REVISION NOTES – RES3025: UNITS ON A PAGE

UNIT ONE ON A PAGE:

Introduction to Research in Business and Management
General definition of research:
 “The systematic process of collecting and analysing information (data) in order to increase
our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested”
 “A process of steps used to collect and analyse information in order to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue”

Definition of Business Research:

 “Business research: an organized and systematic inquiry or investigation into a specific
problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it.”
 “The systematic and objective process of gathering, recording, and analysing data for aid in
making business decisions.”

Definition of Basic Research:

 generates a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in
organizations can be solved.
 “Aims to solve perplexing questions or obtain new knowledge of an experimental or
theoretical nature that has little direct or immediate impact on action, performance, or
policy decisions.”

Definition of Applied Research:

 “solves a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely
solution.”
 is conducted to reveal answers to specific questions related to action, performance, or
policy needs.”

Definition of the Scientific Method:

 is a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing
predictions, and interpreting results.
 attempts to minimize the influence of the researchers’ bias on the outcome of the research

Main characteristics that distinguish Scientific Research from common research:

Purposiveness: Research should have a definite aim or purpose.

Rigor A good theoretical base and sound methodological design give rigor to the research.
Rigor indicates carefulness and degree of exactitude in research.

Testability ”Scientific research lends itself to testing logically developed hypothesis to see
whether or not data support the educated conjecture or hypothesis.”

Replicability The results of the test of hypothesis should be supported again and again when
same type of research is conducted in other similar circumstances.

Precision Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a sample.
& Confidence Precision reflects the degree of exactness and accuracy of the results on the basis of
samples. Also known as confidence interval in statistics.

Confidence refers to the probability that our estimation are correct so that we can
confidently claim that 95% of the time our results will be true and there is only 5%
chance of our results being false.”

Objectivity The conclusion drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis
should be objective that is, they should be based on facts of the findings derived
from actual data and not on our own subjective or emotional values.

Generalizability It refers to the scope of replicability of the research findings in one organizational
settings to others, the wider the range of replicability of the solution generated by
the research the more useful the research is to the user.”

Parsimony Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problem that occurs in generating the
solutions of the problem is preferred as compared to complex research frame work.

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Problem Statement
A good problem statement contains:

Research Objective: Why? (of the research)

 to solve a specific problem in a work setting
 to change something

Research Questions: What? (of the research)

 What you want to learn?
 translates problems into a specific need for information
 are related to the objective

Ethics:
 Ethical conduct should also be reflected in the behavior of the researchers who conduct the
investigation, the participants who provide the data, the analysts who provide the results, and
the entire research team that presents the interpretation of the results and suggests alternative
solutions.

Rights and obligations of respondent: Truthful, Privacy, Deception, Informed, and

Concealment/Confidentiality

Rights and obligations of the researcher: Objectivity, Protect the right to confidentiality of both
subjects and clients, and Advocacy research

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UNIT TWO ON A PAGE:

Qualitative Research Designs in Business Studies

Definition of Qualitative Research:

❑ A naturalistic, interpretative approach, concerned with exploring a phenomena from the “interior”
and taking the perspectives and accounts of research participants as starting points
❑ Research involving analysis of data/information that are descriptive in nature and not readily
quantifiable.

Qualitative Research is appropriate for the study of: Practices; types of behaviour, Encounters, Roles,
Relationships, Groups, and Lifestyles/Subcultures

Quantitative VS Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Theory Confirmation Emergent
Researcher/Subject Distant Close
Research Strategy Structured Unstructured
Social Reality Static, external to actor Socially constructed
Data Reliable Rich, Deep

Differences Between Qualitative Research And Quantitative Research

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Aim  Exploration of participants’ experiences  Search for causal explanations
and life world  Testing hypothesis, prediction, control
 Understanding, generation of theory
from data
Approach  Broad focus  Narrow focus
 Process oriented  Product oriented
 Context-bound, mostly natural setting  Context free, often in artificial or laboratory
 Getting close to participants setting

