UNIT 4 VEDAS – II

Contents

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Structure of the Rigveda
4.3 Structure of the Yajurveda
4.4 Structure of the Samaveda
4.5 Structure of the Atharvaveda
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Key Words
4.8 Further Readings and References
4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

__________________________________________________________________
4.0 OBJECTIVES

With the help of this unit, you will be in a position:

 to discover the intricacies of the Vedic literature
 to understand the path in which the Vedas evolved over several centuries
 to understand several changes, which took place not only in the text but also in the
attitude of the ancient Indians
 to be exposed to the complexity in the content of the Vedic thought
 to compare and evaluate various stages of development against sociological and
psychological backgrounds

4.1 INTRODUCTION

It is claimed that the Rigveda is the foundation of all other Vedas. Directly or indirectly the
remaining Vedas, with the exception of the Atharvaveda, borrowed material from this particular
Veda. Therefore it is desirable to become familiar with the structure of this Veda. Earlier (in
unit 3), we came to know that the dates of composition and collection are different. It is unlikely
that before the Mantras were collected there was anything like structure. In other words, within
the limits of „oral tradition‟ there might not have been any possibility of systematizing the
literature. This particular study takes us farther from the age of composition towards the later
period. While doing so, care should be taken to separate legend or myth from history. Since no
records are available except quotations here and there, we should only restrict ourselves to

1
reasonable conjectures. If it is true that one of the authors of the Mahabharata (the
Mahabharata was not composed by any one individual within limited period of time)
systematized the Vedas, then except the Atharvaveda, other Vedas were put in order by him.
This is so because the Atharvaveda belongs to the post-Mahabharata age. There were twenty-
one schools of the Rigveda according to Patanjali. However, only a few schools remain out of
which Ashwalayana and Shankhayana are very significant because they are also sources of
Shrauta and Grihya sutras respectively.

4.2 STRUCTURE OF THE RIGVEDA

The Rigveda consists of approximately 10,600 Mantras („Mantras’ roughly mean the same as
stanzas). This Veda is systematized in two ways. One method is to divide the entire Veda into
eight parts, called ashtakas and each ashtaka, in turn, is divided into eight chapters. Therefore it
can be said that this method of division is on „mode – 8‟. Each chapter has several sections and
the number of these sections varies from 221 to 331. Finally, each section has Mantras ranging
from 1147 to 1730. In the second method, the Veda is divided into 10 divisions (Mandalas).
Each division consists of subdivisions (Anuvaaka) ranging from 4 to 24. Each subdivision
consists of a number of suktas ranging from 43 to 191. Finally, each sukta is nothing but a
collection of Mantras. There is an advantage in the latter method of organization. Each
Mandala is associated with definite Rishis (who can be regarded as programmers). For example,
the first Mandala consists of works of fifteen different authors. Their works do not appear in any
other Mandala. Hence, the Mandalas are author-oriented. It only means that this sort of
organization is very close, in purpose, to modern day technique of arranging and classifying
books. Further, the arrangement of suktas also follows a different order. The first sukta
addresses Agni, followed by Indra and so on. On the whole, the method of organization is either
author- oriented or god- oriented. This type of organization has distinct advantage even from the
point of view of tradition.

Since Mandala is Rishi-oriented (or author-oriented) and sukta is god-oriented, any particular
sukta is conditioned by these two features. Every sukta is attributed to the one who addresses
and the god who is addressed and this god is the presiding deity of that sukta. Third dimension is
meter to which the sukta is set. With meter is associated intonation. Intonation is something,
which can be picked up surely not by reading, but by listening and practice. In this respect,
chanting of the Vedic hymns resembles music. (Later we will learn that the Samaveda is the
source of music and is itself highly musical). Apart from intonation, priority was given to
method. There are six methods of chanting. The same Mantra is chanted in six different ways.
These methods with some sort of formula are mentioned below. Here a, b & c represent words
which are required to be chanted.
Formula
1 Samhita Paatha (Method) A Bc D E
2 Krama Paatha A B Bc c
3 Jataa Paatha A B Ba b
Bc Cb bc
4 Shikhaa Paatha A B Ba ab
C Bc cb Bc
5 Pada Paatha A B c

2
6 Ghana Paatha A B ba A b
C C ba A bc
In the formula, gap indicates pause in chanting. It is sufficient to note that different methods are
meant for different purposes. In the Rigveda, these aspects are significant because this Veda is
composed only in verse. Same judgment applies to the Samaveda also.

