+9-*What is wireless mobile network?

PCS Architecture
Architecture is the technique to design and develop a structure for any system. PCS Architecture
which is Personal Communication Service Architecture is a technique to develop a wireless
network structure for communication.

What is PCS Architecture?

Personal Communication Services Architecture is a collection of components and services in

which components communicate with one another via interfaces.

This method is widely used in the telecommunications industry, which communicates with
public or private networks in which different services interact with network components that are
situated anywhere and at any time.

The PCS Network Architecture is a communication network structure in which components

communicate with one another to establish wireless communication.

This network design can be employed in any communication network architecture, such as PCS
or GSM networks.

The PCS Network is divided into two sections as shown below figure:

● Wireline Transport Network

● Radio Network
Wireline Transport Network
The Base Station Contro ller (BSC) in the Radio Network interfaces with the Mobile Switching
Center (MSC) in the Wireline Transport Network.

To provide wireline customers with communication services, MSC connects to the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).

MSC also communicates with a mobility database, which keeps track of where moving devices
are in the architecture.

Radio Network
The radio network connects Mobile Stations (MS) and other network components via a wireless
network.

MS connects with one another via the radio network's Base Stations (BS).

The radio link protocols are handled by the BS in a radio network during communication.

Protocols are a collection of rules that must be followed to establish a connection.

A cell is a radio coverage region that each BS in a radio network has.

MS can converse with one another both inside and outside the cell.

The BSC serves as a link between the radio network's BTS and the Wireline Transport network's
MSC.

Components of PCS Architecture

● Mobile Stations (MS)

● Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

● Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

● Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

Mobile Stations (MS)

MS refers to moveable devices in the radio network, such as cellphones, handsets, or portable
devices installed on cars.
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) and Mobile Equipment (ME) or Mobile Terminal are two
components of MS (MT).

PCS Architecture is made up of small and big equipment that interact to form a wireless
network, such as a mobile handset, a device placed on a vehicle, a mobile tower, a substation,
and so on.

The components of PCS Architecture shown below figure are listed:

Components of PCS architecture

The ME has a one-of-a-kind International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) that cannot be
changed after it is manufactured.
SIM cards carry important information such as the International Mobile Subscriber Identity
(IMSI), which is protected by four to eight-digit codes (PIN) and provides subscriber information
during network registration or subscription.

Because it can't communicate with other MS in the network, an MS without a SIM is just an end
terminal.

MS communicates with BSS via the Um Interface.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The BSS communicates with the MS and the Network Switching Subsystem (NSS).
The BSS is divided into two components, as shown below.

● Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

● Base Station Controller (BSC)

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The BTS consists of transceivers (transmitters and receivers) and signaling equipment, such as
antennas in a cell.

Each BTS is positioned in the cell's center.

The radius of a cell is determined by the BTS's transmitting power.q

BTS is used to send and receive signals from MS via the Um Interface.
Base Station Controller (BSC)
BSC is in charge of a group of BTSs and is co-located with one of them.

BSC administers the radio resources within the group of BTS and performs handovers, radio
channel setup, exchange function, control radio frequency power level, and frequency hopping.
BCS communicates with BTSs via the A-bis interface, which uses Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) protocols.
Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
NSS regulates the whole network by switching services and keeping the database of moving MS
within the network.

NSS includes certain components that execute switching functions and manage MS mobility,
such as:

● Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)

● Home Location Register (HLR)

● Visitor Location Register (VLR)

Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)

MSC serves as a PSTN or ISDN switching node.

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) database, the Authentication Center (AUC) database, and
location register databases such as the Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location
Register (VLR) all contain information that MSC helps to manage (VLR).

By their International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number, EIR holds information on all
valid mobile equipment in the network.

When an MS, or personal device, is stolen and reported, the database marks the IMEI as invalid.

MSC handles mobile subscribers by switching services based on their unique identifiers, such as
IMEI, by registering MS, authenticating MS, calling MS location, handover, and call routing.
Home Location Register (HLR)
When an MS connects to a PCS network service, a record is made in the HLR database.

Even if MS is not active, the HLR database includes MS's information, such as service
provisioning information, authentication data, current location, and last location.

HLR data is fixed and stored in MS's home network.

The HLR database is designed to work as a distributed database.

There is only one HLR for each network, logically.

The signal address of VLR is used to store the MS location.

It checks MS location and relative BTS regularly and maintains the database.

