Chapter 1 Ele I
Chapter 1 Ele I
Chapter 1 Ele I
Chapter 1
1. Introduction
Electronics device such as diode, transistor and integrated circuit are made of a semiconductor
material. To understand how this device work, the student should have a basic knowledge of
structure of atoms and the interaction of atomic particle. Important and basic concept introduced
in this chapter is that of pn junction that is formed when two different of semiconductor are
joined together. The pn junction is fundamental to the operation of device such as solar cell, the
diode, and certain type of transistor.
All matter is composed of atoms; all atoms consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons
except normal hydrogen, which does not have a neutron. Each element in the periodic
table has a unique atomic structure, and all atoms within a given element have the same number
of protons. At first, the atom was thought to be a tiny indivisible sphere. Later it was shown that
the atom was not a single particle but was made up of a small dense nucleus around which
electrons orbit at great distances from the nucleus, similar to the way planets orbit the sun. Niels
Bohr proposed that the electrons in an atom circle the nucleus in different obits, similar to the
way planets orbit the sun in our solar system. The Bohr model is often referred to as the
planetary model. Another view of the atom called the quantum model is considered a more
accurate representation, but it is difficult to visualize. For most practical purposes in electronics,
the Bohr model suffices and is commonly used because it is easy to visualize.
An atom* is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that element.
Each of the known 118 elements has atoms that are different from the atoms of all other
elements. This gives each element a unique atomic structure. According to the classical Bohr
model, atoms have a planetary type of structure that consists of a central nucleus surrounded by
orbiting electrons, as illustrated in Figure 1–1. The nucleus consists of positively charged
particles called protons and uncharged particles called neutrons. The basic particles of negative
charge are called electrons.
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Basic Semiconductor Theory
Each type of atom has a certain number of electrons and protons that distinguishes it from the
atoms of all other elements. For example, the simplest atom is that of hydrogen, which has one
proton and one electron, as shown in Figure 1–2(a). As another example, the helium atom,
shown in Figure 1–2(b), has two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus and two electrons
orbiting the nucleus.
All elements are arranged in the periodic table of the elements in order according to their atomic
number. The atomic number equals the number of protons in the nucleus, which is the same as
the number of electrons in an electrically balanced (neutral) atom. For example, hydrogen has an
atomic number of 1 and helium has an atomic number of 2. In their normal (or neutral) state, all
atoms of a given element have the same number of electrons as protons; the positive charges
cancel the negative charges, and the atom has a net charge of zero.
The Bohr model of an atom showing electrons in orbits around the nucleus, which consists of
protons and neutrons. The “tails” on the electrons indicate motion.
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The Maximum Number of Electrons in Each Shell The maximum number of electrons (Ne) that
can exist in each shell of an atom is a fact of nature and can be calculated by the formula,
Ne=2n2
Where n is the number of the shell. The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the
innermost shell (shell 1) is
Ne = 2n2 = 2(1)2 = 2
Valence Electrons
Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have higher energy and are less tightly bound
to the atom than those closer to the nucleus. This is because the force of attraction between the
positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron decreases with increasing
distance from the nucleus. Electrons with the highest energy exist in the outermost shell of an
atom and are relatively loosely bound to the atom. This outermost shell is known as the valence
shell and electrons in this shell are called valence electrons. These valence electrons contribute to
chemical reactions and bonding within the structure of a material and determine its electrical
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properties. When a valence electron gains sufficient energy from an external source, it can break
free from its atom. This is the basis for conduction in materials.
In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be classified into three groups: conductors,
semiconductors, and insulators.
Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors All materials are made up of atoms. These atoms
contribute to the electrical properties of a material, including its ability to conduct electrical
current. For purposes of discussing electrical properties, an atom can be represented by the
valence shell and a core that consists of all the inner shells and the nucleus. This concept is
illustrated in Figure 1–6 for a carbon atom. Carbon is used in some types of electrical
resistors. Notice that the carbon atom has four electrons in the valence shell and two electrons
in the inner shell. The nucleus consists of six protons and six neutrons, so the 6 indicates
the positive charge of the six protons. The core has a net charge of 4 (6 for the nucleus
and for the two inner-shell electrons).
Insulators An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal
conditions. Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-element materials
and have very high resistivity. Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore, there
are very few free electrons in an insulator. Examples of insulators are rubber,
plastics, glass, mica, and quartz.
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Basic Semiconductor Theory
Silicon is a semiconductor and copper is a conductor. Bohr diagrams of the silicon atom and
the copper atom are shown in Figure below. Notice that the core of the silicon atom has a net
charge of 4 (14 protons 10 electrons) and the core of the copper atom has a net charge of
1 (29 protons 28 electrons). The core includes everything except the valence electrons.
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The valence electron in the copper atom “feels” an attractive force of 1 compared to a valence
electron in the silicon atom which “feels” an attractive force of 4. Therefore, there is more force
trying to hold a valence electron to the atom in silicon than in copper. The copper’s valence
electron is in the fourth shell, which is a greater distance from its nucleus than the silicon’s
valence electron in the third shell. Recall that electrons farthest from the nucleus have the most
energy. The valence electron in copper has more energy than the valence electron in silicon. This
means that it is easier for valence electrons in copper to acquire enough additional energy to
escape from their atoms and become free electrons than it is in silicon. In fact, large numbers of
valence electrons in copper already have sufficient energy to be free electrons at normal room
temperature.
The atomic structures of silicon and germanium are compared in Figure below. Silicon is used in
diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, and other semiconductor devices. Notice that both silicon
and germanium have the characteristic four valence electrons.