The Rigveda consists of suktas, which were specially meant to be chanted only when yagas were
performed. There are ten such suktas, which are called „Apree sukta’. While performing yaga,
there was one more specification. It was not the job of any one person to chant all the Mantras.
It was always a team consisting of four members who had a definite role to play. Members are
called ritwijas. Their designation and responsibilities are mentioned below.

Order Name Responsibility

1 Initiating the programme and invoking respective gods to
Hotru accept HAVIS (which is dedicated to a particular god)
2 One who utters Swaaha and simultaneously adds sacred
Adhvar material to the sacred fire (Agni Kunda)
yu
3 Chants Mantras in high pitch
Udgatr
u
4 The presiding officer who ensures smooth running of the
Brahm programme
a

SAMHITAS

There is no need to refer to every god. Let us concentrate on a few without omitting any stratum;
again, Prithivi and Nadi (river) from Prithivi stratum; Indra, Vayu, Parjanya, Apaha and
Apamnapat from Antarikasha Stratum and Varuna, Surya and Savitru from Dyu statrum. No
god enjoyed the same status throughout. The numbers of suktas actually determine their ranks at
any given time. From this angle, among gods of Prithivi stratum, Agni is supreme. There are
two hundred suktas dedicated to this one god. Agni is all pervasive in wood, Jatharagni in
animals, etc. These forms are confirmed to the earth. In mid-air (Anthariksha) Agni is present in
the form of lightning and in Dyuloka (deep space) Agni is in the form of Surya. These
descriptions perfectly agree with common sense. The third form of Agni is supposed to be
superior to the rest. Here first identification is achieved. In his third form Agni is the same as
Surya. If Agni is equated with energy, and it is perfect to equate so, then he becomes the Lord of
the Universe. This is a poetic usage. In fact, the Rigveda is full of such usages. Hence it is very
important to extract what appears to be a sound measure according to science and philosophy.
Accordingly, Lord of the Universe is to be understood as the prime source, i.e., energy, which is
all-pervasive as far as physics is concerned. He is identified not only with Surya but also with
Varuna, Rudra, Maruta, etc.

3
There is only one sukta, which is dedicated to Prithivi alone. But if we consider the spirit with
which Prithivi is propitiated, then we will understand that its significance is by no means
undermined. There are other suktas in which Prithvi is propitiated in conjunction with another
god, viz, Dyuhu. Though this association, there is an unconscious attempt to depict the origin of
life. There was, and is, no other way to explain the origin of life. It shows that the Rigveda
attempted to discover not only the origin of the Universe but also life. The association between
Dyuhu and Prithivi is so strong, according to the Rigveda, that they are treated as pair always.
This point becomes clear when we learn that these two gods are addressed as dyavaaprithivi.
Sayana puts it in a slightly different manner. He calls it dviroopaa prithivi, i.e., two forms of
Prithivi.

A significant aspect of the Rigveda is the importance of rivers recognized by the Veda. The
rivers which find places in the Veda are very few; Saraswati, Sarayu, Sindhu, Ganga, Yamuna,
Shutudri, Parushri, Mardvridhe and Arjikiye. The river Saraswati is not only the principal
source of life but also of knowledge.