So that anytime a new call for MS comes in, it can transfer the call to an authenticated MS by
accessing the HLR-connected Authentication Center (AUC).

AUC is a password-protected database that contains a copy of the secret key that is stored in
each MS SIM.
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
A record is made in the VLR database whenever an MS visits a PCS network other than his or
her home network.

VLR keeps a temporary record of chosen information from an MS's HLR and makes services
available to MS at that place.

When MS moves from one BTS to another and updates VLR for the new location, the specified
services are released.

The VLR database is used to obtain MS information for call handling.

Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)
It also keeps the traffic load within BSS in control.

By establishing connections between different components of NSS and BCS, OSS controls and
monitors the architecture.

Interfaces in PCS Architecture

Within BSS, the Um-Interface exchanges radio signals between the MS and the BS.

Abis-Interface is a BSS internal interface that permits radio equipment control and radio
frequency allocation in BTS.

PCS architecture:-
Personal communications services (PCS) refers to a wide variety of wireless access and personal
mobility services provided through a small terminal, with the goal of enabling communications
at any time, at any place, and in any form.

PCS technologies have grown rapidly in the telecommunications industry.

 PCS architecture has mainly 3 types of Interfaces

● Um interface The “air” or radio interface standard that is used for exchanges between a mobile
(ME) and a base station (BTS / BSC). For signaling, a modified version of the ISDN LAPD,
known as LAPDm is used.
● Abis interface This is a BSS internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has not been
totally standardised. The Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and radio
frequency allocation in the BTS.
● A interface The A interface is used to provide communication between the BSS and the MSC.
PCS architecture divides into to 3 subsystem i.e. Base Station Subsystem (BSS), Network
Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

Mobile station

PCS use mobile stations (MSs) to communicate with the base stations (BSs) in a PCS network.
MS is also referred to as handset, mobile phone, subscriber unit, or portable.
Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell or mobile
phones are the section of a GSM cellular network.
In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has greatly
increased.There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements are
 the main hardware and the SIM.It contains a number known as the International Mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in the phone at manufacture and “cannot” be
changed. It is accessed by the network during registration to check whether the equipment has
been reported as stolen.
The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information that provides the identity of the
user to the network. It contains are variety of information including a number known as the
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the GSM network architecture that is
fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network. It consists of
two elements:

● Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and their associated
antennas that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the
defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with the mobiles and the interface
between the two is known as the Um interface with its associated protocols.

● Base Station Controller (BSC):

The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is
often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and controls
items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels and the like. It
communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis interface.

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The GSM system architecture contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed the
core network. It provides the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The
major elements within the core network include:

● Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC):

The main element within the core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the
Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC). The MSC acts like a normal switching node within a
PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional functionality to enable the requirements of a mobile
user to be supported. These include registration, authentication, call location, inter-MSC
handovers and call routing to a mobile subscriber. It also provides an interface to the PSTN so
that calls can be routed from the mobile network to a phone connected to a landline. Interfaces to
other MSCs are provided to enable calls to be made to mobiles on different networks.
● Home Location Register (HLR):

This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with their
last known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant base
station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the phone registers with the network
and from this it is possible to determine which BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls
can be routed appropriately. Even when the phone is not active (but switched on) it re-registers
periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position. There is one HLR
per network, although it may be distributed across various sub-centres to for operational reasons.

● Visitor Location Register (VLR):

This contains selected information from the HLR that enables the selected services for the
individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity, but it is
commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity. In this way
access is made faster and more convenient.

● Equipment Identity Register (EIR):

The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the
network. Each mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment
Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the
network during registration. Dependent upon the information held in the EIR, the mobile may be
allocated one of three states – allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in case its
problems.

● Authentication Centre (AuC):

The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user’s SIM
card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel.

● Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC):

The GMSC is the point to which a ME terminating call is initially routed, without any
knowledge of the MS’s location. The GMSC is thus in charge of obtaining the MSRN (Mobile
Station Roaming Number) from the HLR based on the MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number,
the “directory number” of a MS) and routing the call to the correct visited MSC. The “MSC” part
of the term GMSC is misleading, since the gateway operation does not require any linking to an
MSC.

Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM network
architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to control and
monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control the traffic load of the BSS. It
must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the scaling of the subscriber population
some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, allowing savings in the cost of
ownership of the system.