Sample  Participants, informants  Respondents, participants (the term

 Sampling units such as place, time and “subjects” in now discouraged in the social
concept sciences)
 Purposive and theoretical sampling  Randomized sampling
 Flexible Sampling that develops during  Sample frame fixed before research starts
the research
Data  In-depth non-standardized interviews  Questionnaires, standardized interviews
Collection  Participant observation/fieldwork  Tightly structured observations
 Documents, photographs, videos  Documents
 Randomized controlled trails

Analysis  Thematic, constant comparative analysis  Statistical analysis

 Grounded theory, ethnographic analysis,
etc
Outcome  A story, an ethnography, a theory  Measurable results
Relationship  Direct involvement of researcher  Limited involvement of researcher
 Research relationship close  Research relationship distant
Rigor  Trustworthiness, authenticity  Internal/external validity, reliability
 Typicality and transferability  Generalizability

Exploratory Research
An exploratory research is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or no
information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past. In such
cases, extensive preliminary work needs to be done to understand what is occurring, assess the magnitude of
the problem, and/or gain familiarity with the phenomena in the situation.
Exploratory research often relies on secondary data such as review of literature and/or qualitative
approaches to data gathering. Exploratory studies are usually not generalized to the population.

Qualitative Research Designs

 Case Study – to understand one person or situation (or perhaps a very small number) in great depth
 Ethnography – to understand how behaviours reflect the culture of a group
 Phenomenological Studies – to understand an experience from the participants’ point of view
 Grounded Theory – to derive a theory from data collected in a natural setting
 Content Analysis – to identify the specific characteristics of a body of material

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Sources of Data:
 Primary data: information obtained first-hand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the
specific purpose of the study. Examples: individuals, focus groups, panels
 Secondary data: information gathered from sources already existing. Examples: company records or
archives, government publications, industry analyses offered by the media, web sites, the Internet,
and so on.

Data Collection Techniques for Qualitative Research:

Interviews:
 Unstructured interviews:
 the interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to
be asked of the respondent.

 Structured interviews:
 Conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed.
 The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the respondents either
personally, through the telephone, or via the computer.

 Telephone vs Personal

 Self-administered

 Projected method
 Word association technique – respondents associate a word with the first thing that comes
to mind (attitude or feelings)
 Thematic apperception tests (TAT) – respondents weave a story around a picture

Observation: Observation involves going into ‘the field’, - the factory, the supermarket, the waiting room,
the office, or the trading room - watching what workers, consumers, or day traders do, and
describing, analyzing, and interpreting what one has seen.

Types of observations:
 Controlled observation occurs when observational is carried out under carefully arranged
conditions.
 Uncontrolled observation is an observational technique that makes no attempt to control,
manipulate or influence the situation.
 Participant observation is an approach that has frequently been used in case studies, ethnographic
studies, and grounded theories. In Participant observation the researcher gathers data by
participating in the daily life of the group or organization under study.
 In Non-participant observation, the researcher is never directly involved in the actions of the
actors, but observes them from outside the actors’ visual horizon, for instance, via a one-way mirror
or a camera.
 In Structured observational studies, the researcher has a predetermined set of categories of
activities or phenomena planned to be studies. Structured observation is generally quantitative in
nature.
 In unstructured observation, the researcher records practically everything that is observed.
Unstructured observation are claimed to be the hallmark of qualitative research.
 Concealment of observation relates to whether members of the social group under study are told
that they are being studied. A primary advantage of concealed observation is that the researcher
subjects are not influenced by the awareness that they are being observed.
 Unconcealed observation is more obtrusive, perhaps upsetting the authenticity of the behaviour
under study.

Analysis of Qualitative Data

 Data reduction via coding (themes, categories, etc)

 Data display using charts, tables, graphs, etc.

 Drawing and verifying conclusions.

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UNIT THREE ON A PAGE:

Quantitative Research Designs in Business Studies
Definition of Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is the systematic investigation of observable phenomena through the
use of statistical and mathematical techniques.

Quantitative Research Approaches

 Descriptive Approach: Utilizes data collection and analysis techniques that yield reports
concerning the measures of central tendency, variation, and correlation. Descriptive
Research seeks to identify the characteristics of an observed phenomenon or to explore the
relationships among or between variables

Descriptive Designs:

 Correlational - This research design seeks to investigate the extent to which

differences in one variable are related to (or not related to) differences in one or
other set of variables.