Agni is the most sought after among the gods of Prithivi and Indra corresponds to Agni among
the gods of mid-air. There are two hundred and fifty suktas in praise of Indra. If we put together
the suktas dedicated to Agni and Indra, then they will occupy a little less than half of the
Rigveda. Indra is essentially a war-god. The importance given to him indicates that there were
frequent battles between Aryans and their enemies. They had every reason to protect themselves.
It is true that the Aryans migrated from some other part of the world (it is conjectured that
Aryans originated from north pole region), then, surely, they are to be regarded as invaders. If
so, did they have any moral right to disturb and dislodge the original inhabitants? It may amount
to anachronism to judge their attitude on this basis. Going in search of food and shelter was a
common place phenomenon in those days among human beings and even now among animals.
In this respect, there is no difference between men and animals. In fact, migration among human
beings is still there, but in a different manner. Perhaps ethical aspect involved in such activities
was totally unknown in distant past.

In all suktas one description of Indra dominates. Only valour is distinctly noticeable in these
suktas. It only speaks of turbulent atmosphere prevalent in those days. Valour cannot be
described without legend. An enemy, Vritra, was created. What is important here is the way in
which Vritra is killed. It is a never-ending process. The Veda proclaims that the destruction of
Vritra takes place in future also. There are two ways in which it can be understood. Fight with
enemy is never ending. This is one meaning. Another possibility is that the destruction of Vritra
may be a symbol of eradication of recurring natural phenomena, which are inimical to men‟s
well being. The suktas mention resurgence of helpful natural phenomenon, which are the results
of Vritra’s destruction. Again, there is ambiguity here. Another example substantiates this
ambiguity. There is one sukta, which describes how Indra facilitated the Sunrise when he
destroyed the chariot of Ushas. As long as twilight (here ushas) persists there is no sunrise. In
saying so, it is true that the Veda is putting the cart in front of the horse. But then, let us
remember that the Veda has resorted to poetic language, which accounts not only for beauty but
also ambiguity in expression. Obviously, this is not what is expected in any philosophical
enterprise. However, at this stage, the Veda had not yet matured to become philosophical.

4
Let us consider Vayu (air), Parjanya (cloud) and Apaha (water) together because the very
possibility of life depends partially on these natural things. In some places instead of Vayu, the
Veda uses another name vata. In Nasadiya sukta, it is hinted that Vata is another name for Vayu.
There are three suktas in Rigveda, which exclusively propitiate Vayu; elsewhere Vayu is
propitiated in conjunction with other gods. Two attributes of Vayu puzzled the Aryans; motion
and all pervasiveness. Whenever they experienced puzzle they say divinity. This is (Vayu) one
example. One sukta addressed to Parjanya is interesting. The suktas which address Parjanya
contain references to a cow which gives milk and a cow which does not. Parjanya is glorified by
comparison with cow which gives milk. Milk indicates rainfall and cow symbolizes Parjanya.
After all, there could be no rains without clouds. So this takes us to Apaha (water). In one sense
Parjanya, Apaha and Nadi gods are related. How can clouds shower rainfall? This phenomenon
explains partly in straight language and partly in poetic language. Due to the Sun‟s heat water
gets evaporated and the cloud is filled with water vapour, which returns as rains. This
explanation is factual. This is followed by poetic description; Indra used sword (vajrauidha) to
dissect the clouds to release water imprisoned inside. Such poetic expressions on many
occasions have given rise to difficulties.

Apaamnapat in a unique god. It is an instance of two gods merging into one god. Apaamnapat
is Agni present in water while many gods can be directly related to nature and some indirectly; in
some other cases (like the present one) it is not possible to find any correlation.

Among the gods of Dyuhu stratum Varuna, Surya and Savitru are important. Varuna’s function
is to maintain rita a point mentioned in the previous unit. Twelve suktas praise Varuna. The
distinction in functions which Indra and Varuna discharge is rather subtle in expression when
expressed in Sanskrit destruction of „vritra’ and protection of „RITA’. It should be noted that in
pronunciation there is very subtle difference. Like any other god, Varuna also is omnipresent
and substratum of all. Surprisingly, Varuna was dislodged from his coveted place during later
stage. It was Indra who replaced Varuna. The sequence of events points to priority. Self-
preservation is primary. Morality is meaningless when my own existence is at stake. This
simple psychological truth does not defend tendency to sideline morality. An empirical approach
neither defends nor criticizes. Any attempt to the contrary is only an over-reaction. A human
being is always a human being.

