SECOND Personal

Quarter
Development
Positive Mental Health
The evidence for promoting mental health depends on defining, measuring, and recording mental
health. Mental health has been variously conceptualized as a positive emotion (affect) such as feelings
of happiness, a personality trait inclusive of the psychological resources of self-esteem and mastery, and
as resilience, which is the capacity to cope with adversity. Various aspects and models of mental health
contribute to our understanding of what is meant by positive mental health. Generally, it involves an
individual’s emotional well-being, psychological well-being, and social well-being.

Concepts of Stress & Responses to Stress

Taking a test is just one of many possible stressors in a SHS student’s life. What aspects of SHS
life have you found to be stressful? Do other students experience the same degree of stress in response
to the same stressors?
Stress - is a universal phenomenon
- can result from both positive and negative experiences
- a condition in which the person experiences changes in the normal balanced state
- involves physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to events appraised as
threatening or challenging.
- a subjective physiological or psychological response to threatening or challenging
experiences
Stressor - any event or stimulus that causes an individual to experience stress
- anything that is perceived as challenging, threatening, or demanding
- it may be either internal (eg, an illness, a hormonal change, o fear) or external (eg.
loud noise or cold temperature). When a person faces stressors, responses are
referred to as coping strategies, coping responses, or coping mechanisms.
A stressor can also be categorized according to duration.
1. An acute, time-limited stressor, such as studying for final examinations
2. A stressor sequence—a series of stressful events that result from an initial event such as job
loss or divorce
3. A chronic intermittent stressor, such as daily hassles
4. A chronic enduring stressor that persists over time, such as chronic illness, a disability, or
poverty

Sources of Stress
1. Internal stressors originate within a person, for example, infection or feelings of depression.
2. External stressors originate outside the individual, for example, a move to another city, a death in
the family, or pressure from peers.
3. Developmental stressors occur at predictable times throughout an individual’s life.
4. Situational stressors are unpredictable and may occur at any time during life. Situational stress
may be positive or negative. Examples of situational stress include: death of a family member;
marriage or divorce; birth of a child; new job; and illness.

5. Environmental Stressors
Catastrophe - Unpredictable event that happens on a large scale
Major life changes/events - are potentially disturbing, troubling or disruptive situations,
both positive and negative, that we appraise as having a significant impact on our
lives. A positive experience may become a potential source of stress.
 Hassles - “daily annoyances”; these are small, irritating, frustrating events that we face daily
and that we usually appraise or interpret as stressful experiences. Perception of the
hassle more important that the hassle itself.
6. Psychological Stressors
Pressure - urgent demands coming from an outside source; can have a negative impact on
ability to be creative
Uncontrollability - less control, greater degree of stress
Conflict - distress over choice between two different and incompatible or opposing goals.

