MATHEMATICS IN A MODERN WORLD

(MIDTERMS REVIEWER)

LESSON 1: SET, FUNCTION AND RELATION

Essential Questions:
● What is a function?
● What are the characteristics of a function?
● How do you determine if a relation is a function?
● How is a function different from a relation?
● Why is it important to know which variable is the independent variable?

Some Definitions
● A relation between two variables x and y is a set of ordered pairs
● An ordered pair consists of an x and y-coordinate
● A relation may be viewed as ordered pairs, mapping design, table,
equation, or written in sentences
● x-values are input, independent variable, domain.
● y-values are output, dependent variable, range

Example 1:
What makes this a relation?
{ (0,-5), (1,-4), (2,-3), (3,-2), (4,-1), (5,0) }

What is the domain?

{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

What is the range?

{-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0}

Example 2:
Is this a relation?

What is the domain?

{4, -5, 0, 9, -1}

What is the range?

{-2, 7}
Is a relation a function?
What is a function?
- According to a textbook, “a function is…a relation in which every input has
exactly one output”
- Focus on the x-coordinates, when given a relation
If the set of ordered pairs has different x-coordinates, it IS A function
If the set of ordered pairs has same x-coordinates, it is NOT a function
- Y-coordinates have no bearing in determining functions.

EXAMPLE 3:
{ (0,-5), (1,-4), (2,-3), (3,-2), (4,-1), (5, 0) }

● Is this a relation? YES

● Is this a function? YES
(HINT: Look only at the x-coordinates )

EXAMPLE 4:
{ (-1,-7), (1,0), (2,-3), (0,-8), (0,5), (-2,-1) }

● Is thi a function? NO
(HINT: Look only at the x-coordinates )
● Is this still a function? YES

EXAMPLE 5:
Which relation mapping represents function?

EXAMPLE 6:
Which relation mapping represents function?
A. B.
Vertical Line Test
A relation is a function if a vertical line drawn through its graph, passes
through only one point.

AKA: “The Pencil Test” Take a pencil and move it from left to right (–x to x); if it
crosses more than one point, it is not a function

VERTICAL LINE TEST

- Would this graph be a function? YES - Would this graph be a function? NO

- Is the following function discrete or continuous?

- What is the Domain? What is the Range?
Example 7:
Which situation represents a function?
a. The items in a store to their prices on a certain date
b. Types of fruits to their colors

- There is only one price for each different item on a certain date. The
relation from items to price makes it a function.

- A fruit, such as an apple, from the domain would be associated with more
than one color, such as red and green. The relation from types of fruits to
their colors is not a function.

Domain and Range in Real Life

- The number of shoes in x pairs of shoes can be expressed by the equation
y = 2x.

What is the independent variable?

The # of pairs of shoes.
 What is the dependent variable?
The total # of shoes.

- Mr. Landry is driving to his hometown. It takes four hours to get there. The
distance he travels at any time, t, is represented by the function d = 55t (his
average speed is 55 mph.
What is the independent variable?
The time that he drives.

What is the dependent variable?

The total distance traveled.

- Johnny bought at most 10 tickets to a concert for him and his friends. The
cost of each ticket was $12.50.

Complete the table below to list the possible domain and range.

What is the dependent variable?

The number of tickets bought.

What is the independent variable?

The total cost of the tickets.

- Pete’s Pizza Parlor charges Php 250 for a large pizza with no toppings.
They charge an additional Php 50 for each of their 5 specialty toppings
(tax is included in the price).

What is the independent variable?

The number of toppings

What is the dependent variable?

