Middle Grades Review

Volume 8 Issue 3 Article 4

December 2022

Reported Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools:

A Review of the Literature
Paul Caldarella
Brigham Young University- Provo, [email protected]

Malka S. Moya
Brigham Young University - Provo, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation
Caldarella, P., & Moya, M. S. (2022). Reported Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools: A Review of the
Literature. Middle Grades Review, 8(3). https://scholarworks.uvm.edu/mgreview/vol8/iss3/4

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Reported Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools: A Review of the Literature

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The first and second authors shared equally in the preparation of this article and are listed alphabetically
by last name.

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 Caldarella and Moya: Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools

Reported Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools: A Review of the Literature

Paul Caldarella, Brigham Young University– Provo

Malka S. Moya, Brigham Young University – Provo

Abstract

Middle school is a time of adjustments in youth: physical, intellectual, and social changes often
result in stress. Middle school students are vulnerable to academic, behavioral, and mental health
problems. Yoga is an Indian discipline practiced for health and relaxation. School-based yoga
programs are becoming increasingly common given their potential benefits for students. We
conducted a literature review of studies of middle school-based yoga programs, focusing on the
reported benefits for students. We identified and retrieved 12 studies from electronic databases
including Education Resources Information Center, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar that met
inclusion criteria: (a) examined the benefits of yoga as the primary intervention conducted in a
middle school setting with students ages 10 to 15 years old, (b) was published by June 2022, (c) was
reviewed either by a journal editorial board or by a student’s dissertation or thesis committee, (d)
was available in English, and (e) a full text copy was available. Results of studies were synthesized
by clustering findings into common domains. Study results suggested that middle school-based
yoga interventions showed mental health, executive functioning, physical, social, and academic
benefits for students. Yoga also showed benefits for middle school students who were stressed,
anxious, or depressed, and those at risk. We provide considerations for those contemplating the
implementation of yoga in middle schools.

Introduction dropout. Coelho and Romao (2016) found

decreased self-concept and self-esteem
Middle school is a time of stress and resulting after the transition to middle school.
vulnerability for students. Graduating from Chung et al. (1998) studied 99 students
elementary to middle school comes with the moving from elementary to middle school
change of having one teacher to six or seven, and found decreased levels of academic
and the related challenges of transitioning achievement. Other studies have similarly
from one authority figure to several found that the transition to middle grades is
(Bernstein, 2002). Students also experience associated with negative impacts on student
rapid physical, intellectual, and social grade point averages (GPA) and other
changes at different rates and different times, measures of academic achievement (Dotterer,
while educational contexts and social et al., 2009; Gutman et al., 2000).
expectations are expanding (Young et al.,
2012). This vulnerable time is associated with Middle school is also a time when students
a variety of academic, behavioral, and mental struggle with increased levels of behavioral
health challenges. problems. Harrison and colleagues (2012)
found the most common adolescent problem
During the transition to middle school, many behaviors reported by teachers were
students experience decreased interest and distractibility, hyperactivity, anxiety, and
motivation in school along with lower immature behaviors. Such difficulties are
academic achievement (Young et al., 2012). reflected in middle school office discipline
The Middle School Matters Institute (2020) referrals, which are most frequently related to
noted that, “The middle grades are the ‘make disrespect, defiance, and disruption
it or break it’ years” (p. 1) for some students (Kaufman et al., 2010). Middle school
as they begin to disengage from school, students may also begin to refuse to follow
increasing their chances of later school

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 Middle Grades Review, Vol. 8, Iss. 3 [2022], Art. 4