Surya and Mitra do not denote separate gods. Not only Mitra, but also Varuna and Agni are
regarded as one god by the Rigveda. If we regard function as the parameter, then even that
difference cannot be traced between Surya and Mitra. For one reason, Surya supersedes all other
gods. All other gods need not be propitiated every day. But then Surya is propitiated every day.
Identity with anything brings with it sentiments or emotions. It is the origin of poetry. This is
what happens in Vedic literature. Surya is regarded as the eye of the gods. Ushas symbolizes
twilight. Day begins only when Surya followed twilight. Hence, the imagination that Ushas
brings Surya. Perhaps, whole of the Rigveda is in the poem-style for this reason. When poetry
reigns, philosophy takes back seat.

Eleven suktas are reserved for propitiating Savitru. Again, distinction between Surya and
Savitru is blurred. Savitru not only lights the world but also enlightens the inner world of man.

5
Savitru is one god, which stimulates intellect. In these respects, Surya is treated on par with
Savitru.

One more aspect with respect to gods has to be mentioned. There are male gods and also female
gods. Ushas, Saraswati, Prithivi are a few among them. While male gods are characterized by
activity, valour and exercise of authority, female gods are characterized by grace, mercy,
sustenance, nursing and so on. It is likely that even during those days woman was adept at
nursing both body and mind. It is perfectly understandable that man imagines god in his own
mould because he cannot imagine god in any other mould.

THE LESSER GODS OF THE RIGVEDA AND SECULAR SUKTAS

All gods propitiated in the Rigveda are not necessarily of high reputation. Generally it is
believed that references to witch craft are found only in Atharvaveda. However, it is not so. The
tenth division of the Rig veda also includes such suktas. They are called „Abhichaaraka suktas’.
They are very few in number. But it is not a reason to ignore these suktas. In fact, among noble
gods a few have still less number of suktas in their favour than these lesser gods. The aim here is
to wish for nullifying what one does not want. Destruction of enemy is one among them. This is
one evil, which anybody wants to destroy. Another evil is extramarital relation. In this case the
husband is guilty and his wife prays god to harm her rival. In the text, the word „Sapatni’ is used
to refer to her rival. It should be noted that though Indra and Agni are propitiated here also, their
functions remain unaffected.

Secular suktas refer to day-to-day life. Three aspects deserve to be mentioned. One sukta
mentions that a widow can marry her husband‟s brother. For reasons unknown, it never was in
practice, at least, after lapse of the Vedic period. Second aspect refers to one sukta which says
„pancha jaata vardhayantee ! Considering the fact that in purusha sukta there is reference to
Chaturvarnya, the word „Panchajaata' may refer to the birth or lower Varna according to one
theory. In the said sukta, the word Varna does not appear. Can we interpret „Jaata’ as Varna?
It is very difficult to answer this question. There is no explicit or implicit reference to
untouchability either.

Among secular suktas „akshasukta’ describes the fate of gambler. It shows that gambling is as
old as human civilization. suryaasukta, which has laid down the proceedings of marriage, shows
that among Rishis, there were women. They are not necessarily wives of Rishis. Surye, the
daughter of Savitru is the Rishi of Surya sukta.

BRAHMANAS

The word „Brahmana’ is used here in neuter gender. This word refers a class of literature called
liturgical literature. These works are essentially prosaic contrary to Mantras found in Samhitas.
The main content of the Brahmanas is to specify prescriptions (Vidhi) and proscriptions
(Nishedha) while performing yagas. All Vedas, in course of time gave rise to Brahmanas. This
particular class of literature is also very vast. These works required a few centuries to develop. It
is surmised that the age of the Brahmanas ranges from 200 B.C. to 3000 B.C.