The cost of the pizza

LESSON2: MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION

Translating Verbal Phrases

Words that mean Add or Subtract

Addition (+) Subtraction (-) Multiply ( x, *, () ) Divide ( /, ÷, a/b )
Plus Minus Times Divided

Increased by Less Multiplied Rate

Sum Subtract Product Quotient

In all Less than Each An, in, or per

More than Decreased by Of Separate

Total Difference Factors Ratio

Example # 1
Five years older than her brother
1. First identify the variable…in this case the variable is her brother’s age…
let's call that x
2. The term “older than” means to add
3. Five years means the number 5
So the above expression can be written as: X + 5

Example # 2
Six pesos an hour times the number of hours
1. Hour is the variable …let’s call it x
2. Times means to multiply
3. Six pesos means the number 6
The algebraic expression is: 6 ∙ x This can also be written as 6x

Example # 3
Three more than the quantity five times a number
1. 5 times a number is the variable …let’s call it 5x
2. More than means to add
3. Three means the number 3
The algebraic expression is: 5x + 3

Example # 4
Two less than the sum of 6 and a number m
1. A number m is the variable
2. The sum of 6 and m means to add
3. Two less than means to subtract 2
4. In this instance you have to add before you subtract…so the sum of 6 and
m would go in parenthesis
The algebraic expression is: (6 + m) – 2

Example # 5
A number x decreased by the sum of 10 and the square of a number y
1. A number x is the variable
2. Decreased means to subtract
3. The sum means to add
4. In this instance you have to add the sum of 10 and the square of a number
y. Since you have to perform this function first before you subtract …10 and
the square of y would go in parenthesis
The algebraic expression is: x – ( 10 + y2)

Verbal Sentences
● You can also translate verbal sentences into equations and inequalities
● The word “is” and “total” mean equal
● The words for inequalities are as follows:

Less than <

Less than or equal to ≤
Greater than >
Greater than or equal to ≥

Example # 6
Nine less than the product of ten and a number d is eleven
1. The variable is 10 and a number d, which is written as 10d
2. Nine less means to subtract 9
3. “is” means equal
4. The total is 11
The algebraic expression is: 10d – 9 = 11

Your Turn
● Translate the verbal phrase into an algebraic expression. Use x for the
variable in your expression

1. Nine more than a number

x+9

2. The quotient of a number and two tenths

x ÷ 2/10

3. The difference of ten and a number

10 – x

5. Five squared minus a number

52 – x
 4. Nine is greater than three times a number
9 > 3x

5. Three times the quantity two less than a number x is ten

3(x - 2) = 10

6. A number q is equal to or greater than one hundred

q ≥ 100

LESSON3: PROBLEM SOLVING AGE AND MIXTURE

Translate the following into Mathematical Sentence Let x be the number

A number added to 12 is 30
12+x=30

Twice a number is greater than 3

2x > 3

Five less than a number is 4

X- 5 = 4

Six more than a number is 10

X + 6 = 10

Eleven less a number is less than 24

11- x < 24

Introduction

Jay is thinking of word problems from equations which have been built in stages.
Can you match the word problems to the equations?

Varied Fluency
 1. Use the equation below to fill in the gaps in the word problem.
p÷3=9
I think of a number. I divide it by 3 and my answer is 9.

2. In which of the options below does the unknown value equal 4?

A. 25 - w = 21

B.
C. Kerry had 17 sweets. Miles stole some. Kerry has 13 sweets left. How many
did Miles steal?
Answer: A&C

3. Underline the equation which matches the word problem below:

Theo thinks of a number. He multiplies it by 4 and then subtracts 3. His
answer is 13. What was his starting number?
3n – 4 = 13 4n – 3 = 13 4 – 3 = 13

The Problem:
Peter and Bryan are cousins. Bryan is three times older than Peter. If the sum of
the age of the cousins is 36, how old are Peter and Bryan?

Step #1
Bryan is three times as old as Peter, but Peter’s age is unknown. Since it's
unknown, let’s use x to represent Peter’s age.

If Peter is x, and Bryan is three times as old as Peter, which picture best
represents their ages? Scaffolding a
problem

Step #2
If the sum of the age of the cousins is 36, how can we write that as an equation?
Bryan = 3 x Peter = x
3x + x = 36
x = 3x + 36
3x = x + 36

Oops, Try Again

Hint: If the sum is 36, what do we need to add together to make 36?