directions or may engage in other non- of Hindu scriptures. The Bhagavad Gita first
compliant behaviors (Hecker et al., 2014). refers to yoga as an unbiased balance between
two polarized ends of a spectrum. A second
Various mental health difficulties and definition refers to avoiding fixed mindsets in
emotional disorders also begin to emerge favor of malleable mindsets to achieve
during adolescence (McGorry et al., 2011). happiness. A third definition is that yoga is
During the transition to middle school, the highest state of fulfillment, resilient to
students often alter their friendship groups despair and bereavement.
and experience decreased general social
support (Evans et al., 2018). Merikangas et al. According to the Bhagavad Gita, yoga was
(2010) reported data from the National first introduced to the Eastern hemisphere in
Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent the 1st millennium B.C. Yoga was brought to
Supplement indicating that anxiety disorders the West in the 1950s (Hammond, 2007).
were the most common (31.9%) during Priyadarshan (2018) notes several differences
adolescence, followed by behavior disorders between Eastern and Western orientations to
(19.1%), mood disorders (14.3%), and yoga. For example, in the East, yoga is seen as
substance use disorders (11.4%). The median an important part of the culture and as
age of onset for anxiety disorders was 6 years mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita has ties to
(with symptoms often persisting into middle everything from sustenance and nourishment
school years), 11 years for behavior disorders, to relationships with others. In the West, yoga
13 years for mood disorders, and 15 years for is often seen as another form of physical
substance use disorders. Such results show exercise. The East and West also differ in
the increasing prevalence of distress their approaches to meditation and
experienced by many middle school aged mindfulness. In the East, ample time is
adolescents. In fact, an estimated one-fourth naturally embedded into the day to allow for
of youth between the ages of 8 and 15 years yoga poses and quiet introspection. In the
have a mental health disorder: Unfortunately, West, yoga is often done at a set-aside time as
it is estimated that only about half receive a part of peoples’ busy days. Priyadarshan
treatment (Merikangas et al., 2009). goes on to note that in the East, people tend
to live more simply regarding their home, and
Changes and vulnerabilities during the apparel, and do more simplistic yoga
stressful middle school transition require postures. They may practice yoga alone or
varied school programs and opportunities. with only one other person. The West tends to
Schools are increasingly being asked to be more materialistic and focused on
provide initiatives targeting students’ social- appearances while practicing yoga. Yoga in
emotional competence, physical health, and the West is also viewed as more of a social
mental health (Diamond, 2010; Graham et event, with yearnings for challenging postures
al., 2011). An intervention that may benefit and more complex forms of practice such as
students is school-based yoga practice. The hot yoga. Hookham (2021) also points out
positive impact of yoga on adolescents has differences in the guru-student relationship
gained interest due to its increasing from East to West. In the East, a guru passes
popularity in the general population and an down traditional teachings to their students
increasing prevalence of school-based yoga to obtain spiritual awakening. The guru is
programs (Caldarella & Lulla, 2022; White, seen as a spiritual guide and the student will
2009). only achieve spiritual awakening if they open
their hearts and minds. In the West, the
Yoga relationship between student and yoga
teacher is more of a typical relationship
In ancient Indian philosophy, the term yoga between two individuals performing a
has held various meanings. A common business transaction or two casual friends.
meaning includes a mechanism of subduing
the mind and senses (Joshi, 1965). Yoga is There are different branches and styles of
referenced multiple times in the Bhagavad yoga each with distinct traditions and
Gita (Mitchell, 2007), one of the most sacred practices (Feuerstein, 2012). Yoga was

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 Caldarella and Moya: Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools

originally practiced for relieving suffering research designs used were quasi-
(duhkha) and gaining liberation (moksha or experimental (n = 54%), experimental (n =
nirvana) or enlightenment (bodhi). Today in 27%), qualitative (n = 14%), and mixed
the West, yoga does not align to any belief methods (n = 4%). Caldarella and Lulla noted
system or religion, rather it is considered a that high school-based yoga programs
practice for fostering inner wellbeing showed promise in terms of their physical,
(Basavaraddi, 2015). Reasons for practicing social, academic, and mental health benefits
yoga often include maintaining fitness, for students. Yoga also showed benefits for
improving health, calming the mind, and students who were stressed, anxious, or
living meaningfully (Feuerstein, 2003). depressed, and those at risk for abusing
Contemporary yoga consists of a combination substances or dropping out of school.
of physical postures (asanas), breathing
techniques (pranayama), and meditation Purpose
(dyana) (National Center for Complementary
and Integrative Health, n.d.). There has yet to be a literature review
specifically examining the benefits of yoga
Yoga in Schools implementation in middle school settings.
Therefore, this review focused on the
Research suggests that there has been an reported benefits of middle school-based
increase in yoga practice among school-aged yoga programs for students and
youth. Black et al. (2018) found a significant considerations for those wishing to
increase in the use of yoga among children implement such programs.
ages 4–17 years in the US, increasing from
approximately 3% in 2012 to over 8% in 2017. Review Search Strategy
Khalsa and Butzer (2016) identified eight
school-based yoga publications from 2000 to Education Resources Information Center
2009, increasing to 39 from 2010 to 2015. (ERIC), PsycINFO, and Google Scholar
Most of these studies were conducted in databases were used to locate studies. A
elementary schools, followed by high schools, variety of search terms were used including
and fewer in middle schools. The authors adolescence, middle school, yoga, yoga
found wide variability in these studies. For intervention, and yoga program.
example, between 5 and 100 yoga sessions Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods
were held; yoga ranged from 1 to 52 weeks; studies were included based on the following
and the duration of each yoga session ranged criteria: The study (a) examined the benefits
from 4 to 180 minutes. Khalsa and Butzer of yoga as the primary intervention
noted that school-based yoga research conducted in a middle or junior high school
appeared to be in the early stages as setting with students ages 10 to 15 years old;
evidenced by various study limitations such (b) was published by June 2022; (c) was
as small sample sizes, lack of randomization, reviewed either by a journal editorial board or
limited details about the intervention, and by a student’s dissertation or thesis
absence of control groups. committee; (d) was published in English; and
(e) a full text copy was available. We also
Caldarella and Lulla (2022) conducted a completed an ancestral search of all eligible
review of the reported benefits of high school- studies to locate additional sources.
based yoga programs and found a similar
increase in yoga studies. All 22 studies which Summary of Eligible Studies
met their inclusion criteria were published
since 2006, with the majority (60%) The 12 eligible studies reviewed in this paper,
published since 2013. Most studies (77%) as outlined in Table 1, were published
were conducted in the US with the remainder between 2001 and 2021.
conducted in India. The most common

