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j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l .

2 0 1 9;8(5):3741–3751

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

www.jmrt.com.br

Original Article

Mechanical characteristics of wood, ceramic, metal


and carbon fiber-based PLA composites fabricated
by FDM

Zhaobing Liu a,b,c , Qian Lei d,∗ , Shuaiqi Xing a


a School of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
b Hubei Digital Manufacturing Key Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
c Institute of Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
d R&D Department, Shandong Kinshi Bitumen Co., Ltd, Rizhao 276806, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fused deposition modeling (FDM) has gained much attention in recent years, as it revolu-
Received 21 February 2019 tionizes the rapid manufacturing of customized polymer-based composite components. To
Accepted 21 June 2019 facilitate the engineering applications of these FDM-printed components, understanding
Available online 12 July 2019 their basic mechanical behaviors is necessary. In this paper, the mechanical characteris-
tics, including tensile and flexural properties of samples fabricated by FDM with different
Keywords: additives, i.e. wood, ceramic, copper, aluminum and carbon fiber, based polylactic acid (PLA)
3D printing composites are comprehensively investigated. The effects of different PLA composites, build
Composites orientations and raster angles on mechanical responses are compared and analyzed in
FDM detail. It is found that ceramic, copper and aluminum-based PLA composite parts have sim-
Mechanical properties ilar or even increased mechanical properties compared with virgin PLA made parts. In most
PLA cases, PLA composite samples that are FDM-printed in on-edge orientation with +45◦ /−45◦
raster angles have the highest mechanical strength and modulus. It is worth noting that the
results in this research provide a useful guideline for fabricating complex functional PLA
composite components with optimized mechanical properties.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

aided design (CAD) models. Over the past decades, this


1. Introduction technology has flourished in various industrial sectors such as
aerospace, civil, biomedical, food and others. A series of crit-
Three-dimensional (3D) printing, also known as additive
ical reviews relating to the above fields can be found in Refs.
manufacturing (AM) has been developed to enable the man-
[1–4].
ufacturing of complex 3D components without expensive
In 3D printing, a technique commonly adopted for com-
molds based on layer by layer fabrication using computer-
ponents to obtain some mechanical response is the so-called
fused deposition modeling (FDM) [5]. In FDM, a filament

Corresponding author.
of thermoplastic printing material is melted through an
E-mail: leiqian [email protected] (Q. Lei). extrusion nozzle of printer and deposited line by line and
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.034
2238-7854/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
3742 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(5):3741–3751

Fig. 1 – Dimensions of tested samples and printing orientations (unit: mm).