Appraisal Of Stressors
The appraisal of a stressor refers to the cognitive evaluation or assessment an individual makes
about a situation, event, or circumstance that is perceived as potentially stressful. It involves the
subjective interpretation and assessment of the significance, meaning, and potential impact of the
stressor on one's well-being, goals, and resources. It includes cognitive, affective, physiological,
behavioral, and social responses. Primary appraisal is our initial, subjective evaluation of a situation,
in which we balance the demands of a potentially stressful situation against our ability to meet these
demands.
1. Cognitive Response
Cognitive appraisal mediates psychologically between the person and the environment in any
stressful encounter; that is, damage or potential damage is evaluated according to the person’s
understanding of the situation’s power to produce harm and the resources the person has available to
neutralize or tolerate them.
There are three types of primary cognitive appraisal of stress: harm/loss threat, or challenge.
a. Harm/Loss
If you broke your arm in a bike accident, you know that you have suffered harm or loss.
A harm/loss appraisal of a situation means that you have already sustained some damage or
injury.
b. Threat
If you have a terrible fear of giving blood and are asked to do so, you would automatically
interpret giving blood as a threat to your well-being. A threat appraisal of a situation means
that the harm/loss has not yet taken place but you know it will happen in the near future.
c. Challenge
If you are working hard in Senior High School but find that you have to take more classes, you
might interpret taking these classes as a way to a achieve a major goal--that is, you use a
challenge appraisal. A challenge appraisal means that you have the potential for gain or
personal growth but you also need to mobilize your physical energy and psychological
resources to meet the challenging situation, and turn a stressful event into a positive outcome.
2. Affective Response
An affective response is the arousal of a feeling. In the appraisal of a stressor, the major affective
response is a nonspecific or generalized anxiety reaction, which becomes expressed as emotions. These
may include joy, sadness, fear, anger, acceptance, distrust, anticipation, or surprise. Emotions also may
be described according to their type, duration and intensity--characteristics that change over time an as
a result of events. For example, when an emotion continues over a long period of time, it can be
classified as a mood; when prolonged over an even longer time, it can be considered an attitude.
3. Physiological Responses
Physiologic responses reflect the interaction of several neuroendocrine axes involving hormones
and a variety of other neurotransmitters in the brain. The fight-or-fight physiological response also
known as sympathetic-adrenal-medullary response stimulates the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system and increases activity of the pituitary-adrenal axis.
4. Behavioral Responses
Behavioral responses are the result of emotional and physiological responses, as well as one’s
cognitive analysis of the stressful situation. Caplan (1981) described four phases of an individual’s
behavioral responses to stressful event:
 Phase 1 is behavior that changes the stressful environment or allows the individual to escape
from it.
Phase 2 is behavior that allows the individual to change the external circumstances and their
aftermath.
Phase 3 is behavior that serves to defend against unpleasant emotional arousal.
Phase 4 is behavior that helps one come to terms with the event and its sequel by internal
readjustment.
5. Social Responses
The precise nature of General Adaptation Syndrome f a person’s response is based on three
activities (Mechanic 1977):
a. Search for meaning, in which people seek information about their problem This is necessary
for devising a coping strategy because only through having some idea of what is occurring can
one cope up with a reasonable response.
b. Social attribution, in which the person tries to identify the factors that contributed to the
situation. Sick people who see their problems as resulting from their own negligence may be
“blocked” and not able to activate a coping response. They may see their problem as a sign of
their personal failure and engage in self-blame and passive, withdrawn behavior.
c. Social comparison, in which people compare skills and capacities with those of others with
similar problems. A person’s self-assessment depends very much on those with whom
comparisons are made. The outcome is an evaluation of the need for support from the person’s
social network or support system.

Stress Models
1. Stimulus-Based Models
In stimulus-based stress models, stress is defined as a stimulus, a life event, or a set of
circumstances that arouses physiological and/or psychological reactions that may increase the
individual’s vulnerability to illness.
2. Response-Based Models
When a person is in a threatening situation, immediate responses occur. Those responses, which
are often involuntary, are called coping responses. The change that takes place as a result of the
response to a stressor is adaptation -- an ongoing process as a person strives to maintain balance in
his or her internal and external environments.
Homeostasis is the term introduced by Walter B. Cannon which refers to various physiologic
mechanisms within the body respond to internal changes to maintain relative constancy in the internal
environment.
3. General Adaptation Syndrome or stress syndrome - biochemical model of stress by Hans Selye
 a stress response characterized by a chain or pattern of physiological events

Three stages of GAS:

