Lecture# 01

NATURAL SCIENCES
(BIOPHYSICS)

Mubashar Ali
MS/MPhil Physics
 Essentials of Thermodynamics

i. Basic principles of different forms of energy- Heat

and Thermodynamics
ii. Concept of entropy
iii. Enthalpy and Gibb’s free energy
iv. Boltzmann distribution
 Thermodynamics The word "dynamics" can be
traced back to the Greek root
The prefix "therm" originates
"dynamis," which translates to
from the Greek word "therme"
Heat Flow "power" or "force." In the context
which means "heat“. This prefix
of physics, dynamics refers to the
is commonly used in words
branch of mechanics that deals
related to heat, such as
with the movement of objects and
"thermometer"
the forces that drive that movement

Therefore, when combined, "Thermodynamics" refers to the study of the

relationships and conversions between heat and other forms of energy, including
how energy transfer from one place to another and from one form to another.
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a Greek word which means flow of heat in
physical and chemical reaction.
Thermodynamics is a branch of physical sciences that deals with
the relationships between heat and other forms of energy.

Heat
In thermodynamics, heat is the thermal energy transferred between
systems due to a temperature difference
Mechanism
Heat is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system by a
mechanism that involves the microscopic atomic modes of motion or
the corresponding macroscopic properties.

Macroscopic Properties
❑ The thermodynamical parameters that can be measured directly
in laboratory. e.g. pressure, temperature, volume and amount of
gas.
❑ Consider a gas enclosed in a cylinder provided with movable
piston. In laboratory, pressure can be measured by manometer,
temperature by thermometer, volume by scale fixed on cylinder
and amount of gas by gas-supply.
Microscopic Properties

❑ The quantities which cannot be measured directly and concerning

about structure of matter i.e. existence of molecules are called
microscopic parameters.
❑ The velocity and kinetic energy of molecules are microscopic
properties of the system.
Measurement of Heat
• Calorimeter is a device which is used to measure the heat developed during
a chemical reaction and for calculating the heat capacity of materials.
• It is designed to quantify changes in heat and is used to measure the
amount of heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction.

Units
• Heat is measured in calories. One calorie (cal) is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 ◦C.
• Actually, because this value depends somewhat on the initial temperature of
the water, the calorie is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 g of water from 14.5 ◦C to 15.5◦C. One calorie is equal to 4.184 J.
• In the life sciences, heat is commonly measured in kilocalorie units,
abbreviated Cal; 1 Cal is equal to 1000 cal.
Thermal equilibrium
The condition under which two or more substances in physical contact with
each other exchange no heat energy.
Temperature

Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness of a body.

Units

Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin

Measurement

It is typically measured using a device called a thermometer.

Different types of thermometer
Guidelines for measuring the temperature of human body

The following general guidelines are used to determine the temperature of the human
body from different roots:

❑ The average normal oral temperature is 98.6°F (37°C).

❑ An armpit temperature is most often 0.5°F (0.3°C) to 1°F (0.6°C) lower than an oral
temperature.
❑ A forehead scanner is most often 0.5°F (0.3°C) to 1°F (0.6°C) lower than an oral
temperature.
❑ An ear temperature is 0.5°F (0.3°C) to 1°F (0.6°C) higher than an oral temperature.
❑ A rectal temperature is 0.5°F (0.3°C) to 1°F (0.6°C) higher than an oral temperature.
System and surrounding

System - part of the universe under study

(open or closed)
Boundary - what separates a system from
its environment
Different types of systems
 Laws of thermodynamics

The laws of thermodynamics are

• Zeroth law of thermodynamics
• First law of thermodynamics
• Second law of thermodynamics
• Third law of thermodynamics
These laws define thermal equilibrium, conservation of energy, entropy, and
the behavior of systems as temperature approaches absolute zero.
 Absolute zero

• Absolute zero is the lowest temperature possible, at which point

there is no motion and no heat.
• It is the temperature at which a thermodynamic system has the
lowest energy.
• On the Celsius temperature scale, it corresponds to -273.15°C, and
on the Fahrenheit temperature scale, it corresponds to -459.67°F.
In the Kelvin scale, absolute zero occurs at 0 Kelvin
Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics is one of the fundamental laws of

thermodynamics and provides an independent definition of temperature
without reference to entropy, which is defined in the second law. This
law was established by Ralph H. Fowler in the 1930s.

The zeroth law states that if two thermodynamic systems are both in
thermal equilibrium with a third system, then the two systems are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics

If A is in thermal equilibrium with B and C

then B will be in thermal equilibrium with C.

In other words, all three systems have the

same ‘temperature’.
First Law of Thermodynamics

It is a fundamental principle that is a formulation of the law of

conservation of energy in the context of thermodynamic processes.