GSM Network Architecture

Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is the most popular technology for mobile
phones now days. ). GSM a standard developed by the European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI). Firstly it name was the group special mobile (GSM) and later named as global
system for mobile communications (GSM). It is a digital mobile telephony system that is widely
used in Europe.
The main motto of GSM was to provide a mobile phone system that allows users to roaming
facility throughout Europe. It is a second generation (2G) standard for mobile networks and uses
digital techniques. GSM uses the Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA).
The GSM architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems that interact with
themselves and with users through certain network interface. The subsystems are Base Station
Subsystem (BSS), Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operational Support Subsystem
(OSS). Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem but it is considered as a part of BSS.
1. Mobile Station (MS): Mobile Station is made up of two entities.
A. Mobile equipment (ME):

● It is a portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device.

● It is uniquely identified by an IMEI number.
● It is used for voice and data transmission. It also monitors power and signal quality of
surrounding cells foe optimum handover. 160 characters long SMS can also be sent using
Mobile Equipment.

B. Subscriber Identity module (SIM):

● It is a smart card that contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
number.
● It allows users to send and receive calls and receive other subscriber services. - It is
protected by password or PIN.
● It contains encoded network identification details. it has key information to activate the
phone.
● It can be moved from one mobile to another.

2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): It is also known as radio subsystem, provides and manages
radio transmission paths between the mobile station and the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC).
BSS also manages interface between the mobile station and all other subsystems of GSM. It
consists of two parts.
A. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

● It encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signal to the antenna.
● It consists of transceiver units.
● It communicates with mobile stations via radio air interface and also communicates with
BSC via Abis interface.

B. Base Station Controller (BSC):

 ● It manages radio resources for BTS. It assigns frequency and time slots for all mobile
stations in its area.
● It handles call set up, transcoding and adaptation functionality handover for each MS
radio power control.
● It communicates with MSC via A interface and also with BTS.

3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): it manages the switching functions of the system and
allows MSCs to communicate with other networks such as PSTN and ISDN. It consist of
A. Mobile switching Centre:

● It is a heart of the network. It manages communication between GSM and other

networks.
● It manages call set up function, routing and basic switching.

● It performs mobility management including registration, location updating and inter BSS
and inter MSC call handoff.
● It provides billing information.

● MSC does gateway function while its customers roam to other network by using
HLR/VLR.

B. Home Location Registers (HLR): - It is a permanent database about mobile subscriber in a

large service area. - Its database contains IMSI, IMSISDN, prepaid/post-paid, roaming
restrictions, supplementary services.
C. Visitor Location Registers (VLR): - It is a temporary database which updates whenever new
MS enters its area by HLR database. - It controls mobiles roaming in its area. It reduces number
of queries to HLR. - Its database contains IMSI, TMSI, IMSISDN, MSRN, location, area
authentication key.
D. Authentication Centre: - It provides protection against intruders in air interface. - It
maintains authentication keys and algorithms and provides security triplets (RAND, SRES, Ki).
E. Equipment Identity Registry (EIR):

● It is a database that is used to track handset using the IMEI number.

● It is made up of three sub classes- the white list, the black list and the gray list.

4. Operational Support Subsystem (OSS): It supports the operation and maintenance of GSM
and allows system engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of GSM system. It
supports one or more Operation Maintenance Centres (OMC) which are used to monitor the
performance of each MS, Bs, BSC and MSC within a GSM system. It has three main functions:
 ● To maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations with a particular
market.
● To manage all charging and billing procedures

● To manage all mobile equipment in the system.

Interfaces used for GSM network : (ref fig 2)

1)UM Interface –Used to communicate between BTS with MS
2)Abis Interface— Used to communicate BSC TO BTS
3)A Interface-- Used to communicate BSC and MSC

4) Singling protocol (SS 7)- Used to communicate MSC with other network .

Frequency spectrum:
GSM services

GSM offers much more than just voice telephony. Contact your local GSM network
operator to the specific services that you can avail.
GSM offers three basic types of services

● Telephony services or teleservices

● Data services or bearer services
● Supplementary services

Teleservices

The abilities of a Bearer Service are used by a Teleservice to transport data. These
services are further transited in the following ways –
Voice Calls
The most basic Teleservice supported by GSM is telephony. This includes full-rate
speech at 13 kbps and emergency calls, where the nearest emergency-service provider
is notified by dialing three digits.
Videotext and Facsmile
Another group of teleservices includes Videotext access, Teletex transmission,
Facsmile alternate speech and Facsmile Group 3, Automatic Facsmile Group, 3 etc.
Short Text Messages
Short Messaging Service (SMS) service is a text messaging service that allows sending
and receiving text messages on your GSM mobile phone. In addition to simple text
messages, other text data including news, sports, financial, language, and location-
based data can also be transmitted.