6
Two Brahmanas originated from the Rigveda. One Mahidasa Aitareya composed „aitareya
brahmana’. „kaushitaki brahmana’ is another. The authorship of the latter is not known. Some
scholars say that Kaushitaki Brahmana is the same as Shankhayana Brahmana. According to
Aitareya Brahmana, one yaga called agnishtoma is primary and all other yagas are its different
forms, sometimes distorted also. Therefore, the description of this yaga is given in detail.
However, Aitareya Brahmana is neither spiritual nor philosophical. Indeed, this criticism
applies to all Brahmanas. From this Brahmana another aspect becomes clear. Chaturvarnya got
transformed to caste system at that point of time only. For example, some Brahmanas clearly
mention that shudra can only be a labourer and vaishya can only be an agriculturist.

Kaushitaki glorifies another yaga called Soma-yaga. Another Vedic god Somapavamana is the
presiding deity of this yaga. The drink Soma is also associated with this deity. It marks
deviation from the Rigveda of Mantra age in replacing Agni by Vishnu. Another aspect worth
mentioning in this regard is resistance to the sacrifice of animals and meat eating.

ARANYAKAS

Two Aranyakas are associated with the Rigveda; Aitareya and Shankhayana. Though the names
of the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas are same, content of one differs from that of the other. An
important aspect of Shankhayana Aranyaka is that one chapter is dedicated to the discussion on
some aspects of grammar. Last two chapters of this Aranyaka constitute the basis of Aitareya
Upanishad. Shankhayana Aranyaka has fifteen chapters of which 3rd to 6th chapters constitute
the basis for Kaushitaki Upanishad.

Check Your Progress I

Note : a) use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of the unit.
1) Define Suktas in the Rgveda
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
2) Write a short note on Brahmnas
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

4.3 STRUCTURE OF THE YAJURVEDA

7
The Yajurveda is in two forms, Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda. While Shukla
Yajurveda is in verse style, the former is prosaic and also poetic. Perhaps Krishna Yajurveda is
so called because of this admixture. However, the reason is not very significant. Both forms
have a common goal. This Veda gave utmost prominence to the performance of yaga. In this
respect, the Brahmanas of the Rigveda are more in common with the Yajur veda. It is said that
Krishna Yajurveda had eighty-five schools out of which only four are extant. They are called
(a). Taittiriya (b). Maitrayaneeya (c). Katha and (d) Kapisthala.

SUBJECT MATTER

Since Yajurveda gives prominence to yagas, there is description of several yagas. It is sufficient
to just name them; paurodasha, yajamana, vajapeya, rajasuya, somayaga are some of them.
Authoritative commentary on this Veda is written by Sayana, which helps us to understand the
significance of yaga. Taithiriya School described these yagas. In addition to this description, it
also consists of Ghana paatha just as the Rigveda consists; this was designated in order to
simplify the Vedic language, which was complicated at that point of time. Maitrayaneeya School
describes ashwamedha yaga in addition to the above mentioned yagas. But for this addition
there is no other difference as far as yagas are concerned. This school has borrowed nearly 1700
Mantras from the Rigveda. Katha School describes agnishtoma, agnihotra yagas in addition to
yagas already mentioned. In terms of number katha is more voluminous with eighteen thousand
Mantras and Brahmanas. Not much is known about the fourth school since the concerned
literature is available in patches. One Rishi by name Kapisthala is the founder of this school.
The Krishna Yajurveda was founded by Vaishampayana while his student Yajnavalkya founded
Shukla Yajurveda. In Indian tradition, we hardly come across a student who finds defects in his
teacher and provides a different system. As per records, Yajnavalkya belongs to this category.
The form of this text resembles the Rigveda.

The Shukla form also describes all yagas mentioned earlier. In addition, it gives a detailed
description of the construction of altar; number of bricks required and shape of the altar. From
this Veda, we can understand that everyone is not eligible to perform any and every yaga. There
are three chapters, which are devoted to one yaga known as sautramani can be performed by a
dethroned king, or a lover of cattle or a person who does not have access to Soma drink. The
specification also says that after the yaga is completed, he should drink Somarasa.