further layer by layer to form a 3D geometry of the designed and analyzed. Finally, the above analysis is further verified by
component. During the printing process, the mechanical char- the observations of optical images from fracture surfaces of
acteristics of 3D printed materials by FDM are greatly affected tensile and flexural tests.
by several variables, like nozzle and platform temperature,
printing speed and orientation, layer deposition height, raster
angle, infill pattern and so on [6,7].
2. Materials and methods
To achieve desired performance of 3D printed components,
2.1. Materials
different thermoplastic polymers have been employed in FDM,
including PLA (polylactic acid), ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene
The filaments of virgin PLA (Ingeo 4043D, NatureWorks LLC)
styrene), nylon (a kind of polyamide), PETG (polyethylene
and PLA with different additive powders (wood, ceramic, cop-
terephthalate glycol-modified), PEI (polyethylenimine) and
per, aluminum and carbon fiber) with the diameter of 1.75 mm
PEEK (polyether ether ketone) [8]. Among these materials, PLA,
were used as printing materials, which were purchased from
as a biodegradable green material has received considerable
Dongguan Zhehan Plastic & Metal Manufacture Co., Ltd. The
attentions in biopolymer research owing to its excellent bio-
blend ratio of PLA and each additive was chosen as approx-
compatibility and sustainability [9]. Since the beginning of its
imately 3:2 in this research, which is believed to have the
commercialization in 2002, researchers have been trying to
effectively modified mechanical properties compared to the
explore its potential applications, such as tissue engineering
virgin PLA.
scaffolds in medical field [10,11]. However, compared with tra-
ditional engineering materials, like metals and fiber reinforced
composites, the mechanical properties of PLA are intrinsi- 2.2. Equipment
cally lower [12–14]. In order to modify the capabilities of virgin
PLA, researchers have endeavored to investigate PLA-polymer The FDM printer (Model: Creator Pro, Flashforge Co., Ltd.,
matrix reinforced composites by adding various additive China) was used in this research. The control accuracy of
materials, like natural or synthetic fibers, metals, ceramics the printer is about ±0.1–0.2 mm. Mechanical properties were
into PLA [11,15–21]. However, the emerging of these new PLA tested in a universal testing machine (Model: DNS-100, man-
composites brings new challenges to the FDM-printing of ufactured by Sinotest Equipment Co., Ltd., China) with a load
functional components with satisfactory mechanical prop- of 100 kN. The samples were loaded up to material failure at
erties. To the best of authors’ knowledge, research on the a displacement rate of 50 mm/min and 10 mm/min for ten-
comparing and understanding of basic mechanical responses sile tests and flexural tests, respectively. In flexural tests,
of various PLA composites is still limited. the support separation was set to 80 mm. The data acquisi-
The aim of this paper is to understand the mechanical tion rate for both kinds of tests was set to 100 Hz for loads
behaviors of FDM-printed wood, ceramic, copper, aluminum and displacements. After mechanical testing, the fracture
and carbon fiber-based PLA composite parts. In addition to the morphology of all the samples were evaluated by an optical
type of PLA composites, the effects of two important printing microscopy (Model: ICX41M, Sunny Optical Technology Co.,
variables in FDM, i.e. raster angles and building orientations Ltd., China).
on mechanical properties are comprehensively investigated
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(5):3741–3751 3743

Fig. 2 – Layer deposition with different raster angles.

Fig. 3 – 3D printed samples of wood, ceramic, aluminum and copper-based PLA in flat orientation: (a) tensile tests, (b)
flexural tests.

2.3. Test sample preparation dimensions of tested samples are presented in Fig. 1. In this
study, three printing orientations (Namely, Flat, On-edge, and
To evaluate the mechanical properties, dog-bone and rect- Upright) were considered to build the samples as illustrated in
angular shaped parts were fabricated by the FDM printer Fig. 1. For each printing orientation, two kinds of printing paths
according to ASTM D638 and ASTM D790 standards. For were designed with raster angles of 0◦ /90◦ and +45◦ /−45◦ , as
each test, five same samples were prepared to make sure depicted in Fig. 2, where, for instance, 0◦ means the axial direc-
the obtained values of mechanical properties reliable. The tion along the sample length in the corresponding printing
orientation, and 90◦ is the transverse direction. The printing
path with +45◦ /−45◦ raster angles follows the similar routine
as that of 0◦ /90◦ does. Key printing parameters adopted in this
Table 1 – Key printing parameters used in this work. work are provided in Table 1.
Materials Virgin PLA, wood, ceramic, copper,
aluminum and carbon fiber-based PLA
3. Results and discussion
Platform temperature 65◦
Nozzle temperature 200◦
Printing speed 80 mm/min
3.1. Formability
Nozzle diameter 0.4 mm
Infill pattern Linear In this section, printing formability of all the PLA composite
Object infill density 100% parts is evaluated in terms of printing raster angles as well
Layer height 0.3 mm as orientations. For example, successful FDM-printed sam-
Raster angle 0◦ /90◦ , +45◦ /−45◦
ples of wood, ceramic, aluminum and copper-based PLA in
3744
Table 2 – Formability of all materials under different printing conditions.