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Table 1

Summary of Middle School Yoga Studies Reviewed

Study Design Type Participants Yoga Type and Student Benefits

Frequency Reported

Banerjee Quasi- 40 students in 7th Yoga (surya Significant increases in

(2014) experimental grade at a public namaskar, memory scores for both
school in Raipur, pranayama, males and females in
India (yoga n = 20, bhramari, omkar jap, the yoga group. No
control n = 20). and yoga nidra) significant changes in
50% female. practiced from 6am the control group.
to 7am; 60-minute
sessions daily for 60
days.

Bergen-Cico Quasi- 144 students in 6th Mindfulness Hatha Students in the yoga
et al. (2015) experimental grade at a middle yoga practiced 3 group demonstrated
school in Boston, times per week for 4 significant increases in
MA (yoga n = 72, min at the beginning both global and long-
control n = 72). of English language term self-regulation
50.5% female, arts class for compared to the control
predominantly approximately 6 group. Positive
White (57.5 %) and months. feedback from the
Asian (32.6 %). teacher and most
students regarding yoga
feasibility and effects.

Bhardwaj & Experimental 44 participants Yoga (breathing The yoga group showed
Agrawal (yoga n = 22, techniques, postures, a significant increase in
(2013) control n = 22) and relaxation the level of overall,
from a school in technique), or 35 general, and social self-
Haridwar, India minutes daily for six esteem.
ages ranged days a week for one
between 10 and 12 month.
years.

Butzer, Experimental 211 students in 7th Kripalu yoga Students in control

LoRusso, grade at an urban practiced for 45 condition significantly
Shin et al. public school in minutes, one or two more willing to try
(2017) Boston, MA sessions a week, for smoking cigarettes
randomly assigned six months. post-intervention than
to yoga (n = 117) or those in yoga condition.
physical education Females in yoga
class (n = 94). 63% condition improved
female, emotional self-control.
predominately
White (54%) and
Asian (31%).

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 Caldarella and Moya: Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools

Butzer, Qualitative 16 students in 7th Kripalu Yoga in the Students had positive
LoRusso, grade at a public School’s curriculum opinions of the effects
Windsor et school in Boston, practiced 1 to 2 times of yoga on stress, sleep,
al. (2017) MA. 50% female, per week for 35 min and relaxation, as well
predominantly integrated into generally positive
White (63%), Asian Physical Education opinions of yoga
(19%) and Black curriculum for helping with self-
(12%). approximately 6 regulation, social
months. interaction, substance
use, and academic
performance.

Frank et al. Experimental 159 students in 6th Transformative Life Students in the yoga
(2017) and 9th grades at a Skills (TLS) yoga group rated the
diverse, high curriculum taught in intervention positively
poverty inner city home room classes and showed significant
middle school in during 30-minute reductions in
CA. 53.5% male, sessions 3-4 unexcused absences
predominantly times/week for one and detentions, as well
Latino (54.2%), semester (18 weeks). as significant increases
mixed race in school engagement
(21.9%), and and positive stress
African American coping strategies,
(16.8%). emotion regulation, and
positive thinking.