Bearer Services

Data services or Bearer Services are used through a GSM phone. to receive and send
data is the essential building block leading to widespread mobile Internet access and
mobile data transfer. GSM currently has a data transfer rate of 9.6k. New developments
that will push up data transfer rates for GSM users are HSCSD (high speed circuit
switched data) and GPRS (general packet radio service) are now available.

Supplementary Services

Supplementary services are additional services that are provided in addition to teleservices and bearer services. T

● Conferencing
 ● Call Waiting

● Call Hold

● Call Forwarding

● Call Barring

GSM Channel Types

GSM Channel are divided into two types:

Traffic channels (TCHs):
Signaling channels

Traffic Channels (TCH)

A traffic channel (TCH) is used to carry speech and data traffic. Traffic channels are defined
using a 26-frame multi frame, or group of 26 TDMA frames. The length of a 26-frame multi
frame is 120ms. Out of the 26 frames, 24 are used for traffic, 1 is used for the slow associated
control channel (SACCH) and 1 is currently unused.

Full Rate & Half Rate TCH

They can be defined as full-rate TCHs (TCH/F, 22.8 kbps) and half-rate TCHs (TCH/H, 11.4
kbps). Half-rate TCHs double the capacity of a system effectively by making it possible
to transmit two calls in a single channel. If a TCH/F is used for data communications, the usable
data rate drops to 9.6 kbps (in TCH/H: max. 4.8 kbps) due to the enhanced security algorithms.
Eighth-rate TCHs are also specified, and are used for signaling. In the GSM Recommendations,
they are called stand-alone dedicated control channels (SDCCH)

Signaling channels

The signaling channels on the air interface are used for call establishment, paging, call
maintenance, synchronization, etc.

There are three type of signaling channels

1. Broadcast Channels
2. Common Control Channels
3. Dedicated Control Channel

Broadcast Channels (BCH)

Carry only downlink information and are responsible mainly for synchronization and frequency
correction. This is the only channel type enabling point-to-multipoint communications in which
short messages are simultaneously transmitted to several mobiles

BCH Characteristics

• Each cell has a designated BCH carrier

• All BCH timeslots transmit continuously on full power

• TS 0 contains logical control channels

• TS1-7 optionally carries traffic

• BCCH block occur once each 51-frame multiframe

• Each block comprises 4 frames carrying 1 message

The BCHs include the following channels;

1. Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): General information, cell specific (local area code
(LAC), network operator, access parameters, list of neighboring cells, etc). The MS receives
signals via the BCCH from many BTSs within the same network and/or different networks.
2. Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH): Downlink only; correction of MS frequencies;
transmission of frequency standard to MS; it is also used for synchronization of an acquisition by
providing the boundaries between timeslots and the position of the first timeslot of a TDMA
frame.
3. Synchronization Channel (SCH): Downlink only; frame synchronization (TDMA frame
number) and identification of base station. The valid reception of one SCH burst will provide the
MS with all the information needed to synchronize with a BTS

Common Control Channels (CCCH)

A group of uplink and downlink channels between the MS and the BTS. These channels are used
to convey information from the network to MSs and provide access to the network. The CCCHs
include the following channels;

1. Paging Channel (PCH): Downlink only; the MS is informed by the BTS for incoming
calls via the PCH

2. Access Grant Channel (AGCH): Downlink only, BTS allocates a TCH or SDCCH to
the MS, thus allowing the MS access to the network.

3. Random Access Channel (RACH): Uplink only, allows the MS to request an SDCCH
in response to a page or due to a call; the MS chooses a random time to send on this
channel. This creates a possibility of collisions with transmissions from other MSs

Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)

Responsible for roaming, handovers, encryption, etc. The DCCHs include the following
channels;

1. Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH); Communications channel between

MS and the BTS; signaling during call setup before a traffic channel (TCH) is allocated
2. Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH); Transmits continuous measurement reports
in parallel to operation of a TCH or SDCCH
3. Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH); Similar to the SDCCH, but used in parallel
to operation of the TCH; if the data rate of the SACCH is insufficient, “borrowing mode” is
used: Additional bandwidth is borrowed from the TCH; this happens for messages associated
with call establishment authentication of the subscriber, handover decisions, etc.