Significance is attached to the description of the killing of Purusha. There are conflicting
versions about this description. According to one version, the description is only symbolic. By
Purusha if we understand man, then it does not really mean that man was sacrificed. According
to another version, human sacrifice was not something uncommon because there is a reference to
human sacrifice in Aitareya Brahmana. An interesting and incredible corollary is that in those
days human sacrifice was not necessarily a taboo. This conclusion substantiates what was said
earlier (Unit 3, 3.2) that the Vedic thought is to a large extent an extension of tribal culture.
Therefore even if it is possible to prove that Purushamedha is only symbolic, it is not sufficient
to prove that human sacrifice was not unknown.

BRAHMANAS

8
The Brahmanas which belong to the Yajurveda are extant; Taittiriya belongs to Krishna
Yajurveda and Shatapatha belongs to Shukla Yajurveda . References are made to another
Brahmana called Kaathaka which is extinct. These Brahmanas are extensions of respective
samhitas. Hence the content remains more or less the same but for a few additions. It is
sufficient to mention these additions. Among yagas „nakshatreshti’ is an addition. It includes
the description of twenty-eight stars. Among them fourteen are called deva and the remaining
Yama. The second aspect is the specification of Mantras, which have to be chanted during
ceremonies like coronation, chariot ascending, etc. Two conclusions can be drawn; one,
monarchy was held to be very important and second, performing yagas was sacred. This was in
tune with the spirit of the Yajurveda. In fact, the number of yagas mentioned in the Brahmana is
quite big. The most interesting yaga, however, is Vishwasruja, which was performed,
purportedly, for one thousand years by the gods. As the name itself indicates the universe came
into existence thanks to the performance of the yaga. We find here an attempt to explain the
birth of the universe. This particular aspect needs attention. Religion and mythology assert that
the whole universe was created instantly, which is, surely, incredible. The Bible takes one step
ahead and says that the god required six days to create the universe. When compared with the
former, the latter is several thousand times slower. However, Vishwasruja yaga outsmarts Bible
in saying that the process of creation of universe took one thousand years. Science discloses that
several billions of years were required for the universe to evolve. Therefore the Taititriya is
closer to science than any other workin this respect.

Shukla Yajurveda has two schools; kaanva and madhyandina. Shatapatha Brahmana belongs to
both these systems. First reference to Pitru yajna can be discerned in this Brahmana. Pitru yajna
is regarded as one of the pancha yajnas, the other four being deva, atithi, brahma yajnas and
bhootabali. Study of the Vedas is called Brahma yajna. Bhootabali is offer of food to all
creatures. Shatapatha Brahmana is so called because it has one hundred chapters. It is said to be
the most exhaustive work in this field. Hence it provides more information than any other
Brahmana. This particular Brahmana gives a very different description of yaga. According to
this interpretation, any yaga has two faces; physical or external (bahiryaga) and psychological or
internal (antaryaga). It is difficult to decide whether the latter can also be called spiritual.
Accordingly, sacrifice has to be made twice, one for will power or determination and the other
for speech because in the absence of any one of them, it is impossible to perform yaga. To
maintain independence and hence co-operation of „will‟ and „speech‟ it is necessary to use
separate instruments for two acts of sacrifice. sruva is the equipment used to offer sacrifice,
which represents will power. Likewise, srak is meant for speech. There is difference in posture
also. Sacrifice, which is associated with will power, should be made while sitting and the second
one has to be made while standing. Lastly, this particular Brahmana contains words like arhat,
shramana, pratibuddha, etc., which were later, used by Jainism and Buddhism.

ARANYAKAS

Brihadaranyaka and Taittiriya Aranyakas are two Aranyakas, which belong to this Veda. The
first one is also an Upanishad. Since it will be taken up for discussion later, it can be omitted for
the time being. The Aranyakas do not constitute distinct texts. Any Aranyaka, for that matter, is
restricted only to discussions often on matters pertaining to inner significance of yagas, and this
discussion matured later in the Upanishads. Taittiriya Aranyaka is important only for one

9
reason. Two pramanas (ways of knowing), which become prominent later, viz., „Pratyaksha’
and „Anumana’ are use for the first time here. Otherwise, there is nothing new in this Aranyaka
worthy of any serious study.