Hagins et al. Experimental 30 students (yoga A 15-week 50 min No significant

(2013) n = 15, comparison yoga program two differences between
n = 15) in 6th times/week groups on physiological
grade at a New compared to a 50 min responses to behavioral
York City public physical education stressor tasks at post-
middle school. program. Yoga type test.
50% White, 4.17% NA.
Black, 8.33%
Asian, 16.67%
Hispanic, 20.83%
other.
Jain (2019) Quasi- 80 school students One-hour daily yoga Yoga practice was
experimental (yoga n = 40, for 6 days a week for beneficial in improving
comparison n = one month consisting memory, anxiety,
40) of 8-9th grade of Pranayama and mindfulness, and
within the age Asanas. attention
range of 13 to 15
years in India.

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Kwasky & Quasi- 15 female at-risk An 8-week Significant increases in

Serowoky experimental students ages 11– afterschool yoga students’ perceptions of
(2018) 14 in Detroit, program practiced social self-efficacy and
Michigan. 50% two times/week. Yoga physical flexibility, as
Hispanic, 43% type NA. well as significant
Caucasian, 7% decreases in waist
African American, circumference.
7% Arab/Muslim.

Manjunath Experimental 20 girls between 10 One hour fifteen Yoga training improved
& Telles and 13 years of age, minutes per day executive functioning
(2001) studying at a seven days a week for by reducing planning
residential school one month of yoga and execution time in
were randomly (Asanas, Pranayama, simple as well as
assigned to two Kriyas, meditation, complex tasks and
groups Yoga (n = Bhajans, and facilitated reaching a
10) vs physical relaxation target with a smaller
training (n = 10) in techniques). number of moves in a
India. complex task.

McMahon Quasi- 119 students, ages 6-weeks, with two 40 Students in the yoga
et al. (2021) experimental 11–14 from after- min classes per week program reported
school programs of Kundalini yoga. significant decreases in
for middle school emotion dysregulation
students in North across the program.
Carolina (yoga n = Students in the yoga
52, control n = 66) program also reported
42.5% African significant decreases in
American, 24.2% anger, depression, and
Latinx, 15% White, fatigue over one yoga
10% Asian, 5.8% session. Students in the
Multi-Racial. comparison condition
only reported decreases
in fatigue over one
session of the
alternative activity.

Rangan et Quasi- 49 boys in India 3 hours daily for one Planning and executive
al. (2008) experimental with ages ranging year using the abilities were better
from 11 to 13 years Gurukula education using the Tower of
who were part of a system with London test at the start
yoga curriculum yogasanas, ablutions, and the end of an
were compared to puja, yogic games, academic year with the
49 other boys who and pranayama. yoga group than the
were not in yoga non-yoga group.
(98 students total).

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 Caldarella and Moya: Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools

Two (17%) of the studies were published from Transformative Life Skills (TLS). Yoga classes
2001 and 2011 and 10 (83%) were published lasted an average of 58 min (range = 4 to 180
between 2012 and 2021. Seven of the studies min) and were held an average of 3 times per
(58%) were conducted in various parts of the week (range = 2 – 6) over an average of 15
US, while five (42%) were conducted in India. weeks (range = 4 - 48).
A total of 83% of the studies were conducted
in regular schools, while 17% were conducted Implementation Considerations
in alternative schools. The most common
research designs used were quasi- As the literature demonstrates, yoga appears
experimental (n = 6), followed by to provide various benefits for middle-school
experimental (n = 5), and qualitative (n = 1). students. It also appears acceptable and
The average study sample size was 77 (range feasible to implement yoga practice for at-risk
= 15 to 159). A variety of yoga practices were adolescents in middle school settings (Frank
implemented including pranayama (breath et al., 2017; Hagins et al., 2013; Kwasky &
regulation), asanas (body postures), omkar Serowoky, 2018; McMahon et al., 2021). A
jap and nidras (meditations), bhajans great deal can be learned from reviewing how
(songs), and yogic games. Some studies used middle schools have implemented yoga
specific types of yoga including Kripalu, programs in previous studies. This section
Mindfulness Hatha Yoga, Kundalini, and explores considerations for implementing
yoga in middle schools.

Table 2

Considerations for Implementing Yoga in Middle School

Implementation considerations

Time of day When will yoga lessons be conducted: Before, during, or after school?

Student gender Will students be comfortable with combined or separate gender yoga
groups?
Yoga instructors Will the school hire outside yoga instructors, or will staff members teach
yoga? What are the minimum qualifications required to teach yoga?
At-risk students Will students with particular risk factors affect how yoga is implemented?

Location Where will the yoga lessons be conducted? Will the setting need to be
adapted to provide privacy and minimal distractions and noise?
Other factors How will yoga be incorporated into the school schedule, classes, and
activities? Be prepared to respond to possible pushback from school faculty
and staff.