 Developmental - This approach to conducting research seeks to identify how

features of a population may change over time. This can be achieved either as a
cross-sectional or developmental study.
 Longitudinal - In a longitudinal study a single group of persons is tracked over
time to see what changes occur with them over that period.
 Cross-sectional – data collected from different groups at the same time.

 Observational - Quantitative observational research is the process of quantifying

the specific kinds of the behaviour of individuals.

 Survey - Survey studies collect data at a single point in time, much like a still-life
camera takes a snap shot.

 Experimental Approach: a study design in which the researcher might create an artificial
setting, control some variables, and manipulate the independent variable to establish cause
and effect-relationships.

Experimental Designs:

 Ex post facto experimental design: Studying subjects who have already been
exposed to a stimulus and comparing them to those not so exposed, so as to
establish cause-and-effect relationships.
 In a quasi-experimental design, the research substitutes statistical "controls" for
the absence of physical control of the experimental situation. The most common
quasi-experimental design is the Comparison Group Pre-test/Post-test Design. This
design is the same as the classic controlled experimental design except that the
subjects cannot be randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control
group, or the researcher cannot control which group will get the treatment. In other
words, participants do not all have the same chance of being in the control or the
experimental groups, or of receiving or not receiving the treatment.

Data Collection Techniques used in Quantitative Studies

 Direct Observation
 Experiments
 Surveys/Questionnaires *
 Records

* If items on the questionnaires are open ended; the data being collected is qualitative in nature.

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UNIT FOUR ON A PAGE:

LITERATURE REVIEW
What is a literature review?
A literature review is the selection of available documents (both published and unpublished) on the
topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence written from a particular standpoint to
fulfill certain aims or express certain views on the nature of the topic and how it is to be
investigated, and the effective evaluation of these documents in relation to the research being
proposed.

Functions of the Literature Review

 Research builds on existing knowledge
 One does “reinvent the wheel”
 Look at a problem from a specific angle
 Find out what variables are important to consider
 Introduce relevant terminology/provide definitions
 Provide arguments for the relationships variables
 Testability and replicability are enhanced.
 Research findings are related to findings of others

Three stages at which the literature review is needed

 an early review is needed to establish the context and rationale for your study and to
confirm your choice of research focus/question;
 as the study period gets longer, you need to make sure that you keep in touch with
current, relevant research in your field, which is published during the period of your
research;
 as you prepare your final report or thesis, you need to relate your findings to the
findings of others, and to identify their implications for theory, practice, and research.

Effective Literature Review

 Outlining important research trends
 Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of existing research
 Identifying potential gaps in knowledge
 Establishing a need for current and/or future research projects

Steps for writing a literature review

 Planning
 Reading and Research
 Analyzing
 Drafting
 Revising

Four analysis tasks of the literature review

 Summarize
 Synthesize
 Critique
 Compare

Organization
 Topical
 Distant to close
 Debate
 Chronological
 Seminal

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UNIT FIVE ON A PAGE:

DESIGNING, PLANNING & CONDUCTING BUSINESS RESEARCH
Variables

A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies.

Dependent Variable
The dependent variable is the variable a researcher is interested in It depends on other
factors that are measured. These variables are expected to change as a result of an
experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. It is the presumed
effect.

Independent Variable
An independent variable is a variable believed to affect the dependent variable. It is
stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to measure. It refers to the
condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by the investigator. It is the
presumed cause.

Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale: A scale of measurement in which the scale values represent categories that
only differ from one another qualitatively (i.e., differ in “type” rather than in
“amount”). Variables measured using a nominal scale are also known as
“qualitative” variables. Examples are: ethnic group, major, religious
affiliation, course of study, gender, etc.
For nominal scale, think of names.

Ordinal Scale: A scale of measurement in which the scale values represent categories that
differ quantitatively in term of order, but in which the intervals between
numbers (i.e., between categories) cannot be assumed to be equal. For
example, John is taller than Jane. This statement does not state how much
taller.
For ordinal scale, you could think of order or ranking.

Interval Scale: A scale of measurement in which the distance between any two adjacent
scores is the same as the distance between any other two adjacent scores.
However, there is no “true” or “neutral” zero point and therefore meaningful
ratios cannot be formed. Numbers are spread across equal intervals without
a natural zero point.