j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(5):3741–3751
Samples for Printing orientations Layer deposition Formability
mechanical testing
PLA PLA+wood PLA+ceramic PLA+copper PLA+aluminum PLA+carbon fiber
√ √ √ √ √ √
Tensile tests Flat 0◦ /90◦
√ √ √ √ √ √
+45◦ /−45◦
√ √ √ √ √ √
On-edge 0◦ /90◦
√ √ √ √ √ √
+45◦ /−45◦
√ √ √
Upright 0◦ /90◦ × × ×
√ √ √
+45◦ /−45◦ × × ×
√ √ √ √ √ √
Flexural tests Flat 0◦ /90◦
√ √ √ √ √ √
+45◦ /−45◦
√ √ √ √ √ √
On-edge 0◦ /90◦
√ √ √ √ √ √
+45◦ /−45◦
√ √ √
Upright 0◦ /90◦ × × ×
√ √ √
+45◦ /−45◦ × × ×

Note: denotes successful printing, × means failure printing.
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(5):3741–3751 3745

Fig. 4 – 3D printed samples of carbon fiber-based PLA in flat, on-edge and upright orientations: (a) tensile tests, (b) flexural
tests, (c) an example of successfully printed sample in upright orientation.

flat orientation are presented in Fig. 3. In particular, Fig. 4 proportional to the stress) until ultimate yield stress. After
shows that FDM-printed samples of carbon fiber-based PLA in the ultimate yield point, negligible necking continued until
flat, on-edge and upright orientations. It is worth noting that the brittle fracture occurred without visible strain hardening.
printing in upright orientation was performed without any Moreover, from the results, it can be concluded that tensile and
printing of support structure, as shown in Fig. 4(c). Moreover, flexural properties strongly depend on the variation of raster
in FDM-printing of these PLA composite parts, wood-based angle as well as build orientation. For PLA and its compos-
PLA sample is the most difficult one to be fabricated. Delam- ites, the best tensile and flexural properties could be obtained
ination defect, as illustrated in Fig. 5 usually occurs if the when external loading direction is parallel to the build ori-
printing variables cannot be controlled properly. A summary entations and raster angles of printed filaments are oriented
of printing formability of virgin PLA and its composites under longitudinally (e.g. the cases in flat and on-edge orientations).
different printing conditions is given in Table 2. It is observed On the contrary, the worse tensile and flexural properties
that ceramic, copper and aluminum-based PLA samples could could be obtained when the tested specimen are loaded along
not be completely printed in upright orientation. the build orientation (e.g. the cases in upright orientations)
due to weak interlayer bonding.
3.2. Mechanical properties As for tensile and flexural properties between PLA and its
composites with different filler materials, an obvious differ-
Most previous works reported that mechanical properties of ence of mechanical behaviors would be witnessed. In order
FDM-printed polymer components rely on the printing vari- to quantify and facilitate the analysis of tensile and flex-
ables, in which printing raster angle and orientation play an ural properties, the tensile and flexural modulus, ultimate
important role on mechanical performance of these compo- strength, and strain at break were calculated and summa-
nents. In order to assess the mechanical characteristics of PLA rized in Tables 3 and 4. Results have demonstrated that
composites, the effects of printing raster angle and build ori- tensile and flexural properties are very sensitive to the filler
entation on mechanical properties were analyzed in this study materials. Overall, by adding ceramic, copper and aluminum
through tensile and flexural tests. The stress–strain curves for powders into virgin PLA, the tensile and flexural modulus,
tensile and flexural tests are presented in Figs. 6 and 7, respec- strength as well as strain at break are still close or even
tively. As shown, for PLA and its composites, the stress–strain increased compared to that of virgin PLA under different
curves, in the initial stage, follow the Hooke’s law (strain printing orientations and raster angles. The maximum tensile
modulus of 1056.31 MPa and flexural modulus of 4621.37 MPa
for ceramic-based PLA samples were obtained. While, the sec-
ond largest tensile strength of 58.28 MPa and the maximum
flexural strength of 118.67 MPa were obtained for copper-based
PLA samples. As for wood and chopped carbon fiber-based PLA
samples, the tensile and flexural modulus and strength are
both decreased to some extent. It is evident that there is no
Fig. 5 – Delamination defect in the printing of wood-based obvious improvement on elongation or deflection at break for
PLA. all PLA composites compared to that of virgin PLA.
3746
Table 3 – Mechanical properties of tensile tests for different PLA composites.
Mechanical properties of Printing orientations Layer deposition Materials
tensile tests

j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(5):3741–3751
PLA PLA+wood PLA+ceramic PLA+copper PLA+aluminum PLA+carbon fiber