a. Alarm b. resistance c. exhaustion
 Alarm stage
This is the initial phase when the body recognizes and responds to a stressor. Physiological
changes occur to prepare the body for fight or flight. The sympathetic nervous system is activated,
leading to increased heart rate, heightened senses, and the release of stress hormones like adrenaline
and cortisol. The resistance drops at first as the sympathetic system quickly activates. But resistance
then rapidly increases as the body mobilizes its defense systems.
Resistance stage
If the stressor persists, the body triggers a long – term reaction to stress. It's a phase where the
body tries to adapt to the ongoing stressor. Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, are predominantly released
during the resistance stage to help the body cope with and adapt to prolonged or continued stress.
These hormones aid in maintaining the body's response to stressors over an extended period, allowing
adaptation to ongoing challenges. Physiological changes stabilize at a new level as the body attempts to
cope with the stress. However, resources may deplete over time if the stressor continues.
Exhaustion stage
If the stressor persists for an extended period or if the body's resources are depleted during the
resistance stage, the body enters the exhaustion stage. At this point, the body's resources become
significantly depleted, making it more susceptible to illness, fatigue, and a reduced ability to cope with
stress. This stage can lead to long-term health issues if stress persists without adequate recovery, and
could possibly end in death.

HPA Axis
The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis is a complex neuroendocrine system
involved in the body's response to stress. It comprises a series of interactions between the
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands, leading to the release of stress hormones.
The process starts in the hypothalamus just a few seconds after a fearful stimulus is perceived. It
is where specialized neurons produce and release corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in
response to stress or other stimuli. The CRH travels through the bloodstream and reaches the pituitary
gland, stimulating the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary
gland. The ACTH then travels through the bloodstream and reaches the adrenal glands, specifically the
adrenal cortex. Upon receiving ACTH, the adrenal cortex responds by releasing glucocorticoids (such
as cortisol) and mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone) into the bloodstream. The Cortisol (stress
hormone) and other glucocorticoids affect various body systems, influencing metabolism, immune
function, and stress responses. They help regulate glucose levels, modulate the immune response, and
prepare the body to cope with stressors by increasing energy availability.
As cortisol levels rise, they exert negative feedback on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland,
reducing the release of CRH and ACTH. This feedback loop helps maintain hormone levels within a
normal range and prevent excessive stress hormone production.
The HPA axis plays a crucial role in the body's ability to respond to stress by releasing hormones
that facilitate adaptation and coping mechanisms. However, prolonged activation of the HPA axis due to
chronic stress can have significant implications for health and contribute to various stress-related
disorders. Prolonged elevated levels of cortisol for instance can have adverse effects on the
hippocampus, which is involved in memory and learning, potentially leading to damage and contributing
to age-related responses in the body. Cortisol can contribute to weight gain by influencing metabolism
and promoting the storage of energy as fat in response to stress.