4.4 STRUCTURE OF THE SAMAVEDA

This Veda has two parts; purvaarchika and uttaraarchika. Aarchika means collection of Riks or
Mantras. Instead of Samhita, the word Aarchika is used here. First part has six hundred and
fifty Mantras and second part has one thousand two hundred Mantras. However, some Mantras
of Purvaarchika (Prior collection) have been repeated in Uttaraarchika (Posterior collection). If
repetition is ignored, then we find approximately one thousand six hundred Mantras. Out of
them, only about one hundred are original. The rest of the Mantras have been lifted from the
Rigveda. Out of supposed thirteen schools of this Veda, only three are extant; ranaayaneeya,
kauthuma and jaimini. Even though this Veda, to a very great extent, is not original with
reference to Mantras, it enjoys unique position for two reasons; this was organized for the sake
of Udgatru, who has a definite role to play in the proceedings of yaga (see unit 4.1). Secondly, it
set definite tone and style to the chanting of Mantras. It shows that these three Vedas do not
compete with each other, but they are mutually complementary. Mantras from the Rigveda,
method of execution from the Yajurveda and a definite style of chanting from the Sama may
complete the process.

SUBJECT MATTER

The subject matter is unique in the sense that the style of chanting itself is its theme. The
emphasis upon style is so great that it became the source of classical music in India. The Sama
Gana is of four types (a). graamageya or chanting in society, (b). Aranyaka Gana or chanting in
forests, (c). Ooha Gana, chanting during Soma yaga and (d). Oohya Gana or secret chanting.
Perhaps there was no difference between chanting and singing during this period. In each
category there are several types and again, this number differs from one school to another. If we
put together all varieties, we arrive at a staggering figure; it adds up to more than six thousand
types. Philosophically, it does not have any importance. It is not even necessary for our purpose
to correlate the notes of Sama with the „Seven Notes (Sapta Swara)‟ of classical music. So we
shall only restrict to mere mention of some aspects. Here the Mantras undergo change in six
different ways. The changes occur to suit „Sama music‟.

Samagana itself has five parts: (a). Prastaava (initiating) one who initiates is called Prastotru,
(b), Udgeetha sung by udgathru, (c). Pratihaara sung by Pratiharta , (d). Upadrava sung by
udgatru and (e). Nidhana sung by the entire team at the end.

BRAHMANAS

There are nine Brahmanas, which belong to the Sama veda, of which only three have survived.
Instead of explaining the method of performing yagas, Sama veda explains the structure of
„Gana’ with reference to yaga. It shows that the Brahmanas of the Samaveda also are directly
related to yagas. In addition, this Veda describes in detail the function of Udgatru, which is not
found in other Brahmanas. Tandya Brahmana, which has explained this aspect, has given to us

10
denotation of large numbers. For example, niuta is one million; nyarbuda is for one billion and
so on. Another Brahmana called shadvimsha refers to idols and protective measures to be
followed at the time of natural calamities. Reference to idols indicates the beginning of idol
worship. Samavidhana is third one which serves as reference work to Smrutis and Kalpa Sutras.

Check Your Progress II

Note : a) use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of the unit.
3) Explain the structure of the Yajurveda?
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
4) What are the five parts of Samagana ?
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

4.5 STRUCTURE OF THE ATHARVAVEDA

Even though the Puranas claim that this Veda was composed by Veda Vyasa, there is no reason
to accept this theory if the same Veda Vyasa wrote the Mahabharata. It is a well known fact
that this Veda belongs to the post-Mahabharata age. Pippalda, a Rishi, is said to be the founder
of this Veda. This particular aspect contradicts the belief that the Vedas are Apaurusheya
because this belief does not exclude the Atharvaveda. Surely, it is not possible to hold both
Apaurusheya theory and authorship of any Veda, without getting trapped in contradiction. It is
said that this Veda had nine schools out of which only two schools viz. Pippalada and Shaunaka
have survived.