Step #3
Peter and Bryan are cousins. Bryan is three times older than Peter. If the sum of
the age of the cousins is 36, how older are Peter and Bryan?
3x + x = 36
4x= 36
4x _ 36
4 ￣4

Peter and Bryan are cousins. Bryan is three times older than Peter. If the sum of
the age of the cousins is 36, how old are Peter and Bryan?
x = 9 3x = 3(9) = 27
Peter is 9 years old while his cousin is 27 years old.

2.3 Applications of Linear Equations

Solving a Mixture Problem

Step 1
Read the problem. The problem asks for the amount of 80% solution to be used.

A chemist must mix 12 L of a 30% acid solution with some 80% solution to gea 60%
solution. How much of the 80% solution should be used?

Step 2
Assign a variable. Let x = the number of liters of 80% solution to be used.

Step 4
Solve.
3.6 + 0.80x = 0.60(12 + x)
3.6 + 0.80x = 7.2 + 0.60x Distributive property
0.20x =3.6 Subtract 3.6 and 0.60x.
x = 18 Divide by 0.20.

Step 5
State the answer. The chemist should use 18 L of 80% solution.

Step 6

Check. 12 L of 30% solution plus 18 L of 80% solution is

12(0.30) + 18(0.8) = 18 L

of acid. Similarly, 12 + 18 or 30 L of 60% solution has

30(0.6) = 18 L

of acid in the mixture. The total amount of pure acid is 18 L both before and after
mixing, so the answer checks.

LESSON 4: LOGIC

Logic
Logic is not only the foundation of Mathematics, but also is important in
numerous fields including law, medicine, and science. Although the study of logic
originated in antiquity, it was rebuilt and formalized in the 19th and early 20th
century. George Boole (Boolean algebra) introduced mathematical methods to
logic in 1847 while Georg Cantor did theoretical work on sets and discovered that
there are many different sizes of infinite sets.

Introduction: PL?
● In Propositional Logic (a.k.a Propositional Calculus or Sentential Logic),
the objects are called propositions
● Definition: A proposition is a statement that is either true or false, but not
both
● We usually denote a proposition by a letter: p, q, r, s, …

Propositions: Examples
Identify whether the following is a proposition
1.Today is Wednesday
2. It is raining.
3. All are present
4. English is the best language
5. When is the pretest?
6. Do your homework

Statements or Propositions
Identify whether the ff.is a proposition.
1. 2+2 = 5 = proposition
2. Orange juice contains vitamin C = proposition
3. Open the door. = statement

Introduction: Proposition
● Definition: The value of a proposition is called its truth value; denoted by
- T if it is true or
- F if it is false.
● Opinions, interrogative, and imperative are not propositions
● Truth table
p

Negation
● The negation of a statement, p , is “not p” and is denoted by ┐ p
● Truth table:

p ㄱp

T T

F T

● If p is true, then its negation is false. If p is false, then its negation is true.

p Today is Thursday =T
┐ p Today is not Thursday =F

p There are seven days in a week (Gregorian Calendar) =T

┐ p There are no seven days in a week (Gregorian Calendar) =F

Conjunction
A conjunction is only true when both p and q are true. Otherwise, a conjunction
of two statements will be false:

Truth table: p: Today is Wednesday =F

^q: I am absent in the class. =F
p^q : Today is Wednesday and I am absent in the class. =F

Truth table: p: One is an even number =F

^q: 8 is divisible by 4 . =T
p^q : One is an even number and 8 is divisible by 4 . =F

p ^q p^q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

Disjunction
● A disjunction is of the form p V q and is read p or q.
● A disjunction is true in all cases except when both p and q are false.
p= Paris is located in France =T
q = Philippines is in middle Asia =F
p ៴ q = Paris is located in France or Philippines is in middle Asia =T

r= Dolphin is a fish =F
s= Tomato is a vegetable =F
r ៴ s = Dolphin is a fish or Tomato is a vegetable =F

Truth table for disjunction:

p q p៴q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F
Conditional statement
To understand the logic behind the truth table for the conditional statement,
consider the following statement.
● “If you get an 1.00 in the class then I will give you one thousand pesos.”
● Let p = statement “ You get an 1.00 in the class”
● Let q = statement “ I will give you One thousand pesos.”