Time of Day frequently implemented while school was in

session (45%); this was done in English,
The studies reviewed were categorized in Homeroom, and Physical Education classes,
terms of the time during the school day when or interspersed throughout the school day
yoga was implemented. Yoga was most (Bergen-Cico et al., 2015; Butzer, LoRusso,

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Windsor et al., 2017; Frank et al., 2017; five trained yoga teachers in McMahon et al.,
Hagins et al., 2013; Rangan et al., 2008). Two 80% were female.
studies implemented yoga after school
(Kwasky & Serowoky, 2018; McMahon et al., At-Risk Students
2021). One study (Jain, 2019) implemented
yoga at a school camp. Banerjee (2014) was As stressors vary from school to school in
the sole study which implemented a yoga terms of socioeconomic status, neighborhood
intervention before school started. The risks, and adverse childhood experiences, this
remaining two studies did not specify the impacted how yoga was implemented. A total
time of day that yoga was implemented of 36% of the reviewed studies targeted at-
(Bhardwaj & Agrawal, 2013; Manjunath & risk students. The term at-risk in our review
Telles, 2001). refers to studies of students from low-
socioeconomic neighborhoods, in urban
Student Gender areas, from minoritized backgrounds, with
histories of academic and behavioral
The middle school studies we reviewed challenges, and/or adverse childhood
differed in terms of how students of different experiences. Low socioeconomic status refers
genders were involved. Most studies (64%) to a regions’ median income being below the
combined genders for their yoga classes poverty level, often with high unemployment,
(Banerjee, 2014; Bergen-Cico et al., 2015; low parental education, high welfare
Bhardwaj & Agrawal, 2013; Butzer, LoRusso, eligibility, and high rates of single parent
Windsor et al., 2017; Frank et al., 2017; families (Reardon, 2016).
Hagins et al., 2013; Jain, 2019). However,
two studies targeted only female students When implementing a yoga program for
(Kwasky & Serowoky, 2018; Manjunath & adolescent girls in a latch key afterschool
Telles, 2001) and Rangan et al. (2008) solely program, Kwasky and Serowoky (2018) made
targeted male students. McMahon et al. sure their students’ physical needs were met
(2021) implemented yoga interventions by loaning out workout leggings and yoga
separately to groups of male and female mats and offering a meal after class. When
students. implementing yoga in an inner-city high
poverty middle school, Frank et al. (2017)
Yoga Instructors focused lessons on teaching students to
understand the stress response, physical and
A total of 45% of the reviewed studies emotional awareness, self-regulation, and
mentioned using trained instructors to teach creating healthy relationships to reduce stress
yoga (Bhardwaj & Agrawal, 2013; Bergen- and promote social-emotional health and
Cico et al., 2015; Frank et al., 2017; Hagins et physical wellness. When working with at-risk
al., 2013; McMahon et al., 2021). In terms of middle school students with histories of
previous experience teaching yoga, only two academic and behavioral challenges,
studies provided that information. Frank et McMahon et al. (2011) focused on trauma
al. mentioned that their yoga instructors had informed yoga practices and teaching ways to
a few years of acquired experience in the cope with academic, emotional, and
school setting and at least two years teaching behavioral problems. One lesson contained
elsewhere. Hagins et al. stated their yoga positive self-talk mantras and discussion of
teachers had three and five years of yoga the concept of right action: channeling
teaching experience, respectively. The energy that is usually used for yearning,
remaining three studies did not disclose yoga jealousy, aggression, or physically attacking
teacher experience outside of their completed others into self-regulation, candor,
yoga training (Bhardwaj & Agrawal; Bergen- compassion, and altruism. This instruction
Cico et al.; McMahon et al.). In terms of was designed to encourage students to engage
gender of trained yoga teachers, only two in behaviors informed by their long-term
studies reported this. Bergen-Cico et al. noted goals instead of their short-term emotional
that their one yoga teacher was female. Of the reactions.