Call processing in gsm:

Mobile call origination in GSM:
Diagram:
Description :
1. The MS sends the dialed number indicating service requested to the MSC(via BSS)
2. The MSC checks from the VLR if the MS is allowed the requested service. If so, MSC
asks BSS to allocate necessary resources for the call.
3. If the call is allowed, the MSC routes the call to GMSC.
4. The GMSC routes the call to the local exchange of called user.
5. The LE alerts (applies ringing) the called terminal.
6. Answer back (ring back tone) from the called terminal to LE.
7. Answer back signal is routed back to the MS through the serving MSC which also
completes the speech path to the MS.
OR
Mobile call termination:
 1. The PSTN user dials the MSISDN of the called user in GSM.
2. The LE routes the call to the GMSC of the called GSM user.
3. The GMSC uses the dialed MSISDN to determine the serving HLR for the GSM user and
interrogates it to obtain the required routing number.
4. The HLR requests the current serving VLR for the called MS for a MSRN(MS roaming
number) so that the call can be routed to the correct MSC.
5. The VLR passes the MSRN to the HLR.
6. The HLR passes the MSRN to the GMSC.
7. Using the MSRN, the GMSC routes the call to the serving MSC.
8. The MSC interrogates the VLR for the current location area identity (LAI) for the MS.
9. The VLR provides the current location for the MS.
10. The MSC pages MS via the appropriate BSS. The MS responds to the page and sets up
the necessary signaling links.
11. When the BSS has established the necessary radio links, the MSC is informed an the call
is delivered to the MS.
12. When the MS answers the call, the connection is completed to the calling PSTN user.

Mobility management
Mobility management is one of the major functions of a GSM or a UMTS network that
allows mobile phones to work. The aim of mobility management is to track where
the subscribers are, allowing calls, SMS and other mobile phone services to be delivered to them.

Locations update procedure:

GSM Location Update: The location update procedure allows a mobile device to inform the
cellular network, whenever it moves from one location area to the next. Mobiles are responsible
for detecting location area codes. When a mobile finds that the location area code is different
from its last update, it performs another update by sending to the network, a location update
request, together with its previous location, and it’s Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity
(TMSI) In order to make a mobile terminated call, The GSM network should know the location
of the MS (Mobile Station), despite of its movement. For this purpose the MS periodically
reports its location to the network using the Location Update procedure.
Location Area (LA): A GSM network is divided into cells. A group of cells is considered a
location area. A mobile phone in motion keeps the network informed about changes in the
location area. If the mobile moves from a cell in one location area to a cell in another location
area, the mobile phone should perform a location area update to inform the network about the
exact location of the mobile phone.
The Location Update procedure is performed:

● The MS moves from LA1 to LA2, where both LAs are connected to the same MSC

Step 1:
A location update request message is sent from the MS to the MSC through the BTS, include the
address of the previously visited LA, MSC, and VLR. In this, the addresses of previous MSC &
VLR are same as those for the new MSC & VLR. TMSI is used to avoid sending the IMSI on the
radio path. TMSI is temporary mobile subscriber identity of the MS. This temporary identity is
allocated to an MS by the VLR at inter VLR registration, and can be changed by VLR after
every call setup
Step 2:
The MSC forwards the location update request to the VLR by a TCAP message,
MAP_UPDATE_LOCATION_AREA
The message includes:

● Address of the MSC

● TMSI of the MS
● Previous location area identification (LAI)
● Target LAI

Step 3 and Step 4:

MSC updates the LAI field of the VLR record, and replies with an acknowledgment to the MS
through the MSC.

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) can be assigned by the VLR, which is
responsible for the current location of a subscriber. The TMSI needs to have only local
significance in the area handled by the VLR. This is stored on the network side only in the VLR
and is not passed to the Home Location Register (HLR).
Together with the current location area, the TMSI identifies a subscriber uniquely. It can
contain up to 4 × 8 bits.
Roaming
Roaming is one of the fundamental mobility management procedures of all cellular networks.
Roaming is defined as the ability for a cellular customer to automatically make and receive voice
calls, send and receive data, or access other services, including home data services, when
travelling outside the geographical coverage area of the home network, by means of using a
visited network. This can be done by using a communication terminal or else just by using the
subscriber identity in the visited network. Roaming is technically supported by a mobility
management, authentication, authorization and billing procedures.
International roaming is used when mobile subscribers travel abroad and make use of the
network of an operator in the foreign country.
Types of area

