be levies imposed by
the family to help any member who is in difficulty.

The levy may even be imposed by the age group or even the community. Everybody is
expected to pay the levy without complaining as a mark of love, respect or solidarity. We
must also not forget that there is also the economic cooperation which in modern societies we
refer to as Cooperative and Thrift Society. In Yoruba land as an example, the Thrift society is
known as ‗Eesu' or `Ajo'. In other words, you keep sortie amount regularly may be on every
market day, with the society and at a particular time, you can come in to borrow money for a
project or programme. These are some of the ways by which the individual is made to
participate actively in all community activities. At the same time he is introduced into his
culture which he is expected to hold dearly. No normal person in the traditional society can
keep away from his cultural environment. You just have to be an active participant in all
cultural activities.
 BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through
conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists
believe that our actions are shaped by environmental stimuli. In simple terms, according to this
school of thought, also known as behavioral psychology, behavior can be studied in a systematic
and observable manner regardless of internal mental states. Behavioral theory also says that only
observable behavior should be studied, as cognition, emotions, and mood are far too subjective.

Strict behaviorists believe that any person—regardless of genetic background, personality traits,
and internal thoughts— can be trained to perform any task, within the limits of their physical
capabilities. It only requires the right conditioning. Behaviorism was formally established by
John B. Watson in 1913.

Types of Behaviorism

1. Methodological Behaviorism

Methodological behaviorism states that observable behavior should be studied scientifically and
that mental states and cognitive processes don't add to the understanding of behavior.
Methodological behaviorism aligns with Watson's ideologies and approach.

2. Radical Behaviorism

Radical behaviorism is rooted in the theory that behavior can be understood by looking at one's
past and present environment and the reinforcements within it, thereby influencing behavior
either positively or negatively. This behavioral approach was created by the psychologist B.F.
Skinner.5

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a technique frequently used in behavioral training in which a neutral

stimulus is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes to
evoke the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus, even without the naturally
occurring stimulus presenting itself. Throughout the course of three distinct phases of classical
conditioning, the associated stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus and the
learned behavior is known as the conditioned response.

Learning Through Association

The classical conditioning process works by developing an association between an

environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. In physiologist Ivan Pavlov's classic
experiments, dogs associated the presentation of food (something that naturally and
automatically triggers a salivation response) at first with the sound of a bell, then with the sight
of a lab assistant's white coat. Eventually, the lab coat alone elicited a salivation response from
the dogs.

Factors That Impact Conditioning

During the first part of the classical conditioning process, known as acquisition, a response is
established and strengthened. Factors such as the prominence of the stimuli and the timing of the
presentation can play an important role in how quickly an association is formed. When an
association disappears, this is known as extinction. It causes the behavior to weaken gradually or
vanish. Factors such as the strength of the original response can play a role in how quickly
extinction occurs. The longer a response has been conditioned, for example, the longer it may
take for it to become extinct.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of

learning that occurs through reinforcement and punishment. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. This behavioral
approach says that when a desirable result follows an action, the behavior becomes more likely
to happen again in the future. Conversely, responses followed by adverse outcomes become less
likely to reoccur.

Timing Plays a Role

The process of operant conditioning seems fairly straightforward—simply observes a behavior,

then offer a reward or punishment. However, Skinner discovered that the timing of these rewards
and punishments has an important influence on how quickly a new behavior is acquired and the
strength of the corresponding response. This makes reinforcement schedules important in operant
conditioning. These can involve either continuous or partial reinforcement.

 Continuous reinforcement involves rewarding every single instance of a behavior. It is

often used at the beginning of the operant conditioning process. Then, as the behavior is
learned, the schedule might switch to one of partial reinforcement.

 Partial reinforcement involves offering a reward after a number of responses or after a

period of time has elapsed. Sometimes, partial reinforcement occurs on a consistent or
fixed schedule. In other instances, a variable and unpredictable number of responses or
amount of time must occur before the reinforcement is delivered
Uses for Behaviorism

1. Education

Behaviorism can be used to help students learn, such as by influencing lesson design. For
instance, some teachers use consistent encouragement to help students learn (operant
conditioning) while others focus more on creating a stimulating environment to increase
engagement (classical conditioning).

2. Research

One of the greatest strengths of behavioral psychology is the ability to clearly observe and
measure behaviors. Because behaviorism is based on observable behaviors, it is often easier to
quantify and collect data when conducting research.

3. Mental Health

Behavioral therapy was born from behaviorism and originally used in the treatment of autism
and schizophrenia. This type of therapy involves helping people change problematic thoughts
and behaviors, thereby improving mental health. Effective therapeutic techniques such as
intensive behavioral intervention, behavior analysis, token economies, and discrete trial training
are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or
harmful behaviors in both children and adults.

Impact of Behaviorism

Several thinkers influenced behavioral psychology. Among these are Edward Thorndike, a
pioneering psychologist who described the law of effect, and Clark Hull, who proposed the drive
theory of learning. There are a number of therapeutic techniques rooted in behavioral
psychology. Though behavioral psychology assumed more of a background position after 1950,
its principles still remain important. Even today, behavior analysis is often used as a therapeutic
technique to help children with autism and developmental delays acquire new skills. It frequently
involves processes such as shaping (rewarding closer approximations to the desired behavior)
and chaining (breaking a task down into smaller parts, then teaching and chaining the subsequent
steps together). Other behavioral therapy techniques include aversion therapy, systematic
desensitization, token economies, behavior modeling, and contingency management.