Tensile modulus, Flat ◦ ◦


0 /90 707.1 656.8 1042.5 1002.6 838.4 596.4
MPa +45◦ /−45◦ 712.2 696.7 1056.3 1016.9 779.5 670.0
On-edge 0◦ /90◦ 901.0 808.1 962.4 883.2 649.7 745.7
+45◦ /−45◦ 800.5 784.1 907.2 836.2 760.9 717.4
Upright 0◦ /90◦ 696.2 645.0 – – – 427.1
+45◦ /−45◦ 738.7 673.0 – – – 584.3
Tensile strength, Flat 0◦ /90◦ 42.4 29.5 43.2 40.3 40.2 32.8
MPa +45◦ /−45◦ 47.0 33.4 46.3 49.3 42.8 31.6
On-edge 0◦ /90◦ 63.4 35.9 46.5 53.7 46.8 38.2
+45◦ /−45◦ 67.6 38.7 45.0 58.3 51.1 41.3
Upright 0◦ /90◦ 30.5 19.1 – – – 16.8
+45◦ /−45◦ 27.8 19.1 – – – 20.0
Elongation at break, Flat 0◦ /90◦ 6% 5% 5% 8% 5% 8%
% +45◦ /−45◦ 5% 5% 5% 5% 7% 6%
On-edge 0◦ /90◦ 7% 5% 6% 6% 7% 6%
+45◦ /−45◦ 8% 6% 7% 7% 7% 6%
Upright 0◦ /90◦ 3% 4% – – – 5%
+45◦ /−45◦ 4% 3% – – – 4%
Table 4 – Mechanical properties of flexural tests for different PLA composites.
Mechanical properties of Printing orientations Layer deposition Materials

j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(5):3741–3751
flexural tests
PLA PLA+wood PLA+ceramic PLA+copper PLA+aluminum PLA+carbon fiber

Flexural modulus, Flat ◦ ◦


0 /90 2075.2 1696.8 3022.3 2174.0 2492.1 1738.4
MPa +45◦ /−45◦ 2446.4 1749.8 3128.3 2227.0 2470.9 1729.7
On-edge 0◦ /90◦ 2286.8 2704.3 4503.0 3118.9 3207.5 2844.3
+45◦ /−45◦ 2538.4 2651.3 4621.4 3845.1 3275.8 2939.2
Upright 0◦ /90◦ 2605.9 1992.8 – – – 1325.7
+45◦ /−45◦ 2478.3 1653.0 – – – 1272.6
Flexural strength, Flat 0◦ /90◦ 69.7 40.4 57.8 55.5 62.8 50.3
MPa +45◦ /−45◦ 79.5 52.1 70.1 66.3 64.7 47.6
On-edge 0◦ /90◦ 104.5 70.4 97.2 107.6 91.5 74.2
+45◦ /−45◦ 109.5 71.0 100.1 118.7 97.8 75.6
Upright 0◦ /90◦ 51.9 37.9 – – – 30.9
+45◦ /−45◦ 42.4 27.1 – – – 25.9
Deflection at break, Flat 0◦ /90◦ 3% 2% 2% 3% 4% 4%
% +45◦ /−45◦ 4% 4% 3% 3% 5% 5%
On-edge 0◦ /90◦ 4% 3% 3% 3% 6% 5%
+45◦ /−45◦ 3% 4% 3% 3% 7% 5%
Upright 0◦ /90◦ 2% 3% – – – 3%
+45◦ /−45◦ 2% 2% – – – 3%

3747
3748 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(5):3741–3751

Fig. 6 – Tensile stress–strain curves of different PLA


composites with two raster angle combinations under Fig. 7 – Flexural stress–strain curves of different PLA
different printing orientations: (a) flat, (b) on-edge, (c) composites with two raster angle combinations under
upright. different printing orientations: (a) flat, (b) on-edge, (c)
upright.