Location area
A "location area" is a set of base stations that are grouped together to optimize signaling.
Typically, tens or even hundreds of base stations share a single Base Station Controller (BSC) in
GSM, or a Radio Network Controller (RNC) in UMTS. The BSC / RNC is the intelligence
behind the base stations; it handles allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the
mobile phones, and controls handovers between base stations.
Each location area has an assigned unique identifier, made up of numbers, called a "location area
code" (LAC). The LAC is broadcast by each base station at regular intervals. Within a location
area, each base station is assigned a distinct "cell identifier" (CI) number, see also Cell Global
Identity.
If the location areas are large and moderately populated, there will likely be a high number of
mobiles operating simultaneously, resulting in very high paging traffic. This is due to the fact
that every paging request has to be broadcast to every base station in the location area.
Ultimately, this wastes bandwidth and power on mobile devices by requiring them to listen for
broadcast messages too often. Similarly if on the other hand, there are too many small location
areas, the mobile device must contact the network very often for changes of location, which will
also drain the device’s battery. Therefore, it is important to strike a balance between the size of
the location area and the number of mobile device users in the location area.
Routing area
The routing area is the packet-switched domain equivalent of the location area. A "routing area"
is normally a subdivision of a "location area". Routing areas are used by mobiles which
are GPRS-attached. GPRS is optimized for "bursty" data communication services, such as
wireless internet/intranet, and multimedia services. It is also known as GSM-IP ("Internet
Protocol") because it will connect users directly to Internet Service Providers
The bursty nature of packet traffic means that more paging messages are expected per mobile,
and so it is worth knowing the location of the mobile more accurately than it would be with
traditional circuit-switched traffic. A change from routing area to routing area (called a "Routing
Area Update") is done in an almost identical way to a change from location area to location area.
The main differences are that the "Serving GPRS Support Node" (SGSN) is the element
involved.
Tracking area
The tracking area is the LTE counterpart of the location area and routing area. A tracking area is
a set of cells. Tracking areas can be grouped into lists of tracking areas (TA lists), which can be
configured on the User Equipment (UE). Tracking area updates are performed periodically or
when the UE moves to a tracking area that is not included in its TA list.
Operators can allocate different TA lists to different UEs. This can avoid signaling peaks in some
conditions: for instance, the UEs of passengers of a train may not perform tracking area updates
simultaneously.
On the network side, the involved element is the Mobility Management Entity (MME). MME
configures TA lists using NAS messages like Attach Accept, TAU Accept or GUTI Reallocation
Command.

Network Signaling

In telecommunication, signaling is the use of signals for controlling communications. This may
constitute an information exchange concerning the establishment and control of
a telecommunication circuit and the management of the network.

Classification
Signaling systems may be classified based on several principal characteristics.
In-band and out-of-band signaling
In the public switched telephone network (PSTN), in-band signaling is the exchange of call
control information within the same physical channel, or within the same frequency band, that
the telephone call itself is using.

Out-of-band signaling is telecommunication signaling on a dedicated channel separate from that

used for the telephone call
Line versus register signaling
Line signaling is concerned with conveying information on the state of the line or channel, such
as on-hook, off-hook (answer supervision and disconnect supervision, together referred to
as supervision), ringing, and hook flash.
Register signaling is concerned with conveying addressing information, such as the calling
and/or called telephone number. In the early days of telephony, with operator handling calls, the
addressing formation is by voice as "Operator, connect me to Mr. Smith please". In the first half
of the 20th century, addressing formation is done by using a rotary dial, which rapidly breaks the
line current into pulses, with the number of pulses conveying the address. Finally, starting in the
second half of the century, address signaling is by DTMF.
Channel-associated versus common-channel signaling
Channel-associated signaling (CAS) employs a signaling channel that is dedicated to a
specific bearer channel.
Common-channel signaling (CCS) employs a signaling channel which conveys signaling
information relating to multiple bearer channels. These bearer channels, therefore, have their
signaling channel in common.
Compelled signaling
Compelled signaling refers to signaling where the receipt of each signal from an originating
register needs to be explicitly acknowledged before the next signal is able to be sent
Subscriber versus trunk signaling
Subscriber signaling refers to the signaling between the telephone and the telephone exchange.
Trunk signaling is the signaling between exchanges.