Criticisms of Behaviorism

Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human

behavior. They suggest that behavioral theories do not account for free will or internal influences
such as moods, thoughts, and feelings. Freud, for example, felt that behaviorism failed by not
accounting for the unconscious mind's thoughts, feelings, and desires, which influence people's
 actions. Other thinkers, such as Carl Rogers and other humanistic psychologists, believed that
behaviorism was too rigid and limited, failing to take into consideration personal agency. More
recently, biological psychology has emphasized the role the brain and genetics play in
determining and influencing human actions. The cognitive approach to psychology focuses on
mental processes such as thinking, decision-making, language, and problem-solving. In both
cases, behaviorism neglects these processes and influences in favor of studying only observable
behaviors. Behavioral psychology also does not account for other types of learning that occur
without the use of reinforcement and punishment. Moreover, people and animals can adapt their
behavior when new information is introduced, even if that behavior was established through
reinforcement.

Constructivism

Constructivism is a theory in education which posits that individuals or learners do not

acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process
of knowledge transmission, rather they construct new understandings and knowledge
through experience and social discourse, integrating new information with what they already
know (prior knowledge). For children, this includes knowledge gained prior to entering
school.[3] It is associated with various philosophical positions, particularly in epistemology as
well as ontology, politics, and ethics.[4] The origin of the theory is also linked to Swiss
developmental psychologist Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Principles of constructivism.

 Knowledge is constructed. This is the basic principle, meaning that knowledge is built upon
other knowledge. Students take pieces and put them together in their own unique way, building
something different than what another student will build. The student‘s previous knowledge,
experiences, beliefs, and insights are all important foundations for their continued learning.

 People learn to learn, as they learn. Learning involves constructing meaning and systems of
meaning. For example, if a student is learning the chronology of dates for a series of historical
events, at the same time they are learning the meaning of chronology. If a student is writing a
paper about history, they are also learning principles of grammar and writing as well. Each thing
we learn gives us a better understanding of other things in the future.

 Learning is an active process. Learning involves sensory input to construct meaning. The learner
needs to do something in order to learn, it‘s not a passive activity. Learners need to engage in the
world so they are actively involved in their own learning and development. You can‘t just sit and
expect to be told things and learn, you need to engage in discussions, reading, activities, etc.

 Learning is a social activity. Learning is directly associated to our connection with other people.
Our teachers, our family, or peers, and our acquaintances impact our learning. Educators are
 more likely to be successful as they understand that peer involvement is key in learning. Isolating
learnings isn‘t the best way to help students learn and grow together. Progressive education
recognizes that social interaction is key to learning and they use conversation, interaction, and
group applications to help students retain their knowledge.

 Learning is contextual. Students don‘t learn isolated facts and theories separate from the rest of
our lives—we learn in ways connected to things we already know, what we believe, and more.
The things we learn and the points we tend to remember are connected to the things going on
around us.

 Knowledge is personal. Because constructivism is based on your own experiences and beliefs,
knowledge becomes a personal affair. Each person will have their own prior knowledge and
experiences to bring to the table. So the way and things people learn and gain from education
will all be very different.

 Learning exists in the mind. Hands-on experiences and physical actions are necessary for
learning, but those elements aren‘t enough. Engaging the mind is key to successful learning.
Learning needs to involve activities for the minds, not just our hands. Mental experiences are
needed for retaining knowledge.

 Motivation is a key to learning. Students are unable to learn if they are unmotivated. Educators
need to have ways to engage and motivate learners to activate their minds and help them be
excited about education. Without motivation, it‘s difficult for learners to reach into their past
experience and make connections for new learning.

Types of constructivism.

 Cognitive. Cognitive constructivism focuses on the idea that learning should be related to the
learner‘s stage of cognitive development. These methods work to help students in learning new
information by connecting it to things they already know, enabling them to make modifications
in their existing intelligence to accommodate the new information. Cognitive constructivism
comes from the work of Jean Piaget and his research on cognitive development in children.

 Social. Social constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Knowledge

develops from how people interact with each other, their culture, and society at large. Students
rely on others to help create their building blocks, and learning from others helps them construct
their own knowledge and reality. Social constructivism comes from Lev Vygotsky, and is closely
connected to cognitive constructivism with the added element of societal and peer influence.

 Radical. Radical constructivism is very different from cognitive and social constructivism. It
focuses on the idea that learners and the knowledge they construct tell us nothing real, only help
us function in our environment. The overall idea is that knowledge is invented, not discovered.
 The things we bring to the table make it impossible for us to have truth, only interpretations of
knowledge. This theory was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld in 1974.

Constructivism in education.

It‘s important to understand how teachers can apply constructivism inside their classroom to
create a unique learning environment for students. In constructivist classrooms, the teacher has a
role to create a collaborative environment where students are actively involved in their own
learning. Teachers are more facilitators of learning than actual instructors. Teachers must work
to understand the preexisting conceptions and understanding of students, then work to
incorporate knowledge within those areas. Teachers will also need to adjust their teaching to
match the learner‘s level of understanding.

Constructivist classrooms rely on four key areas to be successful:

 Shared knowledge between teachers and students.
 Shared authority between teachers and students.
 Teachers act as a guide or facilitator.
 Learning groups consist of small numbers of students.

Disadvantages of constructivist methods.

The biggest criticism of constructivist learning is its lack of structure. Some students need
highly structured and organized learning environments to thrive, and constructivist learning
focuses on a more laid-back method to help students engage in their own learning. Grading is
often removed from constructivist classrooms and places more value on student progress, which
can lead to students falling behind and not meeting standardized grading requirements. If you are
hoping to become a teacher, a degree is crucial to getting on the right path. Additionally, it‘s
valuable for teachers to understand different learning theories and how they impact their
classroom and their students.