● Now, if p is true (you got an 1.00) and I give you the One thousand pesos,
the truth value of p q is true. The contract was satisfied and both parties
fulfilled the agreement.

● Now, suppose p is true (you got the 1.00) and q is false (you did not get the
One thousand pesos). You fulfilled your part of the bargain, but weren’t
rewarded with the One thousand pesos.
● So p q is false since the contract was broken by the other party.

● Now, suppose p is false. You did not get an 1.00 but received One thousand
pesos anyway. (q is true) No contract was broken. There was no obligation
to receive one thousand pesos, so truth value of p q cannot be false, so it
must be true.

● Finally, if both p and q are false, the contract was not broken. You did not
receive the 1.00 and you did not receive the one thousand pesos. So p q is
true in this case.

p= square is a rectangle =T
q= triangle is a quadrilateral =F
p→ q= If square is a rectangle then triangle is a quadrilateral. =F

p q p→q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

Variations of the conditional

● Converse: The converse of p→ q is q p→
■ Let p = statement “ You get a 1.00 in the class”
■ Let q = statement “ I will give you One thousand pesos.”
Converse:
q→ p If I give you One thousand pesos then you get a 1.00 in the class

● Contrapositive: The contrapositive of p→ q is ┐q→ ┐p

 If I do not give you One thousand pesos then you cannot get a 1.00
in the class

p= 2 is a prime number =T
q= 15 is a perfect square =F

● Conditional Statement
p→ q= If 2 is a prime number then 15 is a perfect square =F

● Converse
q→ p = If 15 is a perfect square then 2 is a prime number
converse =T

p = Summer is a dry season =T

q = There are eight colors in the Rainbow = F

● Contrapositive
● ┐q ┐p If there are no eight colors in the Rainbow then Summer
is a not dry season =F

Examples
Let p = you receive 90%
Let q = you receive an A in the course
p →q ?
- If you receive 90%, then you will receive an A in the course.
Converse: q→ p
- If you receive an A in the course, then you receive 90%
Is the statement true? No. What about the student who receives a score
greater than 90? That student receives an A but did not achieve a score of
exactly 90%.

State the contrapositive in an English sentence:

Let p = you receive 90%
Let q = you receive an A in the course
pq?
- If you receive 90%, then you will receive an A in the course
- ┐q→ ┐p
- If you don’t receive an A in the course, then you didn’t receive 90%.
○ The contrapositive is true not only for these particular statements but for
all statements , p and q.

Logical equivalent statements

■ Show that p→q is logically equivalent to ㄱ p ៴

 ■ We will construct the truth tables for both sides and determine that
the truth values for each statement are identical.
■ The next slide shows that both statements are logically equivalent.
The red columns are identical indicating the final truth values of
each statement

p q p→q ㄱ ៴ q
p

T T T F T T

T F F F F F

F T T T T T

F F T T T F

LESSON 5 STATISTICS

Introduction to statistics:
“Statistics are like a bikini. What they reveal is interesting. But what they hide is
vital.” -Aaron Levenstein

Statistics
- In “plural sense” statistics is a set of data
- In “singular sense” Statistics is a science of collecting, organizing,
presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data to assist in making more
effective decisions

Statistical analysis – used to manipulate, summarize, and investigate data, so

that useful decision-making information results.

Why study statistics?

1. Data are everywhere
2. Statistical techniques are used to make many decisions that affect our
lives
3. No matter what your career, you will make professional decisions that
involve data. An understanding of statistical methods will help you make
these decisions effectively.