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 Caldarella and Moya: Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools

Location The sections below address the reported

benefits of yoga in detail. Specifics related to
Another consideration for implementing yoga youth who have been identified as at-risk are
in middle schools is the location of the also detailed in these sections.
practice. Yoga lessons must be conducted in
an open, clean, and safe space (Bhardwaj & Mental Health Benefits
Agrawal, 2013). Difficulties with the yoga
setting, such as distractions, noise, or lack of The most common reported benefits of yoga
hygiene in the environment, may pose in middle school were improvements in
barriers for students and reduce buy-in. students’ mental health, namely emotional
regulation, self-esteem, mood, anxiety, and
Other Factors depression. In fact, yoga has been referred to
as “a mental and emotional tool” for students
Other logistical factors must be addressed by (Conboy et al., 2013, p. 174). Research
schools before implementing a yoga program, suggests that yoga can have a positive impact
as noted by Caldarella and Lulla (2022). on adolescents’ capacities for emotional
These factors include whether yoga is offered regulation. Specifically, middle school
for school credit or as a club; whether it is students practicing yoga have been found to
conducted by trained school staff or external improve in their ability to self-regulate
yoga instructors; and whether yoga is offered anxiety, depression, and anger (Bergen-Cico
to all students or is focused on those that are et al., 2015; Butzer, LoRusso, Windsor et al.,
at risk. Will yoga be taught for extra credit, 2017; Frank et al., 2017; McMahon et al.,
used as an opening class exercise, offered as 2021).
an alternative class, be a replacement for
homeroom, be part of after school programs, A randomized controlled trial by Frank et al.
or dispersed throughout the day? Practicing (2017) divided 159 at-risk Californian urban
yoga as part of, or instead of, a general middle school students into either an 18-week
physical education class may also be yoga social emotional learning curriculum
considered (Butzer, LoRusso, Windsor et al., (30 minutes in their homeroom class three to
2017). In addition, being prepared to respond four days per week), or to a homeroom
to possible pushback from school faculty and control group. Students were considered at-
staff regarding the implementation of yoga in risk based on low SES, below average GPA,
middle schools, given the demands to teach and/or living in a single parent home or with
required academic content and the challenges other relatives. Students in the yoga
associated with implementing extracurricular homeroom class learned yoga positions,
programs. breathing strategies, and meditation. The
students were administered the Positive and
Reported Benefits of Yoga in Negative Affect for Children (Laurent et al.,
Middle Schools 1999) and the Response to Stress
Questionnaire (Connor-Smith et al., 2000).
Although yoga is not yet considered an Results demonstrated that students in the
evidence-based intervention in middle yoga class showed more progress in positive
schools, it shows reported benefits in several thinking, emotional regulation, and cognitive
areas, as described below. The literature restructuring than the control group.
suggests that middle school-based yoga
programs can help students in the areas of In another study, Butzer, LoRusso, Shin et al.
mental health, executive functioning, physical (2017) conducted an experimental study
health, social interactions, and academics where 211 seventh grade students were
(see Table 1). The literature reports favorable randomly assigned to yoga or a physical
outcomes for general middle school education class. The yoga group practiced
populations as well as for youth at risk due to Kripalu yoga for 45 minutes, one or two
poverty (Frank et al., 2017) and histories of sessions a week, for six months. Students
adverse childhood events in resource poor were administered multiple questionnaires
environments (Kwasky & Serowoky, 2018). pre, during, post, and follow up. The