Ratio Scale: With ratio scales, the scale values are numbers that represent equal
distances in some attribute, and there also is an absolute zero point. Thus,
meaningful ratios can be formed. Examples: length, height, time, number of
errors made performing a task, exam grade, number of tickets sold, etc.

Evaluating Measures

Accuracy: The degree to which an instrument yields results that agree with accepted
standard. Examples, time, length, weight, decibels, etc.

Reliability: The extent to which a measure yields consistent results. The following are
different types of reliability:

Test-retest: The reliability coefficient obtained by repetition of the same measure on a

second occasion is called the test-retest reliability.

Parallel-form: When responses on two comparable sets of measures tapping into the same
construct are highly correlated, we have parallel-form reliability.

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Interitem
Consistency: The interitem consistency reliability is a test of the consistency of
respondent’s answers to all the items in a measure. The most common test
of internal consistency is Cronbach’s Coefficient alpha (Chronbach’s alpha).
In general, reliabilities less than 0.60 are considered to be poor, those
in the 0.70 range, acceptable, and those over 0.80 good.

Validity: The extent to which a measure truly assesses what it is claimed to measure;
the degree to which the measure achieves the aims for which it was
designed. The following are different types of validity:

Face Validity: The extent to which a measure simply appears to be a reasonable measure
of some trait.

Content validity: The degree to which the content of a measure (e.g., an IQ test, job aptitude
test, achievement test) covers representative sample of the domain (e.g.,
intelligence, job skills, knowledge) being assessed.

Criterion validity: The degree to which scores on a measure are meaningful to predict some
current or future behaviour.

Construct validity: The degree to which a construct (e.g., intelligence, self-esteem,

aggressiveness) is valid; also, the degree to which a particular instrument is
valid of that construct. There are two subtypes of construct validity:

Convergent validity: Scores on a measure should a) relate to scores on other

already validated measures of the same construct, and b) to scores on
measures of other constructs to which, according to theory, they should be
related. For example, we claim that a new test measures “verbal
intelligence” . Test scores should correlate highly with already-validated
verbal intelligence tests.

Discriminant or Divergent validity: Scores on a measure should not relate to

scores on measures of other constructs to which, according to theory, they
should not be related. For example, if, according to theory, shyness and
creativity are independent constructs, then scores on a test of shyness
should not correlate significantly with scores on an already validated test of
creativity.

Sampling Designs
Sample Design Description
Simple random All elements in the population are considered and each
sampling element has an equal chance of being chosen.
Systematic sampling Every nth element in the population is chosen starting from
Probability Sampling

a random point in the sample frame.

Stratified random Population is first divided into meaningful segments;
sampling thereafter, subjects are drawn in proportion to their
original numbers in the population
Cluster sampling Groups that have heterogeneous members are first
identified; then some are chosen at random; all the
members in each of the randomly chosen groups are
studied.
Area sampling Cluster sampling within a particular area or locality
Double sampling The same sample or a subset of the sample is studied
twice
Convenience sampling The most easily accessible members are chosen as
Non-probability

subjects
sampling

Judgement sampling Subjects selected on the basis of their experience in the

subject investigated

Quota sampling Subjects are conveniently chosen from targeted groups

according to some predetermined number or quota.

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UNIT SIX ON A PAGE:

BUSINESS RESEARCH REPORTS AND PROPOSALS
The Written Report
 The key purpose of any research report is to offer a clear description of what has
been done in the various stages of the research process.
 Important to identify the specific purpose of the report, so that it can be tailored
accordingly.
 Results of the study and recommendations to solve the problem have to be
effectively communicated to the sponsor, so that suggestions made are accepted and
implemented.
 Contents and organization of written report and oral presentation depend on the
purpose of the research study, and the audience to which it is targeted.

Characteristics of a Well-Written Report

 Clarity
 Conciseness
 Coherence
 The right emphasis on important aspects
 Meaningful organization of paragraphs
 Smooth transition from one topic to the next
 Apt choice of words
 Specificity

Abstract and executive summary

It is important for students to understand the difference between abstract and executive
summary writing. Although they share some similarities in formality, they both have
different purposes.