The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell while those in silicon are in the third
shell, closer to the nucleus. This means that the germanium valence electrons are at higher
energy levels than those in silicon and, therefore, require a smaller amount of additional energy
to escape from the atom. This property makes germanium more unstable at high temperatures
and results in excessive reverse current. This is why silicon is a more widely used semi
conductive material.
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Basic Semiconductor Theory
Covalent Bonds Figure below shows how each silicon atom positions itself with four adjacent
silicon atoms to form a silicon crystal. A silicon (Si) atom with its four valence electrons shares
an electron with each of its four neighbors. This effectively creates eight shared valence
electrons for each atom and produces a state of chemical stability. Also, this sharing of valence
electrons produces the covalent bonds that hold the atoms together; each valence electron is
attracted equally by the two adjacent atoms which share it.
Covalent bonding in an intrinsic silicon crystal is shown in Figure 1.2. An intrinsic crystal is one
that has no impurities. Covalent bonding for germanium is similar because it also has four
valence electrons.
Bonding diagram
Semi conductive materials do not conduct current well and are of limited value in their intrinsic
state. This is because of the limited number of free electrons in the conduction band and holes in
the valence band. Intrinsic silicon (or germanium) must be modified by increasing the number of
free electrons or holes to increase its conductivity and make it useful in electronic devices. This
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Basic Semiconductor Theory
is done by adding impurities to the intrinsic material. Two types of extrinsic (impure) semi
conductive materials, n-type and p-type, are the key building blocks for most types of electronic
devices.
Since semiconductors are generally poor conductors, their conductivity can be drastically
increased by the controlled addition of impurities to the intrinsic (pure) semi conductive material.
This process, called doping, increases the number of current carriers (electrons or holes). The
two categories of impurities are n-type and p-type.
N-Type Semiconductor
As illustrated in Figure below, each pentavalent atom (antimony, in this case) forms covalent
bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. Four of the antimony atom’s valence electrons are used
to form the covalent bonds with silicon atoms, leaving one extra electron. This extra electron
becomes a conduction electron because it is not involved in bonding. Because the pentavalent
atom gives up an electron, it is often called a donor atom. The number of conduction electrons
can be carefully controlled by the number of impurity atoms added to the silicon. A conduction
electron created by this doping process does not leave a hole in the valence band because it is in
excess of the number required to fill the valence band.
Majority and Minority Carriers Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon (or
germanium) doped with pentavalent atoms is an n-type semiconductor (the n stands for the
negative charge on an electron). The electrons are called the majority carriers in n-type material.
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Basic Semiconductor Theory
Although the majority of current carriers in n-type material are electrons, there are also a few
holes that are created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These holes are not
produced by the addition of the pentavalent impurity atoms. Holes in an n-type material are
called minority carriers.
P-Type Semiconductor
To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent impurity atoms are added. These are
atoms with three valence electrons such as boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga). As
illustrated in Figure 1–18, each trivalent atom (boron, in this case) forms covalent bonds with
four adjacent silicon atoms. All three of the boron atom’s valence electrons are used in the
covalent bonds; and, since four electrons are required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is
added. Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as an acceptor atom.
The number of holes can be carefully controlled by the number of trivalent impurity atoms added
to the silicon. A hole created by this doping process is not accompanied by a conduction (free)
electron.
Majority and Minority Carriers Since most of the current carriers are holes, silicon (or
germanium) doped with trivalent atoms is called a p-type semiconductor. The holes are the
majority carriers in p-type material. Although the majority of current carriers in p-type material
are holes, there are also a few conduction-band electrons that are created when electron-hole
pairs are thermally generated. These conduction-band electrons are not produced by the addition
of the trivalent impurity atoms. Conduction-band electrons in p-type material are the minority
carriers.
Figure Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure. A boron (B) impurity atom is
shown in the center
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Basic Semiconductor Theory
When you take a block of silicon and dope part of it with a trivalent impurity and the other part
with a pentavalent impurity, a boundary called the pn junction is formed between the resulting p-
type and n-type portions. The pn junction is the basis for diodes, certain transistors, solar cells,
and other devices, as you will learn later.
A p-type material consists of silicon atoms and trivalent impurity atoms such as boron. The
boron atom adds a hole when it bonds with the silicon atoms. However, since the number of
protons and the number of electrons are equal throughout the material, there is no net charge in
the material and so it is neutral.
An n-type silicon material consists of silicon atoms and pentavalent impurity atoms such as
antimony. As you have seen, an impurity atom releases an electron when it bonds with four
silicon atoms. Since there is still an equal number of protons and electrons (including the free
electrons) throughout the material, there is no net charge in the material and so it is neutral. If a
piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is n-type and the other part is p-type, a pn junction
forms at the boundary between the two regions and a diode is created, as indicated in Figure 1–
19(a). The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few
thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers). The n region has many free electrons
(majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated holes (minority
carriers).
The free electrons in the n region are randomly drifting in all directions. At the instant of the pn
junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse across the
junction into the p region where they combine with holes near the junction, as shown in Figure
above.
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Basic Semiconductor Theory
Before the pn junction is formed, recall that there are as many electrons as protons in the n-type
material, making the material neutral in terms of net charge. The same is true for the p-type
material. When the pn junction is formed, the n region loses free electrons as they diffuse across
the junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction. As the
electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine.
This creates a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction. These two layers of
positive and negative charges form the depletion region). The term depletion refers to the fact
that the region near the pn junction is depleted of charge carriers (electrons and holes) due to
diffusion across the junction. Keep in mind that the depletion region is formed very quickly and
is very thin compared to the n region and p region. After the initial surge of free electrons across
the pn junction, the depletion region has expanded to a point where equilibrium is established
and there is no further diffusion o
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