Applications of statistical concepts in the business world

Finance – correlation and regression, index numbers, time series analysis
Marketing – hypothesis testing, chi-square tests, nonparametric statistics
Personel – hypothesis testing, chi-square tests, nonparametric tests
Operating management – hypothesis testing, estimation, analysis of variance,
time series analysis

Types of statistics
● Descriptive statistics – Methods of organizing, summarizing, and
presenting data in an informative way
● Inferential statistics – The methods used to determine something about a
population on the basis of a sample
● Population –The entire set of individuals or objects of interest or the
measurements obtained from all individuals or objects of interest
● Sample – A portion, or part, of the population of interest

Inferential Statistics
Estimation
- e.g., Estimate the population mean weight using the sample mean weight

Hypothesis testing
- e.g., Test the claim that the population mean weight is 70 kg

Inference is the process of drawing conclusions or making decisions about a

population based on sample results

Descriptive Statistics
Collect data - e.g., Survey
Present data - e.g., Tables and graphs
❑
Summarize data- e.g., Sample mean = ∑ ❑ x
n
Statistical data
● The collection of data that are relevant to the problem being studied is
commonly the most difficult, expensive, and time-consuming part of the
entire research project.
● Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or measuring items.
 ○ Primary data are collected specifically for the analysis desired
○ Secondary data have already been compiled and are available for
statistical analysis
● A variable is an item of interest that can take on many different numerical
values.
● A constant has a fixed numerical value.

Data
Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or measuring items. Most data
can be put into the following categories:

Qualitative - data are measurements that each fail into one of several
categories. (hair color, ethnic groups and other attributes of the population)

Quantitative - data are observations that are measured on a numerical scale

(distance traveled to college, number of children in a family, etc.)

Qualitative data
Qualitative data are generally described by words or letters. They are not as
widely used as quantitative data because many numerical techniques do not
apply to the qualitative data. For example, it does not make sense to find an
average hair color or blood type. Qualitative data can be separated into two
subgroups:

dichotomic (if it takes the form of a word with two options (gender - male or
female)

polynomic (if it takes the form of a word with more than two options (education -
primary school, secondary school and university).

Quantitative data
Quantitative data are always numbers and are the result of counting or
measuring attributes of a population. Quantitative data can be separated into
two subgroups:

discrete (if it is the result of counting (the number of students of a given ethnic
group in a class, the number of books on a shelf, ...)

continuous (if it is the result of measuring (distance traveled, weight of luggage,

…)

TYPES OF VARIABLES
Numerical scale of measurement:

Nominal – consist of categories in each of which the number of respective

observations is recorded. The categories are in no logical order and have no
particular relationship. The categories are said to be mutually exclusive since an
individual, object, or measurement can be included in only one of them.

Ordinal – contain more information. Consists of distinct categories in which

order is implied. Values in one category are larger or smaller than values in
other categories (e.g. rating-excellent, good, fair, poor)

Interval – is a set of numerical measurements in which the distance between

numbers is of a known, constant size. No true zero point (can have negative
value) e.g (Temperature and Pulse Rating)

Ratio – consists of numerical measurements where the distance between

numbers is of a known, constant size, in addition, there is a non arbitrary zero
point.(score and age)

SOME MAJOR TYPES OF ANALYSES

● Description
● Relationships among variables
● Differences between groups or treatments

Mean, Median, Mode, and Range

Mean is the average of a set of data. To calculate the mean, find the sum of the
data and then divide by the number of data.

12, 15, 11, 11, 7, 13

First, find the sum of the data. 12 + 15 +11 + 11 + 7 + 13 = 69

Then divide by the number of data. 69 / 6 = 11.5

The mean is 11.5

You can remember that “mean” means to average because the “mean teacher
averages your grade.”

An electronics store sells tablets at the following prices: $350, $275, $500,
$325, $100, $375, and $300. What is the mean price?

$350 + $275 + $500 + $325 + $100 +$375 + $300 = $2225

$2225 / 7 = $317.86

The mean or average price of a tablet is $317.86.

Median is the middle number in a set of data when the data is arranged in
numerical order.

12, 15, 11, 11, 7, 13

First, arrange the data in numerical order.