In addition to the effects of filler materials, mechanical


properties are also greatly affected by printing orientations
and raster angles. For example, in flat orientation, tensile mod- samples could be attributed to defects such as high poros-
ulus and tensile strength in layer deposition (+45◦ /−45◦ ) are ity, poor compaction and adhesion between filament layers.
higher than those in layer deposition (0◦ /90◦ ). It is noted that, Take FDM-printed wood-based PLA samples for instance, the
in most cases, layer deposition (+45◦ /−45◦ ) can be adopted above-mentioned defects are witnessed more obviously from
in flat and on-edge orientations to increase the mechanical images B1–B6 in Fig. 8 for tensile tests and b1–b6 in Fig. 9
properties, expect the case in upright orientation. for flexural tests. This would explain the reasons why the
mechanical strength of ceramic, copper and aluminum-based
3.3. Fracture morphology PLA composites, no matter in tensile or flexural tests, is higher
than that of wood and carbon fiber-based PLA composites.
To further understand the mechanical behaviors of FDM- As discussed previously, raster angle and build orientation
printed PLA composite parts, an analysis of fracture also lead to the variation of mechanical behaviors for PLA
morphology for all samples was performed. Figs. 8 and 9 show parts with the same shape. Optical images have demonstrated
the optical images of fracture morphology of samples after that in flat and on-edge orientations, low porosity could be
tensile and flexural tests, respectively. It is evident that more noticed for the samples with +45◦ /−45◦ raster angles com-
dense interlayer structures that are very close to the virgin pared to the ones with 0◦ /90◦ raster angles. This phenomenon
PLA were observed from images in the cases of ceramic, cop- could further confirm the high mechanical strength achieved
per and aluminum-based PLA samples than those of wood by samples with +45◦ /−45◦ raster angles in most cases of PLA
and carbon fiber-based PLA ones. In other words, the low composite parts in Tables 3 and 4. Furthermore, the interlayer
mechanical strength of wood and carbon fiber-based PLA structure of samples printed in on-edge orientation usually
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(5):3741–3751 3749

Fig. 8 – Optical images of fracture morphology for all printed samples after tensile tests.

has better compaction and adhesion than the counterparts consideration. The key research findings are summarized as
in flat orientation with the same raster angle, as more layers follows:
need to be printed in this scheme but the layer bonding direc-
tion is perpendicular to the loading direction, which would i) Virgin PLA, wood and carbon fiber-based PLA have bet-
carry more loading force. For the samples in upright case, there ter printing formability than the ceramic, copper and
is no obvious difference in optical images observed between aluminum-based PLA in upright orientation.
0◦ /90◦ raster angles and +45◦ /−45◦ raster angles. However, due ii) The similar or even enhanced mechanical properties of
to the weak interlayer bonding, the upright samples cannot FDM-printed ceramic, copper and aluminum-based PLA
carry more load, thereby leading to the weakest mechanical samples have been obtained compared with virgin PLA.
strength among the samples in all build orientations. Adding wood and chopped carbon fiber into virgin PLA sig-
nificantly lower its mechanical properties. Moreover, PLA
composite samples that are FDM-printed in on-edge ori-
entation with +45◦ /−45◦ raster angles have the highest
4. Conclusions
mechanical strength in most cases. While, all the sam-
ples printed along upright orientation have the weakest
In this paper, the mechanical properties of PLA and its com-
mechanical strength and modulus due to weak interlayer
posites have been evaluated taking the effects of important
bonding.
printing variables, i.e. build orientation and raster angle into
3750 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(5):3741–3751

Fig. 9 – Optical images of fracture morphology for all printed samples after flexural tests.

iii) The fracture surfaces for the samples after tensile and ties (WUT:2017IVA017 and 2017III047) for undertaking this
flexural tests have been analyzed in detail. The low work.
mechanical properties of wood and carbon fiber-based PLA
composite parts would be attributed to defects such as
high porosity, poor compaction and adhesion between fil-
references
ament layers, compared to virgin PLA, as well as ceramic,
copper and aluminum-based PLA composite samples.

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