4. Transaction-Based Models
The Lazarus transactional stress theory encompasses a set of cognitive, affective, and
adaptive (coping) responses that arise out of person–environment transactions. The person and the
environment are inseparable; each affect and is affected by the other. The individual responds to
perceived environmental changes by adaptive or coping responses. Lazarus emphasized that people and
groups differ in their sensitivity and vulnerability to certain types of events, as well as in their
interpretations and reactions.
COPING
Coping may be described as dealing with change—successfully or unsuccessfully. It is a process
of constant evaluation of the success of one’s strategies. A coping strategy (coping mechanism) is a
natural or learned way of responding to a changing environment or specific problem or situation.
According to Folkman and Lazarus (1991), coping styles refer to a cognitive or behavior response to
stress aimed at managing or reducing stress. . Coping mechanisms are efforts directed at stress
management. There are three main types of coping mechanisms:
1. Problem-focused coping refers to efforts to improve a situation by making changes or taking
some action. Rational coping is a problem-focused coping strategy characterized by a
systematic, logical, and analytical approach to dealing with stressors or problems. When
employing rational coping, individuals assess the stressor or problem in a reasoned manner,
focusing on understanding it and taking direct action to address it. Examples include
negotiation, confrontation, and seeking advice.
2. Cognitively focused coping involves finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor
that reduces its threat. Example include positive comparison, selective ignorance, substitution
of rewards, and the devaluation of desired objects.
3. Emotion-focused coping includes thoughts and actions that relieve emotional distress.
Emotion-focused coping does not improve the situation, but the person often feels better.
Avoidance coping is an example.
The availability and quality of social support, such as support from family, friends, or social
networks, can impact how individuals cope with stressors.
Appraisal Theory of stress and coping (Lazarus and Folkman)
 a framework that emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in how individuals perceive and respond
to stressors. The theory suggests that it's not the stressor itself that determines the stress response,
but rather the individual's perception and interpretation of the stressor.
This theory comprises two main types of appraisal:
Primary Appraisal: This involves the initial evaluation of the stressor to determine its
significance. It can be classified into three categories:
a. Irrelevant: The event is not relevant to the individual's well-being or goals.
b. Benign-positive: The event is seen as positive or beneficial.
c. Stressful: The event is perceived as potentially harmful, threatening, or challenging.
Secondary Appraisal: After identifying a stressor as potentially stressful, individuals engage in
a secondary appraisal, which involves evaluating their coping resources and options for dealing
with the stressor. This assessment includes an evaluation of one's ability to cope with the
demands of the situation, considering internal and external resources available.
According to this theory, the interaction between primary and secondary appraisals influences the
individual's emotional and physiological responses to stress. Depending on these appraisals, individuals
might employ various coping strategies to manage the stressor and its associated emotions.
Re-appraisal: After the primary and secondary appraisals, individuals might continuously
monitor and reevaluate the stressor and their resources for coping as the situation unfolds or changes.
Reappraisal involves assessing whether the initial appraisals were accurate, whether the stressor has
evolved, and whether additional coping strategies or resources need to be considered or adjusted.
Reappraisal allows individuals to adapt their coping strategies based on new information or
changes in the situation. It's a continuous process that involves monitoring the stressor and one's
abilities to manage it effectively, potentially leading to modifications in coping strategies to better
address the demands of the stressor. More stress may also come from re-appraisal as one evaluates the
effectiveness of a chosen coping strategy.

THE POWERS OF THE MIND

The brain is the control center for registering sensations, correlating them with one another and
with stored information, making decisions, and taking actions. It also is the center for the intellect,
emotions, behavior, and memory.
The Major Divisions of the Brain
1. Hindbrain - located at the lower part of the brainstem, its functions are crucial for various
fundamental processes in the body such as the vital autonomic functions (heart rate, blood pressure,
breathing, and reflexes such as swallowing, coughing, and sneezing). The cerebellum, a large part of
the hindbrain, is primarily responsible for coordination, balance, precision of movement, and posture.
The pons acts as a bridge between different parts of the brain, helping relay signals between the
cerebrum, cerebellum, and the rest of the brainstem. It's involved in functions like sleep, respiration,
and reflex responses. Ensuring rapid and automatic reactions to various stimuli including certain facial
movements.
2. Midbrain - Though smaller in size compared to other brain regions, the midbrain plays a crucial role
in some regulatory functions within the central nervous system.
Motor control - particularly the initiation and smoothness of voluntary movements.
Regulates consciousness - like our wakefulness and attention
Pain perception - it contributes to the perception and modulation of the pain
3. Forebrain is composed of 5 structures.
a. Cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the forebrain. It is responsible for higher cognitive
functions such as thinking, reasoning, language, and sensory perception.
b. Limbic system - its structures are found deep inside the brain, immediately below the
temporal lobe and buried under the cerebral cortex, just above the brainstem. It governs
emotions, motivation, olfaction (sense of smell), and behaviour
c. Thalamus - is positioned between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain. It is consists of two
symmetrical halves, one on each side of the brain, and it's situated near the center of the brain.
Its primary role is to act as a relay station for sensory information.
d. Hypothalamus - a small but critical structure located below the thalamus. its main function is
to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis.
e. Cerebrum - the largest part of the brain and constitutes the uppermost region of the
forebrain. It is the most prominent part of the forebrain, divided into two cerebral hemispheres
(left and right hemispheres).