The abstract

 Most research articles and reports are prefaced by an abstract.

 An abstract is an overview of the entire text.
 An abstract is sometimes called a synopsis.
 Unlike the introduction, which leads the audience to the body of the text, the
abstract is a text about a text – it provides a commentary on the text that follows
from beginning to end.
 It is a short, half to one-page summary where each new sentence introduces new
information so that a concise summary is achieved without paragraphing.
 An abstract is usually written impersonally.
 Check that your abstract has at least one sentence about each section of the report,
in the same order.
 It should be written after the report is completed, when you have an overview of the
whole text, and placed on the first page of the report.

The executive summary

 An executive summary is derived from the business practice of giving executives a
concise outline of the main points in a report, indicating where in the report to
locate more detailed information.
 The summary may consist of several pages for a long report, and may include
headings and dot points or numbered points.
 It must be concise and without fine detail, providing a commentary on the main
points only and following the sequence of the report itself.
 Like the abstract, it should be written after the report is completed, when you have
an overview of the whole text, and placed on the first page of the report.

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The Research Proposal For Qualitative Studies

Chapter 1 - Introduction
 General background for the study
 Purpose of the study
 Guiding questions
 Delimitations and limitations
 Significance of the study

Chapter 2 – Methodology
 Theoretical framework
 Type of design and the assumptions that under lie it
 The role of the researcher (including qualifications and assumptions)
 Selection and description of the site and participants
 Data collection strategies
 Methods of achieving validity

Chapter 3 - Findings
 Relationship to literature
 Relationship to theory
 Relationship to practice

Chapter 4 - Management plan, timeline, feasibility

 Relationship to literature
 Relationship to theory
 Relationship to practice

References

Appendices

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The Research Proposal For Quantitative Studies

Chapter 1 - Introduction
 The nature and extent of the problem (background)
 Problem statement
 Purpose statement
 Objectives or Research Questions or Hypotheses
 Significance of the study
 Definition of key terms

Chapter 2 – Review of Literature

 Introduction
 Body (with appropriate sub-headings)
 Conceptual Framework (What theory supports your study or
contradicts your study)
 Conclusion

Chapter 3 - Methods and Procedures

 Introduction
 Research design
 Method (Qualitative, Quantitative or Mixed)
 Approach (Descriptive, Experimental, etc.)
 Design (Quantitative: Survey, Correlational, etc.)
 Design (Qualitative: Ethnography, Grounded Theory, etc.)
 Population & Sample
 Instrumentation (Data collecting instruments)
 Instrument
 Validity
 Reliability
 Data Analysis (statistical or other analysis to be performed) – software
package?
 Ethical considerations
 Limitations
 Timeline & Budget
 Conclusion

References

Appendices

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The Research Report – Quantitative Studies

Preliminary Pages
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Acknowledgements
4. Table of Contents
5. List of Tables
6. List of Figures

Body of the Report

Chapter 1: Introduction
 The nature and extent of the problem (background)
 Problem statement
 Purpose statement
 Objectives or Research Questions or Hypotheses
 Significance of the study
 Definition of key terms

Chapter 2: Review of Literature

 Introduction
 Body (with appropriate sub-headings)
 Conceptual Framework (What theory supports your study or contradicts
your study)
 Conclusion

Chapter 3: Methods and Procedures

 Introduction
 Research design
 Method (Qualitative, Quantitative or Mixed)
 Approach (Descriptive, Experimental, etc.)
 Design (Quantitative: Survey, Correlational, etc.)
 Design (Qualitative: Ethnography, Grounded Theory, etc.)
 Population & Sample
 Instrumentation (Data collecting instruments)
 Instrument
 Validity
 Reliability
 Data Analysis (statistical or other analysis to be performed) – software package?
 Ethical considerations
 Limitations
 Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results & Discussions

 Introduction
 Research Question 1 / Hypothesis 1
 Research Question 2 / Hypothesis 2
 Research Question 3 / Hypothesis 3
 Conclusion

Chapter 5: Findings and Recommendations

 Introduction
 Research Question 1 / Hypothesis 1
 Research Question 2 / Hypothesis 2
 Research Question 3 / Hypothesis 3
 Conclusion

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