According to this law, “energy cannot be created or destroyed, but

it can be transformed from one form to another”.

• In an isolated system, the sum of all forms of energy is constant.

• For an open system, there can be transfers of particles as well as
energy into or out of the system during a process.
Applications

Muscle Contraction: The first law of

thermodynamics applies to the conversion of
chemical energy into mechanical work during
muscle contraction. When muscles contract,
chemical energy stored in Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) is converted into mechanical work and heat.
This conversion of energy aligns with the principle
of energy conservation as described by the first law
of thermodynamics.
Photosynthesis: In plants, the process of photosynthesis involves the
conversion of light energy into chemical energy.

Metabolism: Biological systems, such as cells, adhere to the principle of

energy conservation. During metabolic processes, the energy obtained from
food is utilized for various cellular activities, including growth, repair, and
movement. The first law of thermodynamics dictates that the total energy
within a biological system remains constant, and this principle is evident in the
energy transformations that occur during metabolism
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Historical Background: The second law of thermodynamics was originally

formulated in the 19th century by the Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin and the
German physicist Rudolf Clausius. It was developed to describe the directionality
of energy transfer and the limitations on the efficiency of heat engines

According to this law

• “Heat always flows spontaneously from hotter to colder regions of matter, or
"downhill" in terms of the temperature gradient”. This means that heat transfer
occurs in a specific direction, from higher temperature to lower temperature
regions.
• Not all heat can be converted into work in a cyclic process. This means that
there are limitations on the conversion of heat energy into useful work.
Kelvin Statement
The second law of thermodynamics, when stated with reference of heat engine is
called Kelvin statement.
• It is impossible to construct a heat engine that extract heat
energy from HTR and converts all of it into mechanical
work and having no sink.

• It can also be stated as “it is not possible in cyclical process

to convert heat energy completely into work without other
change taking place”. Here other change means LTR.

• This can also be defined as “it is impossible to construct a

heat engine whose efficiency is 100% or is free of thermal
pollution.
The perfect heat engine extracts heat from HTR and convert completely into
work, which is impossible.
The real engine extracts heat from HTR and converts this heat partially into
work and remaining is exhausted into sink or LTR.
Clausius Statement
The second law of thermodynamics, when stated with reference of refrigerator is
called Clausius statement.
• According to Clausius, heat cannot flow spontaneously from cold body to hot
body.
• It can also be stated as “there is no perfect refrigerator”. It means refrigerator does
not start cooling process without electricity. The refrigerator that extracts heat from
LTR and discharges into HTR without work is called perfect refrigerator.
• The refrigerator that extracts heat from LTR and discharges into HTR with the help
of work is called real refrigerator.
Applications
Energy Transfer and Availability: The second law of thermodynamics states that
when energy is transferred, there will be less energy available at the end of the
transfer process than at the beginning. This has direct implications for biological
organisms, as it means that not all the energy obtained from food or the environment
can be converted into useful work.

Cellular Respiration: Cellular respiration, the process by which cells convert

glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and energy (ATP), follows the
principles of the second law of thermodynamics. During this process, energy is
released as heat due to the inefficiencies involved in the energy conversion.
Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert
sunlight into chemical energy, also aligns with the Clausius statement. While
plants capture solar energy and convert it into chemical energy, not all of the
captured energy can be stored efficiently. Some energy is dissipated as heat
during the process, in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics.
Entropy

Entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. It is an

extensive property of a thermodynamic system, meaning its value changes
depending on the amount of matter present.

Entropy is denoted by the letter "S" and has units of joules per kelvin (J/K)
𝐾𝑔.𝑚2
or kilogram meter squared per second squared per kelvin ( 2 ).
𝑠 .𝐾
A highly ordered system has low entropy, while a disordered system has
high entropy.
Enthalpy
Gibbs free energy
Enthalpy vs Gibbs free energy
❑ Enthalpy (H) is a measure of the total heat energy transferred or exchanged during a
chemical process under constant pressure. It indicates the heat content of a system and
is often used to determine if a reaction is exothermic (releases heat) or endothermic
(absorbs heat).

❑ Gibbs free energy (G) is a thermodynamic potential that measures the maximum
amount of work that can be done by a system at constant temperature and pressure,
other than pressure-volume work. It takes into account both the enthalpy and the
entropy (S) of the system. Gibbs free energy is particularly useful in determining
whether a reaction is spontaneous (will occur) under specific conditions.

❑ While enthalpy provides information about the heat content and heat transfer of a
system, Gibbs free energy takes into account both the heat content and the system's
tendency to increase disorder (entropy). It provides a more comprehensive
understanding of whether a reaction will occur spontaneously under given conditions.