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questionnaires included items from the Yoga also appears to have a positive impact
Kendall-Wilcox Self-Control Schedule on depressive symptoms and anger.
(Kendall & Williams, 1982), the Anger Following both a single session and six weeks
Control Subscale of the Children’s Anger of 40-minute sessions twice a week of an
management Scale (Zeman et al., 2002), the after-school Kundalini yoga intervention,
Children’s Sadness Management scale McMahon et al. (2021) found that 52 at-risk
(Zeman et al.), and the Substance Use middle school students with academic and
Willingness Scale from the Youth Risk behavioral challenges reported significantly
Behavior Survey (Center for Disease Control, fewer depressive and anger symptoms on the
2014). Long-term follow-up revealed a Depression Anxiety Distress Scale-21
pattern of delayed effects in which females in (Lovibond & Lovibond 1995) and the Profile
the yoga condition, and males in the physical of Mood States-Adolescents (POMS-A: Terry
education group, demonstrated et al., 1999) than an alternative activity
improvements in emotional regulation. comparison group.
Students in the yoga condition were also
significantly less willing to try smoking Butzer, LoRusso, Windsor et al. (2017)
cigarettes post-intervention than participants conducted a qualitative study of 16 students
in the control condition. who participated in a 35-minute Kripalu yoga
intervention twice a week for six months.
Yoga has also been reported to help middle Yoga classes consisted of centering and
school students increase self-esteem. breathing exercises, warm-ups, yoga poses,
Bhardwaj and Agrawal (2013) separated 44 student-led poses and discussions, and
Indian middle school students into two relaxation exercises. Results indicated
groups: a treatment group and a control students generally perceived yoga to be
group. The treatment group received 35 beneficial for relaxing and dealing with stress.
minutes of yoga instruction six days a week.
All students were administered the Indian Executive Function Benefits
adaptation of Battle’s Self-Esteem inventory
for Children (1988), a forced-choice (yes/no) Yoga has been reported to positively impact
questionnaire, pre and post-test. Results middle school students’ executive function,
indicated that students in the yoga group which is defined as mental mechanisms used
significantly increased their self-esteem while to direct behavior to reach a specified goal
students in the control group remained the (Banich, 2009). Executive function involves
same or decreased. mental processes that enable an individual to
plan, focus attention, remember instructions,
Yoga has been reported to be effective in and manage multiple tasks (Fischer, 2010).
boosting mood and reducing anxiety among Jain (2019) examined 40 middle school
middle school students. Middle school students in a one-month yoga participation
students have reported that when yoga condition versus a control group. Before and
stretches and breathing techniques are done after the study, students were administered
consistently it allows them to improve their the Digit Letter Substitution Test (DLST:
ability to relax and remain calm during Natu & Agarwal, 1995) to assess attention and
stressful situations, such as during a triggered the Wechsler Memory Scale, fourth edition’s
panic attack, or when they are feeling (WMS-IV; Wechsler, 2009) digit forward and
overwhelmed (Butzer, LoRusso, Windsor et backward to assess memory. In the DLST,
al., 2017). Similarly, in a quasi-experimental digit forward, and WMS-IV backward
study, Jain (2019) found that seated subtests, students in the yoga condition
mindfulness, breathing, loosening exercises, showed significantly greater improvements in
asana, and relaxation techniques reduced attention and memory than did the control
anxiety and increased mindfulness among 40 group.
students in eighth and ninth grades
compared with a similar control group.

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 Caldarella and Moya: Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools

Banerjee (2014) conducted a quasi- age and socioeconomic status. For one year,
experimental study over a two-month period half of the students participated in yoga
where 40 middle school students were exercises interspersed throughout the school
equally divided between a control group and a day and the other half did not. The students’
60-minute morning yoga intervention group. planning, execution, and number of moves
The researchers examined differences in were compared to their counterparts on The
memory between control and experimental Tower of London test (Shallice, 1982). Results
yoga groups as a whole and control and indicated that students enrolled in the yoga
experimental groups by gender alone using curriculum performed significantly better
the Post-Graduate Institute (PGI; Pershad & than the control group in planning, accuracy,
Wig, 1977) memory scale. At post-test, speed, and meticulous task execution.
students in the yoga intervention scored
significantly higher on the PGI than students Physical Benefits
in the control group. In addition, female
students enrolled in the yoga intervention Research on yoga in middle school has also
received higher memory scores than female found physical benefits such as improved
controls. Male students enrolled in the yoga fitness and weight loss. Kwasky and Serowoky
intervention also received higher memory (2018) recruited 15 at-risk female middle
scores than male controls. school students to be part of a quasi-
experimental after school yoga study twice a
A randomized experimental study by week for eight weeks. Students were
Manjunath and Telles (2001) separated 20 considered at risk due to living in urban
middle school students into a month-long environments with high levels of violence and
seven day per week, 75-minute yoga trauma. Waist circumference was measured
intervention or a generic physical training in inches and reaching flexibility was
intervention lacking instructions to relax. measured with the Accuflex Sit and Reach
Pre- and post-interventions, all students were Test (Wells & Dillon, 1952) at baseline,
asked to attempt three different exercises, during, and after the yoga intervention.
involving arranging colorful beads in a Results indicated a lower waist
specific pattern to three vertical rods, part of circumference, indicating weight loss, and
a standardized measure of planning ability increased flexibility, indicating improved
(The Tower of London test; Shallice, 1982). fitness, following exposure to yoga.
Each exercise was more difficult than the last
with an exact number of moves to be made – Yoga has also been reported as benefitting
two, four, and five moves. Planning and middle students’ sleep and fatigue. Using
execution time were measured in seconds as interviews, Butzer, LoRusso, Windsor et al.
well as the amount of moves each student (2017) found that most students post-yoga
made during each task. Results indicated that intervention reported that they spent less
students in the yoga condition had 53.9% time falling asleep, were able to achieve
lower planning time with two and 59.4% deeper sleep, achieved less interrupted sleep,
lower planning time with four move exercises, and improved their sleep satisfaction
63.7% lower execution time for four and compared to before the yoga intervention.
60.3% lower execution time for five move Middle school students also reported
patterns, and 20.9% lower individual number significantly less fatigue on the POMS-A
of moves in four move exercises than the immediately after attending a single yoga
physical training group. These results session compared with before the session
suggested that the yoga intervention helped (McMahon et al. (2021).
improve the students’ processing speed and
decision-making efficiency. Social Benefits