SUBJECT MATTER AND THE BRAHMANA

This particular Veda is wholly independent of liturgy. Hence, nowhere do we find any reference
to yaga or reference to gods. However, we cannot conclude that this Veda is wholly secular.
There are nearly ten issues described out of which one refers to atonement and another to
ultimate truth. In this respect, it comes close to the Upanishads. There are descriptions
pertaining to therapy, longevity, routine life, etc. There are references to several diseases like
jaundice, tuberculosis, etc. Since therapy included herbal medicines, this Veda must be the
source from which Ayurveda developed.

Gopatha Brahmana is the only Brahmana, which has survived. This is an exceptional
Brahmana because it has nothing to do with yagas, even though there are references to yaga.

11
This Brahmana makes a strange claim that the Atharvaveda is a precondition to the study of
other Vedas.

4.6 LET US SUM UP

All Vedas developed from initial stages of Mantras to the Upanishads. In the case of
Atharvaveda alone there is quantum jump from „Brahmana‟ to 'Upanishad’. The Mantras of the
Rigveda mainly aimed at propitiating gods, whereas the Yajurveda systematized the performance
of yaga. Thereby such performance became institutionalized. Thanks to qualifications ascribed
to such performance, chaturvarnya became powerful; but women had far more respectable place.
Remarriage of widow was permissible. Performing yaga was a way of life. At least one
Brahmana has the distinction of discussing cosmology. Human Sacrifice is a debatable issue.
The Samaveda is unique because it is said to be the source of music. The Atharvaveda is more
secular than any other Veda. While the Samaveda is the source of music, the Atharvaveda is the
source of Indian system of medicine, viz., Ayurveda. Hence, all these Vedas put together
complete the requirement of human life.

4.7 KEY WORDS

Anachronism: An anachronism (from the Greek “ana” = “against” and “chronos” = “time”) is
an error in chronology, especially a chronological misplacing of persons, events, objects, or
customs in regard to each other.
Ayurveda: Ayurveda (the science of life) is a system of traditional medicine native to India, and
practiced in other parts of the world as a form of alternative medicine. In Sanskrit, the word
Ayurveda comprises the words āyus, meaning „life‟ and veda, meaning „science.‟
Liturgy: A liturgy is the customary public worship done by a specific religious group, according
to its particular tradition.

4.8 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

McDonell, A.A. Vedic Mythology.London: Kessinger Publishing, 2007.

M. Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen and Unwrn, 1958.
S. Radhakrishnan. Indian Philosophy. Vol. I. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000.
S.N. Dasgupta. A History of Indian Philosophy. Vol. I. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas, 1988
Vaidya, C.V. History of Vedic Literature. Kolkata: Sahitya Academy, 1992.

4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress I

12
1. The Rigveda consists of suktas, which were specially meant to be chanted only when yagas
were performed. There are ten such suktas, which are called „Apree sukta’.

2. The word „Brahmana’ is used here in neuter gender. This word refers a class of literature
called liturgical literature. These works are essentially prosaic contrary to Mantras found in
Samhitas. The main content of the Brahmanas is to specify prescriptions (Vidhi) and
proscriptions (Nishedha) while performing yagas. All Vedas, in course of time gave rise to
Brahmanas. This particular class of literature is also very vast. These works required a few
centuries to develop. It is surmised that the age of the Brahmanas ranges from 200 B.C. to 3000
B.C.

Answers to Check Your Progress II

1. The Yajurveda is in two forms, Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda. While Shukla
Yajurveda is in verse style, the former is prosaic and also poetic. Perhaps Krishna Yajurveda is
so called because of this admixture. However, the reason is not very significant. Both forms
have a common goal. This Veda gave utmost prominence to the performance of yaga. In this
respect, the Brahmanas of the Rigveda are more in common with the Yajur veda. It is said that
Krishna Yajurveda had eighty-five schools out of which only four are extant. They are called
(a). Taittiriya (b). Maitrayaneeya (c). Katha and (d) Kapisthala.

2. Samagana itself has five parts: (a). Prastaava (initiating) one who initiates is called Prastotru,
(b), Udgeetha sung by udgathru, (c). Pratihaara sung by Pratiharta , (d). Upadrava sung by
udgatru and (e). Nidhana sung by the entire team at the end.

13