7, 11, 11, 12, 13, 15

Then find the number in the middle or the average of the two numbers in the
middle.
11 + 12 = 23 23 / 2 = 11.5

The median is 11.5

An electronics store sells tablets at the following prices: $350, $275, $500, $325,
$100, $375, and $300. What is the median price?

First place the prices in numerical order.

$100, $275, $300, $325, $350, $375, $500

The price in the middle is the median price.

The median price is $325.

The mode is the number that occurs the most.

12, 15, 11, 11, 7, 13

The mode is 11.
Sometimes a set of data will have more than one mode.
For example, in the following set the numbers both the numbers 5 and 7 appear
twice.

2, 9, 5, 7, 8, 6, 4, 7, 5

5 and 7 are both the mode and this set is said to be bimodal.

Sometimes there is no mode in a set of data.

3, 8, 7, 6, 12, 11, 2, 1

All the numbers in this set occur only once therefore there is no mode in this set.

You can remember that mode means the number that occurs the most because
“mode” and “most” sound alike!

$100, $275, $300, $325, $350, $375, $500

What is the mode ?
There is no mode!

The range of a set of data is the difference between the largest and the smallest
number in the set.

For example, consider the following set:

40, 30, 43, 48, 26, 50, 55, 40, 34, 42, 47, and 50

To find the range you would take the largest number, 55, and subtract the
smallest number, 26.
55 – 26 = 29

The range is 29!

Mean →The average

Median → The number or average of the numbers in the middle

Mode → The number that occurs most

LESSON 6 LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT AND DATA DISCUSSION

Level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval/ratio)

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
● Nominal
● Ordinal
● Interval
● Ratio

NOMINAL-LEVEL VARIABLES
● Data are organized into categories
● Categories have no inherent order
● Categories are exclusive
● Categories are exhaustive
● Examples are sex, ethnicity, marital status

EXAMPLES OF NOMINAL-LEVEL QUESTIONS

● Do you have a loss of appetite?
● Do you smoke a lot?
● What is your ethnicity?

ORDINAL-LEVEL VARIABLES
● Categories can be ranked in order
● Intervals between categories may not be equal
● Examples are socioeconomic status, level of education attained
(elementary school, high school, college degree, graduate degree)

EXAMPLES OF ORDINAL-LEVEL QUESTIONS

Would Intervention X be your 1st, 2nd, or 3rd choice of treatment for Condition
Y?
1. First choice
2. Second choice
3. Third choice

Beck Depression Scale – Sadness Item

● 0 I do not feel sad
● 1 I feel sad
● 2 I am sad all the time and I can’t snap out of it
● 3 I am so sad or unhappy that I can’t stand it

INTERVAL-LEVEL VARIABLES
● Distances between levels of the scale are equal
● Assumed to be a continuum of values
● An example is temperature (measured in Fahrenheit or Centigrade)

EXAMPLES OF INTERVAL-LEVEL VARIABLES

● IQ scores
● Composite scores of multi-item scales
RATIO-LEVEL VARIABLES
● Equal spacing between intervals
● Have an identifiable absolute zero point
● Examples are weight, length, volume, and temperature (measured in
Kelvin)
● In statistical analysis, typically there is no distinction made between
interval level and ratio level

SAME VARIABLE, DIFFERENT LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

Ratio level:
What is your age in years? ____

Ordinal level:
What is your age group?
□18 years or younger
□19-44 years
□45 years or older

NUMERICAL SCALE OF MEASUREMENT:

NOMINAL – CONSIST OF CATEGORIES IN EACH OF WHICH THE NUMBER OF

RESPECTIVE OBSERVATIONS IS RECORDED. THE CATEGORIES ARE IN NO
LOGICAL ORDER AND HAVE NO PARTICULAR RELATIONSHIP. THE CATEGORIES
ARE SAID TO BE MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE SINCE AN INDIVIDUAL, OBJECT, OR
MEASUREMENT CAN BE INCLUDED IN ONLY ONE OF THEM. (pinapangalanan;
organized into categories)