Rangan et al. (2008) conducted a quasi- Research reports that yoga can also have
experimental study where 49 residential social benefits for middle school students.
middle school students at two different Yoga lessons consist of didactic and
schools were matched one-to-one in terms of experiential content. During interviews with

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 Middle Grades Review, Vol. 8, Iss. 3 [2022], Art. 4

Butzer, LoRusso, Windsor et al. (2017), schools; however, there were some
students participating in yoga noted their limitations. There was one small
satisfaction of working and being part of a experimental study (Hagins et al., 2013)
small group and having an equal opportunity which found that a 15-week yoga program did
and open space for sharing insights with one not provide significant differences in stress
another. Middle school students in Kwasky reactivity compared to a physical education
and Serowoky’s (2018) study practiced yoga class in sixth grade students. The reasons for
at school twice weekly for eight weeks. Self- these results were hypothesized to be due to
efficacy was measured using the standardized the yoga intervention failing to focus on stress
Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children management but may also have been due to
(Muris, 2001). Results indicated that the small sample size (15 in each
participants showed significantly increased experimental group).
social self-efficacy at posttest and at one
month follow-up. It should be noted that Another limitation was that we did not
some middle school students have expressed conduct a meta-analytic review due to the
discomfort in attempting yoga positions in a variety of research methods (i.e., quasi-
large group setting, next to unfamiliar experimental, experimental, qualitative) used
members of the opposite sex, and/or those in the literature. However, a set of inclusion
with more experience and skills (Butzer, criteria were used to evaluate each study to
LoRusso, Windsor et al.). ensure minimal selection bias. Other
limitations were that there are not yet many
Academic Benefits middle school yoga studies, and there was a
large variability in the type and quality of
Yoga has been reported to positively impact studies, with some not reporting the specific
middle school students’ academic type of yoga implemented.
performance. During interviews, Butzer,
LoRusso, Windsor et al. (2017) found that We agree with McMahon et al. (2021) that
most students reported success in ridding further research needs to be conducted due to
themselves of anxiety by using yoga breathing the frequent lack of randomization at the
exercises before school assignments, tests, student level. We further agree that the
and oral presentations, which resulted in literature could benefit from a longitudinal
better academic performance. In the Frank et study on the physical, mental health, and
al. (2017) randomized controlled trial, academic effects of yoga in middle school,
researchers examined student academic and examining socioeconomic status as an
behavioral records and administered the influential factor with larger sample sizes
School Engagement Scale (Cernkovich & (Bhardwaj & Agrawal, 2013; Kwasky &
Giordano, 1992). These researchers found Serowoky, 2018; McMahon et al., 2021). The
that at-risk students who participated in yoga literature also included little information on
decreased their unexcused absences, the fidelity of yoga implementation in middle
detentions, suspensions, and increased school school, like results found in high school
engagement, such as belonging and working studies (Caldarella & Lulla, 2022).
hard in school. Math and English grades for
these at-risk students also increased Conclusion
following the yoga intervention. Others have
reported that, as yoga can help improve The results of this first literature review
students’ focus, memory, self-esteem, and specifically focused on middle school settings
anxiety/stress in school, their academic suggest that yoga appears to provide a variety
performance often improves as well of mental health, executive functioning,
(Caldarella & Lulla, 2022; Wei, 2016). physical, social, and academic benefits for
students. The studies reviewed also suggested
Limitations that yoga can benefit adolescents who are
stressed, anxious, depressed, or those who
This study included a review of the literature are at risk. However, these results
examining the benefits of yoga in middle represented just 12 studies published across

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 Caldarella and Moya: Benefits of Yoga in Middle Schools

the US and India using a variety of research https://www.ijmra.us/2013ijpss_oct

designs and yoga types. Research on middle ober.php
school-based yoga programs is still in its early
stages. Given the encouraging results in past Black, L. I., Barnes, P. M., Clarke, T. C.,
studies, we encourage further Stussman, B. J., & Nahin, R. L.
implementation and evaluation of middle (2018). Use of yoga, meditation, and
school yoga programs using rigorous research chiropractors among U.S. children
designs. aged 4–7 years. U.S. Department of
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