Brain Dominance Theory

Left-brain dominance - is often associated with logical, analytical, and sequential
thinking. It's typically linked with language processing (Broca's area for speech production
and Wernicke's area for language comprehension), mathematical reasoning, and detailed
analysis.
Right Brain Dominance - is generally associated with creativity, intuition, holistic
thinking, and visualization. It's often linked with spatial abilities, artistic and musical talents,
understanding visual patterns, and emotional processing.
However, it's crucial to note that while some functions might be more localized to specific
brain regions or hemispheres, the brain works in an integrated and interconnected manner. Both
hemispheres collaborate and communicate through the corpus callosum, allowing for a
balanced integration of various cognitive processes.
The corpus callosum is a band of fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain
and allow communication between the left and right cerebral hemispheres of the brain, allowing
them to share information and coordinate their activities.

The CEREBRUM is divided into 4 separate LOBES:

1. Frontal lobe - is a significant region of the brain associated with a variety of complex functions,
including: Executive functions (reasoning, problem-solving, planning, and decision-making; and
Personality and Emotions (Plays a role in regulating emotions and social behavior).
The frontal lobe has two regions within the frontal lobe of the brain involved in motor control and
movement planning.
Primary Cortex: Execution of voluntary motor movements.
Pre-motor Cortex: Planning and coordination of movements
Broca’s Area (left frontal lobe) - Motor production of speech complex
Broca’s Aphasia - damage or injury to the Broca's area
 - language disorder characterized by impaired speech production but can
understand spoken or written language relatively well.
2. Temporal lobe - involved in receiving and processing auditory and visual information, complex
aspects of memory and language.
Wernickes’s Area - comprehension of speech
Wernickes’s Aphasia - also known as receptive aphasia or fluent aphasia, is a language
disorder that affects the comprehension and production of spoken and
written language
The amygdala, located in the temporal lobe of the brain, plays a key role in the processing and
regulation of emotions, particularly in response to stress, fear, and threat. It is involved in the
perception and response to emotional stimuli, including the interpretation of stressful or
threatening situations.

3. Parietal lobe - located in the parietal lobe is the somatosensory cortex responsible for processing
sensory information related to touch, pressure, temperature, and pain from various parts of the body.
4. Occipital lobe - located at the rear of the brain, situated at the back of the skull, underneath the
parietal and temporal lobes. It plays a critical role in processing visual information received from the
eyes and is primarily associated with visual perception and interpretation. Damage to the occipital lobe
can result in visual impairments, such as visual field defects, and color blindness.

The WHOLE BRAIN MODEL

The theory emphasizes that cognitive functions and mental processes involve the collaborative
activity of different brain regions, rather than being strictly segregated between the left and right
hemispheres. It underscores the idea that cognitive processes engage multiple brain areas working
together in a coordinated manner for various mental functions rather than assigning specific tasks solely
to one hemisphere or the other.
This model is based on the idea that individuals tend to favor certain thinking styles over others,
and understanding that these preferences can enhance communication, problem-solving, and decision-
making. It categorizes thinking and cognitive styles into four quadrants, representing different modes of
thinking.
Individuals tend to have preferences for thinking in one or more of these quadrants.
Understanding one's own thinking style and recognizing others' preferences can enhance communication
and collaboration. The model emphasizes the importance of being able to flexibly move between
thinking styles depending on the context and the demands of a particular situation.
The Whole Brain Model also suggests to develop the ability to access and use each quadrant as
needed. Effective thinking and problem-solving involve using all four quadrants, not just relying on one's
dominant preferences.

Mind Map
are visual representations that start from a central concept or image and branch out, connecting
related ideas or concepts. They are helpful tools for organizing information, brainstorming, and aiding in
memory retention by using visual cues and associations between interconnected ideas.

Why Mind Map?

 An effective recall strategy. It trains your mind for more efficient retention and recall.
 organize thoughts when brainstorming
 effective method of taking notes compare to taking extensive notes which provides too much
information and too few memory cues.
 harnesses the full range of cortical skills – word, image, number, logic, rhythm, color and spatial
awareness, and aid creativity, memory, and specifically the recall of information