ORDINAL – CONTAIN MORE INFORMATION. CONSISTS OF DISTINCT

CATEGORIES IN WHICH ORDER IS IMPLIED. VALUES IN ONE CATEGORY ARE
LARGER OR SMALLER THAN VALUES IN OTHER CATEGORIES (E.G. RATING-
EXCELLENT, GOOD, FAIR, POOR) (not all the time can be repeated; can be rank in
order; with choices)

INTERVAL – IS A SET OF NUMERICAL MEASUREMENTS IN WHICH THE DISTANCE

BETWEEN NUMBERS IS OF A KNOWN, CONSTANT SIZE. NO TRUE ZERO POINT
(CAN HAVE NEGATIVE VALUE) E.G (TEMPERATURE AND PULSE RATING)
(distances between level of the scale or equal; Can have a negative value)

RATIO – CONSISTS OF NUMERICAL MEASUREMENTS WHERE THE DISTANCE

BETWEEN NUMBERS IS OF A KNOWN, CONSTANT SIZE, IN ADDITION, THERE IS A
NON ARBITRARY ZERO POINT.(SCORE AND AGE) (starts in zero & doesn’t have a
negative value; equal spacing)

DISCUSSION OF DATA
 Important elements in the discussion of data.

○ Measure of Central Tendency(Mean,Median and Mode)

○ Measure of Variability(Number of Category,Range or Standard Deviation)
○ Highest Value
○ Lowest Value

QUESTION: WHAT IS THE BEST MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY?

-MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Level of measurement statistic statistic

Nominal MODE most frequent

Ordinal MEDIAN middle

Interval/Ratio MEAN average

WHAT IS THE MOST APPROPRIATE MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY?

1. Data: Marital Status of 200 employees.

- Mean
- Median
- Mode
Level of Measurement: Nominal
Answer: Mode

2. Data: Socio-Economic Status of 100 Family Base on Income

- Mean
- Median
- Mode
Level of Measurement: Ordinal
Answer: Median

3. Data: Storage Temperature in Degree Celsius

 - Mean
- Median
- Mode
Level of Measurement: Interval
Answer: Mean

4. Data: Monthly Average Expenses of Hybrid Students.

- Mean
- Median
- Mode
Level of Measurement: Ratio
Answer: Mean

METHODS OF VARIABILITY MEASUREMENT

Variability (or dispersion) measures the amount of scatter in a dataset.

Commonly used methods: range, variance, standard deviation, interquartile

range, coefficient of variation etc.

Range: The difference between the largest and the smallest observations. The
range of 10, 5, 2, 100 is (100-2)=98. It’s a crude measure of variability.

MEASURES OF VARIATION

Level of measurement Statistic Statistic

Nominal Number of categories How many different values are

there?

Ordinal Range What are the highest and lowest

values?

Interval/ Ratio Standard deviation What is the average deviation from

the mean?

METHODS OF VARIABILITY MEASUREMENT

Variance: The variance of a set of observations is the average of the squares of

the deviations of the observations from their mean. In symbols, the variance of
the n observations x1, x2,…xn is
Variance of 5, 7, 3? Mean is (5+7+3)/3 = 5 and the variance is

Standard Deviation: Square root of the variance. The standard deviation of the
above example is 2.

BOXPLOT

Distribution of Age in Month

WHAT IS THE MOST APPROPRIATE MEASURE OF VARIABILITY?

1. Data: Salary Grade Level

- Number of Categories
- Range
- Standard Deviation
Level of Measurement: Ordinal
Answer: Range

2. Data: Net Worth of 75 employees.

- Number of Categories
- Range
- Standard Deviation
Level of Measurement: Interval
Answer: Standard Deviation

3. Data: Employment Status of 96 Employees

- Number of Categories
 - Range
- Standard Deviation
Level of Measurement: Nominal
Answer: Number of Categories

4. Data: Score in 100-item Applicant’s Examination.

- Number of Categories
- Range
- Standard Deviation
Level of Measurement: Ratio
Answer: Standard Deviation

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE